Fire Services

April 1999

A B E S T P R A C T I C E S R E V I E W

Office of the Legislative AuditorState of Minnesota

Photos courtesy of Spring Lake Park-Blaine-Mounds View Fire Department

Table of Contents

Page

PREFACE vii

SUMMARY ix

1. BACKGROUND 3The Structure of Fire Services in Minnesota 4Financing Fire Department Services 9Services Provided by Fire Departments 12The State Role in Fire Services 23Chapter Summary 28

2. CHAPTER TWO 31Goals 31Actions and Best Practices To Meet the Goals 32

Assess Risks and Develop Long-Range Plans 34Evaluate Fire Department Performance and Use Resources Cost-Effectively 40Promote Public Awareness of Fire Safety 58Ensure Fire Code Enforcement 67Develop Effective Communications Systems 74Prepare a Competent Workforce and Support Safe Operations 79Plan for On-Scene Responses 93

Chapter Summary 109

APPENDIX A: Study Methodology 113

APPENDIX B: A Checklist for Measuring Performance 153

APPENDIX C: Bibliography 165

RECENT PROGRAM EVALUATIONS AND BEST PRACTICES REVIEWS Back Cover

List of Tables and Figures

Tables Page

Table 1.1 Time Spent on Fire Prevention vs. Fire Suppression, by Type of Fire Department,1997 13

Table 1.2 Elements in Fire Departments’ Public Education Programs, 1997 14Table 1.3 Fire Code Activity by Fire Departments or Fire Marshals in Larger Cities, 1997 16Table 1.4 Fire Departments that Relied on State Fire Marshal or Law Enforcement for

Investigations, 1997 16Table 1.5 Fire Departments Offering Emergency Medical Services, 1997 18Table 1.6 Fire Departments Offering Rescues, 1997 18Table 1.7 Response Times and Expenditures per Capita by Type of Fire Department in Larger

Cities, 1997 21Table 1.8 Comparison of Select Performance Measures by Type of Fire Department in Larger

Cities, 1997 22

Table 2.1 Practices Fire Departments Used to Measure Performance, 1997 41Table 2.2 Activities Included in Fire Departments’ Mutual Aid, 1997 44Table 2.3 Fire Departments with Fire-Safety Public Education, 1997 60Table 2.4 Fire Department Interactions with Volunteer or Paid On-Call

Members, 1997 81Table 2.5 Health and Safety Practices in Larger Fire Departments, 1997 83

Figures

Figure 1.1 Fire Departments by Type of Staffing, 1997 5Figure 1.2 Percentage of Minnesota Population Served by Type of Fire Department, 1997 6Figure 1.3 Fire Department Average Revenue Sources, 1997 9Figure 1.4 Percentage of Fire Departments Receiving Revenue from Various Sources, 1997 10Figure 1.5 Circumstances Under Which Larger Fire Departments Charged Fees, 1997 11Figure 1.6 Levels of Emergency Medical Service 17Figure 1.7 Levels of Hazardous Materials Response 19

Figure 2.1 Actions for Successful Fire Department Management 33Figure 2.2 Five-Year Volunteer Retention Rates, 1993-1997 80Figure 2.3 Fire Departments That Instructed Members in Preserving Fire Scenes, 1997 97Figure 2.4 Fire Departments with Preventive Maintenance Programs, 1997 99

This report is a best practicesreview of fire services inMinnesota. It is the fifth in a

series of best practices reviewsconducted by the Office of theLegislative Auditor.

The 1994 Legislature established bestpractices reviews as a way to identifypractices that aid in delivering localgovernment services efficiently andeffectively. Our approach is similar insome respects to one used by theBritish Audit Commission in Englandand Wales to determine the state of theart in the delivery of local services.

The emphasis on identifying whatlocal governments do well is one ofthe key distinctions between bestpractices reviews and traditionalaudits or program evaluations, whichtypically focus on compliance andperformance deficiencies. TheLegislature intended that bestpractices reviews help localgovernments improve their servicedelivery by learning about effectiveand efficient methods used byjurisdictions similar to them.

To determine which local servicesshould be subjects of best practicesreviews, the Legislature created alocal government advisory councilwhen it established the program. Bylaw the advisory council comprisesthree members appointed by theAssociation of Minnesota Counties,three by the League of MinnesotaCities, two by the Association ofMetropolitan Municipalities, and one

each by the Minnesota Association ofTownships and the MinnesotaAssociation of School Administrators.This advisory council recommendedthe topic of fire protection to theLegislative Audit Commission, whichapproved it in May 1997.

We acknowledge and appreciate thehelp provided by many local firedepartment personnel around the state.Their interest and cooperation in thisreview contributed greatly to the finalreport. The State Fire MarshalDivision in the Department of PublicSafety was among several stateagencies that also willingly offeredassistance.

The report was researched and writtenby Jody Hauer (project manager),Valerie Bombach, and Caryn Mohr,with technical assistance from GreggDavies. For readers with access to theInternet, this report and relatedmaterial may be found over the WorldWide Web at http://www.auditor.leg.state.mn.us/pe9907.htm.

St. Paul, MinnesotaApril 1999

Preface

Our bestpracticesreviewslook at

effectiveand

efficientmethods ofdelivering

localgovernment

services.

Fire departments in Minnesotaperform a variety of duties.They all fight fires, but many

also conduct rescues, inspect buildingsfor compliance with fire codeprovisions, offer information anddemonstrations on fire prevention, andrespond to hazardous materials releasesand emergencies requiring medicalservices.

This report identifies practices that firedepartments should adopt to providethe high level of emergency servicesand fire protection the public expects.Several of these practices are alreadyused by many fire departments aroundthe state. We found that somepractices, however, are not aswidespread. We recommend that morefire departments become active in theareas of assessing local fire risks anddeveloping long-range plans based onthose risks, taking full advantage ofcooperative opportunities, providingcomprehensive fire preventionactivities, customizing personnelrecruitment strategies, and training firefighters on preserving arson scenes.

In conducting our review, we sentquestionnaires to all fire departments incommunities with more than 8,000people and to a large random sample offire departments in smallercommunities. The questionnaire askeddepartments for data on activities in1997. We also conducted a broadreview of literature on fire services,

relying on national and local sources.Early in the study, we visited a numberof fire departments to learn about theiroperations and observe them in action.After identifying standards of highperformance in fire services, weconvened focus groups of firepersonnel in different regions of thestate for feedback. We talked withother fire professionals around the stateand made site visits to 11 firedepartments to collect in-depthinformation. Throughout the review,we relied on the professional advice ofa technical advisory panel consisting offire fighters, fire chiefs, fire marshals,and others.

FIRE SERVICES INMINNESOTA

Minnesota has nearly 800 firedepartments, most of which havevolunteers or paid on-call memberswho are employed elsewhere butrespond to emergencies whencontacted. Only 3 percent of firedepartments had exclusively full-timepaid staff in 1997. Another 5 percent,known as “combination” departments,employed both full-time fire fightersand others who were paid on-call orvolunteer fire fighters.1 Approximately62 percent of fire departments had paidon-call fire fighters, and 30 percent hadexclusively volunteer members whoreceived no compensation but mayhave been eligible for pensions.

Fire ServicesA Best Practices Review

SUMMARY

This reviewprofilescertain

effective andefficient firedepartments

andrecommends

that firedepartments

adoptidentified

bestpractices.

1 For our study, we defined “combination” departments as those with six or more full-time fire fighters. Those with five or fewerfull-time members were grouped with volunteer and paid on-call departments because they are unlikely to be able to operate on anaround-the-clock basis at their fire stations.

Although few in number, most of the full-time firedepartments had relatively large populations withintheir primary response areas, and they served about28 percent of the state’s population in 1997.Combination departments served about 15 percentof state residents, paid on-call departments about

53 percent, and all-volunteer departments about 5percent of the population.

Full-time fire departments in Minnesota aretypically found in areas with large populations, highdensities, and older buildings; they are located infairly equal proportions inside and outside theseven-county Twin Cities metropolitan area.Combination fire departments are also located bothinside and outside the Twin Cities. They tend toserve in cities with mid-size populations that haverelatively newer housing stock, but in areas muchless dense than areas with full-time departments.Volunteer or on-call departments, on the other hand,typically serve the smallest and sparsestpopulations, and about 85 percent are locatedoutside the Twin Cities area. They generally servecities or towns that have older housing stock with amedian age similar to that in cities with full-timefire departments.

Virtually all Minnesota fire departments rely onmutual aid agreements for additional resourcesduring extraordinary emergencies. In a mutual aidresponse, fire departments respond free of charge toassist other departments with added personnel andequipment. Mutual aid allows fire departments toforego hiring the number of fire fighters andpurchasing the apparatus (vehicles such as pumpers,ladder trucks, and tankers) they would otherwiseneed to handle infrequent, large-scale emergencies.

A smaller share of fire departmentsuse their mutual aid associations inadditional ways, such as in makingjoint purchases of equipment orsharing facilities. Some firedepartments engage in “automatic”aid, responding to fires in aneighboring community on the firstalarm.

The Range of FireDepartment Services

Local fire departments havediscretion to determine what typeand level of service they provide.All active fire departments suppressfires, and only a handful limit theirservices to fire suppression alone.According to our survey data, for

x FIRE SERVICES

Purpose of This Report

This report identifies some of the effective andefficient practices related to fire services inMinnesota. It is based on a statewide study ofactivities in Minnesota’s fire departments.

The purpose of this report is to profile effectivepractices, demonstrate the conditions under whichthey appear successful, and encourage theiradoption wherever appropriate around the state.Unlike a regular audit or evaluation, this report doesnot focus on deficiencies, but instead it highlightssuccessful practices.

We hope that Minnesota’s local governments willactively use this report to examine their ownpractices and consider the ideas presented herethat contribute to effective and efficient fire serviceselsewhere.

This review is part of a program established by the1994 Legislature to identify best practices in localgovernment service delivery.

Percentage of Minnesota Population Served

by Type of Fire Department, 1997

NOTE: Combination departments include those with at least six full-time

fire fighters.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor�s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

Full-Time 28%

Combination 15%

Paid on-call

53%

All volunteer

5%

every one response fire departments made to a firein 1997, they made almost seven responses for otherservices, such as rescues, emergency medicalservices, and hazardous materials spills.

Many fire departments recognize the need toeducate the public about fire prevention. Studieshave shown that European countries and Japan, withstronger emphases on fire prevention, have hadlower numbers of fires and lower rates offire-related deaths and injuries than the U.S. It ismore common in the U.S. than these other countriesto spend a larger proportion of resources onsuppressing fires.

More than 90 percent of Minnesota’s firedepartments reported that they had a publiceducation program on fire safety, although theextent of the programs varied widely. Most firedepartments scheduled fire-safety public awarenessevents in conjunction with national Fire PreventionWeek, for instance; very few, conversely, conductedvoluntary fire-safety inspections in residents’homes. Intervention programs to counter juvenilefire setting are part of fire prevention; some localfire department have such programs and the StateFire Marshal Division in the Minnesota Departmentof Public Safety offers intervention resources.

Fire prevention also includes reviewing constructionplans and inspecting buildings for compliance withthe fire code. About 43 percent of fire departmentsreported that they or their fire marshal enforced thefire code. Another 13 percent said the county, city,or some other local agency outside the firedepartment conducted fire-code inspections. Theremaining 44 percent of fire departments, primarilyvolunteer or paid on-call departments, indicated thatno local agency inspected buildings for fire-codeprovisions.

State statutes require local fire officials to ensurethat the cause and origins of fires are investigatedand that the results of their investigations arereported to the State Fire Marshal. Effective fireinvestigations require extensive training andexpertise; as a result, many fire departments,especially in smaller jurisdictions and withvolunteer or paid on-call personnel, relied heavilyon the State Fire Marshal Division to assist with fireinvestigations in 1997.

Many fire departments serve as “first responders” atmedical emergencies, administering basic medicalcare prior to the arrival of ambulances. A smallnumber of fire departments also operate ambulanceservices, which must be licensed to transportvictims to medical facilities. About 60 percent offire departments offered some level of emergencymedical services in 1997, according to our survey.

A large share of fire departments offer rescueservices. Rescues include extricating victims fromvehicle accidents, water and ice rescues, andwilderness search operations, among others. About70 percent of Minnesota’s fire departments offeredsome type of rescue service in 1997.

Similarly, most fire departments have preparedthemselves at a basic level to respond to releases ofhazardous materials that can cause harm to peopleor the environment. Although few fire departmentsare equipped and trained to actually stop ahazardous spill, nearly 79 percent required oroffered training at the minimum “awareness” levelof response, whereby fire fighters are trained torecognize a hazardous materials release and initiatean emergency response by contacting theappropriate authorities.

Private Sector Fire Services

Although many fire services are provided bygovernment at the city or township levels, theprivate sector also has a role. Home smokedetectors are in most residences across the country(although many may not be in working order) andhome security systems are increasingly common.Automatic sprinkler systems and other fireprotection systems are often installed in commercialbuildings, particularly in newly constructed orrenovated buildings that comply withState BuildingCodeandMinnesota Uniform Fire Codeprovisions.Moreover, some commercial enterprises withparticularly high fire risks, such as oil refineries,employ their own fire brigades.

The Insurance Services Office, Inc. (ISO) is aprivate, nonprofit organization that evaluates localmunicipalities’ fire suppression capabilities. AnISO fire suppression rating schedule assesses acommunity’s water supply, fire department featuresand practices, and fire alarm system to estimate the

SUMMARY xi

potential for property losses in the event of a fire.The ISO rating is one factor that insurancecompanies may use in setting insurance premiums.In addition, property insurance companies typicallyemploy fire investigators who substantiate fireinsurance claims and some have preventionspecialists who identify ways that their clients canreduce fire risks.

State Agency Involvement in FireServices

State agencies also play a role in locally providedfire services. The State Fire Marshal Division inthe Minnesota Department of Public Safetyinvestigates the cause and origin of fires at therequest of local fire departments and investigates allfires involving fatalities. It has responsibility forenforcing the fire code in certain buildings aroundthe state, including schools, hotels, and hospitals.As a resource to local fire departments, the StateFire Marshal Division offers technical expertise onfire code provisions, maintains a computerizedarson investigation data system, coordinates aprogram of planned intervention to address juvenilefire-setting problems, collects and analyzesstatewide data on fire incidence, and providesfire-safety information.

Together with the State Fire Marshal Division, theDivision of Emergency Management in theDepartment of Public Safety contracts with specificfire departments and one private firm to provideregional teams for hazardous materials responseswhen local jurisdictions request help. The Divisionof Emergency Management offers grants to localresponse agencies for planning and training onhazardous materials responses. The division isinvolved with the coordination of responses andcommunication when multiple agencies respond tolarge-scale emergency incidents, and it houses theMinnesota Duty Officer, a one-stop office that localpublic-safety personnel call when they needassistance with emergencies.

The Division of Forestry in the MinnesotaDepartment of Natural Resources (DNR) is

responsible for preventing and extinguishingwildfires—those occurring in grassland, brush,cropland, or forests around the state. To help fightfires during the high fire-risk seasons, the divisioncontracts with certain local fire departments forpersonnel and apparatus. It also manages theInteragency Fire Center in Grand Rapids. Local firedepartments may use the Fire Center for severalprograms including loans of federal surplusequipment and vehicles, matching grants forpurchasing equipment to fight wildfires, access tofire prevention materials, and the coordination offire fighters and apparatus for emergencies outsideMinnesota.

Fire departments must meet specific workplacestandards that address fire fighter safety. TheMinnesota Occupational Safety and Health Act andthe federal Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration affect the level and content of firedepartments’ training, equipment, and procedures.Currently, the state does not, however, prescribe atraining curriculum or minimum training level thatall fire fighters must meet.

Financing Fire Services

Most fire departments rely heavily on property taxand other revenues from city and township generalfunds to finance their operations, although they alsodepend on a variety of additional revenue sources.About 54 percent of fire departments receivedrevenue from contracts for service they provided toneighboring jurisdictions, and 42 percent chargedfees for some of the services they provided. Morethan a third of fire departments reported usingcharitable gambling proceeds and contributionsfrom civic organizations to help pay for some shareof operations. According to our survey data, themedian level of operating expenditures for firedepartments around the state in 1997 was about $17per capita, although the medians ranged from $16per capita in volunteer and paid on-call departmentsto $76 per capita in full-time departments.2

xii FIRE SERVICES

2 Per capita estimates in our analysis contained the populations residing within the primary response area of each fire department,which often included multiple cities or townships.

Differences Among Types ofDepartments

We compared our survey data for three groups ofdepartments: (1) full-time departments, (2)combination departments that had at least sixfull-time members along with their other volunteeror paid on-call members, and (3) departments withfive or fewer full-time members and volunteer orpaid on-call fire departments in larger communitieswith 8,000 or more people. Because we lackedcertain data, the comparison did not include anyall-volunteer departments or on-call departments inless populous areas.

On several measures we saw little difference whencomparing performance in 1997 by type ofdepartment. While the typical response times forfull-time and combination departments were lowerthan that for volunteer or on-call departments in thelarger communities, high proportions of all types ofdepartments reported that it took an average of eightminutes or less for the initial attack team to arriveafter receiving the call, a threshold which theNational Fire Protection Association suggests as animportant rule of thumb. Similarly, approximatelyequal percentages of full-time, combination, andvolunteer or paid on-call departments met standardsof performance we identified in health and safetypractices, certain necessary fire fighter training(such as on the use and limitations of personalprotective equipment), and preventive maintenanceof apparatus (fire department vehicles) andequipment (ladders, hoses, hand tools, protectiveclothing, and other gear).

At the same time, our survey data showed thatfull-time fire departments in 1997 were more likelythan others to have a full range of public fire-safetyeducation efforts and long-range master plans.Full-time fire departments in 1997 were more likelythan other departments to have a high percentage ofstructure fires contained to the room of the fire’sorigin, an important measure of fire fightingeffectiveness. About 64 percent of full-timedepartments had two-thirds of structure firescontained to the room of origin, compared to about47 and 49 percent of the combination departmentsand volunteer or paid on-call departments,respectively, according to data reported to the StateFire Marshal Division.

Full-time and combination fire departments weremore likely than others to have comprehensive firecode inspections and enforcement and completepreincident plans for advance fire-responsepreparations. And a higher share of combinationfire departments than others had comprehensive fireinvestigation programs and training.

Because the volunteer or paid on-call departmentshad few or no full-time personnel, they hadexpenditures per capita that were far lower thanother fire departments. Median operatingexpenditures in 1997 were $15 per capita forvolunteer and paid on-call departments in the largercommunities, $45 for combination, and $76 forfull-time departments.

GOALS, ACTIONS, AND BESTPRACTICES FOR FIREDEPARTMENTS

Based on state statutes, rules, and professionalstandards, we identified five goals for effective andefficient management of fire services. The goalsare:

1. To prevent the outbreak of fires andachieve fire-safety awareness throughoutthe community.

2. To ensure the enforcement of codes onfire and life safety for the prevention andcontrol of structure fires .

3. To investigate the cause, origin, and cir-cumstances of fires in the jurisdiction.

4. To maintain a response capability that issafe and effective.

5. To protect citizens’ life safety and prop-erty against the dangers of fire and otheremergencies that may occur in the re-sponse area.

SUMMARY xiii

We identified seven actions that we believe firedepartments should follow to meet the goals. Theyare not the only actions that affect fire departments’performance and they may apply in differentdegrees to full-time, combination, and volunteer orpaid on-call departments. Nonetheless, the actionsare all based on guidelines and standards fromwithin the fire services industry.

The goals and actions helped us identify bestpractices for fire departments. Below we describethe seven actions plus examples of how someMinnesota fire departments have implementedthem. Our examples profile only a small number ofthe many fire departments that use the bestpractices.

1. Assess risks and developlong-range plans.

Fire departments should write long-range plansdescribing how they will meet the fire fighting andother emergency needs in their response areas inlight of their expected personnel and financialresources. Fire departments should develop theplans in collaboration with any broader communityplanning underway; they should base the plans ontheir assessment of fire risks and other potentialemergency needs in the community, such as thosefor emergency medical responses and specializedrescues.

As part of their long-range planning, firedepartments should develop contingency plans.Back-up plans prepare fire departments to provideyear-round service even in the event of naturaldisasters or equipment malfunctions. About 32percent of fire departments in larger communities(primarily those with populations of at least 8,000)reported that they had written long-range strategicplans based on community risk analyses andcontaining contingency plans. Similar data werenot available for fire departments in smallercommunities.

Long-range planning also involves preparing toreplace fire apparatus and equipment. Firedepartments should develop apparatus replacementplans to be financially prepared to replace obsoleteor worn vehicles and equipment. About 48 percentof all fire departments had apparatus replacementplans in 1997, according to our survey.

In addition to the Gonvick Fire Departmentexample described here, the Winnebago FireService is one of those we visited that expanded itsservices following an assessment of local needs.The Cotton Volunteer Fire Department is anexample of a fire department that uses anapparatus-replacement plan.

xiv FIRE SERVICES

Seven Actions for Successful FireDepartment Management

1. Assess risks and develop long-range plans.

2. Evaluate fire department performance and useresources cost-effectively.

3. Promote public awareness of fire safety.

4. Ensure fire code enforcement.

5. Develop effective communications systems.

6. Prepare a competent work force and supportsafe operations.

7. Plan for on-scene responses.

The Gonvick Fire Department in Clearwater Countybegan providing first responder and basic lifesupport services in 1992 following an assessmentof needs for prehospital care in the response area.The department’s analysis showed that manyvictims needing hospital care had to wait too longfor ambulances to arrive from the nearest hospitalslocated 20 and 30 miles away.

Pooling resources with the Polk and Clearwatercounty hospitals, the Gonvick Fire Departmenttrained 16 members to first responder level and 4 toemergency medical technician-basic level. The firedepartment purchased and modified a usedambulance and shares the costs of resupplying itwith the hospitals. As a result, accident victimsreceive more immediate medical care while awaitingthe arrival of hospital-based ambulances.

Gonvick Fire Department

2. Evaluate fire departmentperformance and use resourcescost-effectively.

Fire departments should periodically reassess theirperformance to identify the strengths andweaknesses in their training, equipment, andpersonnel. They should analyze their performancefollowing responses to emergencies to determinewhat worked well and what needs improvement.According to our survey, about 38 percent of firedepartments in larger communities used a formalprogram of setting goals and objectives andmeasuring department progress toward those goals;nearly three-quarters of these departmentsconducted postincident analyses of theirperformance. Similar data were not available forfire departments in smaller communities.

Fire departments should also take a long-term lookat the effectiveness of their individual programs toassess what impact each program may have onother department functions, such as how fireincidence trends can indicate a need for particularpublic education topics. To make strategicdecisions about department services, firedepartments need an information system forkeeping and retrieving records on all aspects oftheir operations. About 63 percent of the firedepartments in larger communities indicated theymaintained an information system for recordingdata on department activities. Similar data were notavailable for fire departments in smallercommunities.

Minnesota fire departments’ long history of mutualaid has produced efficiencies in fire services.Automatic aid agreements have also provencost-effective. Nearly all fire departmentsparticipate in mutual aid, most often for firesuppression purposes. Additional efficiencies canbe gained, however, by using mutual aidarrangements for other services such as cooperativepurchasing and fire-safety awareness activities.About 13 percent of fire departments we surveyedsaid they made cooperative purchases throughmutual aid associations and about 30 percent usedmutual aid associations for joint efforts in publiceducation.

Alternative service delivery may be needed tocorrect major inefficiencies or provide adequate fireprotection when existing fire departments lack thenecessary resources. Alternatives includeintergovernmental contracts for service, jointpowers agreements, and consolidations. More thantwo-thirds of fire departments had contracts toprovide some or all of their services in otherjurisdictions during 1997, according to our survey.Only a handful, however, operated as a result ofmultiple fire departments having consolidated.

Besides the case described here of the West MetroFire District, many other fire departments provideexamples of using resources cost-effectively andsharing expertise and equipment. Among the firedepartments we visited, several, including WestMetro and Brooklyn Park, are members of theMinnesota Fire Agency Purchasing Consortium,which offers low prices on certain fire equipmentdue to taking bids for high-volume purchases. TheWinnebago Fire Service and St. Louis Park FireDepartment represent two examples of howdepartments gain advantages through mutual aidand automatic aid arrangements, respectively. ThePierz Fire Department shows the benefits of

SUMMARY xv

In mid-1998, the on-call fire departments in theadjoining cities of Crystal and New Hope beganoperating as a single department. In creating a jointfire district, Crystal and New Hope intended to meettheir communities’ rising expectations for servicewithout raising property taxes.

Because of the merger, fire and rescue responsesare now based on proximity to the three firestations, not to city boundary lines. Improved firstresponder service is available because fire fightersequipped and trained to use defibrillators respondwhen needed by residents of either city. Fireprevention work, including code enforcement inbuilding inspections and fire-safety education, areconsistent throughout the district. For the first timein either city, a vehicle replacement program is inplace. Cost reductions resulted from unfilledturnover in fire fighter positions, but more significantsavings are expected over time as the firedepartment avoids the costs of replacing threepumpers while maintaining its ISO rating.

West Metro Fire - RescueDistrict

contracts for fire services. Other examples ofcost-effectiveness include the Duluth FireDepartment’s success with reduced costs throughthe standardization of apparatus and equipment andthe Cotton Volunteer Fire Department’s use of theDNR-managed excess property program andmatching grants to obtain vehicles and equipment atlow cost.

3. Promote public awareness of firesafety.

Fire departments should establish fire-safetyeducation programs to improve the public’sawareness of fire risks and fire prevention tactics.Basic fire-awareness information is useful for allresidents, but fire departments should identify themost important fire risks in their response areas andtailor education programs accordingly.

Education programs should include componentstargeted specifically to vulnerable groups, such aschildren, and they need to be available in languagesspoken within the community. Comprehensiveeducation programs include initiatives for homesand workplaces and steps to reduce departments’exposure to liability. Fire departments shouldevaluate their public education programs andmodify them as needed to ensure they are effective.

More than 90 percent of fire departments reportedthey had a public education program on fire safety,

although the extent of the programs varied widely.Only about 2 percent of fire departments hadcomprehensive fire-safety awareness activities thatincluded education programs targeted to local firerisks, smoke detector programs, collaborations withteachers and others, and ongoing monitoring of theprograms’ effectiveness.

In addition to the Duluth example described here,fire departments in Alexandria, Brooklyn Park,Cotton Township, Maple Plain, and St. Louis Parkwere among those we visited with unique orcomprehensive fire-safety awareness programs.

4. Ensure fire code enforcement.

Minnesota’sUniform Fire Codeauthorizes firedepartments to (1) inspect buildings looking forconditions that could cause fire and (2) requirethem to be corrected. Fire departments involvedwith fire code enforcement should establish aprogram of inspections with a schedule that targetsbuildings posing hazards and potential threats to lifesafety and property. Because of the complexitiesof theMinnesota Uniform Fire Code, inspectorsneed appropriate and ongoing training in the field.According to our survey, about 56 percent of firedepartments or other local agencies conductedfire-code related inspections; for the remaining44 percent, no local agency conducted fire-coderelated inspections.

Some fire protection provisions are incorporatedinto Minnesota’sState Building Code; theoverlapping provisions of the two codes areenforced by building officials and fire inspectors.Fire departments must maintain a good workingrelationship with building code officials (incommunities where theState Building Codehasbeen adopted) to ensure that fire protectionconcerns are addressed in the construction orrenovation of buildings. This means that firepersonnel should be involved in preconstructionmeetings, when the construction permit is issued,and before building owners receive certificates-of-occupancy.

Identifying potential fire hazards in advance ofconstructing or renovating buildings saves time andmoney for the building owners, who avoid having torebuild should fire code violations be discovered

xvi FIRE SERVICES

The Duluth Fire Department began a voluntaryhome inspection program in 1998 to upgrade firesafety in private houses. Fire prevention staffinspected about 100 homes during the first year andexpect to cover even more in the second year.

Once visits are scheduled, inspectors performexterior and interior checks. Outside the houses,inspectors look for clearance between the homeand combustible materials, among other items.Inside, inspectors check for frayed wiring,improperly stored materials, or combustibles locatedtoo near the furnace. Inspectors offer smokedetectors for homes without them and test thosealready installed. In the future, the fire departmentwill target home inspections in neighborhoods thathave not been visited in the past.

Duluth Fire Department

after construction is completed. About 90 percentof larger communities where fire departments orother local personnel conducted fire codeinspections had personnel who participated in planreviews for new building construction and 74percent had personnel involved in the certificate-of-occupancy processes. Similar data were notavailable for fire departments in smallercommunities.

Among the fire departments we visited, the Duluthand Pierz fire departments, in addition to the WhiteBear Lake example described above, inspectbuildings for fire code enforcement. The St. LouisPark Fire Department has an extensive program forinspecting apartment units.

5. Develop effective communicationssystems.

Effective communication is essential for awell-functioning fire department. Once firedepartments are contacted about an emergency, theyneed to immediately alert their members. On thescene, incident commanders need to communicatethroughout the incident with each fire company aswell as maintain contact with dispatchers. Wheninvolved in mutual aid responses, all fire fighters

have to understand communication protocols anduse common terminology.

Intradepartmental communication includes sharinginformation throughout the fire department. Forinstance, information gathered during buildinginspections can be useful to fire officials who aredeveloping preincident plans in preparation for thepossibility of fires. Among the fire departments wevisited, the Winnebago Fire Service offers anexample of the benefits of placing strong emphaseson communication protocols and training.

Equally important, fire departments should maintainstrong communication with outside groups,including city councils or town boards, water utilitymanagers, and fuel pipeline companies. Besides theAlexandria Fire Department described here, theDuluth Fire Department is another example amongthe fire departments we visited that illustrates thevalue of active communication with others outsidethe department.

For reliable communication linkages, firedepartments need hardware such as radios, pagers,sirens, and other equipment. They also need toprepare communication protocols and trainmembers on their use. About 89 percent of firedepartments in larger communities reported they

SUMMARY xvii

In addition to aggressive fire-code relatedinspections, White Bear Lake has a 1989 cityordinance requiring the installation of hard-wiredsmoke detectors in single-family dwellings wheneverhomes undergo renovations in excess of $1,000 orrequire an electrical permit. Over time, the numberof homes with hard-wired smoke detectors hasgradually increased, and about half of all olderhomes in the city now have them.

The fire marshal reviews fire-code compliance inbuilding plans for all new construction in the cityexcept single-family homes. He works closely withbuilding inspection staff, and builders must addressfire code concerns before receiving certificates-of-occupancy from building inspectors. A cityordinance requires sprinkler installation in allbuildings of more than 5,000 square feet. The firemarshal also inspects buildings and conducts planreviews in nearby communities on a contract basis.

White Bear LakeFire Department

The Alexandria Fire Department maintains closecommunications with officials from the city’s waterand building departments. Their coordinatedworking relationships enhance fire protection in thecity.

Fire officers work with water utility officials on theplanning and placement of the city’s fire hydrantsand water mains. Hydrant testing is done jointly.Working cooperatively, the fire department canbetter plan for fire suppression needs and developcontingency plans for water supplies.

Similarly, the fire marshal established ongoingcommunications with local building officials on firecode compliance. When new buildings are planned,inspectors issue building permits only afterconstruction plans address fire code provisionsidentified by the fire marshal. This collaborativeworking relationship ensures that new orreconstructed buildings meet fire code provisions.

Alexandria Fire Department

were somewhat or very satisfied in theircommunication systems’ ability to perform inemergency situations and normal daily activitieswithout excessive delays or interference. Similardata were not available for fire departments insmaller communities.

6. Prepare a competent work force andsupport safe operations.

For safe and effective emergency operations, firedepartments need adequate staffing levels, trainingappropriate for all duties fire fighters will beexpected to perform, standard operating guidelines,personal protective equipment for all activemembers, and health and safety procedures. Tomaintain an adequate number of fire departmentmembers, fire officials should establish arecruitment program based on their departments’identified personnel needs. About 46 percent of firedepartments reported that they had a recruitmentplan in 1997 structured according to their personnelneeds.

Fire departments should be proactive in their effortsto retain members. This means identifying firefighters’ points of satisfaction and concern, as wellas demonstrating good leadership, maintainingconsistent standards of performance, and providingrecognition for work done well, among other things.About 60 percent of fire departments with volunteeror paid on-call members reported high retentionrates, retaining at least 80 percent of their membersover the past five years.

All fire departments need training programs that setminimum training requirements for fire fighters.Effective training both contributes to smoothoperations and reduces the risk of injury to firefighters. Each function fire fightersperform—fighting fires, performing search andrescue operations, operating apparatus—requiresspecific training. More than 90 percent of firedepartments in larger communities said that theyrequired training for the specialized services theyoffered and on the use and limitations of personalprotective equipment, according to our survey.Although similar data were not available for firedepartments in smaller communities, 83 percent ofthese departments reported that they required oroffered training in 1997 on fire suppression and on

the use and limitations of personal protectiveequipment. Fire departments should periodicallyappraise fire fighters’ performance to help identifytraining needs and improve operations.

Because of the inherently dangerous environmentsin which many fire fighters find themselves, firedepartments need to adopt safety protocols for useduring incidents, including a system for accountingfor personnel whereabouts during responses andrapid intervention plans to rescue injured members.All fire fighters need appropriate protective clothingand gear to shield them from hazardous conditions.Protective equipment needed for fighting structurefires differs from that needed for wildland fires, firstresponder activities, and other fire-related services.All of the fire departments in larger communitiesindicated their protective gear and breathingapparatus were adequate or very adequate in 1997.Similar data were not available for fire departmentsin smaller communities.

Among the fire departments we visited, theWinnebago Fire Service is an example of adepartment with comprehensive health and safetyprograms. The Alexandria Fire Departmentexemplifies how fire departments must providetraining for each service they expect fire fighters to

xviii FIRE SERVICES

The Maple Plain Fire Department reorganized tobring its on-call fire fighters closer to the planning,management, and evaluations of departmentservices. Teams of fire fighters now haveresponsibility for specific functions, such as trainingand truck maintenance.

Fire department members serve on the team oftheir choice; each team selects its own team leader,assigns duties, evaluates service or equipmentneeds, and makes purchasing recommendations.Team leaders join fire officers in monthly evaluationsof team activities and recommendations.

The changes brought greater camaraderie amongmembers, increased fire fighter attendance at drillsand meetings, and encouraged more individualinitiative in improving department services. Overtime, the team approach is expected to enhancestaff retention.

Maple PlainFire Department

perform. The fire departments in Cotton Township,St. Louis Park, and White Bear Lake provideexamples of how to retain fire department members.

7. Plan for on-scene responses.

Before fire departments actually respond toemergencies, they are involved with intensiveadvance planning. Fire departments should analyzethe fire risks and other hazards in their responseareas and gather sufficient information to prepare“preincident plans.” Such plans prepare firepersonnel with information, such as buildingconstruction and layout or fuel loads in wildlandareas, that they need to know before deciding onappropriate attack strategies. All fire fightersshould receive training to become familiar withpreincident plan information. According to oursurvey, approximately 93 percent of firedepartments in larger communities had preincidentplans for at least some of their fire risks andstructures; about 53 percent of the fire departmentsin smaller communities reported having writtenemergency response plans in preparation for theirfire responses.

Fire departments should establish within theirwritten plans an incident management system thatdefines roles and responsibilities for emergencyresponses. The incident management systemoutlines the management structure used duringemergency responses and provides standardoperating guidelines for each function to beperformed there. To be useful for incidents ofvarying severity, the incident management systemneeds to be flexible. At the same time, departmentsshould consistently follow their incidentmanagement systems to eliminate confusion at thescene. We found that about 77 percent of firedepartments in larger communities had incidentmanagement systems in 1997 with written responseplans describing their fire suppression duties.Similar data on incident management systems werenot available for fire departments in smallercommunities.

