1. Chapter 12 Leverage and Capital Structure Reporters: Jasmin
C. Raymundo Mary Ann Bosogon Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall.
All rights reserved.
2. Learning Goals 1. Discuss leverage, capital structure,
breakeven analysis, the operating breakeven point, and the effect
of changing costs on it. 2. Understand operating, financial, and
total leverage and the relationship among them. 3. Describe the
basic types of capital, external assessment of capital structure,
the capital structure of non-U.S. firms, and capital structure
theory.
3. Learning Goals 4. Explain the optimal capital structure
using a graphical view of the firms cost of capital functions and a
zerogrowth valuation model. 5. Discuss the EBIT-EPS approach to
capital structure. 6. Review the return and risk of alternative
capital structures, their linkage to market value, and other
important capital structure considerations related to capital
structure.
4. Leverage Leverage results from the use of fixed-cost assets
or funds to magnify returns to the firms owners. Generally,
increases in leverage result in increases in risk and return,
whereas decreases in leverage result in decreases in risk and
return. The amount of leverage in the firms capital structurethe
mix of debt and equitycan significantly affect its value by
affecting risk and return.
5. Leverage (cont.) Table 12.1 General Income Statement Format
and Types of Leverage
6. Breakeven Analysis Breakeven (cost-volume-profit) analysis
is used to: determine the level of operations necessary to cover
all operating costs, and evaluate the profitability associated with
various levels of sales. The firms operating breakeven point (OBP)
is the level of sales necessary to cover all operating expenses. At
the OBP, operating profit (EBIT) is equal to zero.
7. Breakeven Analysis (cont.) To calculate the OBP, cost of
goods sold and operating expenses must be categorized as fixed or
variable. Variable costs vary directly with the level of sales and
are a function of volume, not time. Examples would include direct
labor and shipping. Fixed costs are a function of time and do not
vary with sales volume. Examples would include rent and fixed
overhead.
8. Breakeven Analysis: Algebraic Approach Using the following
variables, the operating portion of a firms income statement may be
recast as follows: P = sales price per unit Q = sales quantity in
units FC = fixed operating costs per period VC = variable operating
costs per unit Letting EBIT = 0 and solving for Q, we get: EBIT =
(P x Q) - FC - (VC x Q)
11. Breakeven Analysis: Algebraic Approach (cont.) Example:
Cheryls Posters has fixed operating costs of $2,500, a sales price
of $10 per poster, and variable costs of $5 per poster. Find the
OBP. Q = Q = $2,500 = 500 posters $2,500 = 500 posters $10 - $5 $10
- $5 This implies that if Cheryls sells exactly 500 posters, its
revenues will just equal its costs (EBIT = $0).
12. Breakeven Analysis: Algebraic Approach (cont.) We can check
to verify that this is the case by substituting as follows: EBIT =
(P x Q) - FC - (VC x Q) EBIT = ($10 x 500) - $2,500 - ($5 x 500)
EBIT = $5,000 - $2,500 - $2,500 = $0
14. Breakeven Analysis: Changing Costs and the Operating
Breakeven Point Assume that Cheryls Posters wishes to evaluate the
impact of several options: (1) increasing fixed operating costs to
$3,000, (2) increasing the sale price per unit to $12.50, (3)
increasing the variable operating cost per unit to $7.50, and (4)
simultaneously implementing all three of these changes.
15. Breakeven Analysis: Changing Costs and the Operating
Breakeven Point (1) Operating BE point = $3,000/($10-$5) = 600
units (2) Operating BE point = $2,500/($12.50-$5) = 333 units (3)
Operating BE point = $2,500/($10-$7.50) = 1,000 units (4) Operating
BE point = $3,000/($12.50-$7.50) = 600 units
16. Breakeven Analysis: Changing Costs and the Operating
Breakeven Point Table 12.3 Sensitivity of Operating Breakeven Point
to Increases in Key Breakeven Variables
18. Operating Leverage (cont.) Table 12.4 The EBIT for Various
Sales Levels
19. Operating Leverage: Measuring the Degree of Operating
Leverage The degree of operating leverage (DOL) measures the
sensitivity of changes in EBIT to changes in Sales. A companys DOL
can be calculated in two different ways: One calculation will give
you a point estimate, the other will yield an interval estimate of
DOL. Only companies that use fixed costs in the production process
will experience operating leverage.
20. 1. Operating breakeven point = $3,000 = 600 units $10 - $5
2.Operating breakeven point = $2,500 = 333 1/3 units $12.50 - $5
3.Operating breakeven point = $2,500 = $10 - $7.50 1,000 units 4.