As part of advance preparations, fire departmentsshould write standard operating guidelines for alloperations they expect to perform. The guidelinesprovide a systematic and organized way ofapproaching specific tasks efficiently, and they help

promote safety for fire personnel. According to oursurvey, about 86 percent of fire departments inlarger communities and 55 percent of others hadwritten standard operating guidelines for firesuppression in 1997. Standard guidelines for firesuppression should include guidelines for salvage,overhaul, and mop-up operations to ensure that firesare completely out and to minimize propertydamage.

For determining fire causes and origins, firedepartments should have a process for investigatingfires and specific guidelines on when to contact theState Fire Marshal Division for assistance withinvestigations. To aid investigations, fire fightersneed training on steps they should take to helppreserve fire scenes. About 63 percent of all firedepartments reported that in 1997 they instructedfire fighters in aspects of arson scenes and on howfire fighter actions affect the work of fireinvestigators.

Fire departments should undertake a routinemaintenance program for all of their apparatus andequipment to ensure that they are operational whenemergencies arise. Scheduled, routine maintenanceof vehicles and regular testing of ladders, hoses, andother fire equipment are necessary to keep trucksand equipment in good operating condition. Eighty

SUMMARY xix

To prepare for the possibility of fires, the WinnebagoFire Service compiles information on buildingconstruction, on-site hazards, and fire protectionsystems for all businesses in the response area.Fire fighters tour commercial facilities after the firedepartment sends notice of upcoming visits tobusiness owners. During the visits, fire fighterscollect detailed information on numbers ofemployees by shift, the existence of fire plans, andthe location of gas and electrical shut-offs; they alsobecome familiar with building layouts.

For easy access to the preplan information, thedepartment keeps copies on board its fire trucks.With the preplans, the fire department evaluates theadequacy of its fire fighting resources and improvesfire fighters’ awareness of potential safety hazardsin particular buildings.

Winnebago Fire Service

percent of fire departments had preventivemaintenance programs in place in 1997, accordingto our survey.

In addition to the Winnebago case listed above, theBrooklyn Park Fire Department is another of thefire departments we visited in this study thatpreplans for emergencies. The Duluth FireDepartment represents an example of a strong fireinvestigation program. Both the Cotton Volunteerand White Bear Lake Fire Departments illustratesome of the benefits of setting standard operatingguidelines for their emergency responses. Theimportance of preventive maintenance for apparatusis shown by the Alexandria and Gonvick firedepartments.

CONCLUSION

Fire and other emergency services are largelydecentralized functions provided primarily at thelocal level of government. Local fire departmentsdetermine the extent of their responsibilities,depending in part on specific hazards withinresponse areas and on the resources available forplanning, training, equipment, and personnel. Localfire departments, whether staffed by full-timemembers, paid on-call members, volunteers, orsome combination, typically have multipleresponsibilities in addition to fighting fires.

Our survey data from Minnesota fire departmentsshowed that volunteer and paid on-call firedepartments in larger communities generallyperformed well on many measures in 1997 andwere very efficient on the basis of expenditures percapita within their response areas. At the sametime, volunteer and paid on-call departments wereless likely to offer the full array of services thatmost full-time and combination fire departmentsoffered in 1997.

Based on laws, standards, and guidelines pertainingto fire services, we identified seven actions that areimportant for the successful management of fireservices. In some cases, many fire departments arealready engaged in these practices. For instance,most fire departments reported that they hadadequate protective gear and self-containedbreathing apparatus for their department members,items that are essential for fire fighter safety. High

proportions of both full-time fire departments andthose with volunteer or paid on-call membersreported offering or requiring training on certainessential subjects. A majority of fire departmentswith volunteer or paid on-call members were takingsteps to retain their members, as evidenced by theirhigh retention rates over the past five years.

Along the same lines, many fire departments saidthey had in place preventive maintenance programsfor their apparatus and regular testing of equipment.And most fire departments reported that they hadsome components of a public education program toinform the public about fire-safety measures.

At the same time, other actions important toeffective and efficient fire services are not aswidespread. As an example, many fire departmentshave not conducted fire-risk assessments in theirlocalities or analyzed the balance betweencommunity needs and fire department resources,according to our survey data. Only about half offire departments reported that they haveapparatus-replacement plans.

While most of the fire departments in largercommunities analyzed their performance followingtheir responses to incidents, only about 38 percentreported that they evaluated their departments’effectiveness by setting goals and objectives andmeasured how well they met those goals. Similarly,nearly all fire departments participated in mutualaid, but far fewer used mutual aid associations totheir fullest advantage, such as making jointpurchases. Many fire departments have producedefficiencies by contracting with nearby jurisdictionsfor services or some components of service, butonly a handful have consolidated operations.

Few fire departments had comprehensive publiceducation programs on fire safety that: weretailored to the local fire risks and other hazards inthe community; included smoke detector programs;had been produced in collaboration with schoolteachers and others; had materials available forbusinesses, community organizations, and in privateresidences; and were routinely evaluated foreffectiveness. Although most of the full-time andcombination fire departments were involved withfire-code related inspections, only about 43 percentof all the volunteer and on-call departments

xx FIRE SERVICES

inspected new or existing buildings for fire codecompliance or were in communities where otherlocal agencies did.

Most fire departments took steps to ensure theyhave competent, well trained fire fighters and topromote safe operations. Less than half, however,reported having personnel recruitment planstargeted at their personnel needs.

Effective and efficient fire services—from rescuesto first responder activities to fireprevention—require tremendous advance planningand preparation. While nearly all of the firedepartments in larger communities had preparedpreincident plans for their fire risks, only about halfof the volunteer or paid on-call departments incommunities with less than 8,000 population hadwritten emergency response plans in preparation forthe possibility of fire outbreaks.

Finally, although it is important for fire fighters tofollow department guidelines on preserving arsonscenes for fire investigators, many volunteer andpaid on-call departments did not train their firefighters in this subject in 1997. Most full-time andcombination fire departments reported that theyinstructed their fire fighters in aspects of arsonscenes and how their actions affect the work of fireinvestigators, but only about 60 percent of volunteeror on-call departments did so.

We recommend that fire departments aroundMinnesota consider the seven actions we identifiedfor effective and efficient operations. We encouragefire departments and local communities to adoptsome of the practices that other fire departmentshave found to contribute to the successfulprevention and management of fires and otheremergencies.

SUMMARY xxi

This report examines fireservices in Minnesota. Overtime, fire services have come

to extend beyond “fire protection” toinclude other emergency services. Inaddition to fighting fires, many firedepartment members are alsoresponsible for extricating victimsfrom vehicle crashes, inspectingbuildings for compliance with firecodes, providing medical services atemergency scenes, and responding tospills of hazardous materials, amongother duties.

In this review we researched theoperations, apparatus and equipment,and personnel of Minnesota’s 790local fire departments. Firedepartments are typically run at thecity or township level of government,although many fire departments serveareas that extend beyond a singlemunicipal boundary line.1 The greatmajority of departments operate withon-call or volunteer members, thelatter of whom receive no hourly orper call compensation.

Our study looked at the overallstructure and management of fireservices but did not evaluate theindividual actions of fire fighters atemergency incidents. For instance,although we identified the need forfire departments to develop incidentmanagement systems to determine inadvance who has what responsibilitiesduring an emergency, we did not

examine how individual departmentsimplemented their incident commandonce at the scene.

At the project’s start, we held aroundtable discussion to learn whatlocal fire fighters, chiefs, firemarshals, state fire officials,legislators, local officials, fireprevention specialists, and othersinterested in fire services viewed asimportant issues. To define whatactions are needed for successful fireservices, we relied on guidelinesdeveloped and recommended bynationally recognized public safetyorganizations. We studied literaturepublished by national groups, such asthe National Fire ProtectionAssociation, as well as informationfrom local organizations, such as theMinnesota State Fire Chiefs’Association. We also organized focusgroups of fire fighters in four differentregions of the state to gather feedbackon the concepts we had identified asnecessary for effective and efficientfire departments.

We toured several fire departments indifferent regions of the state, rodealong on some emergency runs,observed different apparatus in action,and interviewed chiefs and firefighters to better understand thenature of their work. To learn moredetails about specific fire departments,we surveyed an extensive sample ofvolunteer and on-call departments in

Introduction

This reviewidentifies

bestpractices indelivering

fireservices.

1 In addition, the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has responsibility for preventing and extinguishing grass and forestfires in many areas around the state. SeeMinn. Stat. §88.10, subd. 1. The U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, and NationalPark Service have fire management responsibilities for land under their authority.

smaller communities and all of the departments inlarger communities around Minnesota. Afteridentifying effective and efficientdepartments—based on whether they metperformance standards developed by fireorganizations—we visited a small number to gatheradditional information on their particular practices.

Throughout the review we relied on the advice andexpertise of a technical advisory panel establishedat the outset of the project. This 18-member panel,consisting of fire chiefs, fire fighters, fire marshals,a city manager, and representatives from theMinnesota Department of Public Safety, offered itsprofessional input at various stages of our work.We also hired a retired fire officer to providetechnical assistance. Appendix A lists the technicalpanel members and provides additional details onthe methodology of this review.

This report has two chapters. In the first, weprovide background information on how fireservices are structured and financed in Minnesota aswell as on the scope of fire department services.The chapter also explains the state’s role in fireprotection. Chapter 2 describes goals and actionsfor effective and efficient fire services and presentsexamples of Minnesota fire departments that usebest practices in delivering their services.

2 FIRE SERVICES

People commonly associate firedepartments with fire fighting.Most Minnesota fire

departments, however, are involved innumerous emergency activitiesbeyond suppressing fires. Accordingto the State Fire Marshal Division inthe Department of Public Safety, firedepartments responded to nearly147,000 calls in 1997, only 13 percentof which were for extinguishing fires.1

The breadth of duties performed byMinnesota fire departments includesserving as first responders inemergencies, providing emergencymedical services at incidents andbeing licensed to transport victims tomedical facilities, rescuing victimsfrom incidents such as trafficaccidents or mishaps on lakes andrivers, responding to spills ofhazardous materials, inspectingbuildings for fire hazards, preparingfor the management of emergenciessuch as natural disasters, investigatingthe cause of fires, and educatingchildren and other citizens about firesafety. Although not everydepartment is involved with each ofthese activities, very few have limitedtheir roles to fire suppression alone.According to a survey we conductedof Minnesota fire departments, about98 percent offered other services inaddition to fire fighting.

Fire departments also vary in theirorganizational structure and staffingarrangements. We found that 92percent of Minnesota fire departmentsin 1997 relied primarily on volunteersor paid on-call fire fighters. Theywere staffed largely by members whomade their living in some occupationoutside the fire department and eitherreceived no compensation forresponding to incidents or were paid astipend or on an hourly or per-callbasis. The rest of Minnesota’sdepartments were staffed by full-timecareer fire fighters or with acombination of full-time andvolunteer or paid on-call members.

Regardless of their employmentstatus, fire fighters perform essentiallythe same duties. They face a varietyof occupational hazards due to theirdangerous and unpredictable workenvironment. In 1997, 234 Minnesotafire fighters were injured on the job,according to the State Fire MarshalDivision. This is a ratio of 0.5 firefighter injuries for every 10,000Minnesota citizens, as compared to3.3 fire fighter injuries for every10,000 residents across the country in1996.2 Two Minnesota fire fightersdied in the line of duty in 1997, andnone in the previous five years.Nationally, 57 volunteer and 37full-time, career fire fighters died

Background

CHAPTER 1

Firedepartmentsalso conductrescues, offer

emergencymedicalservices,

work on fireprevention,and managehazardousmaterials

spills.

1 Department of Public Safety, State Fire Marshal Division,1997 Fire in Minnesota(St. Paul, 1998), 3. The actual number of callsstatewide may be somewhat higher because not every department regularly reports fire data to the State Fire Marshal. For 1997, about88 percent of departments reported.

2 John R. Hall,The U.S. Fire Problem Overview Report: Leading Causes and Other Patterns and Trends(Quincy, Mass.: NationalFire Protection Association, 1998), 2.

while on duty in 1997, for a total of 466 fire fighteron-duty fatalities from 1993 through 1997.3

Local expenditures on fire protection were $39 percapita in Minnesota compared to $65 per capitaacross the country during fiscal year 1995, the mostrecent year that comparable data were available.4

Minnesota’s per capita spending on fire servicesthat year ranked 39th out of the 50 states andWashington D.C.5

Fire departments differ in their reliance on stateresources. Some, for instance, rely heavily on theState Fire Marshal Division in conducting fireinvestigations; others conduct their owninvestigations. Local departments also vary in theirinvolvement and coordination with other localagencies, such as local water utilities or buildinginspection agencies.

This chapter presents background information onthe current structure, financing, and scope of fireservices in Minnesota. In the chapter we ask thefollowing questions:

• How is the delivery of fire servicesstructured?

• How are fire department servicesfinanced?

• What services do fire departments inMinnesota provide and how do they varywithin the state?

• What is the state role in fire services?

To answer these questions we relied in part oninformation gathered through a survey weconducted of an extensive sample of firedepartments in Minnesota.6 Most of the data wepresent in this report come from our survey, but notevery fire department responded to the survey; allfire departments we surveyed are listed in AppendixA, along with the results of surveys from those whoreplied in time for our analysis. We also collectedinformation by visiting and interviewing firedepartment personnel and others in the emergencyresponse field. In addition, we used informationpublished by a variety of associations and agencieswithin the fire and public safety industries.

THE STRUCTURE OF FIRESERVICES IN MINNESOTA

Fire services in the public sector are largely localgovernment functions. Minnesota had 790 firedepartments in 1997, according to the State FireMarshal.

More than 90 percent of fire departments wereorganized as municipal fire departments in 1997,that is, they were a department of a city, township,or group of municipalities, according to our survey.Nearly 70 percent of these departments providedfire-related services to nearby communities on acontract basis. About 7 percent of Minnesota firedepartments indicated they were organized asprivate, nonprofit corporations. These departmentsalso contract with local communities to provide fireservices. They are typically run by boards ofdirectors with membership prescribed in theirbylaws.

4 FIRE SERVICES

3 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA),Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 1997(Washington D.C.: FEMA,1998), 7-8.

4 U.S. Census Bureau, “State and Local Government Finances by Level of Government: 1994-1995,” WWW document, URL:http://www.census.gov/govs/estimate/95stlus.txt, (February 1999).

5 Minnesota Taxpayers Association,How Does Minnesota Compare? Fiscal Year 1995 Comparisons(St. Paul: Minnesota Taxpay-ers Association, September 1998), 28.

6 We conducted two simultaneous surveys, one of all fire departments in larger communities, which we defined as those with 8,000or larger populations. Eighty-eight departments responded to this survey, for an 87 percent response rate. The second survey wasshorter to reduce the time burden of completing it for volunteer chiefs of departments in smaller communities. We sent this survey to454 of the 689 fire departments in communities with fewer than 8,000 residents. We received 307 surveys returned in time for analy-sis, for a 68 percent response rate. Additional details on our methodology are available in Appendix A.

In a few areas, townships have organized specialfire protection districts. These districts consist ofcontiguous property, at least 25 percent of which isclassified as homestead property or other buildingsor structures.7 Property owners in these districtspay a special property tax rate with a levyspecifically for fire services. Only slightly morethan 1 percent of fire departments reported that theywere part of such a fire protection district in 1997.

Fire Department StaffingArrangements

Fire departments are staffed primarily in one of fourways: (1) with volunteer members; (2) with paid,on-call personnel; (3) with a combination offull-time staff and volunteer or paid on-call staff,known as “combination departments”; or (4) withexclusively full-time paid staff. As shown in Figure1.1:

• Most fire departments in Minnesotaduring 1997 used volunteer or paidon-call members.

Some of these used entirely unpaid staff. About 30percent of all Minnesota fire departments in 1997had members that received no compensation forresponding to emergencies, although they may havebeen eligible for retirement pensions. A largerproportion, approximately 62 percent, employedfire fighters who received compensation for theirservices either on a per call or per hour basis, or inthe form of a stipend.8 This group includes firedepartments who employed up to five full-timemembers but relied primarily on volunteers oron-call fire fighters. About 5 percent of Minnesotafire departments in 1997 used at least six full-timemembers along with paid on-call or volunteer firefighters (which we defined as “combination”departments) while slightly more than 3 percent hadentirely full-time personnel.

By comparison, approximately 6percent of all fire departments inthe United States in 1997 werestaffed entirely with career firefighters, and about 73 percentrelied on volunteer or on-callmembers. The remaining 21percent of U. S. departments used amix of career and volunteer oron-call fire fighters.9

Throughout this report, when wecompare fire departments we groupthose employing five or fewerfull-time fire fighters together withvolunteer and paid on-calldepartments, not with combinationdepartments. We do this becausedepartments with such a smallnumber of full-time memberswould not be likely to operate on

BACKGROUND 5

Figure 1.1: Fire Departments by Type of

Staffing, 1997

NOTE: Combination departments include those with at least six full-time members.

Some on-call departments also have volunteer members.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor�s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

All Volunteer

30%

Full-Time

3% Combination 5%

Paid On-Call 62%

7 Minn. Stat.§368.85, subd. 1.

8 Nearly 70 percent of the volunteer or on-call departments had fire chiefs who received compensation in 1997, although most ofthese chiefs were not full-time and did not earn full-time pay.

9 Nancy Schwartz, research assistant, National Fire Protection Association, interview by author, Telephone conversation, St. Paul,Minnesota, March 2, 1999.

an around-the-clock basis, andtherefore, are not as comparable tocombination departments.

When comparing the shares ofpopulation served in the primaryresponse areas of the different typesof departments, a somewhatdifferent picture emerges, as shownin Figure 1.2. Although volunteerand paid on-call departments stillserved many citizens,

• Fire departments with allvolunteers served about 5percent of Minnesota’spopulation in 1997 andpaid on-call departmentsserved about 53 percent.Combination departmentsserved about 15 percentand full-time departmentsabout 28 percent of the state’s residents.

Community Characteristics byDepartment Type

Full-time fire departments in Minnesota aretypically found in areas with large populations, highdensities, and older buildings. In 1997, 11 full-timedepartments operated in response areas thatgenerally held the largest populations, with amedian population of 34,470; all but two full-timedepartments were in cities above the 95th percentileof Minnesota city populations.10 By contrast,combination departments had response areas with amedian 25,305 residents and the response areas forvolunteer or on-call departments had a median1,990 residents in 1997.

Full-time fire departments served denselyconcentrated populations, with a median 3,061people per square mile within their primaryresponse areas. This compares to median densitiesof 453 people per square mile for combinationdepartments and 29 for volunteer or on-calldepartments. In addition, the full-time fire

departments and volunteer or on-call departmentswere mostly located in cities with older housingunits. About 73 percent of the full-timedepartments were in cities where the medianhousing units were built before 1965, whereas only47 percent of combination departments were incommunities with similar aged housing, and about70 percent of the volunteer or on-call departmentswere in such communities.

Full-time and combination departments were fairlyevenly divided between those located in the TwinCities metropolitan area and those outside it. Thevolunteer or on-call departments, on the other hand,were predominantly outside the Twin Cities area,with 85 percent located in greater Minnesota.

Selecting Officers

The process for promoting officers within firedepartments varies. We learned that unlike themanagers for many local government services, firechiefs in some departments are elected bydepartment membership, in accordance with thedepartment’s bylaws. In other fire departments,chiefs are appointed by the mayor or local

6 FIRE SERVICES

Figure 1.2: Percentage of Minnesota Popula-

tion Served by Type of Fire Department, 1997

NOTE: Combination departments include those with at least six full-time fire fighters.

Percentages do not add to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor�s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

All Volunteer 5%

Full-Time 28%

Combination 15%Paid On-Call

53%

10 Using 1997 population estimates, the 95th percentile included cities with at least 18,877 residents. Full-time departments also oper-ate at the Minneapolis/St. Paul International Airport and at the Rochester Airport; they are not included in this comparison.

governing body. Appointments in some cases arebased on qualifying examinations to help determinethe candidates’ skills, knowledge, and abilities.Data are not available on how many firedepartments elect their fire chiefs as opposed tohaving them appointed.

Reliance on Mutual Aid

The fire service in Minnesota and elsewhere has along history of participating in what is known as“mutual aid.” Essentially, fire department membersof mutual aid associations respond free of charge torequests for assistance at emergencies and otherevents occurring outside their primary responsearea. If an emergency requires resources,personnel, or expertise that is beyond the scope of aparticular department, the department may requestaid from other departments belonging to theassociation. From our survey we found that:

• Virtually all Minnesota fire departmentshad mutual aid agreements for somecomponents of their fire services.

Because of the widespread use of mutual aid,individual fire departments do not have to hire thenumber of fire fighters or purchase the amount ofequipment they would need to handle infrequent,

large-scale emergencies.Of the fire departmentswith mutual aidagreements in 1997, 98percent covered firesuppression in theirmutual aid, about 57percent included firstresponder services, and51 percent included

rescues. Beyond providing and receiving services,some departments use mutual aid associations forgaining efficiency in training personnel or makingjoint purchases. Three-quarters of Minnesota firedepartments participating in mutual aid reportedusing it for cooperative drills and exercises, and

59 percent for using specialized equipment orapparatus (apparatus refers to fire departmentvehicles including pumpers, tankers, or laddertrucks).

Some departments participate in “automatic aid,”whereby members from multiple departments willautomatically respond to incidents occurring in apredetermined area within a neighboringjurisdiction or within a given time frame. Forinstance, two neighboring departments might haveautomatic aid for any incident occurring within apredetermined distance of the boundary lineseparating two departments’ jurisdictions. Orautomatic aid may be given based on the time ofday or day of the week; when one department’spersonnel resources are usually lower, for instanceduring daytime hours, another department mayautomatically respond, and the first departmentwould reciprocate during nighttime hours.

Private Sector Roles in Fire-RelatedServices

Although public fire departments may represent oneof the most visible components of fire protection,several important fire-related services existindependent of fire departments. Often, local firedepartments that work on fire preventioncomplement these private sector efforts.

Privately-Purchased Fire ProtectionSystems

Home smoke detectors and security systems are agrowing segment of private sector fire protection.For instance, as of 1993 in Minnesota, state law hasrequired the installation of smoke detectors in alldwellings in the state intended to be occupied forliving purposes.11 Nationwide, it has been estimatedthat 95 percent of American households now havesmoke detectors (although many may not be inworking order) and 20 percent have monitoredelectronic security systems.12 Realizing the value

BACKGROUND 7

Mutual aidproduces

efficiencies.

11 Minn. Laws(1993), ch. 329, subd. 1. (b) andMinn. Stat.§299F.362.

12 National Burglar & Fire Alarm Association, Inc., “Facts and Stats About the Electronic Security Industry,” WWW document, URL:http://www.alarm.org/consumer/quick.htm (March 1, 1999); Joe Freeman, CEO, J. P. Freeman Co., Inc., interview by author, Tele-phone conversation, St. Paul, Minnesota, January 20, 1999. The J. P. Freeman Co., Inc. specializes in electronic security and home andcommercial automation and was referred by materials from the National Burglar and Fire Alarm Association.

of smoke detectors in alerting people to fires, firedepartments often participate in smoke detectorprograms for privately owned buildings. Accordingto our survey:

• About 44 percent of fire departments havesmoke detector programs to assisthomeowners and others with theacquisition and installation of smokedetectors.

Automatic sprinkler systems have beendemonstrated to reduce the extent of damage andspread of fires because they act at the early stage offires, according to the National Fire ProtectionAssociation.13 Further, the association hasconcluded that in most cases sprinkler systemactivation causes much less water damage thanwhen sprinklers are not present and firedepartments extinguish fires. Some studies haveindicated that the installation of sprinkler systemsreduces insurance premiums for building owners(particularly of commercial buildings), andwidespread sprinkler installation may help controlthe growth of public expenditures for fire stations,equipment, and personnel.14

In Minnesota and around the country, automatic fireextinguishing systems have been installed primarilyin commercial, industrial, educational, and publicassembly buildings. TheMinnesota Uniform FireCoderequires the installation of automatic sprinklersystems during the construction of structures thatmeet certain size and occupancy thresholds and thatare not dwellings, lodging houses, family day care,certain supervised living facilities, private garages,carports, or agricultural buildings.15 Because manybuildings were built prior to the fire code, however,many commercial buildings do not have sprinklersystems. About 27 percent of the larger firedepartments we surveyed reported having fullautomatic sprinkler coverage in high percentagesof their high-hazard occupancies, such as repair

garages with open flames or welding, in 1997.Of the larger departments that could estimatepercentages of homes that are sprinklered, 90percent said that less than 5 percent of the single-and two-family homes, family day care facilities,and supervised living facilities in their service areashad sprinklers.

Private Sector Fire Investigators andFire Prevention Specialists

Property insurance companies employ fireinvestigators who investigate fire causes to verifyand substantiate fire insurance claims. Theinvestigators conduct their investigationsindependent of the fire marshal whose job it is todetermine the cause and origin of fires and reporton fires of unknown origin. Some insurancecompanies also employ prevention specialists who

8 FIRE SERVICES

Larger and Smaller Fire Departments

Larger Fire DepartmentsThroughout this report, references to “larger” fire de-partments include: (1) volunteer and paid on-call de-partments in communities of 8,000 or more, (2) alldepartments with full-time personnel, and (3) depart-ments with a combination of at least six full-time andother personnel.

We sent to these departments our full survey. Includedin the group are three fire departments in cities under8,000 population that received our full survey becausepreliminary data indicated they were combination de-partments; according to our survey results, they are ac-tually paid on-call departments.

Smaller Fire DepartmentsThe “smaller” fire departments are volunteer and paidon-call departments in communities of under 8,000population.

Some data are not available for smaller departmentsbecause we mailed shorter surveys to the small volun-teer or paid on-call departments, and therefore, col-lected less information from them. Appendix Acontains details on the methodology of our survey.

13 Arthur E. Cote, ed.,Fire Protection Handbook,18th ed. (Quincy, Mass.: National Fire Protection Association, 1997), sec. 6-139.

14 U.S. Fire Administration, “The Major Conclusions For Experience with Sprinklers,” October 1997, WWW document, URLhttp://www.usfa.fema.gov/safety/sprinkler.htm (August 5, 1998); Jim Ford,Automatic Sprinklers A 10 Year Study(Scottsdale, AZ:Rural/Metro Fire Department, 1997), 16-17, 20.

15 International Fire Code Institute,1997 Uniform Fire Code Volume 1,(Whittier, CA: International Fire Code Institute, 1997), part3, art. 10, sec. 1003.2.2;Minn. Rules,ch. 7510.3530, art. 2, subp. 8. “Dwellings” mean single-family residences and congregate resi-dences (such as a convent or dormitory) of 10 or fewer persons.

work with large insured parties, such as a county, toidentify ways to reduce the insured party’s exposureto risks including the risks of fire. The mainpurpose behind these specialists is to control lossesby taking steps to reduce fire and other hazards andprevent the outbreak of fires. Often the specialistswill conduct a risk assessment before writing anaccount for a client, and may recommend propertyprotection systems. They typically view themselvesas working in partnership with local firedepartments.

Insurance Services Office, Inc.

As a service to insurance companies that determinefire insurance premiums, the Insurance ServicesOffice, Inc. (ISO), a nonprofit organization,evaluates communities’ abilities to suppress fires.The ISO produces a classification of propertiesbased on their loss potential in the event of a fire.This classification (a ranking of 1 to 10 based onnumerous factors within the community) is onevariable among many that insurance companiesmay use in setting premiums. Large commercialstructures within a city may have their ownindividual ISO classification; other smallerproperties and residential structures, on the otherhand, are rated as a group. In 1998, the ISO begana process of updating its fire suppressioninformation, such as districtboundaries and automatic aidagreements, for determiningclassifications. It is alsodeveloping a process to gradecommunities’ building-codeenforcement with the prospect offavorable insurance pricing forareas with strong support forenforcing building codes.

The ISO classification does notaccount for fire prevention efforts.It ordinarily includes an assessmentof the community’s water supply,fire department features andpractices, and fire alarm system.

Fire Brigades and Safety Teams

Some commercial enterprises employ their own firefighters, known as fire brigades, due to the high-risknature of their business. Oil refineries are anexample of industries likely to have fire brigadeswith their own fire stations, trucks, and equipment.Other businesses, such as those storing ormanufacturing certain chemicals, may not have firebrigades but may have safety teams. These areemployees trained and equipped to diagnose fire orother emergency risks and administer first aid whennecessary. Although we recognize that certaincompanies use fire brigades and safety teams, wedid not include them in this review of local firedepartments.

FINANCING FIRE DEPARTMENTSERVICES

Revenues for Operating Expenses

Most Minnesota fire departments rely heavily onproperty tax revenues and other general-fundrevenues for their operating expenses but alsosupplement them with revenues from other sources.Figure 1.3 shows the average percentage of variousrevenue sources received by fire departments in1997. Our survey indicated that:

BACKGROUND 9

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor�s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

Figure 1.3: Fire Department Average Revenue

Sources, 1997

Other 3%

Fees 4% State aid 2%

Charitable gambling

7%

Reimbursements

1%

Events 3% Civic contributions 2%

Contracts

19%

Property tax and other general-fund revenues

60%

• Eighty-two percent of firedepartments relied onproperty taxes and othergeneral-fund revenues forat least some of theirrevenues in 1997.

About 66 percent relied on propertytaxes and other general-fundrevenues for half or more of theiroperating revenues. As explainedbelow, many fire departments alsoreceived revenues from contractsfor services they provided in 1997.Figure 1.4 illustrates how many firedepartments relied on specific typesof revenues that year.

Approximately 42 percent ofdepartments received revenue fromfees they charged for providingcertain services in 1997. Amongthose departments charging fees, a higher share ofthe full-time departments had fee revenue in 1997than did combination or volunteer and paid on-calldepartments. We learned that one common activityfor which fire departments charged fees wasresponding to repeat false alarms at a givenlocation; after three or four false alarms,departments send invoices for additional responsesto false alarms. Figure 1.5 shows othercircumstances under which fire departmentscharged fees.

Townships have explicit authority to impose servicecharges for fire or rescue services they provide.16

Townships may collect unpaid charges against theproperty owners’ property at the time property taxesare levied. The authority extends to cities by virtueof statutes that confer certain township powers tocities.17

Some departments supplement their tax and feerevenues with other sources of funds. In 1997,

more than half of all fire departments receivedrevenues from contracts to provide services; 35percent of departments, most of which werevolunteer or paid on-call departments, receivedproceeds from charitable gambling; 34 percent ofall fire departments received revenues in the form ofcontributions from civic organizations, such asLions Clubs; and 26 percent from events, such ascharitable balls or sporting events. About a fifth ofall departments also received in-kind donations,such as defibrillators donated by a local group.

The state of Minnesota provides two sources of aidfor fire-related purposes: fire state aid andamortization aid. We briefly describe these two aidprograms later in this chapter where we discuss thestate’s role in fire services. Revenues from thesestate aids are primarily used for fire fighterpensions.18

The fire departments that operate at theMinneapolis/St. Paul International Airport and atthe Rochester Airport receive other types of

10 FIRE SERVICES

Figure 1.4: Percentage of Fire Departments

Receiving Revenue from Various Sources, 1997

0

20

40

60

80

100

Property Contracts Fees for

service

Chari-

table

gambling

Civic

contribu-

tions

Events Reimbur-

sements

Other

Percent of Departments

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor�s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

tax & other

general fund

revenues

82.4%

54.3%

42.0%34.6% 34.0%

26.1%19.6%

9.8%

16 Minn. Stat.§366.011.

17 Minn. Stat.§415.01.

18 The management of fire fighter pensions is not considered in this report.

financing. Airport user fees paid by flyers atMinneapolis/St. Paul International finance that firedepartment’s operations and apparatus. At theRochester Airport, the fire department is part of aprivate, for-profit operation financed through earnedrevenues.

Operating Expenditures

In 1997, the median level of operating expendituresfor fire departments was about $17 per capita,according to our survey data.19 (Calculationsinclude the populations of all communities withineach department’s primary response area.) Therange was large, as may be expected. Medianoperating expenditures ranged from a low of about$16 per capita in volunteer or on-call departmentsto about $76 per capita in full-time departments.Differences in operating expenditures per capitaresult largely from the type of staffing in thedepartment and from differences in the range ofservices departments provide, as discussed later inthis chapter.

Revenues for CapitalExpenses

Fire fighting requires the use ofladder trucks, pumpers, and otherapparatus that can cost in thehundreds of thousands of dollarswhen purchased new. As withoperating expenses, mostdepartments finance capitalpurchases with property taxrevenues. Some cities sell bonds toraise the capital funds they needwhen purchasing apparatus andfinancing the construction of majorfacilities, such as fire stations. Incontrast to most other locallyprovided services where vehiclesand equipment are purchasedlargely with revenues raised bylocal governments, many fire

departments use revenues from civic organizationsto defray the costs of their capital purchases.According to our survey,

• Many volunteer and paid on-call firedepartments rely on other sources outsidethe public sector to finance theirpurchases of fire department apparatus.

More than 49 percent of all fire departmentsreported that they used some contributions fromcivic organizations or charitable gambling proceedstoward the purchase of apparatus during the last 10years; all but 4 of those departments were volunteeror paid on-call departments. Four percent of firedepartments received apparatus in exchange for fireservices they provided by contract; again, all werevolunteer or paid on-call departments.

According to our survey, fire departments estimatedthat they spent a median $57 per capita on capitalexpenditures for apparatus over the ten yearsbetween 1987 and 1997 (unadjusted for inflation).Estimates ranged from spending nothing on capitalpurchases in that time period to spending $488 percapita. The median capital expenditures were

BACKGROUND 11

Figure 1.5: Circumstances Under Which

Larger Fire Departments Charged Fees, 1997

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

Percent of Departments

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor�s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

NOTE: Data collected from volunteer or on-call fire departments in cities with more than

8,000 population and from full-time and combination departments.

Repeat

false

alarms

Department

granted permits,

e.g., fire protec-

tion systems

Other, e.g.,

plan

review

fees

Recipients

had

insurance

Recipients

lived outside

response

area

Statute

violations or

reckless

actions

26.7%

23.3% 22.1%20.9%

17.4%

12.8%

19 Per capita data are based on population estimates provided by the State Demographer’s Office; they do not account for shifts inpopulation that communities may encounter due to the influx of daily commuters or seasonal variations caused by tourists or students.

higher for volunteer and paid on-call departments at$64 per capita over ten years than for full-time andcombination departments at $22 and $26 per capita,respectively. Because many of the volunteer andpaid on-call fire departments are located incommunities with relatively small populations, theircapital costs are spread over a smaller base ofpeople.

SERVICES PROVIDED BY FIREDEPARTMENTS

Because each fire department decides its own levelof service based on its community’s needs andresources, the type and level of service varies fromdepartment to department around the state. Statestatutes require that departments ensure theinvestigation of fire causes and origins and reportthe results of their investigations to the State FireMarshal.20 The scope of other fire departmentactivities is a matter of local discretion.