Operating breakeven point = $3,000 = 600 units $12.50 - $7.50
21. Operating Leverage: Measuring the Degree of Operating
Leverage (cont) DOL = Percentage change in EBIT Percentage change
in Sales Applying this equation to cases 1 and 2 in Table 12.4
yields: Case 1: DOL = (+100% +50%) = 2.0 Case 2: DOL = (-100% -50%)
= 2.0
22. Operating Leverage: Measuring the Degree of Operating
Leverage (cont) A more direct formula for calculating DOL at a base
sales level, Q, is shown below. DOL at base Sales level Q = Q X (P
VC) Q X (P VC) FC Substituting Q = 1,000, P = $10, VC = $5, and FC
= $2,500 yields the following result: DOL at 1,000 units = 1,000 X
($10 - $5) = 2.0 1,000 X ($10 - $5) - $2,500
23. Operating Leverage: Fixed Costs and Operating Leverage
Assume that Cheryls Posters exchanges a portion of its variable
operating costs for fixed operating costs by eliminating sales
commissions and increasing sales salaries. This exchange results in
a reduction in variable costs per unit from $5.00 to $4.50 and an
increase in fixed operating costs from $2,500 to $3,000 DOL at
1,000 units = 1,000 X ($10 - $4.50) 1,000 X ($10 - $4.50) - $2,500
= 2.2
24. Operating Leverage: Fixed Costs and Operating Leverage
(cont.) Table 12.5 Operating Leverage and Increased Fixed
Costs
25. Financial Leverage Financial leverage results from the
presence of fixed financial costs in the firms income stream.
Financial leverage can therefore be defined as the potential use of
fixed financial costs to magnify the effects of changes in EBIT on
the firms EPS. The two fixed financial costs most commonly found on
the firms income statement are (1) interest on debt and (2)
preferred stock dividends.
26. Financial Leverage (cont.) Chen Foods, a small Oriental
food company, expects EBIT of $10,000 in the current year. It has a
$20,000 bond with a 10% annual coupon rate and an issue of 600
shares of $4 annual dividend preferred stock. It also has 1,000
share of common stock outstanding. The annual interest on the bond
issue is $2,000 (10% x $20,000). The annual dividends on the
preferred stock are $2,400 ($4/share x 600 shares).
27. Financial Leverage (cont.) Table 12.6 The EPS for Various
EBIT Levelsa
28. Financial Leverage: Measuring the Degree of Financial
Leverage The degree of financial leverage (DFL) measures the
sensitivity of changes in EPS to changes in EBIT. Like the DOL, DFL
can be calculated in two different ways: One calculation will give
you a point estimate, the other will yield an interval estimate of
DFL. Only companies that use debt or other forms of fixed cost
financing (like preferred stock) will experience financial
leverage.
29. Financial Leverage: Measuring the Degree of Financial
Leverage (cont) DFL = Percentage change in EPS Percentage change in
EBIT Applying this equation to cases 1 and 2 in Table 12.6 yields:
Case 1: DFL = (+100% +40%) = 2.5 Case 2: DFL = (-100% -40%) =
2.5
30. Financial Leverage: Measuring the Degree of Financial
Leverage (cont) A more direct formula for calculating DFL at a base
level of EBIT is shown below. DFL at base level EBIT = EBIT EBIT I
[PD x 1/(1-T)] Substituting EBIT = $10,000, I = $2,000, PD =
$2,400, and the tax rate, T = 40% yields the following result: DFL
at $10,000 EBIT = $10,000 $10,000 $2.000 [$2,400 x 1/(1-.4)] DFL at
$10,000 EBIT = 2.5
31. Total Leverage Total leverage results from the combined
effect of using fixed costs, both operating and financial, to
magnify the effect of changes in sales on the firms earnings per
share. Total leverage can therefore be viewed as the total impact
of the fixed costs in the firms operating and financial
structure.
32. Total Leverage (cont.) Cables Inc., a computer cable
manufacturer, expects sales of 20,000 units at $5 per unit in the
coming year and must meet the following obligations: variable
operating costs of $2 per unit, fixed operating costs of $10,000,
interest of $20,000, and preferred stock dividends of $12,000. The
firm is in the 40% tax bracket and has 5,000 shares of common stock
outstanding. Table 12.7 on the following slide summarizes these
figures.