Fire Suppression

All active fire departments suppress fires, althoughno statute requires them to do so. Around the state,fire departments that reported data to the State FireMarshal responded to more than 19,300 fires in1997, 5 percent less than the previous year.21 Abouta third of the reported 1997 fires were in buildings,a quarter were vehicle fires, and the remaining 42percent were other types such as wildland fires anddumpster fires.22 Over the past five years, thenumber of reported fires remained fairly steady,increasing less than 3 percent, while other types ofreported incidents increased more than 44 percent.23

Of the fires occurring in structures in 1997, 63percent were in residential properties. Fires inresidential buildings were most often caused by

unattended cooking and by heating-related causes.24

Two-thirds of the 54 civilians who died in fires in1997 perished in residential buildings.25 Over time,more civilian fire deaths per capita have occurred inrural Minnesota than in the seven-county TwinCities metropolitan area. Conversely, the rate ofincendiary fires is higher in the Twin Cities region:In 1997, the metropolitan area experienced 5.5incendiary fires per 10,000 residents compared to4.5 outside the Twin Cities area.26 For fires in allbuildings in 1997, the three primary causes of fireswith known causes were heating, cooking, andincendiary, according to State Fire Marshal data.

According to our survey data, for every oneresponse fire departments made to suppress fires in1997, they made almost seven responses for othertypes of services, such as for rescues, emergencymedical services, and hazardous materials spills.Fire departments in the Twin Cities area spent amedian 39 percent of their person-hours involvingresponses in 1997 on fire suppression compared to62 percent of person-hours by fire departmentsoutside the Twin Cities. This means thatmetropolitan area fire fighters spent a larger sharethan fire fighters elsewhere of their response timeon responses such as rescues, first responderservices, investigations,and fire prevention.

Fire Prevention

Although fire preventionactivities are widelyacknowledged to besignificant forces inreducing fire losses andfire-related injuries and deaths, many departments’fire suppression functions have largelyovershadowed them. Many European countries andJapan place stronger emphases on fire prevention

12 FIRE SERVICES

Fire preventionoften receivesless attention.

20 Minn. Stat.§299F.04, subd. 1-3.

21 State Fire Marshal,1997 Fire in Minnesota, 3. Wildland fires managed exclusively by the Department of Natural Resources’ For-estry Division are not included in this count.

22 State Fire Marshal,1997 Fire in Minnesota,3.

23 State Fire Marshal,1997 Fire in Minnesota,4.

24 State Fire Marshal,1997 Fire in Minnesota, 10, 16.

25 State Fire Marshal,1997 Fire in Minnesota, 31.

26 State Fire Marshal,1997 Fire in Minnesota, 25.

and have had lower numbers of fire incidents thanthe U.S., as well as lower rates of fire fighter andcivilian fire deaths and injuries.27 Although theaverage fire death rate across our country droppedsignificantly between 1979 and 1992, the U.S. stillhad one of the highest per capita fire death rateswhen compared to similar nations.28 The high deathrate is attributed in part to fewer resourcescommitted to fire prevention activities.

While some Minnesota fire departments have strongfire prevention efforts, we found that firesuppression generally takes precedence over fireprevention. For instance, according to our survey:

• For every 1 person-hour spent on publiceducation and fire code enforcement in1997, Minnesota fire departments spent2.7 person hours on fire suppression.

As Table 1.1 shows, the disparity in this ratio islarger outside the Twin Cities metropolitan area andfor volunteer and paid on-call departments.

Public Education

Many departments recognize the need to providepublic education to help prevent fires, mitigate

those that start, and reduce personal injuries fromfire. We found that:

• More than 90 percent of fire departmentsindicated they had a public educationprogram, although the extent of theprograms varied widely.

Table 1.2 shows the percentages of fire departmentsthat had various elements in their fire-safety publiceducation efforts in 1997.

The number of people affected by the larger firedepartments’ public education programs also varied.About 13 percent of the larger fire departments thatoffered fire safety education estimated that at least75 percent of their population received publiceducation materials in 1997. Approximately a thirdestimated that at least half of their populationsreceived their fire-safety messages. Similar data arenot available for fire departments in smallerjurisdictions.

Intervention Programs for JuvenileFire-Setting

The sources of many incendiary fires have beentraced to juveniles playing with fire, either out of

curiosity or maliciousness. In 1997more than 550 fires around thestate, about 3 percent of all fires,involved children playing with fire;high percentages of juveniles whoset fires once will do so again,lacking proper intervention.29

Across the country, juvenilesaccounted for a higher share ofarson arrests in the mid-1990s thana decade earlier.30 Interventionprograms are designed to identifychildren who have set fires in the

BACKGROUND 13

Table 1.1: Time Spent on Fire Prevention vs. FireSuppression, by Type of Fire Department, 1997

Ratio of Person-Hours on Fire Prevention to Person-Hours on Fire Suppression

All Fire Metropolitan Rural Volunteer orDepartments Departments Departments Full-Time Combination Paid On-Call

(N=187) (N=36) (N=151) (N=5) (N=6) (N=176)

1:2.7 1:1.5 1:5.4 1:0.5 1:3.5 1:3.1

NOTE: “N” refers to the number of fire departments responding to particular survey ques-tions; not all respondents answered each question.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

27 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA),Fire in the United States 1985-1994,ninth ed. (Washington D.C.: U.S. FireAdministration, National Fire Data Center, 1997), 179-183; Philip S. Schaenman,International Concepts in Fire Protection(Arlington,VA: TriData, 1982), 91-93.

28 FEMA, Fire in the United States, 180.

29 State Fire Marshal,1997 Fire in Minnesota,4, 79.

30 John R. Hall, Jr., “Use of Fire Incident Data and Statistics,”Fire Protection Handbook,18th ed. (Quincy, MA: National Fire Pro-tection Association, 1997), 11-23.

past and prevent them from setting fires again. Wefound that:

• About 51 percent of larger firedepartments had established juvenilefire-setter intervention programs, andanother 8 percent had them underdevelopment in 1997.

About 74 percent of combination departments hadsuch intervention programs; about 46 percent offull-time and 44 percent of larger volunteer or paid

on-call departments also had them. Similar data arenot available for departments in smallerjurisdictions.

Following a 1997 recommendation of the AttorneyGeneral’s Arson Task Force and a subsequentlegislative appropriation, the State Fire MarshalDivision implemented a Juvenile FiresetterIntervention program in 1998 (described brieflylater in this chapter).31 The program has thepotential to benefit fire departments around thestate.

Fire-Code Inspections and Plan Reviews

Another component of fire prevention is inspectingbuildings for compliance with the fire code.Minnesota’s fire code, based largely on theUniformFire Codeprovisions promulgated by theInternational Conference of Building Officials andthe Western Fire Chiefs Association, providesstandards on fire safety for the construction and useof buildings.

TheMinnesota Uniform Fire Code appliesstatewide and local fire chiefs and fire marshalshave authority to enforce it, with the exception ofspecific types of buildings for which the State FireMarshal has enforcement authority.32 We foundthat:

• Slightly more than half of firedepartments reported that they or otherlocal agencies conducted fire-code relatedinspections in 1997.

Forty-three percent of the fire departments in 1997inspected buildings for fire code enforcement or hadtheir fire marshal do so. In another 13 percent ofthe departments, fire-code related inspections wereconducted only by a county, city, or some otherlocal agency not part of the fire department. For 44percent of the departments, no local agencyconducted fire-code related inspections.

14 FIRE SERVICES

Table 1.2: Elements in FireDepartments’ Public EducationPrograms, 1997

All FireDepartments

Element (N=387)

Participation in Fire Prevention Week 80.9%

Collaboration with school administratorsand teachers 72.9

Use of public education materials andprograms such as Learn Not to Burnand fire-safe demonstration houses 54.0

Use of media and community organiza-tions to deliver fire-safety messages 52.5

Smoke detector program 44.2

Identification of local fire risks andtargeting of information accordingly 39.0

Availability of fire education materials foruse by citizens and civic groups 30.5

Availability of materials in languagesspoken within community 20.7

Designation of qualified fire-safety publiceducation officer 17.1

Routine monitoring of program’s effective-ness 11.6

Program of fire-safety surveys in residences 10.1

Other 4.9

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Depart-ments, 1998.

31 Office of Minnesota Attorney General Hubert H. Humphrey III,Report of the Attorney General’s Arson Task Force(St. Paul: Feb-ruary 1997), 22;Minn. Laws(1997), ch. 239, art. 1, sec. 7, subd. 4., (11) and art. 8, sec. 21.

32 Minn. Stat.§299F.011, subd. 4; International Fire Code Institute,1997 Uniform Fire Code Volume 1,part 1, art. 1, sec. 103.2.1.1.

We found that:

• Fire code inspections were more likely incities that have full-time or combinationdepartments than in those with volunteeror paid on-call departments.

All but two of the full-time and combinationdepartments that answered our survey inspectedbuildings for fire-code compliance; by contrast,only 37 percent of the volunteer and paid on-calldepartments did so.

Some cities have adopted theMinnesota UniformFire Codeto amend the code in ways that addresslocal fire safety concerns. Local regulations can bemore restrictive than theUniform Fire Codebutthey must: (1) be directly related to fire or lifesafety; (2) be uniform for each class of buildings orhazard covered; and (3) not exceed the requirementsof theState Building Code.33

TheState Building Codeapplies to newconstruction and remodeling in those Minnesota

cities or counties thathave adopted the code.(Unlike theMinnesotaUniform Fire Code, theState Building Codedoesnot apply statewide).Although parts of thestate fire code areadopted by reference intheState Building Codeor appear in both codes,other parts are not. Forinstance, both building

and fire codes set requirements for fire-resistantmaterials and construction, yet only the fire codespecifies fire department access to buildings andwater supply. Further, building inspectors can grantvariances, or equivalencies, from theState BuildingCode.

Therefore, fire personnel involvement in the earlystages of building construction, such as in reviewingconstruction plans for compliance with the

overlapping portions of the fire code, helps ensurethat fire-safety criteria are considered before thebuilding inspector grants a certificate-of-occupancyto the owner. A 1999 report from the LegislativeAuditor’s Office recommended that both buildingand fire officials be involved throughout the codeenforcement process and that they give mutualapproval on proposed equivalencies regarding theoverlapping portions of the codes.34

About 98 percent of the larger communities had firecode inspections conducted by the fire departmentor another local agency in 1997. In our study, wefound that:

• About 90 percent of larger communitieswhere fire departments or other localpersonnel were involved with fire codeinspections had personnel participating inplan reviews for new buildingconstruction; 74 percent had them incertificate-of-occupancy processes.

Similar data are not available for fire departments insmaller communities. Table 1.3 shows the level offire department participation in plan reviews andcertificate-of-occupancy by type of department.

Some fire departments rely at least in part onself-inspection of buildings by the building owneror manager to ascertain fire-code compliance. Inthese cases, fire departments require documentationof such inspections in lieu of conducting theinspections themselves. About 79 percent of firedepartments in larger communities indicated thatthey requested documentation of code compliancein 1997. Most of these requests were made ofcertain types of buildings that represented less thanhalf of the buildings subject to local inspection forfire code compliance.

Fire Investigations

State statutes require all fire chiefs to investigate, orcause to be investigated, the cause, origin, andcircumstances of each fire in the jurisdiction when

BACKGROUND 15

The UniformFire Code

appliesstatewide and

is enforcedlocally.

33 Minn. Stat.§299F.011, subd. 4.

34 Minnesota Legislative Auditor’s Office,State Building Code(St. Paul, 1999), 59-60.

damage exceeds $100.35 Further, investigators mustreport investigation results within a week to theState Fire Marshal Division.36

Some fire departments conduct their own fireinvestigations, others rely on their local police orsheriff departments, and still others rely on the StateFire Marshal Division for this function. Some

departments rely on outside investigative help onlyfor very large or complex fires. Even when firedepartments contact the State Fire MarshalDivision, however, the local fire chief remainsresponsible for overseeing the investigation throughto its conclusion. Table 1.4 shows that:

• Fire departments in smaller jurisdictionsand volunteer or paid on-call departmentswere more likely than others to haverelied on the State Fire Marshal Divisionfor investigations in 1997.

Table 1.4 also shows that full-time fire departmentswere slightly more likely than other types ofdepartments to rely frequently on local lawenforcement for investigations.

Emergency Medical Services

Many fire departments of all types, whether staffedby full-time, paid on-call, or volunteer members,provide some level of emergency medical services(EMS). Fire departments became involved in EMSover time for several reasons: Their emergencytraining was a natural precursor to providingemergency medical help, cross-training fire fightersto assume EMS duties increased their productivity,

16 FIRE SERVICES

Table 1.4: Fire Departments that Relied on State Fire Marshal or Law Enforcementfor Investigations, 1997

Relied Frequently on State Fire Marshal Relied Heavily onor Law Enforcement State Fire Marshal

Volunteer or Paid Volunteer or PaidFull-Time Combination On-Call Departments in On-Call Departments in

Departments Departments Larger Communities Smaller Communities

State Fire Marshal 7.7% 15.8% 29.6% 63.7%(N=13) (N=19) (N=54) (N=289)

Law Enforcement 46.2 31.6 26.4(N=13) (N=19) (N=53)

NOTE: Fire departments not represented above relied sometimes or rarely (if at all) on the State Fire Marshal or law enforcement for in-vestigations.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

Table 1.3: Fire Code Activity by FireDepartments or Fire Marshals in LargerCities, 1997

Volunteer orFull-Time Combination Paid On-Call

Departments Departments Departments(N=12) (N=18) (N=46)

Conductedplan reviews 91.7% 94.4% 87.0%

Participated incertificate-of-occupancyprocess 75.0 77.8 71.7

NOTE: Data collected from volunteer or paid on-call fire de-partments in cities of 8,000 or more population and depart-ments with full-time or combination personnel.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Depart-ments, 1998.

35 Minn. Stat.§299F.04, subd. 1.

36 Minn. Stat.§299F.04, subd. 3.

and fire stations were often located in places thatallowed fire fighters to respond efficiently toincidents requiring EMS.

In Minnesota, the Emergency Medical ServicesRegulatory Board licenses and regulatestransporting ambulance services but does notregulate the nontransporting services.37 Figure 1.6briefly describes the differences between firstresponder services, basic life support (BLS), andadvanced life support (ALS) services. The EMSRegulatory Board specifies training and issuescertificates for three different levels of EMS, but itdoes not certify first responders. First respondersmay, however, register with the board aftersuccessfully completing certain training.38

According to our survey:

• About 60 percent of all fire departmentsoffered some level of emergency medicalservices in 1997.

As shown in Table 1.5, full-time departments weremore likely than combination or volunteer and paidon-call departments to offer first responder and BLSservice. A small number of fire departments haveambulances for transporting victims to medicalfacilities, which requires state licensure. Most firedepartments involved with emergency medicalservices, though, provide prehospital care atemergency scenes and do not have ambulances totransport.

Rescues

Over the years, many fire departments haveacquired the training and experience to add rescuesto their services. Different types of rescues requiredifferent training, expertise, and equipment.

Perhaps one of the more common rescuesperformed by many fire departments, usually as partof their first responder activities, is the extricationof victims from vehicles involved in trafficaccidents. Other types of rescue activities include:

BACKGROUND 17

Figure 1.6: Levels of Emergency Medical Service

First Responders Basic Life Support (BLS) Advanced Life Support (ALS)

The minimal level of service is firstresponder. First responders arrivefirst at the emergency scene,control the scene, and administerinitial medical care before thearrival of a licensed ambulance.First responders are not certifiedin Minnesota, but can beregistered by the EMS RegulatoryBoard after completing a 40-hourtraining program that meets U.S.Department of Transportationstandards.

Persons certified at EMT-basiclevels have completed at least81 hours of instruction and beentested for certain skills includingpatient assessments, immobil-ization of spinal injuries, splintingof long bone fractures, wound care,care of shock, and CPR. BLSambulances need at least twopersons trained at the emergencymedical technician (EMT)-basiclevel to transport people.

The highest level of EMS isadvanced life support.ALS-licensed ambulances canoffer more advanced servicesthan BLS units and canadminister drugs. ALS canprovide advanced airwaymanagement, cardiacdefibrillation, and intravenousadministration. To transport, ALScrews must have a minimum ofan EMT paramedic and EMTbasic.

SOURCE: Minn. Rules, ch. 4690.3900 to 4690.7200; Minn. Stat. §144E.001; Bob Bailey, et al, State of Minnesota A Reassessment ofEmergency Medical Services (St. Paul: EMS Regulatory Board), July 1997, 11-14.

37 According to the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Regulatory Board, Minnesota registers first responders and certifies three ad-ditional levels of EMS providers: emergency medical technician (EMT)-basic, EMT-intermediate, and EMT-paramedic. Requiredtraining and experience increase for each level. Each EMT level requires completion of a prescribed content and number of continuingeducation hours, and requires ongoing training. Plus,Minn. Stat. §144E.16, subd. 6 requires ambulance drivers to complete an ap-proved emergency vehicle drivers program if they use red lights and siren. Although the EMS Regulatory Board certifies EMTs andrenews certification, it has no authority to revoke, suspend, deny, or place conditions on EMTs. Legislation introduced in 1999 wouldextend such authority to the board. (SeeMinn. House(1999), H.F. no. 476.)

38 Minn. Stat. §144E.27, subd. 2.

confined-space entry and rescue operations, trenchrescues, structural collapse rescues, water and icerescues, wilderness search and rescue, high- andlow-angle rope rescues, and agricultural orindustrial rescues. We found that:

• About 70 percent of all fire departmentsoffered rescue services, including vehicleextrications, in 1997.

As with other specialized services, higherpercentages of full-time and combinationdepartments than volunteer or paid on-calldepartments offered rescues. Table 1.6 shows thedifferences. Fire departments typically spent lesstime on rescues than on fire suppression in 1997.For every 1 person-hour fire departments spent onsuppression activities in 1997, they spent about 0.2person-hours on rescues.

Hazardous Materials Responses

Many fire departments are equipped and trained tooffer basic responses to accidents involving releasesof hazardous materials. Hazardous materials areany gas, liquid, or solid that can cause harm topeople or the environment. Vehicle accidents

involving trucks carrying hazardous materials are acommon source of hazardous materials spills.Safety standards established by the United StatesOccupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) set five different levels of preparedness foridentifying and managing hazardous materialsaccidents. They also prescribe the nature of thetraining that personnel must receive beforeparticipating at any of the five levels of response.Figure 1.7 briefly describes these levels.

The minimum level of response and training isknown as the “awareness” level, whichencompasses any personnel who may be likely towitness or discover a hazardous materials spill andinitiate a response. At the next level, known as the“operations” level, personnel act in a defensivefashion during the initial response to protect nearbypeople and property. Neither of these levelsprepares personnel to actually stop or clean up aspill.

• Nearly 79 percent of fire departmentsrequired or offered training at theminimum “awareness” level, and 41percent at the “operations” level, ofhazardous materials responses in 1997.

All fire departments with full-time and combinationpersonnel reported they had awareness leveltraining, and 77 percent of volunteer or paid on-calldepartments had training at this level. Accordingto OSHA regulations, fire departments must traintheir members at the level of hazardous materialresponse they perform or are expected to perform.39

18 FIRE SERVICES

Table 1.5: Fire Departments OfferingEmergency Medical Services, 1997

Volunteer orFull-Time Combination Paid On-Call

Departments Departments Departments

First Responder 83.3% 68.8% 54.3%(N=12) (N=16) (N=339)

Basic Life Support 92.3 61.1 17.6(N=13) (N=18) (N=341)

Advanced LifeSupport 23.1 27.8 5.0

(N=13) (N=18) (N=341)

NOTE: Most fire departments reporting BLS or ALS servicesare not licensed transporting ambulance services.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Depart-ments, 1998.

Table 1.6: Fire Departments OfferingRescues, 1997

Volunteer orFull-Time Combination Paid On-Call

Departments Departments Departments(N=12) (N=19) (N=340)

91.7% 100% 67.4%

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Depart-ments, 1998.

39 29 Code of Federal Regulations,sec. 1910.120, (q), (6).

If a fire department, for instance, has beendesignated locally to contain releases of hazardousmaterials, evacuate residents, and prevent spillsfrom spreading, its fire fighters must be trained atthe first responder-operations level. Althoughhazardous materials training may vary among firedepartments across the state, the level of trainingmust correspond to the duties and functionsperformed by each responder.

Because of the expense and training needed forhazardous materials responses, and the sporadicnature of hazardous materials spills, in 1992 theDepartment of Public Safety began an effort todevelop response teams of local fire officials whocould respond to spills within specific regions of thestate at the request of local officials. In lieu of eachindividual department acquiring the training,equipment, and expertise for full responses tohazardous material spills, the teams contracted bythe department are available to assist local responseunits with these incidents. Even when the teams arecontacted, however, the local incident commanderretains command over the incident.

Nine local governments (and one private firm)around the state currently contract with theDepartment of Public Safety to provide speciallytrained and equipped personnel to respond to

hazardous materials releases at the request of, andin support of, local authorities. Contracts are set fora two-year period. Training at least at the“technician” level is required for members of theregional teams.

At the request of local government officials, theDepartment of Public Safety will activate regionalhazardous materials teams of two types: chemicalassessment teams or hazardous materials emergencyresponse teams. Chemical assessment teamsprovide technical advice to local incidentcommanders who must remain in command of theincident. The teams recommend to localcommanders the actions necessary to protect life,property, and the environment that are in keepingwith locally-available levels of hazardous materialstraining and response capability.

Emergency response teams take actions necessaryto protect life, property, and the environment fromthe effects of a release of a hazardous material.Emergency actions include, but are not limited to:preventing the release, mitigating the effects of therelease, and stabilizing the emergency situation.Neither chemical assessment teams nor emergencyresponse teams may transport or dispose ofhazardous materials; nor may they assume overallcommand of the incident.40

BACKGROUND 19

Figure 1.7: Levels of Hazardous Materials Response

First First Hazardous HazardousResponder- Responder- Materials Materials On-SceneAwareness Operations Technician Specialist Commander

Personnel are likelyto discover ahazardoussubstance releaseand have beentrained to initiate anemergencyresponse.

Personnel respondfor the purpose ofprotecting nearbypersons, property, orthe environmentfrom the release;they responddefensively and donot actually stop therelease.

Personnel approachthe point ofhazardous materialsrelease to stop therelease.

Personnel supportthe technicians buthave more specificknowledge of certainsubstances theymay be called uponto contain.

Incidentcommandersassume controlof the incidentscene andimplement theincidentcommand systemand emergencyresponse plans.

NOTE: Each successive level of response requires specific training and knowledge.

SOURCE: 29 Code of Federal Regulations, ch. XVII, sec. 1910.120, (6)(i) - (v), (July 1997).

40 Minn. Rules,7514.0900, subp 6.

Fire Fighter Training

Individual fire departments make their own trainingdecisions based on the services their fire fighters areexpected to provide. With the exception ofextensive Minnesota Occupational and SafetyAdministration training requirements describedbelow and other Minnesota Administrative Rulesfor specialized activities such as ambulance servicesand responses to hazardous materials spills, thestate does not set general fire fighting trainingstandards.41 Most fire departments, however,require fire fighting training. According to oursurvey:

• More than 97 percent of fire departmentsoffered or required training in fightingstructural and vehicle fires in 1997.

About 86 percent offered or required first aid andcardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training, and asimilar percentage offered or required training onthe use and limitations of personal protectiveequipment (the apparel and gear worn or carried byfire fighters to protect themselves from hazardousconditions).

Although the state does not certify fire fighters’qualifications, the Minnesota Fire ServiceCertification Board offers voluntary certification offire fighters who complete certain requirements.Other certification programs from around thecountry are also available, such as that offered bythe International Association of Arson Investigators.

Fire fighter training has become an issue inMinnesota because of perceived problems with theavailability of training and its costs. In 1997 theLegislature created a Firefighter Training StudyCommittee to explore training issues.42 Thecommittee submitted a report to the Legislature inFebruary 1998 stating that the fire service favorscontinued local determination of training needs.

The report also identified several problems in thecurrent training system, including inconsistentquality of instruction, inadequate curriculumstandards, insufficient funding, and unclearaccountability for the uses of some funding.

This report was predated by a joint advisorytraining committee, formed by the Minnesota StateFire Chiefs’ Association, Minnesota State FireDepartments Association, and MinnesotaProfessional Fire Fighters Association in 1993. Thejoint committee concluded that training programsaround the state were inconsistent in content andthat local departments had inadequate funding toobtain training.

As an offshoot of the 1997 Firefighter TrainingStudy, a bill introduced in the 1999 legislativesession addresses fire fighter training.43 The billwould establish a board of fire fighter trainingresponsible for: reviewing fire fighters’ educationalneeds, recommending ways to improve fire fightertraining and skills, developing qualifications fortraining instructors, and establishing andadministering a training reimbursement program.

Differences Among Types of FireDepartments

To look at differences in performance among typesof fire departments serving larger communities,we compared 1997 survey data for three groupsof departments: (1) full-time departments,(2) combination departments with six or morefull-time members, and (3) departments with five orfewer full-time members and volunteer or paidon-call departments in communities with 8,000 ormore people. For lack of data, all volunteerdepartments and on-call departments in smallercommunities were not in this analysis. In manycases, we saw little difference when comparing theperformance of full-time, combination, and largervolunteer or paid on-call departments. For instance:

20 FIRE SERVICES

41 Minn. Rules,7514.0600 and 7514.0800, subp. 5 specifies the training necessary for members of chemical assessment teams andemergency response teams that respond to hazardous materials accidents on a contract basis with the Department of Public Safety.Minn. Rules,4690.0400 and 4690.2100 prescribe training standards for persons involved with basic life support and advanced life sup-port ambulances. Minnesota’s Occupational Safety and Health Act (MNOSHA) defines worker-safety rules, some of which apply toworking conditions that fire fighters face.

42 Minn. Laws(1997), ch. 239, art. 2, sec. 9.

43 Minn. House(1999), H.F. no. 465.

• High percentages of full-time,combination, and larger volunteer or paidon-call departments reported acceptablemedian response times to fires for 1997.

As shown in Table 1.7, while the typical responsetimes for full-time and combination departmentswere lower than that for larger volunteer or paidon-call departments, high shares of all types ofdepartments were at or below an eight-minutethreshold for the initial attack team to arrive afterreceiving the call, which the National FireProtection Association suggests as an important ruleof thumb.44

Similarly, approximately equal percentages offull-time, combination, and larger volunteer or paidon-call departments reported: (1) implementingrecommended health and safety practices for their

members, (2) providing training that prepared firefighters well for the services they were expected toperform, and (3) using preventive maintenanceprograms for department apparatus. High rates ofall department types also reported having incidentmanagement systems in place for fire fighting.Table 1.8 shows the percentages of full-time,combination, and volunteer or paid on-call firedepartments with these and other characteristics.

At the same time, our survey data for 1997 showed:

• In some regards, full-time departmentswere more likely than others to providemore comprehensive services and advanceplanning.

Full-time departments were more likely than othersto offer a full range of public fire-safety educationinitiatives. A somewhat larger share of the full-timedepartments than others reported having long-rangemaster plans for their department that includedstrategic planning, acommunity risk analysis,and contingency plans inthe event of disasters. Inaddition, full-time andcombination departmentswere more likely thanvolunteer or paid on-calldepartments to havecomplete preincidentplans available withinformation needed toprepare in advance forthe possibility of fire andcomprehensive fire-code inspection andenforcement efforts. More full-time departmentsthan others had high percentages of structure firescontained to the room of the fire’s origin.

Although in several respects the performance ofcombination departments mirrored that of otherdepartments, combination departments weresomewhat more likely than others to have anincident management system. A slightly highershare of combination departments than others also

BACKGROUND 21

Table 1.7: Response Times andExpenditures per Capita by Type ofFire Department in Larger Cities, 1997

Volunteer orFull-Time Combination Paid On-Call

Departments Departments Departments

Median responsetime afterreceiving callfor units capableof initial attack

3.5 4.0 6.0minutes minutes minutes(N=10) (N=11) (N=42)

Percentage offire departmentswithin 8 minuteresponse timeto fires

100% 95% 88%(N=13) (N=19) (N=51)

Median operatingexpenditures percapita withinprimary responsearea

$76 $45 $15(N=11) (N=18) (N=53)

NOTE: Data collected from surveys of volunteer or paid on-callfire departments in cities of 8,000 or more population and de-partments with full-time or combination personnel. Volunteer orpaid on-call departments in communities under 8,000 popula-tion are not included.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Depart-ments, 1998.

For manymeasures,

on-calldepartmentsperformed as

well as others.

44 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook,sec. 10-31. This source also suggests a 12-minute average response time for volunteer depart-ments using nonstaffed stations. All paid on-call departments in our analysis met this threshold. Response time is defined as the aver-age time starting when companies were alerted and ending when a full response unit capable of initial attack arrived.

had fire investigation programs with standardoperating guidelines, ongoing professionalinvestigator training, instruction for fire fighters inpreserving arson scenes, and joint investigationtraining with fire fighters and peace officers.

On the other hand, as shown in Table 1.7:

• Volunteer or paid on-call departments inlarger communities had far lowerexpenditures per capita in 1997 thanfull-time or combination departments.

Not surprisingly, three-quarters of the volunteer orpaid on-call departments had expenditures percapita for their primary response area that werebelow the median for all fire departments incommunities with populations above 8,000. Giventhat these fire departments had few or no full-timepersonnel, this result was expected. In addition, alarger share of volunteer or paid on-calldepartments than either full-time or combinationdepartments had mutual aid arrangementscharacterized by important features. These featuresincluded having a common agreement on standardoperating procedures, interagency training,

22 FIRE SERVICES

Table 1.8: Comparison of Select Performance Measures by Type of Fire Departmentin Larger Cities, 1997

Volunteer orFull-Time Combination Paid On-Call

Departments Departments Departments

Used preventive maintenance program forapparatus and equipment

100% 100% 96.4%(N=13) (N=19) (N=56)

Used incident management system with writtenemergency response plans

69.2 89.5 75.0(N=13) (N=19) (N=56)

Conducted comprehensive fire code enforcement 66.6 61.1 37.8(N=12) (N=18) (N=45)

Percent of departments with high rate ofstructure fires contained to room of origin

63.6 47.4 49.1(N=11) (N=19) (N=53)

Had full range of information in preincident plans 61.5 57.9 44.6(N=13) (N=19) (N=56)

Provided training that prepared fire fighters wellin every service they were expected to perform

53.8 47.4 51.8(N=13) (N=19) (N=56)

Wrote complete, long-term master plans for thedepartment

46.2 10.5 35.7(N=13) (N=19) (N=56)

Offered full range of initiatives on public fire-safetyawareness

38.5 31.6 28.6(N=13) (N=19) (N=56)

Had comprehensive investigation programs withongoing training of investigators and fire fighters,among other things

30.8 42.1 31.5(N=13) (N=19) (N=54)

Implemented specific health and safety practices 30.8 26.3 25.0(N=13) (N=19) (N=56)

Had mutual aid agreements with standardprocedures, communication protocols, andinteragency training

23.1 31.6 64.8(N=13) (N=19) (N=54)

NOTE: Data collected from volunteer or paid on-call fire departments in cities of 8,000 or more population and departments with full-time or combination personnel. Volunteer or paid on-call departments in communities under 8,000 population are not included.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

familiarity of all fire fighters with mutual aidprocedures, a uniform approach to incidentcommand, and systems for interdepartmentalcommunications, among others.

Speaking generally, our survey data for 1997showed that many full-time, combination, andvolunteer or paid on-call departments provided verygood fire services in their communities. Morevolunteer and paid on-call departments had low percapita expenditures, but because of their reliance onpart-time personnel, they did not have as full anarray of comprehensive fire-related services asmany full-time departments.

THE STATE ROLE IN FIRESERVICES

As stated earlier, local officials generally organizeand operate fire departments. At the same time,certain state agencies are involved with somecomponents of local fire departments’ work.

Department of Public Safety

State Fire Marshal Division

The State Fire Marshal Division has multipleresponsibilities that involve it in operations withlocal fire departments. One already mentioned isstate fire investigations. Twelve fire investigatorsfrom the State Fire Marshal Division investigated582 fires in 1997, about a third of which weredetermined to be arson.45 Besides conductinginvestigations at the request of local firedepartments, the division investigates all firesinvolving fatalities.

The division is responsible for offering fire-sceneinvestigation and preservation training to firefighters and other local government personnel, inconsultation with the Bureau of Criminal

Apprehension among others.46 Specifically to aidinvestigations and prosecutions of incendiary fires,the division maintains a computerized arsoninvestigation data system.47

In 1998 the division implemented a juvenilefire-setting intervention program. This programoffers materials outlining steps that local firedepartments can take to identify juveniles at highrisk of setting additional fires and intervene to helpprevent juveniles from repeating their behavior.The material offers a sequence of techniquesdesigned to provide the appropriate level ofintervention for a range of firesetting behavior:from juveniles involved in firesetting out ofcuriosity to those setting fires maliciously. Alsoincluded are contact names and phone numbers oflocal resources in mental health and social servicesfields, to whom fire departments can refer juvenileswhen such treatment is warranted.

In addition, State Fire Marshal Division staff areorganizing regional task forces of fire personnel andeducators who agree to participate in theintervention programs. Personnel from local firedepartments receive training to teach monthlyclasses to juveniles and their families who arereferred to the program in lieu of prosecution.

Another role the State Fire Marshal Division playsis in fire code inspections. Certain buildings aroundthe state are under the jurisdiction of the State FireMarshal for inspections. These include schools,hotels, motels, hospitals, nursing homes, and certainresorts. The division inspects day-care facilitiesunder contract with the Department of HumanServices and health-care facilities licensed by theDepartment of Health under a contract with thatdepartment. The State Fire Marshal Divisioncontracts with about 20 local fire departmentswhose local inspectors conduct inspections of thesetypes of facilities (except hospitals and nursinghomes) within their jurisdiction.

BACKGROUND 23

45 State Fire Marshal,1997 Fire in Minnesota,64, 66. Local fire departments are not required to pay for fire investigations conductedby the State Fire Marshal.

46 Minn. Stat.§299F.051, subd. 1-subd. 4.

47 Minn. Stat.§299F.04, subd. 3a-subd. 5.

In addition to inspections, the State Fire MarshalDivision is the key player in promulgating andadministering theMinnesota Uniform Fire Code.The Fire Marshal may get involved in appeals oforders issued for code compliance: If local buildingowners disagree with the orders they can appeal tolocal boards of appeal that may exist at themunicipal level, and then to the State Fire Marshal.Ultimately, the owners could go to an administrativelaw judge for a final appeal. State Fire MarshalDivision code specialists conduct plan reviews ofparticular occupancies planned for construction.Division staff also provide technical assistance tolocal fire officials, building owners, generalcontractors, building code officials, and the publicon fire safety statutes and code requirements. Theyalso conduct training on fire safety and theUniformFire Codefor fire and building code officials. Onthe division’s website, viewers have access toprovisions of theMinnesota Uniform Fire Code.

The State Fire Marshal Division is involved withequipping and training the hazardous materialsregional response teams described earlier. Itcollects and analyzes the data reported by local firedepartments to provide a statewide picture of fireincidence and trends. In addition, the division isinvolved with multiple fire-safety public educationinitiatives. It also plays a regulatory role in thefire-sprinkler industry and certifies fireworksoperators.

Division of Emergency Management

Also in the Department of Public Safety, theDivision of Emergency Management performsfunctions that affect local fire departments. Thedivision works with the State Fire Marshal Divisionon the regional hazardous-materials response teamsthat assist at the request of local fire departments. Italso takes the lead on reviewing emergencymanagement plans, some of which are prepared bylocal fire departments, as well as developing thestate’s emergency operations plan used to preparefor natural disasters, civil emergencies, and othersecurity events.

Along with the Department of Natural ResourcesForestry Division and several federal agencies, theDivision of Emergency Management plays a role inthe Minnesota incident management system. Theincident management system is an effort designedto coordinate responses and communication amongmultiple agencies responding to fires and otheremergency incidents. Among other things, theDivision of Emergency Management has trainedresponse agencies in the incident managementsystem and has worked to extend the concepts ofincident management, such as commonterminology, integrated communications, and aunified command structure, to all types ofemergencies.

The Division of Emergency Management offersgrants to local emergency response agencies forplanning and training on local responses tohazardous materials releases. Grants of up to$2,000 are available for training or conducting drillsin hazardous materials responses; others of up to$350 are available for division-led training onincident-management systems that incorporatemultiple agencies in responses to hazardousmaterials. Some grants require matching fundsfrom the participating local governments.

In addition, the division houses the Minnesota DutyOfficer. This is a one-stop office which localemergency personnel can call whenever they needstate assistance with hazardous materials releases,weather warnings, search and rescues, and otherincidents. It is this office’s responsibility to contactthe appropriate state agency staff and provide acommunication link between them and the localreporting agencies.

Public-Safety Training Facilities Study

In 1998 the Legislature directed the commissionerof public safety, in consultation with MinnesotaState Colleges and Universities, the Department ofMilitary Affairs, and the Peace Officer Standardsand Training Board, to develop a statewide masterplan for the siting, ownership, and operation of fireand public-safety training facilities.48 The

24 FIRE SERVICES

48 Minn. Laws(1998), ch. 404, sec. 21, subd. 3.

committee compiled an inventory of existing andplanned training facilities in the state as well as aset of decision-making criteria that legislators canuse to evaluate proposals for funding new orexpanding public safety training facilities. Basedon its assessment of needs for specialized trainingfacilities, the committee’s report suggests that traveltime and expenses are key barriers to obtainingadequate training, especially for small volunteer firedepartments. The committee also found that whilesome facilities are not used to their maximumcapacity, clear deficiencies exist in the availabilityof facilities for certain types of specialized trainingsuch as live-burn training and emergency-vehicledriving.

Among the criteria recommended for evaluatingtraining-facility proposals is whether the projectwould be a multi-purpose facility and spread its costand usage across several agencies. Further, thereport recommends limiting state funding to 50percent of a project’s total capital costs andprohibiting operating subsidies from the state unlessa state agency is an ongoing partner in a facility’soperation.49

Department of Natural Resources,Division of Forestry

The Division of Forestry in the MinnesotaDepartment of Natural Resources has responsibilityfor preventing and extinguishing wildland fires (ongrassland, brush, cropland, or forest areas) aroundthe state.50 It has identified wildfire protectiondistricts, including both public and private lands,where there are high probabilities of wildfiresstarting; consequently, more of the division’sfirefighting resources are focused on the moredensely forested areas in the northern half ofMinnesota. Public education on wildfire preventionis also part of its duties.

Although the Forestry Division has area offices withforesters who fight fires, it also contracts with localfire departments and individual fire fighters forsupplementary personnel and equipment to

extinguish wildfires. The division reimburses thefire departments for the calls to which they respondas well as for waterhauling. It may alsoprovide certain firefighting apparatus andequipment to local firedepartments as part of anagreement that thedepartments will assistwhen help is needed toextinguish wildland fires.Forestry Division personnel do not use localdepartment apparatus in fire fighting unless localpersonnel operate them.

Before engaging in live-burn training exercises forfire fighters, local fire departments must firstreceive permits issued by the Forestry Division.Fire departments must meet certain criteria beforereceiving the live-burn permits, such as identifyingasbestos in the structure to be burned andstipulating clean-up activities following the training.

In addition, the Forestry Division manages theInteragency Fire Center, located in Grand Rapids,which was created to improve wildfiremanagement. It is a focal point for the exchange ofwildfire information and available resources forplanning and managing wildfires. The InteragencyFire Center is a central member of the MinnesotaIncident Command System, which is a partnershipfor common terminology and collaborative planningamong multiple agencies involved with managingwildfires and other emergencies. Fire Center dutiesinclude a wildland fire prevention campaign; localfire departments may use the Center’s “SmokeyBear” materials as part of their public informationefforts.

The Interagency Fire Center manages a federalexcess property program, from which local firedepartments receive loaned surplus federalequipment and vehicles for fire fighting needs atminimal costs charged for transporting theequipment and vehicles to the fire departments.

BACKGROUND 25

The DNR hasresponsibilityfor wildfires.

49 Commissioner of Public Safety,Statewide Master Plan for Fire and Law Enforcement Training Facilities in Minnesota(St. Paul:1999), 45-46.

50 Minn. Stat.§88.10, subd. 1.

The state makes the equipment and vehiclesavailable to local departments that may convertwhat they receive to meet their particular needs,such as outfitting a truck with a tank, portablepump, and hose reel for fighting wildland fires.Waiting lists exist for some items, particularlycertain vehicles, and the selection of apparatus andequipment available through the program is limited.State statutes allow local governments to acquireanother government unit’s equipment or propertywithout entering the competitive bidding process.51

According to our survey:

• Nearly a third of Minnesota firedepartments had acquired fire fightingapparatus through the excess propertyprogram during the past 10 years.

Local fire departments located outside the TwinCities metropolitan area were more likely thanmetropolitan departments to purchase apparatusfrom the program. Similarly, the volunteer and paidon-call departments were more likely than full-timeor combination departments to use the program.

The Fire Center also coordinates a program of“Forestry Assistance Matching Grants” availableprimarily to rural departments in cities with under10,000 people or departments that have wildlandfirefighting responsibilities. Matching grants areavailable in amounts up to $2,000. Each year, theprogram matches local dollars used to: purchasefire department communications equipment,personal protective gear, hose, nozzles, and otherequipment; help start up a new or inactive firedepartment; or retrofit excess property vehiclesfor local department needs such as grass fire rigs.To be eligible for the matching grants, firedepartments must have submitted data on their fireincidents for the most recent year to the State FireMarshal.

The Interagency Fire Center sells wildland firefighting equipment to local departments for wildfireprevention and suppression. Equipment includes

fire resistant apparel, headlamps, hose, nozzles,pumps, and hand tools. Local fire departments payfor the equipment and a shipping charge, buttypically at a lower price than what the departmentitself could find. In addition, as part of its role inthe Incident Command System, the Fire Centercoordinates and reimburses local fire fighters andapparatus for helping in out-of-state emergencies.

Minnesota Occupational Safety andHealth Act (MNOSHA)

MNOSHA sets standards for workplace safety,including provisions on training, equipment, andprocedures that fire departments must meet.Because Minnesota has adopted by reference thefederal occupational safety and health standards,these U. S. OSHA rules also apply.52 InMinnesota’s Department of Labor and Industry, theOccupational Safety and Health EnforcementDivision oversees and enforces OSHA provisions.

Although the state of Minnesota does not prescribea training program that all fire fighters mustcomplete, many MNOSHA standards requiretraining for any fire fighter involved in particularprocedures. For instance,fire fighters who areexpected to respond toreleases of hazardousmaterials at the“awareness” level ofresponse must firstcomplete training thatwill allow them todemonstrate certaincompetencies. Theymust understand what hazardous materials are andtheir risks, and they must have the ability torecognize the presence of hazardous substances inan emergency, among other things.53 As a differentexample, MNOSHA requires annual training onoperating and rescue procedures and possiblehazards of a confined space for workers who enter

26 FIRE SERVICES

OSHA rulesaffect training,equipment, and

procedures.

51 Minn. Stat.§471.64 allows local governments to enter into contracts with the federal, state, or other local governments for the pur-chase, lease, or acquisition of equipment, supplies, and other property, without regard to statutory provisions.

52 Minn. Rules, 5205.0010, subp. 1, 2.

53 29 Code of Federal Regulations,sec. 1910.120, (q), (6), (i), (A) - (F).

such spaces.54 Another requirement specifies thegeneral content of training required for employeesexposed to hazardous substances, harmful physicalagents, or infectious agents.55

Some MNOSHA standards apply to equipment.For example, all fire fighters must useself-contained breathing apparatus when engaged ininterior structural firefighting.56 The standards alsospecify the function and maintenance of therespirators. Additional standards require the use ofprotective clothing, including protective footwear,coats, trousers, gloves, and helmets.57

Other MNOSHA standards mandate certainprocedures that fire departments must follow. Forany fire fighting conducted in an atmosphere whichis immediately dangerous to life or health, one rulerequires that at least two employees enter theatmosphere and remain in contact with one another,and two others must be stationed outside.58 Firefighters entering a burning building, for instance,must follow this so-called “two-in, two-out” rule.As another example, MNOSHA requires that firedepartments maintain a log and summary of alloccupational injuries and illnesses and make the logaccessible to employees.

In addition, MNOSHA conducts inspections toensure that fire departments meet health and safetystandards. Some of these are programmed safetyand health investigations, which are plannedinvestigations based on the highest hazardoperations. MNOSHA also conductsunprogrammed investigations whenever employeesare in imminent danger of death or serious physicalharm or in response to employee complaints aboutunsafe or unhealthful working conditions. Weobserved that some fire personnel find it difficult toknow all of the numerous and often complex OSHArules that apply to fire departments because they donot have a single comprehensive list of OSHArequirements.

FIRE/EMS/Safety Center

Another resource for fire departments is theFIRE/EMS/Safety Center, now under thejurisdiction of the Minnesota State Colleges andUniversities or MnSCU. With its extensive librarydedicated solely to fire-related research andinformation, the FIRE/EMS/Safety Center providesinformation and resources to fire departments andthe public at large. Fire service specialists at thecenter develop training on fire services and otheremergency responses, including annual MinnesotaFire Schools held in locations around the state, andthe center coordinates training for fire personnelwith each of Minnesota’s technical colleges.

To offset fire fighter training expenses, the state hasoffered a partial subsidy since 1987 that reduces thetechnical colleges’ costs for training. Recently, thestate began issuing vouchers directly to firedepartments in amounts based on the hours oftraining they had received at technical colleges overthe past three-year period. Fire departments use thevouchers in partial payment of their technicalcollege training costs, and the FIRE/EMS/SafetyCenter reimburses the colleges for the voucheramounts.

State Auditor’s Office andDepartment of Revenue

The State Auditor’s Office and MinnesotaDepartment of Revenue play pension-oversightroles that affect fire fighters. The State Auditoroversees the financial and statutory operation of firerelief associations. Relief associations manage thepension funds provided to qualified fire fightersfollowing their retirement. Both the state and themunicipalities in which fire departments are locatedmay make contributions to the special funds of firerelief associations, from which pension benefits are

BACKGROUND 27

54 Minn. Rules,5205.1020.

55 Minn. Rules,5206.0700.

56 29 Code of Federal Regulations,sec. 1910.134, (g), (4), (iii).

57 29 Code of Federal Regulations,sec. 1910.156, (e), (1) - (5).

58 29 Code of Federal Regulations,sec. 1910.134, (g), (4), (I) - (ii).

paid.59 To qualify for state aid, fire reliefassociations file actuarial data and annual financialreports or audited financial statements for review bythe State Auditor’s Office.

Together with the State Auditor’s review offinancial records, the Minnesota Department ofRevenue’s Property Tax Division monitors firerelief associations’ eligibility for aid through annualreports on operations submitted by the associations.Eligibility criteria include: having at least 10 firefighters including a fire chief and assistant chief,conducting drills in fire-fighting tactics and the useof equipment, maintaining a communication systemfor receiving fire alarms, and having a motorizedfire truck equipped with a 250-gallon water tankand other specified equipment.60 Contingent onState Auditor and Department of Revenueassessments of relief associations’ compliance withvarious statutory requirements, relief associationsmay qualify for state aid. The Revenue Departmentcalculates the amounts of aid distributed annuallyon behalf of eligible relief associations.

Two types of state aid are available: (1) fire stateaid and (2) amortization aid. The fire state aidcomes from dedicated gross earnings taxes onproperty insurance premium revenues. Aidallocations depend on the population in a firedepartment’s primary response area as a percent ofthe statewide population and the area’s assessed taxcapacity relative to total assessed tax capacity.Amortization aid from the state’s general fund isintended to retire the unfunded liabilities ofretirement plans for full-time, paid fire fighters,which the state closed to new members in 1980. A1996 program reallocates 30 percent of anyunallocated amortization aid to certain volunteerrelief associations. The reallocated money isintended for those relief associations receiving thelowest amounts of aid per fire fighter, and therefore,mostly affects the smallest volunteer departments.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Minnesota fire departments do far more thanextinguish fires. Many are involved in rescues, firecode inspections, emergency medical services, andresponses to hazardous materials releases, amongother things. About 60 percent of all firedepartments provided some level of emergencymedical services in 1997,and 70 percent offeredrescue services.

Most Minnesota firedepartments usepersonnel who are eithervolunteer or part-time.Volunteer fire fightersreceive no compensationfor their services; paidon-call members receivea stipend, or hourly orper-call wage. Onlyabout 3 percent ofMinnesota fire departments use exclusivelyfull-time personnel. Combination departments witha mix of 6 or more full-time personnel andvolunteer or paid on-call members representedabout 5 percent of all departments in 1997. Forcomparability in our analysis, we grouped thosedepartments with 5 or fewer full-time fire fighterstogether with the paid on-call departments.

To finance their services, most fire departments relyheavily on property tax revenues and othergeneral-fund revenues. They also receivesubstantial revenues from contracts for service and,to a lesser degree, from charitable gamblingproceeds. Unlike many other local governmentservices, a large share of fire departments rely oncivic organizations and other nontraditional sourcesof income for capital purchases.

Fire prevention efforts are not as widespread in theU.S. as in some other developed countries.Minnesota fire departments typically spend 1person-hour of time on fire prevention activities for

28 FIRE SERVICES

Fire servicesare mostly

localgovernment

functions butthe state is

also involved.

59 Minn. Stat. §424A.05, subd. 2 and 3.

60 Minn. Stat.§69.011, subd. 4 (a)-(g).

every 2.7 hours they spend on fire suppression.Although most fire departments reported havingsome activities related to public fire-safetyawareness, only a few had comprehensive publiceducation programs.

By some measures, the volunteer and paid on-calldepartments performed as well as the full-time andcombination departments. As one might expect, wefound that they were far more likely to spend lesson a per capita basis than full-time or combinationdepartments. On the other hand, as a group,full-time departments were more likely than thevolunteer departments to provide morecomprehensive services.

Although fire departments operate as local units ofgovernment, many work closely with the State FireMarshal Division and other state agencies. All firedepartments are required to abide by extensive rulesand statutes pertaining to operations, equipment,and training for certain services.

BACKGROUND 29

This chapter describes bestpractices in managing fireservices. In it we identify goals

that represent broad, desired outcomesfor fire departments. We also listseven actions that fire departmentsshould take to meet the goals. Foreach action we describe specific bestpractices in use by fire departmentsaround the state.

In this chapter we ask:

· What are the primary goalsof fire departments inMinnesota?

· What actions should firedepartments take to helpreach those goals effectivelyand efficiently?

· What practices now in use byfire departments reflect thoseactions?

Fire department goals and the actionsrequired to meet those goals are basedon state statutes and rules that governthe provision of fire services inMinnesota and on professionalstandards established by national andinternational organizations within the

fire and public-safety industries, suchas the National Fire ProtectionAssociation. Although firedepartments are not legally bound toabide by professional standards, thestandards establish a level ofperformance that fire professionalsacross the country have agreed aredesirable. The examples of firedepartments presented below comefrom those we surveyed in the fall of1998.1

GOALS

We identified five primary goals foreffective and efficient management offire services. We believe these goalsapply to all fire departments, althoughhow they are achieved may vary fromdepartment to department andbetween full-time, combination, andvolunteer or paid on-call departments.The goals are:

To 1. Prevent the outbreak of firesand achieve fire safetyawareness throughout thecommunity.2 This goalacknowledges the value ineducating citizens about fire-safepractices and the need toemphasize fire prevention.

Best Practices

CHAPTER 2

Successfullymanaged

firedepartments

planservicesbased onfire risksand otherpotential

hazards intheir

responseareas.

1 We surveyed all fire departments that were either full-time career or combination departments according to State Fire Marshaldata. We also surveyed all volunteer or on-call departments that were located in municipalities with 8,000 or greater populations (ex-cluding populations in areas these departments may have served on a contract basis). Of the remaining 689 volunteer or on-call depart-ments in cities or townships with less than 8,000 people, we chose a random sample of 454 to survey. Additional details on our meth-odology are available in Appendix A.

2 National Fire Protection Association,NFPA 1201, Standard for Developing Fire Protection Services for the Public,1994 ed.(Quincy, Mass.: National Fire Protection Association, 1994), 2-1, 12-1, and 13-1; and Ronny J. Coleman and John A. Granito, eds.,Managing Fire Services, 2d ed. (Washington, D.C.: International City Management Association, 1988), 94.

2. To ensure the enforcement of fire and lifesafety codes for the prevention and controlof structure fires.3 Fire chiefs are authorizedto enforce theMinnesota Uniform Fire Code;local governments have authority to enactordinances equal to or more stringent than thefire code’s requirements, provided they do notexceed theState Building Code,are consistentfor each class of buildings, and pertain to fireor life safety.

3. To investigate the cause, origin, andcircumstances of fires in the jurisdiction.4

Statutes require the fire chief or fire marshal toinvestigate the cause and origin of the fire, orensure that someone else (such as the State FireMarshal) conducts an investigation, for all fireswith damage greater than $100. Statutes alsorequire that they report all fires of unknownorigin.

4. To maintain a response capability that is safeand effective.5 This goal refers to the need toassure the safety of fire personnel and preventor mitigate hazards inherent to the job.

5. To protect citizens’ life safety and propertyagainst the dangers of fire and otheremergencies that may occur in the responsearea.6 This goal recognizes the expanded rolesthat many fire departments now serve inaddition to fighting fires.

ACTIONS AND BEST PRACTICESTO MEET THE GOALS

We identified seven actions that we believe firedepartments should follow to meet the goalsoutlined above. Figure 2.1 depicts each action andits components. The actions do not apply in the

same degree to all fire departments because somethat may be appropriate for paid on-call orvolunteer departments may be less so for full-timedepartments, and vice versa. Nonetheless, theactions for efficient and effective fire departmentsare all based on ideas and standards from within thefire services industry.

The seven actions are:

1. Assess risks and develop long-range plans.

2. Evaluate fire department performance anduse resources cost-effectively.

3. Promote public awareness of fire safety.

4. Ensure fire code enforcement.

5. Develop effective communications systems.

6. Prepare a competent work force and supportsafe operations.

7. Plan for on-scene responses.

In the remainder of this chapter we describe theseven actions. We define each action and thenpresent examples of fire departments we visited thathave put these actions into practice to improve theireffectiveness or efficiency.

By highlighting specific departments, we do notsuggest they are the only fire departments usingthese best practices. In fact, we learned of manyothers also using these practices but, due toresource constraints, we focused on only a handfulof departments to illustrate how the practices havebeen implemented.

32 FIRE SERVICES

3 International Fire Code Institute,1997 Uniform Fire Code Volume 1,part 1, art. 1, sec. 103.2.1.1 is adopted by reference inMinn.Rules,7510.3510;Minn. Stat. §299F.011, subd. 4; NFPA,NFPA 1201,14-1.1 through 1.2.

4 Minn. Stat.§299F.04, subd. 1;Minn. Stat.§438.06 requires fire marshals in cities of the first class to investigate all fires.

5 Minn. Stat.§182.653 lists the duties of employers in complying with occupational safety and health standards. In addition, numer-ous state rules have been promulgated to implement the Minnesota Occupational Safety and Health Act as it pertains to fire depart-ments.

6 NFPA,NFPA 1201,2-3.1; and Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-5.

BEST PRACTICES 33

Figure 2.1: Actions for Successful Fire Department Management

Assess Risks andDevelop Long-Range Plans

l Develop long-range master plan based on identified firerisks and expected community growth

l Develop contingency plansl Assess risks for rescues and other servicesl Plan for apparatus replacement

Plan for On-SceneResponses

l Prepare preincident plansl Establish incident management systeml Write standard operating guidelinesl Develop process to investigate fire causes

l Properly maintain apparatus &equipment

EvaluateDepartment Performance and

Use Resources Cost-Effectively

l Evaluate department to measure and improveservices

l Optimize mutual aidl Pursue cooperative training and joint purchasesl Explore alternative delivery methods to

correct inefficiencies or inadequateservice levels

PrepareCompetent and Safe Work Force

l Develop programs to recruit and retain fire fightersl Offer ongoing training; appraise performancel Adopt health and safety proceduresl Provide personal protective equipment

Promote PublicAwareness of Fire Safety

l Provide citizens with fire-safety informationtailored to local needs

l Target residences, industries, vulnerable groupsl Evaluate effectiveness of education efforts

Develop EffectiveCommunications Systems

Purchase hardware and develop protocols for:

l Intradepartmental communicationl Interdepartmental communicationl External communication

Ensure Fire CodeEnforcement

l Ensure fire-code inspection priorities bytargeting hazards

l Educate while enforcing fire codel Ensure fire-safety criteria are in building permit and

certificate-of-occupancy processesl Review plans for fire protection systems

To select effective and efficient fire departments weranked fire departments responding to our surveyaccording to how many measures of performancethey met. We based the measures on standards orguidelines promulgated by organizations within thepublic safety industry and on state statutes andrules. We used 84 measures of performance to rankvolunteer or paid on-call departments in largercommunities and the full-time and combinationdepartments; we used 34 measures for volunteer orpaid on-call departments in smaller communities.7

Examples of these performance measuresare whether departments followed a preventivemaintenance program for their apparatus andequipment and whether their average responsetimes were within commonly accepted thresholds.(Appendix B contains all the measures ofperformance we used to gauge fire departmentperformance.)

Using the measures of performance, we selected 11fire departments to visit and collect more in-depthinformation on their practices. We use thesedepartments as examples for each of our sevenrecommended actions. Following the examples offire departments we visited, we list other firedepartments we surveyed that met most or all of thestandards of performance we used to measure aparticular practice. Other fire departments may alsomeet our indicators of performance but may not belisted because they (1) were not selected in ourrandom sample of volunteer or on-call departmentsin smaller jurisdictions, (2) did not respond to oursurvey in time to be analyzed, or (3) were unable toprovide some of the data we used to measureperformance.

1. Assess Risks and DevelopLong-Range Plans

The following activities require long-range planningthat considers all services the fire department

provides. Planning required for activities at thescene of an incident is covered later in this chapter.

Conduct Strategic Planning

All fire departments should conduct strategicplanning in conjunction with their community’splanning process and write long-range plans, ormaster plans, for providing their services.8 Themaster plan should describe how the fire departmentis to meet local fire protection and other servicedemands in light of its resources.9 Long-rangeplans are needed to provide the department with aframework to develop goals and programs, acquireand allocate equipment and personnel, and adaptservices according to projected changes and growthin the community.10

A master plan should cover a minimum of threeyears and include: (1) a mission statement ofdefined service goals or programs, (2) strategies andworkplans for implementing programs anddeploying resources, (3) operating and capitalbudget plans to support department programs, and(4) performance indicators for quality assurance andto measure the department’s progress toward itsgoals.11

Fire departments should conduct planning activitiesin conjunction with local communityadministration, planning, and water utilitydepartments, as well as other emergency responseagencies, such as law enforcement, in the servicearea.12 These other departments contribute to acomprehensive approach to long-range planningand provide valuable information on factors thatshould be considered when planning fire protection,such as trends in building and construction,projected population and demographic changes, andwater distribution systems. As part of theirplanning, fire departments should be aware offire-related statutes, rules, and local ordinances to

34 FIRE SERVICES

7 Because we collected less data from the volunteer and on-call departments in communities under 8,000 population, we had fewerperformance measures for them.

8 NFPA,NFPA 1201,4-1; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-22.

9 Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 77-78.

10 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-22.

11 International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC), National Fire Service Accreditation Task Force,Fire and Emergency ServiceSelf-Assessment Manual(Fairfax, VA: IAFC, 1995), App. C.

12 NFPA,NFPA 1201,4-1; Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 77-78, 82.

ensure they comply with the services required ofthem.13

Develop Contingency Plans

For continuous, year-round availability ofemergency responses, fire departments should writecontingency plans as part of their long-rangeplanning in the event they are unable to providetheir usual fire suppression, rescue, or otheremergency response activities due to serviceoutages, equipment malfunctions, or naturaldisasters.14 Contingency plans prevent or help easethe disruption of emergency services needed toprotect lives and property in the community.

Contingency plans should identify alternativeresources, such as other jurisdictions’ fire stationsand apparatus, that can be used if the department’sown apparatus are incapacitated. They should alsoidentify alternative water supplies in the event ofcatastrophes that diminish or destroy traditionalsources of water.15 In these fallback plans,departments should outline ways to implement theirbackup procedures so that they are prepared to acteven under dire circumstances or when situationschange dramatically and quickly, such as followingdestructive tornadoes. The plans should bedocumented, easily accessible, and containinformation for notifying appropriate authorities ofneeded resources.

Assess Risks

As part of the planning process, fire departmentsshould identify the types and magnitude of fire risksand automatic sprinkler coverage throughout theprimary response area to determine the neededlevels of fire suppression resources, appropriate fire

station locations, and response strategies.16 Thedepartment should base its budget and financialplanning on its assessment of risk in the communityand on fire protection objectives.17 For the serviceto be effective, a community’s fire suppressioncapability should be directly related to local hazardsand community needs.18 As communities evolve,fire risks change; consequently, departments shouldperiodically update their assessment of fire risks tokeep pace with changes in their service areas.Fast-growing areas require more frequentreassessments of risk than others.

Fire departments should also periodically assessemergency risks that are not directly connected tofire hazards to evaluate demands for servicesbeyond traditional fire suppression, such asemergency medical responses, specialized rescues,and hazardous materials responses.19 The range ofservices to which the department responds shouldbe based on local hazards, cost/benefit analyses, theextent of service demands, and department responsecapabilities.20 In areas where fire departments lackresources to respond to emergencies other thanfires, or where they would find it inefficient to doso, they should make arrangements with technicalspecialists or other agencies to provide theseservices.21 As an example, jurisdictions with fewhazardous materials risks or limited equipment andtrained personnel for hazardous materials responseshave the option of calling upon Minnesota’sregional hazardous materials chemical assessmentor emergency response teams.

Long-range planning activities should also include aperiodic reassessment of the fire department’spersonnel make-up to determine whether thedepartment can continue to perform acceptably inthe future with its current share of paid on-call or

BEST PRACTICES 35

13 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual, secs. 4-2, 4-3.

14 NFPA,NFPA 1201,4-3.6, 16-4.2.

15 NFPA,NFPA 1201,sec. 18-2.1.

16 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-13.

17 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual, sec. 4-11.

18 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-13; IAFC,Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual, sec. 4-5.

19 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-6; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-41.

20 Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 77; NFPA,NFPA 1201,ch. 4; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-41; IAFC,Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-6.

21 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA),Technical Rescue Program Development Manual(Washington D. C.: FederalEmergency Management Agency, 1995), 9-5.

volunteer members, full-time career members, orsome combination. In assessing its personnelresources, the department should evaluate staffingand training costs, volunteer availability, incidentvolume, and community needs and financialresources.22

According to our survey, by 1997:

· About 32 percent of the larger firedepartments around Minnesota hadwritten long-range strategic plans basedon community risk analyses andcontaining contingency plans.

These plans contained financial and strategicplanning for personnel, apparatus, and fire stations.Another 25 percent of larger fire departmentsindicated they had long-range plans but the planseither did not contain the elements specified aboveor were not written. Similar data were not availablefor fire departments in smaller communities.

Plan to Replace Equipment andApparatus

Fire departments should also have a plan to preparefor the eventual replacement of obsolete or worntrucks and equipment and ensure they have thevehicles and tools needed for responding toincidents. An apparatus replacement plan allowsthe department to prepare for future capitalexpenditures.23 In laying out a replacement plan,the department should analyze community servicedemands and the apparatus’ expected life cycles.24

Departments should include tools and equipment inthe replacement plan so that all fire fighters andapparatus are properly equipped to respondeffectively to emergencies.25

According to our survey:

· More than 61 percent of full-time firedepartments, 79 percent of combinationdepartments, and 46 percent of allvolunteer or paid on-call departments hadreplacement plans in place in 1997 forcapital purchases.

Another 12 percent of fire departments indicatedthey were developing capital replacement plans in1997.

Summary and Examples Related to RiskAssessment and Planning

The chief benefit of assessing fire and otheremergency risks in the community and taking along-term look at fire department operations is theinformation gained on known emergency needs anddepartment capabilities. Long-range planningproduces an explicit analysis of hazards in theservice area and resources in the fire department.Without this information, departments may face amismatch between what the community and electedofficials expect and what departments can providein terms of equipment, person power, and expertise.Another important benefit is preparedness.Recognizing potential hazards in the community

36 FIRE SERVICES

Larger and Smaller Fire Departments

Larger Fire DepartmentsThroughout this report, references to “larger” fire de-partments include: (1) volunteer and paid on-call de-partments in communities of 8,000 or more, (2) alldepartments with full-time personnel, and (3) depart-ments with a combination of at least six full-time andother personnel.

We sent to these departments our full survey. Includedin the group are three fire departments in cities under8,000 population that received our full survey becausepreliminary data indicated they were combination de-partments; according to our survey results, they are ac-tually paid on-call departments.

Smaller Fire DepartmentsThe “smaller” fire departments are volunteer and paidon-call departments in communities of under 8,000population.

Some data are not available for smaller departmentsbecause we mailed shorter surveys to the small volun-teer or paid on-call departments, and therefore, col-lected less information from them. Appendix Acontains details on the methodology of our survey.

22 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, secs. 10-18, 10-19.

23 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook., secs. 10-19, 10-208.

24 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 5-101; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-208.

25 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-24.

allows departments to prepare to manage thosehazards. With detailed contingency plans,departments always have a “plan B” ready toexecute when normal operations fail. Planningahead for apparatus and equipment purchasesprevents the need for elected officials to raise highsums of revenues for such purchases in any singleyear.

The largest cost to risk assessment and long-termplanning is the time involved. Particularly fordepartments with only paid on-call or volunteerpersonnel, time for long-range planning is difficultto find and may present an opportunity cost whenother department activities are put off whileplanning is underway.

Assess Risks for Other Services

Gonvick Fire Department

The Gonvick Fire Department, a municipalvolunteer department that provides services bycontract in parts of Polk and Clearwater counties,provides first responder and basic life supportservices. After conducting a needs assessment, thedepartment expanded its services in 1992 to include

higher levels of prehospital care tofire and accident victims.

The Gonvick Fire Department choseto expand its services due to thedistance between people withemergency medical needs andprehospital care services. The firedepartment is located approximately30 miles from the Polk CountyHospital and 20 miles from theClearwater County Hospital. Thesehospitals provide the nearestadvanced life support and ambulancetransport for that region. With anaging population and increasingservice calls requiring immediatemedical care, Gonvick fire fighterswere responding to incidents inwhich victims required more thansimple first aid. The distance fromthe county hospitals forced victimsto wait unacceptably long for

advanced life support and ambulance transportservice to arrive.

To fill the gap, the fire department and Polk Countyand Clearwater County hospitals worked togetherand pooled their personnel and equipmentresources. The fire department assumed the costs totrain 16 fire fighters to the first responder level and4 to the emergency medical technician-basic level.The fire department and hospitals share theresponsibility of paying for fire fighters’ ongoingmedical training. Polk County ambulancepersonnel donate their time to train the fire fighters.

The fire department and hospitals also share thecosts for supplies and equipment. The firedepartment purchased a used ambulance usingequipment replacement funds and some hospitalcontributions, then modified it to meet their localneeds. Gonvick’s fire department paid for the initialpurchase of medical equipment and supplies, andpays for all ongoing vehicle and equipmentmaintenance. Both hospitals reimburse the firedepartment for medical supplies used duringincidents.

Community fundraising enabled the fire departmentto purchase a defibrillator and vehicle extrication

BEST PRACTICES 37

Fire departments should develop apparatus replacement plans to plan for vehiclepurchases.

equipment. Polk County Hospital also contributedmoney for the defibrillator.

Fire department costs include the initial purchase ofall specialized equipment and supplies, the rescueunit, and ongoing classroom and hands-on training.Providing the enhanced medical service alsorequires the firefighters to volunteer additional timein training, as well as maintaining the specializedequipment.

The fire department, county ambulance services,and local medical directors communicate on anongoing basis to provide a coordinated system ofquality medical services. Participants meet twice ayear to review communication and ambulanceprotocols and any procedural changes.

Because the Gonvick Fire Department providesbasic life support services, citizens throughout theprimary response area benefit from more immediateresponses. The Gonvick Fire Department alsoprovides emergency medical services throughmutual aid when incidents occur in isolated regionsof other fire department jurisdictions. Due toemergency medical training, the fire fightersprovide better patient assessment and care for agreater variety of injuries and other medical crisesprior to the arrival of paramedics.

Other departments can only decide to provideemergency medical services following a needsassessment that analyzes whether that care isnecessary and how much it would cost. The costsfor ongoing training, apparatus, and medicalequipment for emergency medical services may betoo high for departments that experience lowvolunteer response rates.

For more information contact:

Chief Ronald RudeGonvick Fire Department218/487-5770

Winnebago Fire Service

In Winnebago, the fire service is a division of thecity’s Emergency Services Department. The firedepartment, which also provides emergencyservices by contract to several communities in

Faribault and Martin counties, recently expanded itsservices to provide operations-level emergencyresponses to hazardous materials spills. Byassessing risks for local hazardous materialsreleases and developing proper response and safetyprotocols, the department is better prepared tocontrol potential injuries to residents. Fire fightersare also better prepared to effectively and safelycontrol fire risks involving flammable materials,such as railroad or tanker truck accidents or pipelineexplosions.

The fire department’s primary response area coversapproximately 115 square miles and has apopulation of 2,518 residents. As part of their riskassessment, fire officials identified tenmanufacturing facilities containing high levels ofextremely hazardous substances or other chemicalsthat pose a risk to health and safety. Fire officersalso estimate that approximately 50 tanks or truckscontaining dangerous chemicals travel through thecity each day, either on roads or railway.

As the industrial base expanded in the primaryresponse area, the fire department experienced anincrease in hazardous materials-related calls;approximately 15 percent of its annual calls involvehazardous materials releases. Prior to 1998, thenearest fire department resource for diking spillsand evacuating residents was located 35 miles awayin Mankato.

In response to local service needs and concernsabout citizen and fire fighter safety, the firedepartment trained 90 percent of its fire fighters tothe operations level for hazardous materialsresponses. The training improves local emergencyresponse capabilities, and ensures that initial fireattack teams are trained for the duties they would beexpected to perform at the site of a spill. The firefighters now have greater skills in approaching andsizing up spills and conveying incident severity tothe appropriate emergency response agencies. Theyalso have more knowledge in identifying types ofchemicals and are now capable of taking defensiveaction, such as diking the spill and evacuatingresidents. All fire fighters receive annual refreshertraining. The department purchased the upgrade inpersonal protective equipment and responsesupplies out of its own budget.

38 FIRE SERVICES

The fire department keeps a written emergencyoperations plan that defines fire fighters’responsibilities during hazardous materialsresponses, as well as written standard operatingguidelines for conducting the response, notifyingappropriate state and local officials, and refrainingfrom using specific fire suppression materials, suchas water or foam. The department keepsinformation required under the Federal SuperfundAmendments and Reauthorization Act on high-riskfacilities’ layouts and contents, in addition to aregister identifying locations, types, and quantitiesof hazardous materials, and frequently usedtransportation routes of extremely hazardousmaterials and pipelines.