33. Total Leverage: Measuring the Degree of Total Leverage DTL
= Percentage change in EPS Percentage change in Sales Applying this
equation to the data Table 12.7 yields: Degree of Total Leverage
(DTL) = (300% 50%) = 6.0
34. Total Leverage: Measuring the Degree of Total Leverage
(cont.) A more direct formula for calculating DTL at a base level
of Sales, Q, is shown below. DTL at base sales level = Q x (P VC) Q
x (P VC) FC I [PD x 1/(1-T)] Substituting Q = 20,000, P = $5, VC =
$2, FC = $10,000, I = $20,000, PD = $12,000, and the tax rate, T =
40% yields the following result: DTL at 20,000 units = 20,000 X ($5
$2) 20,000 X ($5 $2) $10,000 $20,000 [$12,000 x 1/(1-.4)] DTL at
20,000 units = $60,000/$10,000 = 6.0
35. Total Leverage: The Relationship of Operating, Financial
and Total Leverage The relationship between the DTL, DOL, and DFL
is illustrated in the following equation: DTL = DOL x DFL Applying
this to our previous example we get: DTL = 1.2 X 5.0 = 6.0
36. Total Leverage (cont.) Table 12.7 The Total Leverage
Effect
37. The Firms Capital Structure Capital structure is one of the
most complex areas of financial decision making due to its
interrelationship with other financial decision variables. Poor
capital structure decisions can result in a high cost of capital,
thereby lowering project NPVs and making them more unacceptable.
Effective decisions can lower the cost of capital, resulting in
higher NPVs and more acceptable projects, thereby increasing the
value of the firm.
38. Types of Capital
39. Capital Structure Theory According to finance theory, firms
possess a target capital structure that will minimize its cost of
capital. Unfortunately, theory can not yet provide financial
mangers with a specific methodology to help them determine what
their firms optimal capital structure might be. Theoretically,
however, a firms optimal capital structure will just balance the
benefits of debt financing against its costs.
40. Capital Structure Theory (cont.) The major benefit of debt
financing is the tax shield provided by the federal government
regarding interest payments. The costs of debt financing result
from: the increased probability of bankruptcy caused by debt
obligations, the agency costs resulting from lenders monitoring the
firms actions, and the costs associated with the firms managers
having more information about the firms prospects than do investors
(asymmetric information).
41. Capital Structure Theory: Tax Benefits Allowing companies
to deduct interest payments when computing taxable income lowers
the amount of corporate taxes. This in turn increases firm cash
flows and makes more cash available to investors. In essence, the
government is subsidizing the cost of debt financing relative to
equity financing.
42. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy The
probability that debt obligations will lead to bankruptcy depends
on the level of a companys business risk and financial risk.
Business risk is the risk to the firm of being unable to cover
operating costs. In general, the higher the firms fixed costs
relative to variable costs, the greater the firms operating
leverage and business risk. Business risk is also affected by
revenue and cost stability.
43. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
The firms capital structurethe mix between debt versus
equitydirectly impacts financial leverage. Financial leverage
measures the extent to which a firm employs fixed cost financing
sources such as debt and preferred stock. The greater a firms
financial leverage, the greater will be its financial riskthe risk
of being unable to meet its fixed interest and preferred stock
dividends.
44. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Business Risk Cooke Company, a soft drink manufacturer, is
preparing to make a capital structure decision. It has obtained
estimates of sales and EBIT from its forecasting group as show in
Table 12.9. Table 12.9 Sales and Associated EBIT Calculations for
Cooke Company ($000)
45. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Business Risk When developing the firms capital structure, the
financial manager must accept as given these levels of EBIT and
their associated probabilities. These EBIT data effectively reflect
a certain level of business risk that captures the firms operating
leverage, sales revenue variability, and cost predictability.
46. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Financial Risk Let us assume that (1) the firm has no current
liabilities, (2) its capital structure currently contains all
equity, and (3) the total amount of capital remains constant at
$500,000, the mix of debt and equity associated with various debt
ratios would be as shown in Table 12.10.
47. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Financial Risk Table 12.10 Capital Structures Associated with
Alternative Debt Ratios for Cooke Company
48. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Financial Risk Table 12.11 Level of Debt, Interest Rate, and Dollar
Amount of Annual Interest Associated with Cooke Companys
Alternative Capital Structures
49. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Financial Risk Table 12.12 Calculation of EPS for Selected Debt
Ratios ($000) for Cooke Company (cont.)
50. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Financial Risk Table 12.12 Calculation of EPS for Selected Debt
Ratios ($000) for Cooke Company (cont.)
51. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Financial Risk Table 12.12 Calculation of EPS for Selected Debt
Ratios ($000) for Cooke Company
52. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Financial Risk Table 12.13 Expected EPS, Standard Deviation, and
Coefficient of Variation for Alternative Capital Structures for
Cooke Company
53. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Financial Risk Figure 12.3 Probability Distributions
54. Capital Structure Theory: Probability of Bankruptcy (cont.)
Financial Risk Figure 12.4 Expected EPS and Coefficient of
Variation of EPS
55. Capital Structure Theory: Agency Costs Imposed by Lenders
When a firm borrows funds by issuing debt, the interest rate
charged by lenders is based on the lenders assessment of the risk
of the firms investments. After obtaining the loan, the firms
stockholders and/or managers could use the funds to invest in
riskier assets. If these high risk investments pay off, the
stockholders benefit but the firms bondholders are locked in and
are unable to share in this success.
56. Capital Structure Theory: Agency Costs Imposed by Lenders
(cont.) To avoid this, lenders impose various monitoring costs on
the firm. Examples would of these monitoring costs would: include
raising the rate on future debt issues, denying future loan
requests, imposing restrictive bond provisions.
57. Capital Structure Theory: Asymmetric Information Asymmetric
information results when managers of a firm have more information
about operations and future prospects than do investors. Asymmetric
information can impact the firms capital structure as follows:
Suppose management has identified an extremely lucrative investment
opportunity and needs to raise capital. Based on this opportunity,
management believes its stock is undervalued since the investors
have no information about the investment.
58. Capital Structure Theory: Asymmetric Information (cont.)
Asymmetric information results when managers of a firm have more
information about operations and future prospects than do
investors. Asymmetric information can impact the firms capital
structure as follows: In this case, management will raise the funds
using debt since they believe/know the stock is undervalued
(underpriced) given this information. In this case, the use of debt
is viewed as a positive signal to investors regarding the firms
prospects.
59. Capital Structure Theory: Asymmetric Information (cont.)
Asymmetric information results when managers of a firm have more
information about operations and future prospects than do
investors. Asymmetric information can impact the firms capital
structure as follows: On the other hand, if the outlook for the
firm is poor, management will issue equity instead since they
believe/know that the price of the firms stock is overvalued
(overpriced). Issuing equity is therefore generally thought of as a
negative signal.
60. The Optimal Capital Structure In general, it is believed
that the market value of a company is maximized when the cost of
capital (the firms discount rate) is minimized. The value of the
firm can be defined algebraically as follows:
61. The Optimal Capital Structure Figure 12.5 Cost Functions
and Value
62. EPS-EBIT Approach to Capital Structure The EPS-EBIT
approach to capital structure involves selecting the capital
structure that maximizes EPS over the expected range of EBIT. Using
this approach, the emphasis is on maximizing the owners returns
(EPS). A major shortcoming of this approach is the fact that
earnings are only one of the determinants of shareholder wealth
maximization. This method does not explicitly consider the impact
of risk.
63. EPS-EBIT Approach to Capital Structure (cont.) Example
EBIT-EPS coordinates can be found by assuming specific EBIT values
and calculating the EPS associated with them. Such calculations for
three capital structuresdebt ratios of 0%, 30%, and 60%for Cooke
Company were presented earlier in Table 12.2. For EBIT values of
$100,000 and $200,000, the associated EPS values calculated are
summarized in the table with Figure 12.6.
64. EPS-EBIT Approach to Capital Structure (cont.) Figure 12.6
EBITEPS Approach
65. Basic Shortcoming of EPS-EBIT Analysis Although EPS
maximization is generally good for the firms shareholders, the
basic shortcoming of this method is that it does not necessary
maximize shareholder wealth because it fails to consider risk. If
shareholders did not require risk premiums (additional return) as
the firm increased its use of debt, a strategy focusing on EPS
maximization would work. Unfortunately, this is not the case.
66. Choosing the Optimal Capital Structure The following
discussion will attempt to create a framework for making capital
budgeting decisions that maximizes shareholder wealthi.e.,
considers both risk and return. Perhaps the best way to demonstrate
this is through the following example: Coke Company, using as risk
measures the coefficients of variation of EPS associated with each
of seven alternative capital structures, estimated the associated
returns as shown in Table 12.14
67. Choosing the Optimal Capital Structure (cont.) Table 12.14
Required Returns for Cooke Companys Alternative Capital
Structures
68. Choosing the Optimal Capital Structure (cont.) By
substituting the level of EPS and the associated required return
into Equation 12.12, we can estimate the per share value of the
firm, P0.
69. Choosing the Optimal Capital Structure (cont.) Table 12.15
Calculation of Share Value Estimates Associated with Alternative
Capital Structures for Cooke Company
70. Choosing the Optimal Capital Structure (cont.) Figure 12.7
Estimating Value
71. Table 12.16 Important Factors to Consider in Making Capital
Structure Decisions