The Winnebago Fire Service costs for upgradinghazardous materials response capabilities fromawareness level to operations level includedapproximately $1,500 for training and supplies.Fire officers expect a small increase in ongoingcosts for training and supplies. Given the increasein hazardous materials in their response area, fireofficials consider their risk management strategiesappropriate. Departments that can access higherlevels of hazardous materials response capabilities,such as through mutual aid, or that have a lowincidence of hazardous materials in their responsearea may not need a similar upgrade in services.

For more information contact:

Chief Jerome BehnkeWinnebago Fire Service507/893-3515

Other fire departments we surveyed also met ourstandards of performance related to assessingemergency risks and conducting long-rangestrategic planning. Some are listed here along withcontact names:

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Bloomington, Chief Ulysses Seal, 612/881-4062;North St. Paul, Chief David Zick, 651/770-4480;andSpring Lake Park-Blaine-Mounds View,Chief Nyle Zikmund, 612/786-4436.

Apparatus Replacement Planning

Cotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders

The Cotton Volunteer Fire Department, a privatenonprofit group of local citizens trained to fightfires and respond to emergency medical incidents,contracts to provide services throughout CottonTownship in St. Louis County and uses a truckdepreciation fund. With the fund, the township isfinancially prepared to replace old or obsolete firedepartment and rescue vehicles.

Each year the Cotton Township board levies taxdollars and appropriates money to the truckdepreciation fund. The fund is placed into afederally guaranteed account to accumulate interestduring the years when purchases are not required.Using an equipment replacement plan developed byfire department members, the department andtownship spend money from the fund primarily formaking capital purchases as they are needed. Thedepartment has also used the depreciation fundmoney in years when its apparatus needed extensiveretrofitting.

Fire department members developed thereplacement plan based on the years of useful lifeexpected from the existing apparatus. They alsoconsidered the need for a Class A fire pumper andother equipment required to maintain the InsuranceServices Office (ISO) rating for the township.

With the truck depreciation fund and equipmentreplacement plan, the Cotton Volunteer FireDepartment has been able to make its truckpurchases without asking for a significantly higherproperty tax levy the year of the purchase. Thefund spreads out truck expenditures by setting asidesmall amounts each year, which is more acceptableto the township board and taxpayers. The successof this arrangement depends in part on therelationship built between the chief and the townboard. To make it work, the chief familiarizedhimself with township operations and met monthlywith town officers.

BEST PRACTICES 39

The Cotton Volunteer Fire Department uses thefund to purchase used apparatus sold by other firedepartments or through the excess property programmanaged by the Department of Natural Resources.Because the fire department serves a township ofunder 500 people, this example indicates that evendepartments serving small populations and makingfrugal apparatus purchases can develop and benefitfrom advance planning for replacing apparatus.

For more information contact:

Chief Craig KinsleyCotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders218/482-5538

Many other fire departments we surveyed also metour standards of performance for effectiveness andefficiency in apparatus replacement and some arelisted here along with contact names.

Full-time departments:Duluth , Chief DuaneFlynn, 218/723-320;Rochester, Chief DavidKapler, 507/285-8072;Richfield, Assistant ChiefSteven Sutter, 612/861-9855.

Combination departments:Albert Lea , ChiefRichard Sydnes, 507/377-4340;Bemidji , Chief BillRabe, 218/751-8001;Fridley, Chief ChuckMcKusick, 612/572-3610;St. Louis Park, ChiefRobert Gill, 612/924-2594.

Larger volunteer or on-call departments:Brooklyn Park , Chief James Driste, 612/493-8026;Elk River, Chief Bruce West, 612/441-4919;LittleFalls, Chief Fred Tabatt, 320/632-4461;Minnetonka, Chief Joe Wallin, 612/939-8598;North St. Paul, Chief David Zick, 651/770-4480;St. Peter, Chief Windy Block, 507/931-4840; andWhite Bear Lake, Chief Tim Vadnais,651/429-8567.

Smaller volunteer or on-call departments:Albany,Chief Joseph Wedel, 320/845-4040;Amboy, ChiefTom Tallman, 507/674-3473;Granite Falls, Chief

Mike Ohliger, 320/564-3011;Greenbush, ChiefRussel Wicklund, 218/782-2570;Isanti Volunteer,Chief Randy Polzin, 612/444-8019;Mora , ChiefGene Anderson, 320/679-1511;Ogilvie, Chief JonCramsie, 320/272-4822;St. Charles, Chief LinusSoppa, 507/932-4090;St. Paul Park Volunteer,Chief Scott Gerry, 612/459-9918;Spring Valley,Chief Nevin Stender, 507/346-7367.

2. Evaluate Fire DepartmentPerformance and Use ResourcesCost-Effectively

Evaluate Department Performance toDetermine Cost-Effectiveness

To determine how effectively fire departments areusing their resources, departments shouldperiodically assess their own performance.26 Thismeans evaluating how well departments provideeach service—everything from fire prevention tofire suppression. It includes evaluatingdepartments’ goals and objectives, determiningwhether they are consistent with community servicedemands, and modifying them accordingly.27 Byidentifying strengths and weaknesses in theirperformance, departments can determine training,equipment, and personnel needs; modify andimprove their programs and plans; reallocateresources as needed; and make informed strategicdecisions about the types and levels of service theyshould provide.28

As mentioned above, a fire department’s strategicplan (or master plan) should contain performancegoals and service objectives. Even departmentswithout such plans should develop goals and setobjectives for themselves, and periodically measuretheir progress toward meeting the goals. In eithercase, fire departments should develop their goalsand objectives in concert with any communityplanning taking place within their cities andtownships.29

40 FIRE SERVICES

26 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual, sec. 4-9.

27 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual, sec. 4-9.

28 Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 103-104, 124-125.

29 NFPA,NFPA 1201,4-1, 4-1.1.

Through measuring their own performance,departments can assess what they need for thefuture and base their budget requests on theseneeds.30 Achieving a balance between objectivesthat departments set for themselves and thechanging needs of their communities requiresfostering good working relationships with local citycouncils and township boards, as well as interactingwith building and planning officials and other localgovernment personnel.

Self-evaluations are valuable as departmentwidereassessments; they are also useful followingresponses to incidents when departments can learnfrom their experiences. Evaluating fire departmentservices includes assessing the effectiveness ofindividual services (for instance, the publiceducation program), as well as the impact eachservice may have on other department functions.31

For instance, understanding trends in fire incidentsand the use of fire suppression resources canprovide evidence of the impact of fire-safetyawareness and code inspection programs.Similarly, analyzing the department’s firesuppression performance after emergency incidentscan reveal areas for improvement in training,personnel recruitment and scheduling, or health andsafety protocols.32

As shown in Table 2.1:

· Slightly more than 37 percent of thelarger fire departments used a formalprogram of setting goals and objectivesfor themselves and measuring departmentperformance toward those goals.

Almost 74 percent of larger departments indicatedthat they conducted postincident analyses of theiremergency responses. Similar data were notavailable for fire departments in smallercommunities.

Manage an Information System

To make strategic decisions about their services,departments need a system for managinginformation. Many fire departments use computersfor this purpose, and with the availability oflow-cost personal computers most smallerdepartments are also able to automate much of theirinformation. Even manual record keeping, though,can support the information needs of smallerdepartments, if it is periodically updated.33

Whatever information system fire departments use,departments should be able to efficiently keep andretrieve records on the whole realm of theiractivities. The information system should integratesuch diverse information as: department purchases,personnel employment and performance histories,training records, emergency incident reports,apparatus and equipment maintenance, inspections,and code enforcement requirements, among otherdata.34 With this information, departments are

BEST PRACTICES 41

Table 2.1: Practices Fire DepartmentsUsed to Measure Performance, 1997

PercentPractice (N=88)

Conducted postincident analysisfollowing emergency responses 73.9%

Measured department progress informally 58.0

Kept log of on-scene incident activities 61.4

Measured progress with formal program ofsetting department goals and objectives 37.5

Followed a quality assurance program 18.2

NOTE: Data collected only from volunteer or paid on-call firedepartments in cities of 8,000 or more population and depart-ments with full-time or combination personnel.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Depart-ments, 1998.

30 NFPA,NFPA 1201,4-3.7.

31 Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 103-104, 124-125.

32 Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 103-104, 124-125; NFPA,NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupa-tional Safety and Health Program, 1997 ed. (Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1997), 6-8; Federal Emergency Management Agency,Fire De-partment Communications Manual(Washington, D. C.: U. S. Fire Administration, 1995), 5-23, 5-24.

33 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook,sec. 10-45.

34 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook,sec. 10-51.

prepared to evaluate their performance and plan forthe future by improving on past performance.

We found that:

· About 63 percent of larger firedepartments maintained a managementinformation system to record informationon fire department activities.

Similar data were not available for fire departmentsin smaller communities.

Optimize Mutual Aid or Automatic Aid

Minnesota fire departments have a long tradition ofcoming to the assistance of other departments whenextra fire fighters or equipment are needed for anemergency. Through mutual aid, fire departmentsrely on nearby departments to help managelarge-scale events and disasters for which ordinaryresources are inadequate.35 With automatic aid,departments in close proximity to each otherautomatically respond to incidents on the firstalarm. We found that:

· All fire departments with the exception of2 percent of volunteer or paid on-calldepartments participated in mutual aidfor some fire-related services.

Fire departments also use mutual aid associationsfor sharing information and other collaborativeefforts including joint training exercises andequipment purchases, as described below.

Mutual aid supplements a fire department’spersonnel, equipment, and apparatus in acost-effective way when agencies rely on

neighboring departments instead of incurring theexpense of being trained and fully equipped torespond to prolonged or extraordinary incidents.For most mutual aid responses, fire departments donot exchange money or charge fees.

As with other aspects of the fire department’sservices, advance planning is important to effectivemutual aid. To be effective, mutual aidarrangements must be written prior to theoccurrence of major emergencies so it is clear whoassumes incident command, which department isliable for injuries that may be incurred, and whatstaffing and equipment will be available torespond.36 Legislation passed in 1998 answerscertain questions about liability for Minnesota firedepartments operating without written mutual aidagreements.37

Equally important, department members mustunderstand the operating procedures of the othermutual aid departments. For an integrated responsebetween two or more departments, members shouldreceive training on the mutual aid plans and thenormal command procedures of each department.38

When neighboring departments use compatibleoperating methods (to the extent that is practicable),they help ensure a systematic and coordinatedresponse effort.

Coordinated responses also require mutual aiddepartments to prepare for effectivecommunications between participants.39 Agenciesneed arrangements to notify nearby departmentswhen mutual aid is called for, as well as radioequipment (or other hardware) and communicationprotocols that enable members to communicate withother departments throughout an emergencyincident. To communicate without disrupting their

42 FIRE SERVICES

35 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-14.

36 NFPA,NFPA 1201,5-8.2.

37 Minn. Stat.§12.331 specifies that in instances when emergency assistance is provided without an existing mutual aid agreement,the sending city’s workers compensation would cover any injuries to employees sent to another jurisdiction. Equipment damage is theresponsibility of the equipment owner, that is, the sending city. Tort liabilities, on the other hand, fall under the responsibility of thecity receiving assistance.

38 NFPA,NFPA 1201, 5-8.3.

39 NFPA,NFPA 1201,5-8.4.

local frequencies, mutual aid departments shoulduse separate mutual aid radio channels.40

Dispatchers receiving and transmitting the calls forhelp must receive training on which fire officials toalert and when. Advance arrangements shouldallow interdepartmental communication withoutdisrupting the use of departments’ normal radiofrequencies.

Mutual aid is not limited to suppressing fires. Wefound that in 1997:

· In addition to responding to mutual aidcalls for fire fighting, most firedepartments conducted joint training anddrills and shared the use of specializedequipment within their mutual aidassociations, while far fewer departmentsused mutual aid associations forcooperative purchasing and fireprevention activities.

Table 2.2 shows that interagency responses arecommon for providing emergency medical servicesand rescues, as well as for fire suppression. Incases where the likelihood of a particular type ofincident is small, such as a confined space rescue,or where departments do not own the necessaryspecialized equipment, mutual aid agreements offerthe ability to respond by using other departmentsthat have appropriate training and equipment. Welearned about many neighboring fire departmentsthat have divided specialized services amongthemselves so that each has a specific area in whichit excels and for which its members are fully trainedand equipped.

This type of mutual aid arrangement increasesefficiency because individual departments do noteach have to spend resources on the specializedequipment and training. As with fire suppression,mutual aid for other emergency activities should bedesigned with common operating procedures, astandard approach to incident command, familiarityof department members with the procedures and

equipment of other departments, and an effectivecommunications system.41

Beyond mutual responses to incidents, somedepartments use mutual aid to gain other benefits.These include shared facilities, cooperative trainingsessions, joint purchases of specialized apparatus,and coordinated long-range planning with adjacentdepartments.42 Table 2.2 also shows the percentageof fire departments using mutual aid in waysbeyond responding to incidents. Obviously, firedepartments without other departments in nearbyproximity face a practical limitation on joint efforts.For others, however, extending mutual aidarrangements to include activities other thanincident responses offers cost-effectiveopportunities.

Use Existing Services

By taking advantage of existing services availablefrom other departments, state agencies, and industryassociations, fire departments can offer servicesefficiently and avoid duplicating efforts. Althoughfire departments must assess their own localcommunities and match the appropriate materials totheir particular needs, they may be able to purchaseor use materials produced by others and even addtheir own local flavor to the materials at lower costthan creating materials themselves.43

For example, departments can purchase publiceducation materials, such as theLearn Not to Burnprogram produced by the National Fire ProtectionAssociation, instead of incurring the expense ofdeveloping their own. The United States FireAdministration and American Red Cross alsoproduce fire-related educational materials, some ofwhich are available at no charge. Ruraldepartments in particular may be able to use itemssuch as the Smokey Bear materials produced by theForestry Division of the Minnesota Department ofNatural Resources. Organizations such as theMinnesota State Fire Chiefs’ Association also offerresources to fire departments.

BEST PRACTICES 43

40 NFPA,NFPA 1201,5-8.4.

41 FEMA, Technical Rescue Program Development Manual, 10-2.

42 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-14.

43 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 2-37.

Rely on Joint Purchasing

Fire departments can gain efficiencies through jointpurchasing arrangements. Contracts arranged at thestate, county, or regional level enable localdepartments to buy equipment and apparatus atprices negotiated for large-scale purchases. Forinstance, the Minnesota Fire Agencies PurchasingConsortium, organized and run by local firedepartment officials, allows departments topurchase commonly replaced items, such as pagerbatteries and turnout gear, at substantial savings.Participation requires an annual $35 membershipfee.

State statutes allow local governments to enter intoagreements whereby one unit of government can

solicit bids or quotations for purchasing suppliesboth for its own use and for that of othergovernment units that are parties to the agreement.44

In this way, multiple local governments can benefitfrom a bid or quotation without each actually goingthrough the process and time of soliciting bids.Making purchases from state, county, or othercollaborative contracts can save money due to theeconomies of scale gained from the increasedpurchasing power of large quantities.

As one may expect, joint purchases of equipmentare more common than joint purchases of pumpers,ladder trucks, tankers, or other apparatus.According to our survey:

44 FIRE SERVICES

Table 2.2: Activities Included in Fire Departments’ Mutual Aid, 1997

Volunteer orFull-Time Combination Paid On-Call

Departments Departments DepartmentsActivity (N=13) (N=19) (N=347)

Fire suppression 92.3% 100% 98.6%

Hazardous materials responses 76.9 52.6 37.5

Rescues 69.2 68.4 49.9

Training courses or seminars 69.2 73.7 65.4

Emergency Medical Services (Basic orAdvanced Life Support) 69.2 42.1 40.9

Drills and exercises 61.5 84.2 76.1

Use of specialized equipment 53.8 78.9 58.2

Fire investigations 38.5 26.3 27.4

Use of facilities 38.5 68.4 48.7

First responders 30.8 47.4 58.5

Fire-safety awareness efforts 30.8 42.1 29.1

Cooperative purchasing 23.1 36.8 11.0

NOTE: Combination departments include those with six or more full-time fire fighters along with volunteer or paid on-call members.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

44 Minn. Stat.§471.59, subd. 1 allows two or more governmental units, by agreement of their governing bodies, to jointly or coopera-tively exercise any power that they share in common.

· Only about 2 percent of all firedepartments indicated they hadpurchased apparatus jointly with anotherdepartment in the past 10 years.

Those few that purchased apparatus jointly tendedto be smaller volunteer or paid on-call departments.This percentage does not account for firedepartments that serve more than one communityand, therefore, purchase and use apparatus formultiple jurisdictions. Further, some firedepartments avoid purchasing equipment that theyknow is available through mutual aid at nearbyjurisdictions.

As mentioned in Chapter 1, Minnesota firedepartments may obtain trucks and equipmentthrough the Federal Excess Property Programwhereby the federal government funnels unused orsurplus equipment to the state and the state makes itavailable at cost to local governments. We foundthat volunteer or paid on-call departments weremore likely than others to use the excess propertyprogram.

· About 16 percent of full-time andcombination fire departments and 32percent of volunteer or paid on-calldepartments had acquired vehiclesthrough the Federal Excess PropertyProgram in the past 10 years.

Explore Alternative Service Delivery

To correct major inefficiencies or to provideadequate fire protection when existing departmentslack the resources or are otherwise incapable ofproviding service, fire departments should consideralternatives to assuming sole responsibility for fireprotection. Alternatives include intergovernmentalcontracts for service, joint powers agreements, orconsolidation.

Intergovernmental contracts for service involve onejurisdiction providing service on behalf of others in

exchange for payment. More than two-thirds ofMinnesota fire departments have contracts forproviding service, according to our survey. Somedepartments have contracts to provide their fullrange of emergency services to surrounding areas.Others have contracts for only a specific service,such as providing fire-code related buildinginspections. Such contracts allow the participatinggovernments to effectively and efficiently usetrained personnel and facilities, achieve economiesof scale, and organize services in waysunconstrained by municipal boundary lines, whilemeeting citizen demands.45 Communities controlthe level of service, assessment of costs, liabilityissues, and management authority only byspecifying these items in the contract.46 We foundthat:

· Half of full-time and combination firedepartments and 70 percent of volunteeror paid on-call departments providedsome fire-related services by contract withother jurisdictions in 1997.

Forming a joint powers agreement to provideservices gives communities control over theservices. Such an agreement allows theparticipating communities to determine how theirjoint purpose will be accomplished and to establisha joint powers board with members representativeof the involved communities.47 With a joint powersboard, the participating communities do notrelinquish decision making power; they share it. Aswith contracts for service, joint powers agreementsmay be used for a full range of fire-relatedemergency services or only one portion.

Beyond contracting for fire services, consolidatingfire departments has the potential of providing ahigh level of service to residents at a lower overallcost. Sharing costs over a larger base enablessuccessfully consolidated departments to affordhighly trained personnel, adequate apparatus, andupdated equipment more easily than individualdepartments.48 Consolidations can also result insavings through the reduction of duplicate positions

BEST PRACTICES 45

45 Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 437.

46 Although the content of fire service contracts has been a point of some dispute in Minnesota, it is beyond the scope of this study toevaluate existing contracts.

47 Minn. Stat.§471.59, subd. 2, 11. Statutes allow joint powers boards to issue bonds or obligations.

48 Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 439.

or centralization of administrative and supportservices. Because the majority of Minnesota firedepartments are on-call departments with few if anyfull-time staff, however, the salary savings involvedwith reducing positions may be small. FewMinnesota fire departments operate as the result ofconsolidations. According to our survey, in 1997:

· Less than 4 percent of all fire departmentsoperated as the result of multipledepartments having consolidated.

Communities that consider fire departmentconsolidations or contracts for service must weighall of the benefits and costs. For example, the sizeof the area being served can affect the level ofservice. Without appropriate planning aconsolidation could result in longer response times,which would increase the communities’ fire risksdue to the possibility of more extensive fires and thespread of fires to nearby properties. A reasonableresponse time balances the level of service desiredwith the financial ability of the communities toprovide the necessary stations, personnel, andequipment.49

Summary and Examples Related toEvaluating Performance and UsingResources Cost-Effectively

The advantages to fire departments of evaluatingtheir own performance lie in the quantifiableinformation produced on the departments’ impact,efficiency, and effectiveness. This allowsdepartments to make informed decisions aboutimproving their services and can support spendingrequests by demonstrating real needs. Performancedata can enhance communication with electedofficials and the public by focusing on actual resultsdepartments achieved. The costs to measuringperformance come from the time involved andexpenditures for computers and software or someother information system for maintaining data. Thetime required is significant and ongoing becausedepartments have to: articulate their mission, goals,and objectives; set up a system to collect relevantinformation on their performance; actually recordthe pertinent data on a regular, ongoing basis; and

analyze the data to determine implications forfuture operations.

The benefits of aggressively participating in mutualaid arrangements and using joint purchasingcollaborations are saving money and time. Mutualaid and automatic aid give departments access topersonnel and apparatus that they would otherwisehave to provide themselves. Mutual aid also allowsdepartments to focus on their strengths and avoidthe costs of preparing toprovide a full range ofspecialized emergencyservices. The costs involvethe time needed to plan andmaintain the mutual aidarrangements and the jointtraining required toimplement them. Buyingequipment through jointpurchasing groups typicallyresults in lower per unitcosts as well as time saved by avoiding duplicatebidding processes by multiple jurisdictions. Somepurchasing groups require annual membership fees.

The benefits and costs of alternative servicedelivery will vary by community and by the extentof the proposed changes. Typically, improvingservices or realizing efficiencies are the drivingforces behind a change. Implementing changes inservice delivery is extremely time-intensive andinvolves not only the fire department but also city ortownship administrators and elected officials. Insome cases, it may require legislative action toovercome legal barriers. Costs also include thepolitical ramifications of changing a community’sfire service delivery methods, which can overpowerefforts for improved efficiency.

Sharing Expertise and Equipment

Because most fire departments cannot afford theequipment and training or accumulate the expertiseto provide a wide range of specialized emergencyservices, such as confined-space rescues, many havecollaborated on special services and equipment. Inseveral of these collaborations, neighboring firedepartments have come together and determined

46 FIRE SERVICES

Optimizingmutual aid

opportunitiessaves money.

49 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-252.

jointly which departments would offer a particularspecialized service. As a result, when such aservice is needed anywhere in the participatingdepartments’ response area, the fire department withexpertise in that specialty provides it.

The collaborations represent an efficient way tooffer specialized services. Most of thesespecialized services are called for infrequently, yetrequire personnel who are trained and equipped torespond appropriately. It would be very costly toexpect all departments in a mutual aid area to attainthe expertise and equipment needed for a full rangeof services. Instead, the collaborations make thespecialized service available at no direct cost to therequesting department. Each fire department paysthe costs only for its specialized services andassumes the exchange of services over timebalances overall costs among participatingdepartments.

For example, in the North Suburban RegionalMutual Aid Association, participating departmentshave each developed specialized expertise that theyshare with others when emergencies arise.Brooklyn Park’s Fire Department has experiencewith decontamination following spills of hazardousmaterials while West Metro has expertise andequipment in spill containment. TheWest Metro Fire Department alsooffers services in trench rescues.Fridley, Plymouth, and Maple Grovehave extensive hazardous materialstraining, including how to stop aspill. Brooklyn Center has a diveteam and is prepared to offer diveand rescue services.

To facilitate the collaboration, theparticipating fire departments holdjoint training so all fire fightersknow what to do while waiting forneighboring departments to arrive.Fire departments have written thespecialized services into theirstandard operating guidelines; whenan emergency occurs requiringspecialized responses, they areprepared to alert the appropriateresponding unit. Fire departmentshave also exchanged equipment to

accommodate each other’s specialties. For instance,Brooklyn Park gave floating booms used to containspills of hazardous materials to the West Metrodepartment, which specializes in spill containment.

In the area of shared equipment, some firedepartments with expensive rescue equipment makeit and their staff available to other departmentswhen needed. As an example, sizable donationsfrom local businesses and community organizationsallowed the Pierz Fire Department to purchase ahelmet-mounted infrared imaging system thatenables a fire fighter to see through smoke to locatevictims and the fire’s origin more quickly. Whenneighboring departments are battling fires involvingdense smoke, Pierz fire fighters will provideassistance using their infrared imaging system.Because the technology is very expensive, costingapproximately $25,000 for a single infrared unit,the shared use of Pierz’ equipment gives otherdepartments who could not afford it the sameadvantages in extremely smoky structure fires.

Similarly, the Gonvick Fire Department is one ofthe few fire departments in its area with vehicleextrication tools. If an automobile accident occursin a nearby fire department’s response area,

BEST PRACTICES 47

Pierz firefighters use the helmet-mounted infrared imaging system for extremely smokystructure fires in their response areas and neighboring ones.

Gonvick fire fighters will respond with theirspecialized equipment to extricate accident victims.

Collaborative uses of expertise and equipment takeadvance planning and time to work out the detailsof the joint arrangements. They also require awillingness among participants to work with otherfire departments. Departments of all sizes have thepotential to benefit from similar joint efforts,although the need to collaborate may be more acutefor fire departments with sharply limited budgets orthose for whom limited staff availability make itunrealistic to provide a wide variety of specializedservices, even though the local needs exist.

For more information contact:

Chief James DristeBrooklyn Park Fire Department612/493-8026

Chief Ronald RudeGonvick Fire Department218/487-5770

Chief Dale JansonPierz Fire Department320/632-7351

Chief Kevin J. McGintyWest Metro Fire - Rescue District612/537-2323

Evaluating Performance

Cotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders

The Cotton Volunteer Fire Department has made apractice of critiquing each emergency responsemade by its fire fighters and first responders. Itsintent is to ensure fire fighter safety and improvefuture emergency responses.

As part of the fire department’s standard operations,a safety officer appointed by the chief and assistantchiefs monitors safety during emergency responses.After having received special training on safetyprocedures, the safety officers’ role is to stand backduring the incidents and observe how fire fightersand first responders perform their duties. They notewhat works well and not so well.

In addition, the department developed a one-page“incident critique form” that it encourages allmembers to fill out following emergency responses.On the form, members can explain what would havehelped them do their job better, such as additionaltraining or the availability of certain equipment.They also can describe activities they saw or weredirected to do that they felt was unsafe or uncalledfor. Members have the option of leaving the formanonymously.

At the department’s monthly meetings, all membersreview the incidents using the safety officers’observations and the incident critique forms. Theydecide collectively what can be done to improveoperations in the future. Using this approachsystematically for all incidents encourages membersto identify both positive and negative aspects of theresponses, knowing that their concerns will beaddressed.

The department has found the incident critiques tobe a valuable way to review and improve itsperformance and increase safe operations for itsmembers. Because the critique form is short, firefighters need only a brief amount of time to fill itout. Implementing the program requires devotingtime at each department meeting to review thecritiques. Departments of any size may find itbeneficial to make the time investment.

For more information contact:

Chief Craig KinsleyCotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders218/482-5538

Brooklyn Park Fire Department

The Brooklyn Park Fire Department periodicallysurveys people who use its services. Answers to thesurveys help the fire department understand how itscustomers perceive its services and identify whatmay need improvement.

In 1996 the fire department developed two one-pagequestionnaires, one targeted to residents and thesecond to businesses. Following a fire, thedepartment sent a questionnaire to every fourthaddress on the sector sheet of locations receiving

48 FIRE SERVICES

service. The commercial service questionnaire washanded to business owners by fire departmentinspectors following inspections. Eachquestionnaire asks recipients to first indicate whatservice they received and then rate the performanceof the fire department on several characteristics,such as the personnel’s ability to address theproblem and their professionalism. Thequestionnaires also contain room for writingcomments.

The format of the questionnaire includes apostage-paid return address allowing recipients tocomplete the questions, seal the survey, and drop itin the mail. After about six months of collectingthe returned questionnaires, the departmentanalyzed the results looking for areas of customersatisfaction as well as information that could helpimprove some of its practices. After its first roundof questionnaires, the department received backabout 50 percent of the questionnaires sentfollowing structure fires and about 60 percent frombuilding inspections.

The fire department views the questionnaires as oneway of providing personal service to residents andfurthering its working relationships with businesses.Although most of the ratings have been positive,fire officials follow-up on any negative comments todetermine whether they should modify theirpractices. The fire department does not rely solelyon survey results to judge how well it is doing, butthe ratings become part of the department’s reviewof its overall performance.

Other fire departments interested in measuring theircustomers’ satisfaction with fire services need todevote time to developing a questionnaire andperiodically analyzing its results. Direct costs willvary depending on the number of surveys mailedand involve the price of printing and mailing thequestionnaire and return postage. To increase thechances that people will answer the questionnaire, itshould be designed so respondents can easily fill itout and return it.

For more information contact:

Chief James DristeBrooklyn Park Fire Department612/493-8026

Apparatus and Equipment Standardization

Duluth Fire Department

To hold down costs of purchasing and maintainingfire department vehicles and equipment, Duluth’sFire Department purchases standardized equipmentand apparatus components. Most of the firedepartment trucks, for instance, have the sameautomatic transmissions, engines, and chassis.Relying on standardized components and bypassingcustomized fire trucks with unique features, thedepartment saves substantial amounts, up to$20,000 per vehicle without any reduction inperformance.

Using standardized parts and equipment hasbecome a citywide practice that extends outside thefire department to include other city offices, such aspublic works and law enforcement. When thesedepartments writespecifications forvehicles, they include thesame standardizedcomponents. As theyhave replaced vehiclesover the past decade orso, they have purchasedtrucks and other rollingstock with thestandardized components. Not only major vehiclecomponents are standardized; smaller parts andequipment are also. Fire engines carry the sameemergency lightbars on top as police cars, forinstance. The fire department uses the samestandardized portable and mobile radios as thepolice, public works, and parks departments.

Because all city departments use similarcomponents and equipment, the city’s fleetmaintenance personnel, who manage all of thecity’s rolling stock, gain special expertise fromworking with the same or similar vehicles from dayto day. This allows them to operate more efficientlythan if each city department ordered differentvehicles and equipment. Because of thestandardization, the inventory of parts can be kept ata manageable level and there is less chance ofrunning out of necessary replacement parts. As aresult, vehicle downtime is reduced and apparatusare available when needed for emergency responses.

BEST PRACTICES 49

Standardizedparts improve

efficiency.

Determining which standardized components toinclude in specifications takes time and requires adepartment to periodically reassess whether theselected parts continue to perform well andeconomically. For a large fleet, a computerizedsystem of maintenance and performance recordshelps determine which standardized componentsneed replacement and which should continue to beordered. Using standardized apparatus componentsand equipment is potentially beneficial for large andsmall fire departments, particularly those involvedwith their own vehicle maintenance. It may be lesspractical for fire departments that rely heavily onused apparatus purchased from other firedepartments or from the excess property program.

For more information contact:

Chief Duane FlynnDuluth Fire Department218/723-3200

Excess Property Program and MatchingGrants

Cotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders

To acquire equipment and fire rigs,the Cotton Volunteer FireDepartment relies in part on theFederal Excess Property Programand matching grants availablethrough the Department of NaturalResources (DNR).50 Using thesestate-administered programs savessignificant money for the firedepartment.

Although the Cotton FireDepartment is relatively small, itprovides fire and first responderemergency medical servicesthroughout the 72-square miletownship. To provide its services,the fire department needs pumpertrucks sufficiently equipped tomaintain the township’s ISOinsurance rating. The fire

department has purchased fire trucks used fromother fire departments and it has acquired trucksand pumps through the Federal Excess PropertyProgram. Rigs loaned through the excess propertyprogram are typically acquired for small sumsneeded to cover costs for transporting the vehiclesand for parts fees.

To meet local needs, the fire department has toconvert or modify trucks loaned from the excessproperty program. But the costs of doing so are farless than purchasing a similar truck elsewhere. Forinstance, the Cotton Fire Department acquired apick-up truck from the excess property program fora transportation fee of about $500. The departmenthad to equip the truck with an $8,000 slip-in pumpto make it useful as a grass fire rig. To furtheroffset its costs, the fire department applied for andreceived a $2,000 matching grant that lowered itstotal cost for the truck and pump to about $6,500.

In addition to the grass rig, the fire department hasacquired through the excess property program a1,500 gallon tanker truck, a 750 gallon per minuteportable pump, and a rig being converted to a rescuevehicle. Beyond the larger apparatus, the Cotton

50 FIRE SERVICES

The Cotton Volunteer Fire Department converted a truck from the Federal Excess PropertyProgram into a grass fire fighting rig.

50 Chapter 1 contains a description of these programs.

Fire Department has acquired smaller items andequipment through the excess property program.Items include a computer for maintaining firedepartment records, communications equipmentsuch as radios the department provides to all firstresponders, and fire-resistant apparel.

Fire departments have to be aware that the DNRoften has waiting lists for trucks available throughthe excess property program. Plus the availabilityof equipment and other items varies from year toyear; departments looking for a specific piece ofequipment, or in need of a rig immediately, may notfind the excess property program to be a goodsource. On the other hand, fire departments thathave limited budgets and are willing to convertexcess federal trucks may find apparatus to meettheir needs at minimal cost. DNR matching grantsare available primarily for rural fire departmentsthat fight wildland fires.

For more information contact:

Chief Craig KinsleyCotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders218/482-5538

Transforming from a Full-time toCombination Fire Department

St. Louis Park Fire Department

In mid-1996, the St. Louis Park Fire Departmentadded part-time, on-call fire fighters to what hadbeen an exclusively full-time staff. At that time, thefire department was also working on reorganization.The personnel changes due to adding paid on-callmembers and reorganizing have increased efficiencyand productivity in the fire department, although thedepartment faced political difficulties inimplementing them.

The department’s reorganization included reducingthe number of staff on shift by creating two daytimepositions with an emphasis on fire prevention,enabling the department to begin an automaticresponse arrangement with two adjoining firedepartments. Additionally, the captain position waseliminated through attrition and the departmentestablished three management positions classified

as battalion chiefs to direct shift operations. Thebattalion chief positions gave the department anopportunity to develop shift managers for dealingwith administrative problems and supervisoryissues.

City council members favored returning to usingpart-time fire fighters, a practice that the St. LouisPark Fire Department had abandoned because overtime too few showed up when called for service.Full-time fire fighters resisted the addition ofpart-time personnel out of concern over maintaininghighly trained, skilled members and fear of losingtheir jobs.

Several factors helped those involved with theplanning eventually reach agreement on addingon-call personnel. First, in exchange for supportand cooperation by the fire fighters, the city counciloffered that no existing fire fighter would lose hisjob due to the creation of the paid on-callcomponent. Several full-time fire fighters had beenon committees examining other fire departmentsthat had turned to combined personnel and theywanted to avoid changes that would substantiallyreduce the numbers of full-time fire fighters, as hadoccurred elsewhere. Not only have those whowanted to stay with the fire department retainedtheir jobs, but also when the department recentlyfilled two full-time positions it hired from amongthe part-time fire fighters.

Second, to assure high quality on-call staff, the firedepartment agreed to train its part-time members tothe same standards as the full-time personnel. Thisinstilled confidence in the paid on-call members.Those recruited underwent background checks,psychological testing, and an intensive interviewprocess. Part-time fire fighters were also requiredto live within ten minutes of a city fire station sothat they had a better chance of being able torespond quickly when called in as back up to thefull-time fire fighters.

Around the same time that part-time fire fighterswere being discussed, the fire department beganoffering first responder service along with the city’spolice department. Unlike the police, the full-timefire fighters had all received emergency medicaltechnician training. The dual response improvedservices to emergency victims because of fire

BEST PRACTICES 51

fighters’ higher training, their use of defibrillatorswhich police did not have, and because the demandsof community policing had reduced the policedepartment’s time to provide emergency medicalservices. In addition, part-time fire fighters becamemore valuable as emergency medical callsconsumed increasing amounts of fire fighters’ time.

Between 1991 and 1996, the department increasedby 41 percent its number of responses to emergencycalls, while maintaining a low response time andkeeping its budget within a 3. 9 percent totalincrease over that period. Due to turnover, thedepartment has 24 full-time fire fighters, comparedto 28 in 1991. The part-time on-call members offerthe department the availability of additional enginecrews when there are large fires or multiple emer-gencies occurring simultaneously. In part because itnow relies on calling back the part-time firedepartment members when full-time fire fightersare responding to calls, the department has reducedits overtime costs by about 30 percent over 4 years.

The process of adding part-time personnel to firedepartments takes time and resources. St. LouisPark took about two and a half years to study andplan for the transition and hired a consultant toassist in the study. Such a substantial change alsocreates tension with existing members. Although ittook steps to alleviate full-time fire fighters’concerns about training and loss of jobs, thedepartment still encountered resistance. Focusingattention on communication with full-time firefighters about the need for the change and about thetransition as it takes place could help otherdepartments undergoing similar staffing changes.

For more information contact:

Chief Robert GillSt. Louis Park Fire Department612/924-2594

Alternative Service Delivery Arrangement

West Metro Fire - Rescue District

In mid-1998 the on-call fire departments in theadjoining cities of Crystal and New Hope beganoperating as a single department. A decision in theearly 1990s over whether to purchase a fairly

expensive ladder truck led to discussions of otheroptions including buying the truck jointly with theneighboring fire department and merging thedepartments. Following years of studying themerger issue, hiring consultants, analyzing theproposal’s benefits and costs, and taking thenecessary steps to begin implementation, the twocities established the West Metro Fire - RescueDistrict through a joint powers agreement.Although still in its early stages, the mergerpromises high quality fire and rescue services whilesaving money over time.

In creating a joint fire district, Crystal and NewHope intended to meet their communities’ risingexpectations for service without raising propertytaxes. To govern the new department, the jointagreement established a nine-member governingbody consisting of elected officials and publicappointments from each city council, as well as thetwo city managers. In addition to administration,compensation, and asset ownership matters, theagreement specifies the share each city bears of thefire department’s annual budget. The allocationvaries according to a formula that accounts for eachcity’s relative share of emergency calls over theprevious five years, population, and property marketvalue.

The merger posed both political and administrativehurdles. Several fire fighters resisted the mergerfearing changes to their pensions and part-timepositions, among other things. To make it work, thecities needed special legislation that consolidatedthe two fire departments’ separate fire fighter reliefassociations. Elected officials also promised that nofire fighters who wanted to stay would lose theirjobs. Instead of adopting one or the other city’spersonnel policies, health coverage, workers’compensation, insurance, and other human resourcearrangements, the new department developed itsown, at the request of its governing board. For avariety of reasons, the new fire department has goneoutside the two cities for services such as financialaccounting, banking, and vehicle maintenance. Italso had to purchase its own computer system fileserver and new fire department software.

As a result of the merger, fire and rescue responsesare based, not on city boundary lines, but onproximity between incidents and the new fire

52 FIRE SERVICES

district’s three fire stations. The new departmentuses a multiple station operation: Fire companiesfrom two stations are dispatched to a structure fire;the first arriving officer determines whether theresponse is appropriate or needs to be scaled up ordown. If more resources are needed, a secondalarm goes out and additional personnel respond.Although this was a big adjustment for fire fighters,particularly those accustomed to a single-stationoperation, it proved more efficient than in the pastwhen all on-call fire fighters responded to an alarm.

The merger produced other benefits. In a changefrom past practices, New Hope residents who call atany time with symptoms of heart attack will havefire fighters, who are equipped with and trained touse defibrillators, dispatched to assist as firstresponders. The two full-time fire marshals fromthe former departments now work hand-in-hand forconcentrated fire prevention efforts, includingconsistent code enforcement in buildinginspections. For the first time in either city, thedepartment has a vehicle replacement program.Each city sets aside money for future capitalpurchases based on planned equipmentreplacements.

Cost reductions came about due to turnover in firefighter positions that went unfilled, reducing thenumber of personnel from 70 to 62. Plus, thedeputy chief’s salary was somewhat less than thatpaid to a former chief. Because the full-timepositions in the former fire departments were

brought into the newdepartment, and because ofsome unexpected costs,such as the need for thedepartment’s own computerserver, the reduction inoperating expenses was lessthan some city councilmembers had hoped.

More significant savings areexpected over time as thefire department can avoidthe costs of replacing all ofits existing fire trucks. With

the new fire district, the department estimates it canreduce its vehicles by three pumpers and stillmaintain its ISO rating.

Based on the West Metro Fire - Rescue experience,it is important to have from the start the support ofthe majority of elected officials and administratorsfrom both communities. Others consideringmergers should take steps to ensure that fire fightersand the community at large know even duringconceptual stages why a merger is being discussedand how it is expected to affect them. In addition, itis important to allot sufficient time to work outpersonnel matters and other administrative issuesonce the legal entity of the joint arrangement ismade. Although the West Metro mergerexperienced resistance as it brought together twoon-call departments, mergers between twodissimilar departments may find even moredifficulties reconciling the concerns of full-time andpart-time personnel. Proponents for any change ofthis magnitude can expect to meet criticism andshould prepare for it.

For more information contact:

Chief Kevin J. McGintyWest Metro Fire - Rescue District612/537-2323

Pierz Fire Department

The Pierz Fire Department, a municipal paid on-calldepartment, contracts with the Department ofNatural Resources (DNR) to provide wildfiresuppression services for the DNR wildfire controlprogram. The departments’ interagency agreement,requiring the Pierz Fire Department to provideservice on an as-needed basis, gives local taxpayerscomprehensive wildfire protection; the cost is lowerthan would be required to fully staff a year-roundDNR fire station in the region.

The service contract stipulates that Pierz firefighters provide back-up support to DNR firefighters. The DNR pays the Pierz department on anhourly basis per fire fighting unit, which varies bytype of apparatus and number of fire fighters.Requesting a Pierz fire fighting unit is at thediscretion of the DNR incident commander, as isthe amount of time the unit is needed. Regardlessof who arrives first at the scene during thesecoordinated activities, the ranking DNR fire fighterassumes the role of incident commander. The DNRuses the Pierz on-call fire fighters generally for

BEST PRACTICES 53

Thedepartments’

merger isexpected to

reducecapital costs.

initial suppression activities and structureprotection. Once a fire is under control and waning,the incident commander releases Pierz fire fightersand DNR fire fighters extinguish the fire andconduct mop-up.

To ensure an effective, coordinated response, theparticipants engage in joint training activities thatfocus on communication protocols, equipment use,safety issues, familiarity with the DNR incidentcommand system, and wildfire suppressionstrategies. Due to high risks involved in settingforest fires for training purposes, much of thetraining involves classroom activities such ashypothetical incidents that are played out using anoverhead projector with interactive scenarios ofwildfire progression. Local law enforcementofficials, dispatchers, and emergency medicalresponse agencies also participate in these jointtraining efforts.

Because of the Pierz fire station’s strategic location,it helps reduce response time within the largeservice area. By working cooperatively, thedepartments provide both wildfire and structural fireprotection should a wildfire progress throughdeveloped areas. The Pierz Fire Department’s costsfor the DNR interagency service agreement includeits time for one or two days of annual training and,when the department has available funds,compensating its fire fighters for participating in thejoint training. Those fire departments with fewwildfires or located in areas with minimal wildfirefuel load are less likely to have a need forinteragency agreements with the DNR.

For more information contact:

Chief Dale JansonPierz Fire Department320/632-7351

Joint Purchasing

West Metro Fire - Rescue District

The West Metro Fire Department is one of about100 fire departments around the state thatparticipate in the Minnesota Fire AgencyPurchasing Consortium. Through the consortium,fire departments buy equipment at low prices.

Equipment available through the consortium in1998 included items that fire departmentscommonly replace such as self-contained breathingapparatus, turnout gear, hose of various diameters,foam, flashlights and batteries, personal safetydevices, pagers, and radios.

Committees within the consortium jointly takecompetitive bids each year from vendors of fireservice equipment. They award contracts to the lowbidders. Vendors may extend their bid price for anadditional year, but a contract may not be extendedlonger than two years. To ensure quality, allequipment must meet NFPA standards.

After the contracts have been established,consortium members may purchase what they needat the bid price. Because of its joint purchasingpower, the consortium typically receives bids atprices lower than what an individual departmentmight pay. For instance, in a recent consortiumcontract, the price for a set of turnout gear(including coats, pants, gloves, and hoods) was$100 less than what a fire department outside thepurchasing consortium had just paid for the samegear.

To accommodate fire departments’ different needs,the contracts typically offer options that allowdepartments to somewhat customize theirequipment. The consortium only includes items forwhich it can attain low prices; some items, such asaxes, are not available through the consortiumbecause the bid did not produce a savings. Somefire departments use the purchasing consortium tobuy only smaller quantities, for instance 4 or 5items instead of 40, because they may find an evengreater savings with their own large quantitypurchases from a known vendor.

Members pay a $35 membership fee each year theybelong to the consortium. Prospective members canview a table of contents from the bid book to seewhat items are available. They also receive asample resolution that their city council or townshipboard can use if needed to officially join theconsortium.

Because purchasers pay shipping charges, firedepartments have to be aware of how the items’ costplus shipping compares to prices they may be

54 FIRE SERVICES

offered locally. This is particularly important forrural departments who may be subject to largershipping fees for their areas. Most fire departmentsregardless of size may find that the consortium’slow bid offers them lower prices for qualitymerchandise that they replace frequently.

For more information contact:

Chief Kevin J. McGintyWest Metro Fire - Rescue District612/537-2323

St. Louis Park and Hopkins FireDepartments

In an effort spearheaded by the Hopkins FireDepartment, St. Louis Park’s Fire Departmentjoined with the 14 fire departments of theSouthwest Mutual Aid Association in purchasing a“safe escape” house on a movable trailer in 1993 forfire education purposes. Equipped with a smokegenerator, living room, fully appointed kitchen,furnished bedroom, and smoke detectors, the houseis a tangible way to teach school children and othercitizens about proper exiting from home fires, howto identify fire and safety hazards, and theimportance of working smoke detectors.

Fire prevention personnel involved in the mutual aidassociation viewed a safe-escape house as a

valuable fire-safetyeducational tool that madesense for a collaboration ofdepartments to acquirebecause a singledepartment was unlikely toneed it frequently. Eachfire department contributedan equal amount towardthe purchase of the$32,000 trailer and homebuilt on a mobile homeframe; corporatecontributions defrayed part

of the expense. They did not purchase a truck forhauling the trailer, so departments use their ownvehicles for transporting it. A joint serviceagreement signed by the participating cities detailsthe ownership, scheduling, upkeep, and use of the

safe escape house; it also addresses liability issuesand establishes an operating committee of themutual aid association to make decisions about thehouse’s use.

For legal purposes, the Minnetonka FireDepartment was designated as the owner of the safehouse and that department schedules the house’suse for the other departments. For maintenance,insurance, and to resupply the trailer, eachparticipating fire department contributes about $75annually. That amount may increase as thedepartments plan for the house’s eventualreplacement. Other departments outside the mutualaid association may also use the house for a $50usage fee.

Some experienced fire prevention specialistsprepared scripts to assist those operating thesafe-escape house target the discussion to people ofdifferent ages. As tours progress through the house,the scripts provide fire fighters with informationappropriate to each room; for instance, while in thebedroom the script suggests discussing the use ofsmoke detectors and the need for an escape plan.

Because the departments used the mutual aidassociation, they had an already establishedmechanism for administering the planning andpurchase of the safe house and trailer. Otherdepartments may find working with departmentsthat have collaborated in the past makes thejoint-purchasing process easier. It is important thatone department agree to manage and maintain theequipment on behalf of the others. To assist thosefire departments with less public-educationexperience, some participants should prepare scriptsfor use during tours. Plus, each department shouldbe aware of the need for annual contributions toresupply the trailer and be willing to accommodateeach other’s schedules to share access to it.

For more information contact:

Chief Robert Gill orFire Marshal John LindstromSt. Louis Park Fire Department612/924-2594 and 612/924-2599

or

BEST PRACTICES 55

14 firedepartmentscollaboratedon the safe-

escape house.

Fire Marshal George MagdalHopkins Fire Department612/939-1321

Other fire departments we surveyed also met ourstandards of performance for evaluatingperformance and using resources cost effectively,and some are listed here along with contact names.

Combination Departments: Coon Rapids, ChiefTimothy Farmer, 612/767-6471;Crookston, ChiefRichard Rock, 218/281-4584.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Alexandria, Chief Rick Glade, 320/763-3501;Oakdale, Ronald Ehnstrom, 651/731-8886;SpringLake Park-Blaine-Mounds View, Chief NyleZikmund, 612/786-4436.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Albany, Chief Joseph Wedel, 320/845-4040;Dawson, Chief Jeff Olson, 320/769-2154;Janesville, Chief Bruce Manthe, 507/234-5110;Mora , Chief Gene Anderson, 320/679-1511.

Mutual Aid

Winnebago Fire Service

The Winnebago Fire Serviceparticipates in mutual aidassociations, joint purchasing andtraining, and shared facilities aspart of a collaborative effort toreduce costs and enhanceresources. By sharing equipmentand expertise and developingstandard protocols with lawenforcement, emergency medicalservices, and other firedepartments, the Winnebago FireService provides morecost-effective emergency operationsfor its primary and mutual aidresponse areas.

As part of the department’s mutualaid activities, members meetperiodically with fire fighters fromall departments within Faribault

and Martin counties and one department in BlueEarth County to update each other on protocols andconcerns. The departments maintain master listsidentifying other departments’ equipment locationsand specialized apparatus for use during prolongedor unusual incidents. Fire fighters are familiar withthe layout of each others’ fire halls so that if a firecrew needs to refill tankers during a fire, it caneasily access water from the fire hall nearest to theincident. This shared expertise and knowledge ofequipment locations also result in more appropriatepages for the type and amount of mutual aidassistance actually needed. Approximately 15percent of the department’s annual calls involveincoming or outgoing mutual aid.

All fire departments in Faribault County send theirnew fire fighters through initial training together asa cost-saving measure. By coordinating trainingactivities, the fire departments can afford on-sitetraining by instructors from the local technicalcollege. Participating departments rotate hostingthe training sessions to increase members’familiarity with other fire fighters and fire stations.The departments also plan their training and drillsschedules out one year in advance; eachdepartment’s schedule is distributed to all other firedepartments. Fire officers reference these mastertraining lists to determine well in advance

56 FIRE SERVICES

Mutual aid allows fire fighters to fill tankers from water sources nearest the incident.

opportunities for joint training. Winnebago fireofficers say the joint training lowers their trainingcosts.

Fire departments in the mutual aid associationsconduct joint training on incident commandsystems, communication protocols, and standardoperating guidelines to ensure smooth operationsduring an incident involving multiple firedepartments. Local law enforcement, dispatchers,and emergency medical personnel become involvedin these exercises periodically. Joint trainingactivities within the city are easily organized sincethe Winnebago Fire Service, ambulance service,and public safety division share the same facility.

This collaborative training has proven worthwhile.During a recent missing-person search that lastedeight days in the Winnebago area, multiple state andlocal agencies converged on the WinnebagoMunicipal Center as a base for emergencyoperations. Fire officials credit the efficiency of theoperations to the familiarity of local emergencyresponse personnel with a common incidentcommand system and knowledge of individuals’roles and responsibilities.

The Faribault County fire departments pursue jointpurchasing opportunities on an annual basis.Depending on equipment needs, six to eightdepartments jointly apply for matching grants fromthe Department of Natural Resources. Because theyapply together, the departments have consistentlyreceived grant money, which lowers costs forequipment and supplies.

Fire departments must communicate on an ongoingbasis to effectively plan and take advantage of jointtraining opportunities and equipment purchases.Large, urban fire departments may be precludedfrom pursuing the Department of NaturalResource’s matching grants, which are primarily forwildland fire fighting departments located in citieswith less than 10,000 population.

For more information contact:

Chief Jerome BehnkeWinnebago Fire Service507/893-3515

Automatic Aid

St. Louis Park, Golden Valley, Hopkins FireDepartments

St. Louis Park’s Fire Department participates in anautomatic aid agreement with the fire departmentsin Golden Valley and Hopkins. When structurefires occur in either Golden Valley or Hopkins onnormal work days between 8 a.m. and 4 p.m., theSt. Louis Park Fire Department is automaticallydispatched. Similarly, when structure fires occur inSt. Louis Park during the night, or on weekends orholidays, the fire department in either GoldenValley or Hopkins automatically responds,depending on the fire’s location. This serviceextends above and beyond the mutual aid agreementthat exists for the 14-member Southwest MutualAid Association, of which these three neighboringdepartments are members.

Automatic aid based on time of day and day ofweek works well for these departments due to theirgeographic proximity and the different personnelmake-ups. St. Louis Park has a fire department thatincludes full-time members and has the strongeststaffing complement during the day. Conversely,Golden Valley and Hopkins both have departmentswith part-time on-call fire fighters, and theirstrongest turnout of personnel occurs at night andon the weekends. The automatic aid builds on therespective strengths of each of the three firedepartments.

The participating cities implemented automatic aidin the mid-1990s through a joint powers agreementthat specified first-alarm response procedures,established a committee of the three chiefs toadminister the arrangement, and detailed liabilitylimits. The incident command structure remainedas it had been set up under the Southwest MutualAid agreement, meaning that the city receiving theaid assumed command of the incident. Because thedepartments had worked together previouslythrough mutual aid, they had the benefit of havingtrained together in the past and did not needextensive training or drills to become acquaintedwith the others’ operations.

BEST PRACTICES 57

Aside from the time involved with planning andimplementation, which stretched out over a year,the departments faced no direct costs for theautomatic aid arrangement. The arrangement alsoproduced other gains. With the automatic aidagreement, St. Louis Park could augment its fireprevention resources by shifting two of its 24-hourpersonnel to 40-hour per week fire prevention work.This improved the attention that the departmentcould pay to fire prevention activities, including anaggressive apartment-inspection program. Becausethe agreement reduced the need for the firedepartment to call back its off-duty personnel whenthose on duty responded to a structure fire, thedepartment gained additional control of overtimeexpenses. In addition, all three departments gainedresources when most needed and supplementedtheir ISO credit without loss of their individualidentities.

The strong support of each of the three chiefs wasinstrumental to the success of this automatic aidagreement. In addition, control over the dispatchingof fire companies is an important consideration.Dispatchers required training to ensure theydispatch the appropriate companies for theparticular time and day the fire occurs. This wasless a concern in Golden Valley and St. Louis Parkwhich were dispatched from a single public safetyanswering point.

After four years of success, all three departmentshave relied on this response agreement forday-to-day operations. For departments that maynot have worked together previously, a similarautomatic aid arrangement would require a mutualdesire to join administrative and operational efforts,work out possible inconsistencies in communi-cations, and begin joint training for fire fighters.Geographic proximity and the types of firedepartment staffing are important considerations.Automatic aid may not work as naturally elsewhereas it has in St. Louis Park, Golden Valley, andHopkins if those fire departments considering ithave entirely on-call fire fighters who are availableonly at similar hours.

For more information contact:

Chief Robert GillSt. Louis Park Fire Department612/924-2594

Other fire departments we surveyed also met ourstandards of performance related to optimizingmutual aid arrangements. Some are listed herealong with contact names.

Combination Departments: Austin, Chief DanWilson, 507/433-3405.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments: AppleValley, Chief Marv Calvin, 612/423-5874;LittleFalls, Chief Fred Tabatt, 320/632-4461;Robbinsdale, Chief Mark Fairchild, 612/537-4534;Spring Lake Park-Blaine-Mounds View, ChiefNyle Zikmund, 612/786-4436.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Cotton Volunteer, Chief Craig Kinsley218/482-5538;Spring Valley, Chief Nevin Stender,507/346-7367.

3. Promote Public Awareness ofFire Safety

Both urban and rural fire departments shouldestablish a fire-safety education program to developpublic awareness of fire risks, help prevent fires,and control the severity of fires and possibleinjuries.51 Through a typical public educationprogram, citizens learn about specific hazards (suchas, the use of kerosene heaters in homes or theexistence of fuel concentrations in possible wildfireareas), the need for exit drills and fire escape plans,and smoke detector and sprinkler systemtechnology.

Although certain basic information is useful in allcommunities, it is important that a fire departmentidentify the most important local fire risks in itsservice area and tailor its public education programaccordingly.52 Joint efforts with other agencies,such as the American Red Cross or the Departmentof Natural Resources, may offer fire departments

58 FIRE SERVICES

51 NFPA,NFPA 1201,13-1; NFPA,NFPA 295, Standard for Wildfire Control, 1991 ed. (Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1991), 2-7, A-2.7through A-2.7.1.

52 Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services,380.

resources they would not otherwise have. TheMinnesota State Fire Chiefs’ Association hasavailable for fire departments a packet ofinformation on public fire-safety education,including a list of dozens of organizations thatsupply public education materials.

To make an education program useful to those inparticular need, such as children, people withdisabilities, non-English speaking populations, andnursing home occupants, departments shouldidentify specific audiences or occupancies andtarget fire safety awareness efforts to them.53

Department members should collaborate with theappropriate personnel outside the fire department,such as teachers or school administrators, intargeting information to these groups.

Because different communication techniques reachdifferent people, departments should use a varietyof media to communicate their fire safetyeducation.54 This means using a mix of publicservice announcements, press releases, handouts,newsletters, billboards, the Internet, radio andtelevision media, and participation in the nationallyobserved annual Fire Prevention Week, among otherthings. It also means preparing departmentpersonnel to make presentations or givedemonstrations on fire safety to targeted groups,civic organizations such as the Rotary or Lions

Club, and occupants ofcommercial-industrialbuildings.

Comprehensive fire safetyeducation includesprograms for industry andfor residences.55 Programsdesigned for industries andcommercial enterpriseshelp employees understandfire-safe work practices

and instruct them in fire protection, such as theproper use of fire extinguishers. In providing suchprograms, fire departments must ensure they havethe proper training and equipment to offerappropriate instruction. As with other fire-relatedactivities not required by law, some legal expertssuggest that fire departments can reduce theirexposure to liability with a written disclaimerdescribing their activity as advisory, avoidingwarranties as to the functioning of equipment suchas smoke detectors or fire extinguishers, and statingthat the fire department cannot be held liable fornegligence in providing the activities.

Fire-safety messages targeted at residences areespecially important because fires in Minnesotadwellings accounted for more than two-thirds of allfire deaths in 1997.56 Voluntary home fire-safetysurveys consist of personal visits to dwellings byfire fighters who monitor for fire hazards andinform residents about malfunctioning smokedetectors, fire escape routes, and potential firehazards. According to our survey,

· About 10 percent of Minnesota firedepartments conducted home fire-safetysurveys in 1997.

Residence survey programs are voluntary on thepart of homeowners and generally require advancepublicity to motivate the community to accept theinspections. Fire department personnel conductingthe surveys must receive training on common homehazards and appropriate procedures to follow duringthe inspections. Plus, some legal expertsrecommend fire departments reduce their exposureto liability by making it clear that they are offeringthe surveys as a public service but that they cannotguarantee a fire will not occur. With properplanning, home-safety surveys give fire departmentsa powerful form of direct contact with those athigher fire risk.57 Some departments have foundthat incorporating the voluntary home surveys into

BEST PRACTICES 59

Tailorfire-safety

education tolocal needs.

53 NFPA,NFPA 1201,13-5.1; James C. Robertson,Introduction to Fire Prevention,3d ed. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.,1989), 258.

54 NFPA,NFPA 1201,13-6.1.

55 NFPA,NFPA 1201,13-6.3, 13-6.4

56 State Fire Marshal Division,1997 Fire in Minnesota, 7.

57 NFPA,NFPA 1452, Guide for Training Fire Service Personnel to Make Dwelling Fire Safety Surveys, 1993 ed. (Quincy, Mass.:NFPA, 1993), 1-2 through 3-9.

their monthly training drill affords them the time toaccomplish the program amidst their othercommitments.

Juvenile fire setting has presented an ongoingproblem for fire departments. To combat juvenilefire setting, fire departments need structuredintervention programs. Such programs shouldidentify juveniles who set fires, assess the juvenile’sindividual, family, and school situations, and thenrecommend appropriate treatment and restitution.58

As explained in Chapter 1, efforts in the State FireMarshal Division to create regionwide teams forjuvenile fire setter intervention are intended toprovide local fire departments with the necessaryresources to address the problem. The program isdesigned to complement and strengthen localdepartments that have their own interventionprograms.

As part of their self-evaluation, fire departmentsoffering public education should evaluate theseprograms’ effectiveness.59 By determining whatworked and what did not, departments can modifytheir education programs to make improvementsand decide whether programs are worth repeating.It may be difficult to attribute reductions in the lossof life and property due to fires directly to publiceducation efforts. Nevertheless, departments cantake steps to measure the success of educationprograms. These include determining what share ofthe group targeted for information actually receivedit; measuring whether the audience understood themessages by conducting tests prior to and after theeducation campaign; and gauging whether peoplechanged their behavior by randomly surveyingpeople before and after the campaign or visiting asample of homes with a fire-safety checklist ofhazards.60

As described in Chapter 1,

· Most Minnesota fire departments had atleast a minimal level of public outreachwith fire-safety information in 1997. Butthe extent of the education initiativesvaried greatly, and full-time departments

were more likely than others to havecomprehensive education programs.

Table 2.3 shows how many fire departments hadsome public education efforts in 1997 and whatshare had a comprehensive program includingtargeting education programs at identified local firerisks and hazards, offering a smoke detectorprogram, collaborating with teachers and others,designating a public education officer in thedepartment, establishing fire-safety surveys inhomes, and monitoring the education program’seffectiveness.

Summary and Examples Related toPromoting Fire Safety Awareness

The benefits of fire-safety education lie in thepotential to prevent fires. Besides avoiding thedirect costs of fire suppression, prevention effortshelp avoid the personal losses and tragediesresulting from fires. In addition, the indirect costs

60 FIRE SERVICES

Table 2.3: Fire Departments withFire-Safety Public Education, 1997

Volunteer orFull-Time Combination Paid On-Call

Departments Departments Departments(N=13) (N=19) (N=355)

Some fire-safetypublic awarenessefforts 92.3% 100% 90.1%

Comprehensivefire-safety aware-ness includingprograms targetedto local fire risks,smoke detectorprograms, collab-orations withteachers and others,and programevaluations 15.4 5.3 0.8

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Depart-ments, 1998.

58 State Fire Marshal,1997 Fire in Minnesota,79.

59 NFPA,NFPA 1201,13-5.1.

60 Federal Emergency Management Agency,Short Guide to Evaluating Local Public Fire Education Programs(Washington, D.C.:U. S. Fire Administration, 1991), 2-4.

of fires, such as reduced property values, lostbusiness income, unemployment, the destruction ofnatural habitat, and diminished tax bases, representa substantial savings when fires are prevented. Firedepartment costs for providing fire-safety educationinclude those for planning and executing theprogram (including coordinating it with othersoutside the department) and measuring its impact.Training fire personnel and purchasing educationmaterials are also costs. Although it is difficult toquantify whether education directly results inpreventing fires, preventing one significant firecould easily offset the costs of fire preventionactivities.

Promote Fire-Protection Systems

St. Louis Park Fire Department

To promote the installation of automatic sprinklersystems to protect against fires in existing buildings,St. Louis Park adopted a provision in the statestatute on special assessments. With the provision,the city helps building owners pay for a fireprotection system’s costs through a specialassessment on their properties. The provision ispatterned after a program started by the MinnetonkaFire Department. The St. Louis Park FireDepartment convinced its city council of the valueof sprinkler systems in controlling fires quicklywith minimal water and improved safety for firefighters. They recognized that a common roadblockowners of existing buildings faced whenconsidering installing sprinkler systems was theoverall expense of systems and difficulty infinancing them.

As a way of overcoming some of those difficulties,the city in 1995 approved a policy to pay forinstalling fire sprinkler systems in privately ownedbuildings and charging the owners a specialassessment to cover the installation costs up to tenyears. To participate, interested building ownersmust obtain three competitive bids for installationby state-approved sprinkler contractors and thensubmit a petition to the city. Following approval bythe city council and installation of the sprinklersystem, the city pays the owner for the costs ofinstallation at the lowest bid amount.

In turn, the city places a special assessment on theproperty that is paid as the owner pays propertytaxes over the subsequent time period. Included inthe special assessment is a small fee for cityadministrative expenses and interest charges set atmarket rates at the time the city initially approvesthe petition.

About ten building owners have used the specialassessment program in the past three years,including some of the city’s larger properties withparticularly vulnerable occupancies, such as aprivate high school. The installations have rangedfrom about $15,000 to just under $200,000 perproject. If demand increased greatly, the citycouncil would bond for the money; however, thishas not yet been necessary. Promotion of theprogram is low key: As fire department inspectorsor building inspectors inspect buildings throughoutthe year, they tell property owners who mightbenefit from the program about its advantages.Interested owners receive a letter and packet ofinformation detailing the procedures they mustfollow to qualify. The assessment can also be usedwith tax-exempt property.

Similar special assessment programs seem mostlikely to benefit communities with fairly largeshares of existing buildings, as opposed to areaswith high rates of new construction for buildings inwhich sprinklers are already required by theStateBuilding Code. Implementing a special assessmentprogram requires the support of the local governingboard as well as the cooperation of other localagencies, such as the planning and zoning orassessor’s office.

For more information contact:

Chief Robert GillSt. Louis Park Fire Department612/924-2594

or

Chief Joe WallinMinnetonka Fire Department612/939-8598

BEST PRACTICES 61

Promote Public Fire-Safety Awareness

Alexandria Fire Department

The Alexandria Fire Department provides acomprehensive fire-safety awareness program forall members of its community. To ensure all agegroups receive fire education messages, the firedepartment produced local access televisionprograms and uses the National Fire ProtectionAssociation’sLearn Not to Burncurriculum, amongother activities.

To reach a large audience, the fire departmentcollaborated with the local access television stationto develop a series of fire-safety programs. The firemarshal wrote scripts for 18 segments of the firedepartment’s program entitled “The Firehouse,”with each 20-minute segment dedicated to a specificfire-safety message. To use fire departmentequipment and apparatus as props, the televisioncrew taped the segments at the fire hall. The showscovered a full range of topics, such as home escapeplans, holiday home safety, portable heaters,electrical safety, carbon monoxide detectors, andexplanations of how fires burn and escalate. Thelocal access television station ran a select segmentof “The Firehouse” one day a week, several timesper day.

The fire department periodically advertises “TheFirehouse” programs through the local newspaperfor minimal cost, and based on feedback from thecommunity, will continue to include it as acomponent of its public education campaign. Thecosts for the programs include approximately twohours to develop and tape each segment. The localaccess television station did not charge a fee fortaping or airing the shows; it viewed the fire-safetyprograms as public service announcements.

In 1996, the Alexandria Fire Department wasselected to participate in the NFPA’sLearn Not ToBurnpilot program intended to improve thecurriculum and instruction of the fire-safetyeducation program. In collaboration with the localNFPA fire-education representative and a selectgroup of teachers, the fire department integrated the

12-week program into the students’ regularcurriculum with take-home assignments requiringparent involvement. The pilot program introducedthe current format and curriculum that includesage-appropriate materials targeted at children inkindergarten through third grade, specific timelinesfor conducting pretests and posttests, guidelines forteaching the curriculum, caregiver questionnaires,and teacher and program evaluation forms.

Due in part to the success of the NFPA pilotprogram, the fire marshal, fire fighters, and teacherscontinue to teach theLearn Not To Burncurriculumin 60 classrooms throughout the school year. Thefire marshal tracks the success of the program bytesting the children’s knowledge of fire-safebehavior as they progress through early gradeschool. Fire officials believe they educate close to100 percent of the children enrolled in kindergartenthrough third grade throughout Alexandria everyyear.

Knowing that a fire-safety awareness programshould be ongoing, the Alexandria Fire Departmentengages in a variety of other education activities,such as smoke detector give-aways, open houses,public relations activities, and using a safe-escapehouse purchased jointly with other Douglas Countyfire departments for $18,000. A comprehensivefire-safety awareness program requires a significantinvestment of time and money, but even volunteerfire departments can take steps to providefire-safety information in classrooms and othersettings.

The Alexandria Fire Department’s annual costsinclude approximately 200 member hours and$2,000 for education materials; businesscontributions help reduce their expenses. Manyfire-related organizations provide publishedmaterials at minimal cost. Fire departmentsinterested in local access or cable televisionprogramming should consult with television staff inthe early stages of such a project to determine costsand time commitment. Departments without accessto a local television station can consider using othermedia forms, such as newspaper advertisements ormailings.

62 FIRE SERVICES

For more information contact:

Chief Rick GladeAlexandria Fire Department320/763-3501

Brooklyn Park Fire Department

The Brooklyn Park Fire Department, a paid on-calldepartment with three full-time members, has anextensive public education program aimed atchildren. The program includes school classroompresentations, an annual safety camp, and otherevents.

Part of Brooklyn Park’s fire-safety program consistsof annual visits to all the kindergarten through fifthgrade classrooms in 11 schools located in the city,which encompasses parts of three school districts.Prior to the fire-education demonstrations, studentsin the third through fifth grade classes take a13-question quiz on common fire-safety knowledgeand practices. Following the demonstrations, thechildren go back over their answers to see what theyhave learned.

The education program targets appropriateinformation to different age levels. For instance, atthe earliest ages, students learn about “stop, drop,and roll,” how to use 9-1-1, and what fire fighterslook like in turnout gear so that children do not fearthem. They also receive coloring books or activitybooks on fire dangers and home fire-safety plansgeared to their ages.

Third graders hear about the various jobs that firefighters perform and review the importance of homeinspections for fire safety. They view a fireprevention film and receive a home-inspection formwith a checklist on common hazards for students toreview with parents at home. Children who returnthe completed checklist receive a fire inspectionbadge for their efforts.

Fifth graders view a slide show and hear about howfire is used in people’s every day lives and how touse it productively and safely. Some of the slidesdemonstrate the destructiveness of fire in homes.The students see badly destroyed jeans and asweatshirt that have burned for five seconds. Theyalso view a 9-1-1 film aimed at their age group.

The department has developed programs for each ofthe other age groups as well, using materials fromthe NFPA and incorporating their own informationfor a local flavor. Although the fire departmentbegan its public education program over 25 yearsago, it updates its material and its presentationformat regularly. As an example, although thedepartment started making its presentations inschool auditoriums, it found that children weremore attentive and learned more when fire fightersspoke to them in their individual classrooms. Thefire department printssome of its owneducational materials andpurchases others; itspends between $2,000and $3,000 on materialseach year.

The on-call fire fightersmake the classroompresentations, afterreceiving training on howto teach the course, what material to cover, andwhat teaching techniques work with children ofdifferent ages. This is one way fire fighters receivevolunteer work credit, which they are required toaccumulate to remain with the department. Otherfire departments considering similar educationalprograms need to have the support of a chief who iswilling to dedicate time to fire prevention activitiesand an individual committed to planning andevaluating them.

For children and other groups, the fire departmentoffers tours of its fire stations. Besides lettingchildren see the buildings and fire apparatus, thetours provide fire-safety information. The firedepartment developed an instructor’s guideoutlining the format of the tours and describingwhat information the children should learn. Forinstance, the tour includes a smoke detectordemonstration, instructions on how to act if firesoccur at home, and films on fire-safety practices forchildren of different ages.

The Brooklyn Park Fire Department has alsoworked with the city’s parks and recreation officeand the police department to offer a safety programfor children living in apartment complexes. Theseare one-day programs aimed at younger children

BEST PRACTICES 63

Fire-safetyprograms are

targeted topeople of

different ages.

and held at the apartment buildings. The childrenparticipate in fun activities that also help teach themabout fire safety and general safety practices.

In addition, the fire department works with otherlocal and regional agencies in sponsoring a safetycamp for boys and girls in second and third grades.At the day camp, children have supervisedrecreational activities and learn about generalpersonal safety issues including bicycle use,seat-belt safety, and fire safety. Children receive asafety camp T-shirt and end the three-day campwith a family barbecue. Because the firedepartment works in partnership with otheragencies and private businesses to sponsor thesafety programs, the direct costs to the firedepartment are primarily for the time involved withadvance planning and participating on the days ofthe events.

For more information contact:

Chief James DristeBrooklyn Park Fire Department612/493-8026

Cotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders

In addition to fire suppression and first responderemergency medical services (EMS), the CottonVolunteer Fire Department promotes citizenawareness of fire safety through smoke detectorgive-aways, school programs, and information in atownship newsletter. The department views theseactivities as part of its mission to save lives.

The fire department has taken advantage of stateoffers to fire departments for low-cost smokedetectors. In a recent offer, the fire departmentpurchased about 150 smoke detectors at 50 centsper unit. The fire department plans to give thesmoke detectors away at township functions andalso make them available by request through thechief at other times of the year.

During fire prevention week in the fall, members ofthe fire department conduct fire-safety programs forchildren in kindergarten through third grade.Department members vary the program somewhateach year but typically cover basic fire awareness

such as “stop, drop, and roll” and drive a fire engineto school so students see how it works. In advanceof the program, the department acquires materials,such as Smokey Bear bookmarks, from theDepartment of Natural Resources and distributesthem to children at the school.

Since the Cotton Fire Department began offeringfirst responder service in 1990, it has occasionallystaged mock accidents. These have been useful forfirst responder training, but the events have alsoserved a public-safety education role. As anexample, during EMS week in May 1997 the firedepartment staged a three-vehicle accident near theschool. Some of the junior and senior high studentsposed as accident victims and the others observedthe drill to help reinforce messages on seat-beltsafety and other public safety issues.

The fire department writes articles on fire safety fora local newsletter that is distributed to CottonTownship residents. In each of the bimonthlynewsletters the fire chief offers timely fire-safetyadvice, such as a reminder for homeowners to checktheir furnaces prior to heating season.

The fire chief has also used the communitynewsletter to offer fire preplanning to residents.Upon request, fire department members walkthrough residences with their owners to identifypotentially dangerous conditions or fire hazards.This is in addition to the preplanning and buildingtours the fire department conducts for the schooland some of the higher fire-risk occupancies such aslocal restaurants and gasoline stations.

Regardless of a fire department’s size, making fireprevention and protection measures work requiresstrong support from the chief and other departmentmembers. Fire personnel have to be committed tothe value of preventive practices or other membersof the public will not see them as worthwhile.Although the Cotton Volunteer Fire Department hasfocused on low-cost fire prevention andpreplanning, the programs require time from thechief and other department members for planningand implementation. To find time for fireprevention activities, departments may make thempart of the monthly training and meeting schedule.

64 FIRE SERVICES

For more information contact:

Chief Craig KinsleyCotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders218/482-5538

Duluth Fire Department

Duluth’s fire department began a voluntary homeinspection program in 1998 to upgrade fire-safety inprivate dwellings. Among other fire preventionduties, Duluth’s Fire Marshal inspected 100 homesin the first year of the program and expects toinspect more than that number again this year. Thedepartment confines its inspections to homes withinthe city but sends written materials it developed onhome fire-safety practices to homeowners outsidecity limits upon request.

Because home inspections are voluntary, the DuluthFire Department works with local media outlets toalert residents to the program and encourage themto participate. The fire marshal prepares newsreleases about the home inspections and providesthem to radio, television, and newspaperrepresentatives. Because of the workingrelationships established over the years between thefire department and the media, the department hasbeen successful in getting its announcements intolocal broadcasts and in print.

Following a series of these public announcements inwhich residents are urged to contact the firedepartment, the fire marshal schedules visits withall who call. To accommodate people’s workschedules, the fire marshal will conduct theinvestigation in early evening hours as well asduring the day.

The home inspections include several steps formonitoring the outside and interior of homes.Outside the homes inspectors look for clearancebetween the home and combustible materials,clearly visible house numbers, and clear pathwaysleading to home entrances.

While inside the house, inspectors look for apredetermined list of items including frayed wiring,materials that are improperly stored, and com-bustibles located too close to the furnace. For

homes without smoke detectors, the fire departmenthas purchased smoke detectors to be given away,and inspectors will install the battery-operateddetectors if homeowners are unable to do so. Inhomes that already contain smoke detectors,inspectors use canned smoke to test them;inspectors also test carbon monoxide detectors toensure that they are operational.

Currently, the fire marshal and two fire preventionstaff conduct all home inspections, however if thedemand increases greatly, fire fighters couldparticipate. Before fire fighters inspected homesthe fire marshal would train them on how toconduct the inspections, appropriate interactionswith homeowners, effective practices to followwhile in homes, and the overall value of theprogram. With the department’s recently acquiredsoftware, the fire marshal will be able to targetneighborhoods that have not been visited in thepast.

Although the Duluth Fire Department has full-timepaid personnel, smaller departments with paidon-call or volunteer staff could also institute homefire-safety inspections. These departments firsthave to plan and promote the program; they couldconduct home inspections in lieu of regularlyscheduled monthly drills.

For more information contact:

Chief Duane Flynn orFire Marshal John StrongitharmDuluth Fire Department218/723-3200 or 218/723-3208

Maple Plain Fire Department

The Maple Plain Fire Department, with 30 paidon-call members, provides smoke detectors,conducts residential fire-safety surveys, andcollaborates with local schools as part of itsfire-safety awareness efforts. Through an ongoingpublic education program, fire officials haveprepared residents to react appropriately in theevent of a fire, as well as reduced instances ofspecific types of fires, such as chimney fires.

Maple Plain fire fighters emphasize teaching localresidents both fire prevention activities and actions

BEST PRACTICES 65

to mitigate fires and injuries. In addition, by givingout free battery-operated smoke detectors uponrequest along with proper installation and testinginstructions, the fire department provides residentswith early warning systems. The fire departmentobtained the smoke detectors at reduced cost fromthe State Fire Marshal Division. Maple Plain fireofficials estimate that approximately 99 percent ofthe homes in their primary response area havesmoke detectors.

As part of the department’s community fire-safetyeducation, fire fighters and local school teachersdeveloped a cooperative teaching program thattargets young children in preschool through firstgrade. Both teachers and fire fighters provideclassroom instruction with take-home materials onfire prevention behavior, the inherent dangers offire, and home plans that include escape routes andperiodic fire drills. The children also becomefamiliar with fire fighter protective gear andequipment to reduce their fear of the fire fighter’sappearance in the event of a home fire.

By focusing their education efforts at the preschooland early grade levels, they teach the childrenessential life safety skills for use throughout theirlives. The department monitors the impact of itspublic education efforts by testing the children’sknowledge and the prevalence of home fire plans asthe children progress through their early grades.Additional community outreach efforts include aschool auction in which two children are awardedlunch with the fire chief and a city tour in a firetruck.

The fire department also conducts open housestwice a year to educate citizens on the dangers offires, proper use of fire extinguishers, properchimney cleaning techniques, and to familiarize thepublic with fire fighting equipment and standardemergency scene activities. The department usesthese events, in addition to local newspapers ads, toadvertise its residential fire-safety surveys.

Upon request by the homeowner, a team of two orthree fire fighters conducts a scheduled visit toidentify potential fire hazards, plan escape routesand fire drills, discuss in-home sprinkler options,test smoke detectors, and advise on proper oradditional detector locations. Department members

developed the home-safety surveys and have sincemodified them in response to feedback. Thedepartment found residents more receptive to fewerfire fighters conducting visits rather than a largeteam, which can be overwhelming.

Each home survey lasts about one hour and firefighters provide any additional fire informationupon homeowners request. The department doesnot charge the homeowner for the service. The firedepartment has provided the home surveys over thepast ten years and, due to positive feedback, plansto continue. Maple Plain fire fighters believe thehome-safety program is successful because thehomeowner’s participation is voluntary, there are nofees for the service, the fire fighters employ a publicrelations approach rather than an inspectionapproach, and fire fighters are well trained toconduct the surveys.

Fire fighters use information obtained during thesesurveys to supplement the department’s residentialprefire plans. Advance knowledge of residencefloorplans, occupancy information, and unusualconditions prepares the department for possibleemergency operations and enhances fire fightersafety.

Annual costs for the department’s public educationprogram amount to approximately 300 person-hoursand $1,900. Fire fighters receive training points fortheir public education activities. Other departmentsmay find similar benefits from conducting publiceducation campaigns, such as improved communityrelations, lower fire incidence, and increasedawareness of in-home fire risks.

For more information contact:

Chief Dave EisingerMaple Plain Fire Department612/479-2732

Other fire departments we surveyed also met ourstandards of performance related to providingfire-safety information. Some are listed here alongwith contact names.

Full-Time Department: Burnsville, Chief RonaldPayne, 612/895-4571.

66 FIRE SERVICES

Combination Department: St. Anthony, ChiefDick Johnson, 612/788-4885.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Chanhassen, Fire Marshal Mark Littfin,612/937-1900;Golden Valley, Chief Mark Kuhnly,612/593-8080.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Department:Zimmerman, 1998 Chief Dave Greenlun,612/856-4666.

4. Ensure Fire Code Enforcement

In accordance with theMinnesota Uniform FireCode, fire department personnel have authority to(1) inspect buildings and premises looking forconditions that could cause fire and (2) require themto be corrected.61 As one might expect, a greatershare of Minnesota’s full-time and combination firedepartments than volunteer or paid on-call ones areinvolved with fire code enforcement. Our surveyindicated that in 1997:

· Nearly 94 percent of full-time andcombination fire departments conductedfire-code related inspections, while 37percent of volunteer and paid on-calldepartments conducted them.

About 14 percent of the volunteer and paid on-callfire departments reported they were in areas wherea city or county agency conducted all fire-coderelated inspections, and 46 percent were in areaswhere fire-code related inspections were notconducted. The status of fire code inspections wasnot clear for approximately 4 percent of volunteerand paid on-call departments.

During inspections, fire inspectors look forpotential fire hazards, inspect fire protectionsystems (such as sprinkler systems), and testequipment and alarms. They may also train

appropriate personnel on the use of portable fireextinguishers and review fire emergency proceduresand exit drills.62 Information gathered duringinspections may be useful when departmentsdevelop preincident plans (described below under“Planning for On-Scene Responses”) for particularbuildings.63

Some fire protection code provisions areincorporated into Minnesota’sState Building Code;the overlapping portions are enforced by buildingofficials and fire inspectors. But others are solely apart of theMinnesota Uniform Fire Code. Becauselocal building inspectors primarily enforce theStateBuilding Codein those Minnesota communities thathave adopted it, fire inspectors should interact withthem on an ongoing basis.64 To ensure that fireprotection concerns remain a priority in theconstruction or alteration of buildings, it isimportant that fire departments maintain a goodworking relationship with building code officials.65

Inviting building inspectors to fire departments’training sessions is one way of better understandingthe inspector’s role and how it dovetails with fireprevention concerns.

Both theState Building CodeandMinnesotaUniform Fire Codeinclude provisions for automaticsprinkler systems. Minnesota communities thatadopt theState Building Codeand an optionalprovision on fire protection systems extend theircontrol over the installation of automatic sprinklersystems.66 With the adoption of the code andchapter 1306 on fire protection systems, automaticsprinkler coverage is required in the greatestnumber of buildings and occupancies allowable.

In some Minnesota localities, building inspectorsperform all building inspection duties; firedepartments have not become involved. In otherswhere the fire department has assumed aninspection role, however, departments shouldestablish a program of inspections and fire-code

BEST PRACTICES 67

61 IFCI, 1997 Uniform Fire Code Volume 1,part 1, art. 1, sec. 103.3.1.1.

62 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook,sec. 10-172.

63 NFPA,NFPA 1201,14-6.2.

64 All jurisdictions in the Twin Cities metropolitan area are required to adopt the state building code. Ten other counties and about170 cities and townships in the rest of the state have also adopted the code.

65 NFPA,NFPA 1201,14-8.1.

66 Minn. Rules, ch. 1306, subp. 1-5.

enforcement. As a part of this program,departments should set priorities for inspection ofbuildings in the community by targeting hazardsand potential threats to life safety and property.67

The fire department’s inspection program shouldinclude procedures for addressing violations,issuing citations for them, and reinspectingbuildings to ensure correction of documentedviolations.68 To handle disputes over codeviolations, local governments may either appointboards of appeal to hear and rule on appeals fromorders issued regarding the fire code, or insteaddirect appeals to the elected city councils ortownship boards themselves.69 Keeping records ofinspections and the resolution of violations isimportant to verify compliance; the department

should retain inspectionrecords for at least threeyears.70

TheMinnesota UniformFire Codeinvolves manycomplexities and the jobof inspector requiresspecial expertise. For asuccessful inspectionsprogram, fire inspectorsneed appropriate training

on fire code provisions as well as on locallyaccepted practices for conducting inspections.71

The department should establish job performancerequirements for its inspectors and evaluateinspectors periodically, including scheduled fieldchecks of their inspections.72 How the fire hazardmessage is communicated can be as important togetting the hazard corrected as the actual message

itself. Training, therefore, should includeinformation on educating and motivating buildingmanagers about fire prevention practices, inaddition to addressing code violations.73

Not all fire departments have the resources ortraining to be involved in the building-plan reviewsthat may occur prior to construction in cities orcounties that have adopted the building code.Those that are involved with plan reviews should:(1) take part in preconstruction meetings, (2) reviewthe construction plans once submitted, (3) work incoordination with local building officials and thetechnical construction trades, (4) establish sign-offauthority on the construction permit, and (5)participate in the certificate-of-occupancy process.74

In addition, a recent Legislative Auditor’s Officereport recommends that building and fire officialsgive mutual approval for all building permits andproposed equivalencies regarding the overlappingportions of their codes.75

This extensive involvement helps ensure theenforcement of codes for the abatement andprevention of fire in newly built or remodeledstructures.76 In addition, contractors and buildingowners benefit because the reviews can eliminatepotential problems or violations prior toconstruction, thereby avoiding the corrective ordersand costs incurred to correct problems after thebuilding is completed.77

Cities may adopt ordinances that require permits toperform work on fire protection systems, such asalarm or sprinkler systems. Those that do arerequired to conduct a plan review of the fire

68 FIRE SERVICES

Fire codeinspectors

need ongoingtraining.

67 David Diamantes,Fire Prevention: Inspection and Code Enforcement(Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers, 1998), 17-18.

68 NFPA,NFPA 1201,14-5.3.3.

69 Minn. Stat.§299F.011, subd. 5a.

70 IFCI, 1997 Uniform Fire Code Volume 1,part 1, art. 1, sec. 103.3.4.

71 NFPA,NFPA 1201,sec. 14-5.4.

72 NFPA,NFPA 1201,14-5.3.2; and NFPA,NFPA 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector, 1993 ed.(Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1993), 3-1 through 5-4.4.

73 John R. Hall, Jr., “Regular Inspections Prevent Fires,”Fire Command(September 1979): 16-17.

74 NFPA,NFPA 1201,sec. 14-8.2

75 Minnesota Legislative Auditor’s Office,State Building Code(St. Paul, 1999), 59-60.

76 Robertson,Introduction to Fire Prevention,134-135.

77 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-175.

protection system and inspect the system onceinstalled.78 Charging fees for fire-safety inspectionsis one way to offset the costs of a part-time orfull-time inspector.

Summary and Examples Related toEnsuring Fire Code Enforcement

Like fire-safety education, the primary benefit offire code enforcement and building-plan reviewslies in the potential to prevent fires. Identifyingpotential fire hazards in advance of constructingnew buildings saves time and money for thebuilding owners. Fire-code building inspectionsand other fire code work require an investment inongoing training. The other significant costs are forthe time inspection personnel conduct inspectionsand issue correction orders.

Ensure Fire Code Enforcement

Duluth Fire Department

For its fire code inspection program, the Duluth FireDepartment conducts three different types ofinspections of all buildings that are not single-family homes. By using fire suppression crews aswell as fire code inspectors, the department inspectsthousands of buildings each year.

The first type of inspection is done by fire fighterstrained to conduct basic inspections. Afteranalyzing the locations of previous inspections, thefire marshal targets an area of the city or type ofoccupancy, such as restaurants or bars, that is apriority for inspection. Each fire company (overthree shifts of fire fighters) is assigned 60 buildingsfrom within the targeted group to inspect duringsummer months, and about 2,500 buildings areinspected that way annually.

The fire marshal developed a form that fire fightersuse during inspections and trained them on what tomonitor. Among other things, fire fighters areinstructed to look for exit doors of a certain width,proper exit labeling, and clear addressing on

building exteriors. When the fire fighters findviolations, they notify the fire marshal who uses thefire department’s computer software toautomatically send a personalized letter to thebuilding owner. Fire companies conductreinspections of the addresses with violationsfollowing a 30-day period during which buildingowners are to correct the fire-code problems.

Only the fire marshal and deputy fire marshal areinvolved in the second type of fire code inspection.These inspections are done in structures that havebeen identified as problem buildings and requiresomeone with in-depth knowledge of the fire codeand its intricacies. Computerization helps the firemarshal identify problem buildings based onanalyses of building information and fire incidencedata. New software the department recentlyacquired will also allow it to easily merge datacollected during fire code inspections withinformation used to preplan fire attack strategies forparticular structures.

The third type of inspection includes fire codeactivities for new buildings being planned andunder construction. For new construction, Duluth’sfire marshal typically gets involved at severaldifferent stages. First, the fire marshal reviews theplans submitted before construction commences.Then he inspects the building once the walls are up,the doors are in, and the fire protection systems areinstalled. He makes another inspection right beforethe building is completed to identify any items thatneed to be corrected before construction is finished.Along with the building, plumbing, and electricalinspectors, the fire marshal must sign off beforeowners of new buildings receive their certificates-of-occupancy.

The intensive inspection program for newconstruction requires a close working relationshipbetween the fire marshal and local buildinginspectors. Each views the other’s role as importantand they work together as a team. Althougharchitects and general contractors first resisted theextensive involvement of the fire marshal, most

BEST PRACTICES 69

78 Minn. Rules,ch. 7512.2800, subp. 2.

have come to see the value of having fire-codeinspections conducted early in the constructionprocess to avoid making costly corrections later.

Fire departments that conduct plan reviews needpersonnel who are well trained and highlyexperienced with theMinnesota Uniform Fire Codeand architectural plans. Those relying on part-timepersonnel may have difficulty attaining the level ofexperience required. Especially in larger cities,computerization is essential for tracking fire codeinspections over time. To be involved withinspections, inspectors need ongoing training andshould not hesitate to confer with State FireMarshal personnel or others with fire codeexpertise. It is important that fire departmentsbeginning inspection programs demonstrate theirvalue to the fire fighters who will be conductingthem. Fire inspectors also benefit from taking stepsto better understand the work of local buildinginspectors.

For more information contact:

Chief Duane Flynn andFire Marshal John StrongitharmDuluth Fire Department218/723-3200 and 218/723-3208

White Bear Lake Fire Department

Starting in 1988, the White Bear Lake FireDepartment mounted an aggressive fire preventionprogram. This includes a smoke detectorordinance, smoke detector give-aways and homeinspections, fire safety education in the schools, andinvolvement in plan reviews for new buildingconstruction. Since beginning this concentratedeffort, the city has had no accidental fire deaths,compared to one death every 18 months in yearsprior to 1988. The fire department has threefull-time and 47 paid on-call members.

The White Bear Lake City Council passed anordinance in 1989 requiring the installation ofhard-wired smoke detectors in single-familydwellings whenever they undergo renovations inexcess of $1,000 or interior electrical repairsrequiring an electrical permit. Homeowners in thissituation must take out a permit for the installationand inspection of smoke detectors. As a result of

the ordinance, each year between 3 and 5 percent ofthe older homes have had the hard-wired smokedetectors installed; currently approximately half ofall older homes (about 3,000 houses) in the cityhave them.

In addition to the city’s smoke detector ordinance,the fire department has a smoke detector give-awayprogram and conducts annual home inspections tomonitor the number and operating condition ofsmoke detectors. Over the years, the departmenthas obtained smoke detectors through donations andlocal contributions. It keeps a supply of smokedetectors at the local senior center so senior citizenshave easy access to them and the department givesdetectors away to residents who request them. Thefire department advertises its smoke detectorprogram and inspections in a community newspaperdistributed to all residents and in the senior citizens’quarterly newsletter.

To distribute smoke detectors and batteries and toconduct smoke detector inspections, fire departmentmembers travel to targeted neighborhoods duringfire prevention week each fall. They focus onneighborhoods with pre-1980 construction wheresmoke detectors are lessprevalent. Fire fightersapproach the homes andinform homeownersabout the purpose of theirvisit. If homeowners arereluctant, fire fighters areinstructed to thank themand leave. When they doenter, fire fighters checkfor the correct numberand placement of thesmoke detectors. Theycarry cans of smoke tocheck the smokedetectors’ operation.Although fire fighters donot install smoke detectors during the visits, if theyfind someone needing help with installation, theyinform the fire marshal who schedules anappointment to install a smoke detector at a latertime. The fire department surveys between 150 and200 homes and distributes about 50 smoke detectorsin this way each year.

70 FIRE SERVICES

A cityordinancerequires

hard-wiredsmoke

detectors aspart of homerenovations.

To educate children on fire safety, the White BearLake Fire Department uses the NFPA’s “Learn Notto Burn” curriculum and targets it to children in thefirst grade. The education program is acollaboration with other neighboring firedepartments, and it takes place in elementaryschools located in White Bear Lake and two nearbycities. The fire marshal and fire fighters go into thefirst grade classrooms three times each year. Witheach visit they focus on a different theme, such asfire safety in the home, and distributeage-appropriate materials the children can work onin the classroom and bring home to review theirfamily’s fire-safety practices.

Although the fire marshal conducts the bulk of theschool presentations, other fire departmentmembers assist. New fire department members arerequired to put in ten hours a year on fire preventionactivities and they receive credit for making thefire-safety presentations. The fire departmentspends about $3,000 a year on materials and videosto use in its public education effort.

Besides public education and outreach, the firemarshal reviews building plans for all newconstruction in the city except single-family homes.He works closely with the city’s building inspectionstaff and together they have made life safety andbuilding safety their priorities. A city ordinancerequires sprinkler installation in all buildings ofmore than 5,000 square feet. The city buildinginspector will not grant a certificate-of-occupancyuntil fire code concerns have been addressed.Because inspection work is done prior tocompleting the building, the building owner doesnot face having to make fire-code related changesafter having received the certificate-of-occupancy.In addition, the fire marshal inspects about 500existing businesses annually, concentrating oninspecting all apartment buildings every two years.

The White Bear Lake Fire Department alsoprovides fire prevention services to surroundingareas on a contract basis. For a contracted annualamount, the department inspects commercialproperties, conducts plan reviews for all newconstruction proposals, inspects buildings underconstruction for fire code compliance, and provideseducation programs in the schools, among otherduties. The contracts benefit the nearby

communities that cannot afford their own fireinspector and they bring in revenues to reduce costsborn by White Bear Lake residents for the fireinspector’s position.

Although White Bear Lake’s Fire Department hashad multiple fire prevention practices in place formany years, other fire departments without suchextensive activities can take small steps and buildtheir program over time. To be successful,prevention programs need the full support of the firechief and local elected officials who understand theimportance of fire prevention and view preventionefforts as ongoing, long-term programs. Withresources available from the State Fire ChiefsAssociation, State Fire Marshal, NFPA, and others,even departments without full-time personnel canemphasize fire-safety awareness.

For more information contact:

Chief Tim Vadnais andFire Inspector Mike TurnbullWhite Bear Lake Fire Department651/429-8567 and 651/429-8568

Inspecting Multiple-Occupant Housing

St. Louis Park Fire Department

Fire inspectors in the St. Louis Park FireDepartment place a high priority on inspectingapartment buildings and other multiple-occupanthousing, which account for about one-third of thecity’s housing. Of the 6,500 apartment units,inspectors visit half each year. St. Louis Park’saggressive inspection schedule is possible in partbecause of its full-time fire marshal and two fireprevention staff.

To avoid duplicate inspections by differentinspectors in the same building, the city hascombined the services of several inspectors into onefunction. Fire department inspectors are trained tolook not only for fire code compliance but also forother problems related to provisions in state codesand relevant city ordinances. Members of the firedepartment’s engine companies received training toinspect the smaller, newer apartment complexes,freeing the fire prevention staff to concentrate onthe larger, more complicated buildings and on

BEST PRACTICES 71

follow-up work. The fire prevention division andcity inspections department have worked to build aclose working relationship and communicate on anongoing basis, including holding weekly meetingsto discuss common issues.

Apartment occupants receive notification of theinspection date and time six to eight weeks inadvance. When occupants are not home, theinspection takes place with the caretakers inattendance. If code violations are found, buildingowners are notified and typically have 30 days tocorrect them. Fire prevention staff conductreinspections and, if progress is not being made,may issue citations depending on the severity of theinfraction.

To recover some of the costs of the program, thecity charges building owners a nominal per unit fee.The inspection fee is included when owners paytheir apartment license fee. City staff meetoccasionally with representatives of the buildingowners to discuss their concerns and fire preventionstaff have taught classes on inspections, fire safety,and basic first aid as part of apartment managercertification programs.

An analysis of 4 years of fire data indicated that 24percent of the city’s structure fires were unattendedkitchen fires in apartment buildings with more than20 units. To target the fire risks associated withcooking, the fire marshal developed in-house a

single-page flyer entitled“Look While You Cook.”Inspectors leave thehandout with apartmentdwellers in an attempt toreduce the high numberof kitchen fires inapartment buildings.Included arecommon-sense tips aboutavoiding fires whilecooking, how to preventand extinguish cookingfires, where extinguishers

are located in the building, and contact phonenumbers for additional help. Developing the flyertook eight hours; total production and printing costsamounted to about $250.

In 1994, inspectors began leaving the flyers withapartment dwellers following each inspection.Three years later, apartment kitchen fires haddropped to about 5 percent of structure fires; thatpercentage held constant in 1998. The flyers arealso included in packets that some buildingmanagers prepare for new tenants. As a result ofthe program’s success, the fire marshal is expandingit to target single-family homeowners through flyersdistributed at block parties and with neighborhoodwatch groups, information in the city newsletter,and a cable television program.

Fire departments without full-time staff may find itdifficult to adopt as ambitious a program ofinspections as in St. Louis Park and may have toconsider a system of inspection fees to finance evena part-time inspector. Fire-prevention flyers, on theother hand, are a low-cost yet potentially verybeneficial step for fire departments in cities withsubstantial multiple-occupant housing. Because ofthe intricacies and complexities of theMinnesotaUniform Fire Code, competent inspectors requireintensive and ongoing training. A successfulinspection program also depends on a positiveworking relationship between fire inspectors andlocal building inspectors. Building this relationshiprequires everyone to develop an atmosphere that isconducive to staff working together on areas thataffect each of them.

For more information contact:

Fire Marshal John Lindstrom orLieutenant Dale AntonsonSt. Louis Park Fire Department612/924-2599 or 612/924-2173

Conducting Inspections

Pierz Fire Department

To identify potential fire hazards and educatebusinesses on fire safety, the Pierz Fire Departmentconducts annual inspections of all businesses withinits city limits. By addressing local businesses’maintenance practices, the adequacy of fire alarmsand extinguishers, and chemical storage practices,the paid on-call fire department improves safe fireconditions in the community and gathers

72 FIRE SERVICES

Targetedprevention

efforts loweredthe incidenceof apartmentkitchen fires.

information to prepare itself for possible fires inthese buildings.

As part of their winter activities, Pierz volunteer firefighters form teams of two, with each teamresponsible for inspecting eight sites. Inspectionsare conducted on Saturdays to accommodate thevolunteers’ regular work schedule. Fire fightersgenerally rotate the 80 business inspectionassignments from year to year to increase theirfamiliarity with building layouts and occupancyinformation in the primary response area.

The inspections include reviewing the operatingconditions of stair doors and fire doors, heatingequipment, and cleanliness of electrical and kitchenequipment. Fire fighters use an itemized checklist,based in part on state fire code provisions, toconsistently cover all potential fire risks. Upon afinding of hazardous conditions, fire fighterseducate the business owner on fire-safe practicesand request the owner to correct the conditionduring the inspection. If the owner is unable to doso, fire fighters issue a notice of unsatisfactoryconditions that require corrective action. Thedepartment allows 30 days for the business torectify the condition, after which the fire chief andassistant chief conduct a follow-up inspection toensure the hazard is abated. The fire departmentdoes not charge fees for inspections.

Because the fire fighters use the inspections as anopportunity to educate business owners andemployees, not just enforce codes, response to theinspections is favorable. The business communityis familiar with the fire departments’ regularinspection policy and appreciates the periodicreview and feedback on fire-safety practices. As aresult of the inspection program, compliance withthe fire departments’ safety criteria is very high.

The fire department also uses the informationgained from these site inspections to review firesuppression needs, as well as update prefireplanning information, such as owners’ names andphone numbers and changes in floor plans. Theannual inspections enable the fire department to

provide a more effective response, as well as revealany potential hazards fire fighters may encounter, inthe event of a fire.

When the local building inspector requests inputfrom the fire chief on building plans orcertificates-of-occupancy for new construction, thefire chief coordinates with representatives of theState Fire Marshal Division to ensure the proper firecode requirements are met. Pierz fire officialsbelieve the feedback and advice from the State FireMarshal is invaluable for local fire codeenforcement. The new building owners alsoappreciate the fire chief’s feedback early in theconstruction process.

The department benefits from the knowledge oflocal fire risks and businesses benefit from reducedfire hazards and safer working conditions. Costs tothe fire department are primarily in volunteerperson hours; fire fighters spend approximately 180hours collectively each year conducting theinspections and processing the paperwork. Limitedfire fighter availability may preclude other volunteeror paid on-call departments from providing asimilar inspection program.

For more information contact:

Chief Dale JansonPierz Fire Department320/632-7351

Other fire departments we surveyed also met ourstandards of performance on fire code inspectionsand enforcement. Some are listed here along withcontact names.

Full-Time Departments:Burnsville, Chief RonaldPayne, 612/895-4571;Richfield, Assistant ChiefSteven Sutter, 612/861-9855.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Brooklyn Park, Chief James Driste, 612/493-8026.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Departments: St.Paul Park Volunteer, Chief Scott Gerry,612/459-9918;Spring Valley, Chief Nevin Stender507/346-7367.

BEST PRACTICES 73

5. Develop EffectiveCommunications Systems

Because fire personnel interact with others on manylevels—dispatchers to fire departments, incidentcommanders to fire companies, fire chiefs to waterutility managers—they need effectivecommunications. The need for effectivecommunication extends to both internal operationsand external ones that involve other firedepartments, other agencies, and local electedofficials.79

Internal Communication

Most calls for emergency help come through thepublic safety answering points in each Minnesotacounty, which are typically run by the county sheriffor city police department. Although this first pointof contact between those in need of help andemergency responders is a critical one, the handlingof these calls is typically beyond the control of localfire departments and, therefore, is not consideredhere.80

Once a call for help is communicated to the firedepartment, it is incumbent upon the department tohave an effective system in place for alerting itsmembers. Fire departments should have a reliablesystem to notify and summons members both nightand day.81 According to our survey, in 1997:

· About 92 percent of larger firedepartments were somewhat or verysatisfied with their system for alertingmembers.

We saw little difference in levels of satisfactionamong the full-time, combination, and volunteer or

paid on-call departments (in communities with8,000 or more people). Similar data are notavailable for fire departments in smallercommunities.

To be effective, departments should developcommunications procedures and train departmentmembers (whether they are volunteer, paid on-call,or full-time fire fighters) on their use. Theprocedures should include protocols for givingpriority to emergency messages over other radiotraffic. To make sure dispatchers know the status ofeach available responding unit, fire companies needto follow established guidelines for maintainingcontact with dispatchers.82

For reliable communication linkages, firedepartments need resources to purchase thenecessary hardware. Communications hardwaremay be radio, microwave, telephone, pagers, sirens,other hardware, or some combination of these. Tohelp purchase the necessary communicationsequipment, some departments can use the excessproperty program, matching dollars program, andpurchasing consortiums mentioned earlier.

Each emergency vehicle, incident commander, andcompany officer should have radio transmitters andreceivers while assigned to emergencies.83 Thismay require several radio channels to accommodatelarger departments. In larger service areas, effectivecommunication also requires equipment, such asrepeaters, that allow fire companies to use radiosystems at every geographic point within the servicearea.84 Because of the need for redundancy in thesystem to prevent a loss of communication in caseof equipment failure, fire departments should alsohave a back-up communications network.85 Wefound fairly high satisfaction among larger firedepartments regarding their communicationssystems. Our survey indicated that in 1997:

74 FIRE SERVICES

79 NFPA,NFPA 1201,16-1.1; FEMA,Technical Rescue Program Development Manual,10-2.

80 Unlike most fire departments, the St. Paul Fire Department has operated its own Fire Communications Center. Plans were under-way in 1998 to consolidate it with the city police communications center.

81 NFPA,NFPA 1201,16-5.2.

82 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-15.

83 NFPA,NFPA 1201,16-5.1.

84 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-15.

85 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-15.

· About 92 percent of full-time firedepartments, 84 percent of combinationdepartments, and 89 percent of volunteeror paid on-call departments in largercommunities were somewhat or verysatisfied in their communication system’sability to perform in emergency situationsand normal daily activities withoutexcessive delays or interference.

Similar data are not available for volunteer or paidon-call departments in communities under 8,000population.

Understandable communication between theincident commander and each company or teamrequires that fire department personnel usestandardized communications procedures on the fireground or at other incidents. In advance ofresponding to emergencies, departments shouldestablish communications procedures and commonsignals; departments must ensure that all personneluse only this one standard set of communicationsrules if they are to retain control of fire groundoperations.86

Effective intradepartmental communication is alsoimportant for planning purposes and for sharinginformation throughout the department. Firepersonnel who gather information from conductingcertain department activities, such as fireinvestigations, need methods to share the data inways that inform other department functions, suchas educating the public about the particular firedangers identified in investigation results. Anotherexample is using information gathered from firecode inspections to help develop prefire plans forstructures in the community.87

External Communication

In addition to communication among departmentmembers, fire departments must prepare foreffective communication with other departments,agencies, and locally elected officials. To performfire fighting and other duties, fire departments relyon outside agencies for certain items or services.For example, departments may rely on the localwater utility for adequate water supplies in areaswith municipal water systems. Because of theinterdependent nature of fire departments’interactions with outside agencies, including localwater utilities, law enforcement, and local buildinginspection agencies, fire departments shoulddevelop positive relationships and exchangeperiodic, ongoing communication with personnelfrom these agencies.88

Coordinated mutual aid responses also requireeffective interdepartmental communication.Participating fire departments should writecommunications protocols and agree on uniformterminology, as described above in Action 2.89 Jointtraining on communications protocols andterminology will lessen confusion duringemergencies and ensure that fire fighters from allresponding departments understand what is neededand requested.90

Interactions and networking among fire departmentsthrough fire-related associations offer opportunitiesto share information on common problems andsolutions and avoid duplication of effort. They helpfire officials stay abreast of new developments infire fighting and other emergency technologies andsafety. Most of the associations offer training,conferences, and other education opportunities.

In Minnesota, many fire associations provide theseresources, including: the Minnesota State FireChiefs’ Association (MSFCA), the Minnesota StateFire Department Association (MSFDA), the FireMarshal’s Association of Minnesota, the Minnesota

BEST PRACTICES 75

86 FEMA, Fire Department Communications Manual,4-4, 5-1.

87 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-172.

88 NFPA,NFPA 1201,5-9.1.

89 FEMA, Fire Department Communications Manual, 4-18 through 4-21.

90 FEMA, Technical Rescue Program Development Manual,10-2 through 10-3.

chapter of the International Association of ArsonInvestigators, the Fire Instructors Association ofMinnesota, the Minnesota Fire Service JointCouncil (consisting of the MSFCA, MSFDA, andthe Minnesota Professional Fire Fighters), and theGovernor’s Council on Fire Prevention and Control.

Others with whom it is important for firedepartments to maintain open communication arecity councils and township boards, fuel pipelinecompanies, gas utility companies, juvenile justiceand mental health authorities, hospital directors, andschool personnel. Ongoing communication withthese groups help identify what needs thedepartments are expected to fulfill and provide thecoordination needed to jointly prepare foremergency responses, civil defense and civildisturbance planning, and fire prevention efforts.

Summary and Examples Related toEffective Communications Systems

Because fire departments rely so heavily on goodcommunication to do their work, the benefits ofeffective communications systems are widespread.Communications hardware and protocols, and firefighters’ familiarity with them, are the under-pinnings of successful emergency management.Without a well-functioning communicationssystem, fire departments could not work effectivelywith fire companies on the scene, track the firefighters’ whereabouts, nor even be assured that asufficient number of fire fighters were alerted to theemergency in the first place. Communicating withthe media, citizens, and elected officials offers theadvantage of keeping them informed about thevalue of fire department services. Interacting withother fire officials through fire-related organizationshelps keep fire departments attuned to currentpractices and information.

The costs of communications systems include theradios, pagers, and other hardware used tocommunicate. Planning the communicationssystem, standardizing guidelines for its use, andtraining fire fighters on the system require time andtraining expenditures. Communication with peopleand agencies outside the department require timeand a commitment to keeping the public informed.

Communications

Winnebago Fire Service

To ensure proficient and reliable communicationsfor all fire department activities, Winnebago fireofficers require ongoing training for all fire fightersin standard radio communication protocols and theproper use of radio equipment. Fire officersemphasize ongoing communication among on-callmembers as well as with other agencies to reduceconfusion and improve effectiveness duringemergency responses.

As part of fire department internal operations,on-call members must update the fire department oftheir availability so that officers can determine whois available to respond in the event of an incident.Fire departments within Martin and Faribaultcounties rely heavily on assistance fromneighboring departments and knowledge of firefighter availability results in more appropriate pagesfor the correct type and amount of mutual aid.

The fire department relies on sixteen radiofrequencies to conduct emergency andnonemergency operations. Some frequencies, suchas the 9-1-1 dispatching channel, are available tofire fighters only for monitoring purposes. Firefighters use other channels, however, on a dailybasis, each designated for specific functions or tospecific departments, such as mutual aidcommunications, fire ground operations,neighboring fire departments, county or statewidefire department communications, emergencymedical services, law enforcement, and the NationalWeather Service, among others.

Because the fire department uses multiple radiofrequencies, all members train regularly on usingradio hardware and on proper communicationprotocols. Fire fighters participate in drills andtabletop simulations of fire ground operations,vehicle accidents, and technical rescues. They workon perfecting fire ground communications, such asrequesting needed equipment from the fire hall orspecialized equipment from other departments, andcommunicating with dispatchers and otheremergency response agencies. The Winnebago FireService enlists other emergency response agencies’participation in interagency training sessions.

76 FIRE SERVICES

In the event of large-scale incidents or radiomalfunctions, the Faribault County Sheriff’sDepartment provides the use of extra base radiosand a mobile command vehicle. By setting eachradio to a different frequency and assigningexclusive use of each frequency to a differentresponse agency, on-scene commanders canmonitor multiple aspects of emergency operations,reduce “walk-over” communications traffic acrossfrequencies, and effectively coordinate responseactivities.

Departments that consistently follow standardcommunication protocols, maintain effectiveinternal and interagency communications, andensure access to back-up equipment contribute tosmoother, more effective operations. Coordinatinginteragency training requires long-range planning,especially for volunteer departments with limitedfire fighter availability.

For more information contact:

Chief Jerome BehnkeWinnebago Fire Service507/893-3515

External Communications

Alexandria Fire Department

To improve its fire protection services, theAlexandria Fire Department maintains a closeworking relationship with officials from the city’swater and building departments. Ongoinginteragency communications allow thesedepartments to coordinate planning and buildingstrategies for fire protection in the community.

To ensure the fire department has access to adequatewater supplies, fire officers and water authoritiescoordinate planning and placement of the city’s firehydrants and water mains. The departments worktogether to determine proper location and fire-flowsettings of fire hydrants throughout developingareas, so that new hydrants match the properties’fire suppression needs. They also work together totest hydrants and record their operational status.

The fire marshal uses computer software to developmaps of hydrant and water main locations and water

flow capabilities. Copies of the maps are kept onfirst-alarm vehicles so that fire fighters can refer tothem during emergency responses. The firedepartment tracks hydrant inspections, operationalstatus, and fire-flow capabilities so it can determinefire suppression needs and develop contingencyplans for alternative water supplies. Thedepartment regularly updates hydrant records anduses them as part of its preincident planning.

Because proper construction of new buildings iscritical for fire prevention and protection, the firemarshal and local building officials worked togetheron a process for fire code compliance. For buildingplans reviewed locally, building officials issuebuilding permits only after the construction plansmeet specific provisions identified by the firemarshal as essential for safe construction. Theyalso coordinate activities to ensure properinstallation of automatic fire protection systems innew and existing buildings. Because of the firemarshal’s involvement, builders can completeconstruction without costly corrections arising afterthe building is finished. By maintaining a closeworking relationship throughout the buildingprocess, the building and fire officials have acommon understanding of each others’ concernsand can avoid conflicts that may otherwise occurdue to lack of communication.

The two departments are also working together topass a local rental-housing ordinance that addressesthe conversion of large houses or other buildingsinto student housing. With a growing studentpopulation attending the local technical college, fireofficials have been concerned about fire hazards,such as the casual use of hot plates and barbecuegrills in inappropriate locations, within studenthousing. The building inspector overseesconversion of the housing and ensures that therenovation accommodates the fire marshal’sfire-safety concerns, such as sufficient means ofegress and an adequate number of working smokedetectors.

Over the past three years, the fire marshal hasconducted approximately 250 inspections andreinspections in this type of housing. Given thehigh number of reinspections, the fire marshal, citycouncil, planning commission, and buildinginspector are proposing a rental-housing ordinance.

BEST PRACTICES 77

Under the proposed ordinance, the city will notissue building owners a rental license until therental housing meets local fire-safety requirements.Fire officials will also conduct periodic inspectionsto ensure ongoing life-safety compliance. With thisordinance, the two departments hope to reduce thepotential for large-scale incidents in rental housing.

Ongoing interagency communication is essential forproviding comprehensive fire protection. Firedepartments that work with other city officials oncommon concerns and services can improve overalljob performance because both parties’ needs aremet.

For more information contact:

Chief Rick GladeAlexandria Fire Department320/763-3501

Duluth Fire Department

Over time, Duluth’s Fire Department has activelycultivated a successful relationship with localmedia, including representatives of newspapers,radio, and television. In addition, the departmenthas taken steps to become more closely involved atthe neighborhood level when community issuesarise. These activities are part of the department’semphasis on customer service and have provenmutually beneficial.

To provide a communication link with the mediaand for other general support during largeemergency incidents, the on-scene commander hasthe option of calling a “group page.” When thispage is sent, the chief, off-duty assistant chiefs, andfire prevention staff respond to the incident andassume various roles to supplement the incidentcommander. All responding to the group pageknow what is expected of them at the scene due toadvance planning. One role is liaison to the media.The liaison conveys information to reporters aboutthe incident as it progresses. Meanwhile, theincident commander is free to concentrate on thefire attack.

Following incidents, the department providesadditional information as requested. As anexample, if an accident occurs where vehicleoccupants were not wearing seat belts, thedepartment might provide statistical informationabout seat belt use and safety. This benefits thereporter writing the story and educates members ofthe public who read or listen to a broadcast aboutthe incident. It also helps make the work of the firedepartment visible tomore of the department’scustomers.

The fire department madea conscious decision tobecome proactive withthe media realizing that ifit did not provide timelyinformation, reporterswould print or broadcastwhat they want, eventhough the informationmay be incomplete orinaccurate. One practicethe department follows is to allow more than one ortwo designated department members to speak withthe media. When a reporter working on a particularfire story, for instance, asked to speak with the firefighters who had responded, the departmentencouraged the fire fighters to participate. Thisprovided the reporter with an insider’s perspectivethat he would not have otherwise had. Byparticipating, fire fighters boosted their ownconfidence and received public recognition fordoing a good job, which benefited them as well asenhanced public relations for the department as awhole.

Cooperating with media requests has producedother benefits for the department. For instance,when the department sent press releases announcingthe beginning of its home fire-safety inspectionprogram, local media responded by printing andbroadcasting the information. With the media’scooperation, the department has been able to reachmore people with its fire-safety messages than itcould alone.

78 FIRE SERVICES

The firedepartmentencouragescommuni-cations withthe media and

others.

In addition to interacting with the media, firefighters actively participate in other communityissues that are relevant to the fire department. Asan example, several fire fighters attended a recentmeeting held by the public works departmentregarding a street redesign project. The fire fightersdescribed to the residents that one of the tradeoffsof the proposed redesign project would be limiteduse of fire trucks on the narrower, closed-off streets,which could result in a delay during a fire response.Fire fighters came away with the sense that theymade a valuable contribution to the community’sdiscussion and the residents had a betterunderstanding of the ramifications of the streetchanges.

Although working cooperatively with the mediamay benefit fire departments in any part of thestate, it may be especially important in largercommunities where many events compete for themedia’s attention. Successful communicationbetween the department and others requires acommitment from the chief and other departmentmembers to consider the needs of media andidentify the potential for the department to be usefulin other community venues.

For more information contact:

Chief Duane FlynnDuluth Fire Department218/723-3200

Other fire departments we surveyed also met ourstandards of performance related to internal andexternal communications systems. Some are listedhere along with contact names.

Full-Time Departments: Richfield, Assistant ChiefSteven Sutter, 612/861-9855;St. Paul, ChiefTimothy Fuller, 651/224-7811.

Combination Department:Winona, Chief EdKrall, 507-457-8266.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments:EdenPrairie , Chief Spencer Conrad, 612/949-8335;Golden Valley, Chief Mark Kuhnly, 612/593-8080;Lakeville, Chief Barry Christensen, 612/985-4701;Oakdale, Ronald Ehnstrom, 651/731-8886;Vadnais Heights, Chief Jerry Auge, 651/490-1355.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Amboy, Chief Tom Tallman, 507/674-3473;CottonVolunteer, Chief Craig Kinsley, 218/482-5538;Dawson, Chief Jeff Olson, 320/769-2154;Gaylord,Chief Bill Walsh, 507/237-5483;Gonvick, ChiefRonald Rude, 218/487-5770;Greenbush, ChiefRussel Wicklund, 218/782-2570;Janesville, ChiefBruce Manthe, 507/234-5110;Mora , Chief GeneAnderson, 320/679-1511;Ogilvie, Chief JonCramsie, 320/272-4822;Pierz, Chief Dale Janson,320/632-7351;Zimmerman, 1998 Chief DaveGreenlun, 612/856-4666.

6. Prepare a Competent Workforceand Support Safe Operations

Given the variety of demands for emergencyassistance, most fire departments require aworkforce with a broad range of skills andexpertise. Regardless of the level of servicesdepartments provide, they must maintain aworkforce capable of meeting communityexpectations.91 Department programs and theirmembers’ duties may vary depending on whetherthey employ full-time fire fighters, paid on-call orvolunteer fire fighters, or some combination.Whatever the type of department, however,adequate training requirements, minimum staffinglevels, standard operating guidelines, health andsafety procedures, personal protective equipment,and 24-hour-a-day availability of personnelresources are essential to conducting safe andeffective operations.92

BEST PRACTICES 79

91 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual, secs. 3-32, 4-13 through 4-19, and 4-31.

92 NFPA,NFPA 1500,2-1.2, 2-2, 2-3.1, 3-1.3, 5-1.1; IAFC,Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual, secs. 3-32, 4-13through 4-19, and 4-31; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-24; Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA),Risk Manage-ment Practices in the Fire Service(Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1996), 91.

Recruit and Retain Members

To meet local service demands and maintainminimum staffing level requirements, firedepartments should establish a recruiting programto prepare for those times the department has fewermembers than it needs.93 The process should beginwith the department identifying specificdeficiencies in expected service coverage andexpertise, such as inadequate staffing of particularwork shifts, apparatus maintenance, or emergencymedical services.94 We found that in 1997:

· About 54 percent of full-time firedepartments, 26 percent of combinationdepartments, and 46 percent of volunteeror paid on-call departments haddeveloped a recruitment plan that wasstructured according to their personnelneeds.

Recruitment should focus onindividuals who are qualified or canbe trained to meet the department’sidentified needs and performancestandards.95 The recruiting processshould also comply with local, state,and federal standards, such asdiversity requirements or residencelocation requirements.96

Due to sparse populations and acorresponding limited pool ofpotential recruits, small volunteerdepartments in rural areas frequentlycontend with simply maintaining theminimum number of staff they deemnecessary for emergency responses.Under these circumstances, it isespecially important that thedepartment have an established

recruiting process that is periodically assessed forits effectiveness at attracting qualified individuals.97

To maintain adequate staffing levels, firedepartments should take proactive steps to retaintheir current members.98 By minimizing fire fighterturnover, fire departments can reduce the time andcosts associated with recruiting and initial training,and provide the community with a moreexperienced workforce. As Figure 2.2 illustrates:

· Combination and volunteer or paidon-call fire departments had similarvolunteer retention rates over the past fiveyears, with about 68 percent ofcombination departments and 59 percentof volunteer or paid on-call departmentsretaining more than 80 percent of theirmembers.

80 FIRE SERVICES

Figure 2.2: Five-Year Volunteer Retention

Rates, 1993-1997

0

20

40

60

80

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor�s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

Percent of Departments

100 to 81% 80 to 61% 60 to 41% 40 to 21% 20% or

lessPercent of Volunteers Retained

Combination

Volunteer or Paid On-Call

68.4%

59.4%

15.8%

22.2%

5.3% 5.5% 5.3% 4.3% 5.3%6.3%

93 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment in the Volunteer Fire Service(Washington D. C.: U.S. Fire Admin-istration, 1995), 79; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-24.

94 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment, 80-81.

95 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment, 80-81.

96 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-20.

97 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment, 79.

98 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment,7-8.

To understand why fire fighters choose to stay withor leave a department, fire departments shouldemploy various methods to determine members’satisfaction and concerns with the department’spolicies, practices, and work environment.99

Management can recognize problems early and takecorrective action after surveying members,conducting performance reviews, or conducting exitinterviews with members to determine their reasonsfor leaving.

To encourage members to stay active in thedepartment, departments should engage in goodmanagement practices, such as: (1) demonstratingeffective leadership, (2) maintaining clear andconsistent standards of performance, (3) allowingflexibility in training and work assignments,(4) providing recognition for work well done, and(5) requiring training that is relevant and fits thevolunteers’ availability.100 Management should alsokeep members informed about information relevantto their employment and the departments’ serviceobjectives, as well as state explicitly the missionand goals of the department so fire fighters knowwhat is expected of them.101

Financial compensation also may play a part inretaining fire fighters.102 Many Minnesota firedepartments with on-call members offer an hourlyor per call wage or stipend, as described in Chapter1, to help members defray their expenses andreward them for the time they spend on firedepartment duties. Some offer medical, death, ordisability benefits as indirect compensation. Firefighter pension benefits may encourage fire fightersto stay active with the department after havinginvested time in it over the years, although pensionsseem less of a tool to draw fire fighters initially into fire services.103 Fire officials should state clearlywhat constitutes an “active” year for determiningpension eligibility. Table 2.4 illustrates howsurveyed departments interacted with theirvolunteer and paid on-call members.

BEST PRACTICES 81

Table 2.4: Fire Department Interactionswith Volunteer or Paid On-CallMembers, 1997

Consistently Applied toVolunteer or Paid On-Call Members

Volunteer orCombination Paid On-Call

Characteristic Departments Departments

Offered retirement orpension plan

100% 93.3%(N=18) (N=341)

Offered monetaryincentives per houror call, or as stipend

94.7 54.4(N=19) (N=333)

Required training thatwas relevant and fitvolunteers’ timeavailability

84.2 72.5(N=19) (N=335)

Communicatedrelevant informationso memberswere informed

68.4 64.8(N=19) (N=338)

Maintained goodreputation andpositive image tokeep volunteersinterested, such asmaintaining apparatusas point of pride

61.1 65.0(N=18) (N=340)

Offered medical, death,or disability benefits

61.1 59.3(N=18) (N=327)

Leadership usedmanagement stylethat encouragedmember participation

47.4 60.0(N=19) (N=335)

Stated explicit missionand goals so volunteersknew what to expect

42.1 45.0(N=19) (N=333)

Used standard proce-dures for dealingequitably with griev-ances

38.9 43.6(N=18) (N=326)

Provided recognition forjobs well done (news-letters, banquets, etc.)

11.1 28.7(N=18) (N=334)

NOTE: Combination departments have six or more full-time firefighters along with volunteer or paid on-call members.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Depart-ments, 1998.

99 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment, 23-26.

100 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment, 7-8, 20-23, 26, 38, 53-55.

101 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment, 11-12, 15.

102 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment, 47.

103 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment, 51-52.

Establish Minimum TrainingRequirements, Provide OngoingTraining and Incentives for Training

To support safe and effective operations at theemergency scene, fire departments should have atraining program with minimum trainingrequirements for all department members.104 Awell-trained workforce lends itself to efficient andeffective operations, and reduces the risk of injuryto fire fighters.105 The program should provideinitial and ongoing training of personnel, establishacceptable performance standards, and mandatetraining for all duties and functions a fire fighter isexpected to perform, such as fighting structure fires,responding to hazardous materials spills,performing search and rescue operations, oroperating apparatus.106 As mentioned in Chapter 1,MNOSHA sets many standards regarding necessarytraining for fire departmentmembers, depending on the dutiesexpected of them. According to oursurvey:

· More than 90 percent offire departments in largercommunities said that theyrequired training for thespecialized services theyoffered and on the use andlimitations of personalprotective equipment in1997.

Although similar data were notavailable for fire departments insmaller communities, 83 percent ofthese departments reported that theyrequired or offered training in 1997on fire suppression and on the useand limitations of personalprotective equipment. Table 2.5

shows what practices fire departments had in placeas part of their health and safety programs in 1997.

Periodic appraisals of fire fighters’ performancehelp identify particular training needs that canimprove their own skills and affect the workings ofthe department as a whole.107 In addition, by askingfire fighters about the skills and abilities aboutwhich they feel less confident, departments canidentify appropriate training topics.

Departments using paid on-call or volunteer firefighters should consider incentives, such asdepartment-paid courses and book costs, fortraining their members. Because of family, work,and other demands on members’ time, departments’training should be: focused on useful topics,

82 FIRE SERVICES

Fire fighters combat flames in a training exercise.

104 NFPA,NFPA 1201,8.1; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-17.

105 NFPA,NFPA 1500, A-6-2.1.1.

106 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-17; NFPA,NFPA 1500,3-1.3, 3-3, 3-4.1.

107 NFPA,NFPA 1201, 8-6.5, 8-6.6.

well-presented by competent instructors, taught bya variety of diverse instructors over time, and madeto fit volunteers’ time availability.108

Fire chiefs must be skilled not only in managingemergency operations, but also in departmentadministration including fiscal planning, publicrelations, and human resource development.109

Promotions to officer positions should be based onmerit and awarded to those with the skills,knowledge, and abilities needed to perform the

job.110 Fire department officers should meet therequirements of officers as detailed in departments’job descriptions and as specified by the NationalFire Protection Association.111

For safe operations during emergency responses,fire departments should prepare and implementwritten standard operating guidelines and establishcommunication protocols for all emergencyactivities and functions, as described elsewhere in

BEST PRACTICES 83

Table 2.5: Health and Safety Practices in Larger Fire Departments, 1997

Volunteer or PaidFull-Time Combination On-Call Departments

Departments Departments in LargerPractice (N=13) (N=19) Communities (N=56)

Personal protective equipment provided for allpersonnel 100% 100% 98.2%

Training required in the use and limitations ofpersonal protective equipment 100 100 96.4

Ongoing training required for specialized services(e.g., water rescue), if department offers suchservices 100 100 85.7

Written description of safety procedures to limitrisk of exposure to infectious and hazardoussubstances during emergency operations 92.3 84.2 89.3

Availability of critical incident stress debriefing 92.3 84.2 89.3

Requirement that apparatus are driven onlyby trained personnel 92.3 84.2 85.7

Local training based on level and type of risksin response area 84.6 78.9 76.8

Physical exam requirements for employment,including medical exams 76.9 63.2 82.1

Incident safety officer designated at each incident 61.5 84.2 75.0

Health and safety officer designated to managedepartment’s health/safety program 53.8 57.9 62.5

Rapid intervention guidelines developed to assistinjured fire fighters 46.2 63.2 58.9

NOTE: Data collected only from volunteer or paid on-call fire departments in cities of 8,000 or more population and departments withfull-time or combination personnel.

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor’s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

108 National Volunteer Fire Council,Retention and Recruitment, 38-42.

109 Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services,446.

110 NFPA,NFPA 1201, 5-2.2

111 NFPA,NFPA 1021 Standard for Fire Officer Professional Qualifications(Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1992), 1-3.1 through 5-13.

this chapter.112 Standard guidelines and protocolsdescribe response procedures according topredetermined strategies, and establish a system ofpredictable and consistent operations.113

Equally important, members expected to respond toemergency incidents should be trained in thedepartment’s standard operating guidelines, such asthose governing the department’s incidentmanagement system, as well as communicationprotocols employed for different types ofincidents.114 By familiarizing fire fighters withestablished protocols and procedures and applyingthem consistently, departments reduce chaos andthe chance of injury while helping emergencyresponse activities run smoothly and efficiently.

Departments can use knowledge of standardoperating guidelines as one of their criteria forpersonnel promotions.

Preincident planning is also critical to the healthand safety of fire fighters.115 As described in thefollowing action, preincident planning identifieshigh-hazard fire risks and other hazards in thecommunity, such as welding businesses orhazardous materials warehouses, and acquaints firefighters with specific structures and theiroccupancies, unusual risk situations, extent ofautomatic sprinkler coverage, and terrain in theresponse area.116 Training on preincident planinformation should occur in advance of actualemergencies to raise fire fighters’ awareness ofhazards they may encounter.117

Adopt Safety Protocols and ProvideProtective Equipment

Fire fighters frequently perform physicallydemanding activities, such as interior structure firefighting or confined space rescues, in environmentsthat can be dangerous to their health and safety. Toreduce the risks of injury to fire fighters,departments should adopt safety protocols foremergency operations such as: (1) a system foraccounting for personnel whereabouts duringincidents, (2) periodic rest and recovery formembers, and (3) rapid intervention plans to rescueinjured members.118 Departments should maintainthe minimum staffing levels necessary to conductresponses safely, based on the type and severity ofthe incident.119 Adopting and consistentlyimplementing these safety protocols can reduce thechance and frequency of injury to members.

Given the adverse environmental conditions that firefighters face, departments should provide eachmember with the protective clothing and equipmentnecessary to shield them from health hazards likelyto be encountered during emergency operations,such as wildland fire fighting or hazardousmaterials responses.120 Protective clothing andequipment, such as thermal coats and trousers,gloves, goggles, boots, and self-contained breathingapparatus, reduce the occurrence of heat stress,burns, abrasions and punctures, and exposure toblood-borne pathogens.

· All of the larger fire departmentsresponding to our survey indicated theirprotective gear and breathing apparatuswere adequate or very adequate.

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112 NFPA,NFPA 1500, 2-1.2, 3-4.2, 4-2.6; FEMA,Risk Management Practices in the Fire Service, 91, 94.

113 FEMA, Risk Management Practices in the Fire Service,91.

114 FEMA, Risk Management Practices in the Fire Service,67, 75, 92; NFPA,NFPA 1201, 9-1, 16-5.6; NFPA,NFPA 1500, 2-1.2(d),3-3.2, 6-1.2.

115 Jonathan D. Kipp and Murrey E. Loflin,Emergency Incident Risk Management: A Safety and Health Perspective(New York:Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996), 180; NFPA,NFPA 1201, 8-6.2.

116 Kipp and Loflin,Emergency Incident Risk Management,182.

117 Kipp and Loflin,Emergency Incident Risk Management,182; FEMA,Risk Management Practices in the Fire Service,86.

118 NFPA,NFPA 1500, 6-3, 6-5, 6-6.1; FEMA,Technical Rescue Program Development Manual, 5-3.

119 NFPA,NFPA 1500,6-4.1, 6-4.4; FEMA,Technical Rescue Program Development Manual,5-3.

120 NFPA,NFPA 1500, 5-1.1

While protective equipment can reduce the chanceof injury, fire fighters should not rely on this toprovide absolute protection during severe exposuresituations.121 For fire personnel to benefit fromprotective clothing and equipment, the departmentshould offer training on their proper use andlimitations.122 Table 2.5 shows that virtually all thelarger fire departments offer training on the use andlimitations of personal protective equipment.

Fire departments can take additional steps to reducethe risk of injury to their members, such asappointing a health and safety officer to advise andtrain members on safety protocols for departmentoperations, or providing members with personalalert safety systems for use in hazardous areas toalert others when a fire fighter becomesincapacitated.123 According to our survey,

· About 91 percent of larger firedepartments had adequate or veryadequate personal alert safety systems in1997.

Stress management programs and activities, such ascritical incident stress debriefing followingtraumatic incidents, can also help maintain thepsychological and physical well being ofemergency response personnel.124 Critical incidentstress debriefing programs are available in regionsaround the state for use by anyone involved inemergency responses. Some departments also havechaplaincy programs in which trained clergy areavailable for counseling victims and emergencypersonnel.

Summary and Examples Related toPreparing a Competent Workforce andSupporting Safe Operations

Actively recruiting fire fighters, taking steps toencourage and retain them, and training them in allaspects of the services they are expected to performare fundamental actions for fire departments.

Without qualified personnel, fire departmentssimply would not be able to respond toemergencies. Especially for departments withvolunteer and paid on-call members, plans forrecruitment and retention are essential to providingthe service. For all departments, training membersappropriately and continually prepares them to dotheir jobs effectively and enhances safety.

Costs include significant expenditures of time forplanning recruitment, retention, training, and safetyprograms. The time involved with attending drillsand training exercises is substantial for most firedepartment members. Training off site or usingguest lecturers can also involve monetary costs.Personal protective equipment for all members andtraining materials represent additional costs.

Recruit and Retain Members

Cotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders

To operate the Cotton Volunteer Fire Departmentand help retain its volunteer members, thedepartment uses a collaborative approach todecision making. It recruits members through anannual event and uses a point system to record theirinvolvement in the department. Since 1963 thedepartment has provided fire suppression andprevention services, and as of 1990 it has providedfirst responder emergency medical services. Thedepartment has 29 active members, about half ofwhom have training in emergency medical services.

Because fire department members are more likely tobe committed to their work when they feel theymake valuable contributions to departmentoperations, the chief follows a teamwork approach.All active fire department members makedepartment decisions collectively so that they takeownership of department matters and do not view adecision as solely “the chief’s decision.”

BEST PRACTICES 85

121 NFPA,NFPA 1977, Standard on Protective Clothing and Equipment for Wildland Fire Fighting, 1993 ed. (Quincy, Mass.:NFPA, 1993), A-1-2.2.

122 NFPA,NFPA 1500, 5-1.3.

123 NFPA,NFPA 1500,2-5.1, 5-8.1.

124 NFPA,NFPA 1500, 10-1.

Team-decision making keeps the volunteers closelyinvolved in department operations. As an example,prior to submitting a budget to the township boardeach year, the chief presents it to fire departmentmembers at a monthly meeting. Fire fighters helpdecide what to propose to the township. Further,when the time comes to replace fire departmentrigs, all active members participate in thepurchasing decisions. Team-decision making helpsretain active volunteers.

To recruit members and showcase the work it does,the fire department holds an open house each year.Township residents are invited to the fire hall to seethe apparatus and learn about fire departmentoperations; smoke detectors are available at nocharge. People with an interest in emergencymedical services learn about first responder dutiesand training. Although its first responder work hasgiven the Cotton Fire Department much greatercommunity visibility than in the past, the open

house allows departmentmembers to describe theirwork at length topotential departmentcandidates.

The department has had asufficient number ofpeople willing to serve asvolunteers over the years.About a third of activefire department members

are female fire fighters. Many of the women arepart of husband and wife teams serving together onthe fire department. Husbands and wives that servetogether tend to view their fire department involve-ment as time with their spouse instead of time awayfrom their spouse. Because of the large timecommitment members make to the fire department,this aids in retaining fire fighters.

Fire department members are also involved in othercommunity activities, which promote good will forthe department and provide a bond amongmembers. As an example, they offer a dinner forDepartment of Natural Resources workers whomeet annually in the town hall. For the broadercommunity, they sponsor a holiday party inDecember and periodically serve dinners for seniorcitizens. The fire department supports the State

Fiddler Championship held in Cotton each year andsells items there as fundraisers.

As an incentive for fire fighters to take training, thefire department pays for training costs. People whobegin service with the fire department areencouraged to take a Firefighter I course, paid forby the department. Those who want to participatein emergency rescues must successfully completetraining as first responders or emergency medicaltechnicians. Many of the first responders havereceived training in vehicle extrications and schoolbus extrications, and fire fighters participate in theMinnesota Fire School, among other trainingopportunities, at department expense.

At one point, the fire department had a mix ofactive and inactive fire fighters but little certaintyabout which members considered themselves active.Consequently, the chief sent a letter remindingmembers that for their own safety, and to abide bydepartment bylaws, fire fighters had to comply withdepartment training requirements. The letter askedmembers to sign a statement indicating theirwillingness to participate in the required trainingand other department activities. This processenabled department members to affirm theircommitment to the department or easily resign fromactive duty.

Department bylaws require fire fighters to acquire50 points a year to remain in good standing and beeligible for pension benefits following 20 activeyears of service. Points are awarded based onmembers’ level of participation. For instance, firefighters receive four points for responding on a firerun, four points for monthly training exercises, orone point for fire hall maintenance such asshoveling snow from walkways. Officers receivetwo points a month for their additional admini-strative and planning duties. The point systemrewards members who are actively participating infire department operations and helps track pensioneligibility. It serves as an incentive to keepmembers active in the department.

Significantly larger departments with a biggermembership base may find it impractical to practicecollaborative, team-decision making on as broad ascale as used in Cotton. For these departments,committees of members assigned particular tasks

86 FIRE SERVICES

Firedepartment

members makedecisionscollectively.

may provide a more workable process for decisionmaking. For the smaller departments, though,activities that include as many members as possiblemay contribute to a sense of collective ownership inthe department. Ongoing, proactive recruitmentactivities tailored to local conditions are necessaryfor departments of all sizes, particularly thoseworking with volunteers or paid on-call members.

For more information contact:

Chief Craig KinsleyCotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders218/482-5538

Maple Plain Fire Department

To improve work relations and retain members,Maple Plain fire officers reorganized firedepartment management functions to involve theiron-call fire fighters in planning, controlling, andevaluating fire department services. Fire officersimplemented the changes in early 1998, resulting inincreased fire fighter attendance at training drillsand meetings, greater camaraderie among members,and more member initiative in improving firedepartment services.

While the department was not experiencing firefighter turnover, fire officers wanted to increasemember interest and participation in departmentactivities. Fire officers now use teams of firefighters to manage designated department functionsor services, such as training, truck maintenance, orthe Fire Explorers Program. Members select thoseservices they are interested in and, within thoseteams, select a team leader, assign themselvesduties, evaluate service or equipment needs, andmake recommendations for purchases to fireofficers. The department only requires that everyfire fighter be on at least one team. Members canrotate team assignments or be on multiple teams;each team and designated leader work under thedirection of a fire officer.

The fire fighters appreciate the opportunity toparticipate in designing their own jobs and to workin areas of their personal interest, rather thanreceiving mandated duty assignments. Fire officersappreciate the insight and additional perspective

offered by the fire fighters and see otherimprovements, such as more efficient fire hallmaintenance and operations and increasedparticipation in department activities.

The benefits of involving fire fighters inmanagement carry over to the emergency scene;Maple Plain fire fighters exhibit greater attention todetails and better performance related to their teamassignments. Fire officers emphasize that theirteam approach, which delegates responsibility forfire department functions, has not undermined thecommand system or fire officer authority duringemergency operations.

Team activities and recommendations are evaluatedmonthly by the fire officers and team leaders. Thefire chief retains final authority for modifyingdepartment policies or purchasing equipment.Because the fire fighters were receptive to the jobenrichment opportunities, fire officers experiencedfew problems with implementing the newmanagement approach.

The department transition to a team structurerequired approximately 40 hours to plan and,initially, additional hours to provide direction to firefighters on desired activities and strategies. Fireofficers and leaders must also volunteer additionaltime for the monthly team evaluation meetings.The team assignments also require a minimalincrease in volunteer fire fighter hours, however,officers indicate that fire fighter time is moreproductive than before. Departments experiencinglow retention or member dissatisfaction couldconsider reorganizing to involve fire fighters in ateamwork approach to department operations, butonly after determining member availability andwillingness to assume the added responsibilities.

For more information contact:

Chief Dave EisingerMaple Plain Fire Department612/479-2732

Maple Plain Fire Department

As part of its fire fighter recruitment effort, theMaple Plain Fire Department participates in theBoy Scouts of America’s Fire Explorers Program.

BEST PRACTICES 87

Through the Fire Explorers program, thedepartment provides insight into fire fighters’ workenvironment and responsibilities to juvenilesconsidering a fire fighting career.

Since beginning the Fire Explorers program in1996, Maple Plain’s paid on-call fire fighters havementored ten high school students, males andfemales ages 14 through 18, after school andthroughout summer break. The fire fighters(1) educate juveniles about fire department services,(2) teach fire fighting-related skills in a safeenvironment, and (3) provide realistic job previewsby allowing the explorers to participate in fire hallactivities and observe emergency responseoperations.

The fire department must meet several criteria toparticipate in the Fire Explorers program, and fulfilla stringent mandate ensuring that the juveniles arenever put in harm’s way during any activities. Allexplorer activities must be under the directsupervision of fire fighters with a ratio of twosupervising fire fighters to every explorer. Inaddition, a minimum of five fire fighters must beassigned and trained to act as advisors to thejuveniles, with at least one advisor available torespond to concerns at all times.

To qualify for the program, juveniles must maintaina satisfactory grade point average, and they musthave a good performance record with the firedepartment to remain in the program. The fire chiefand advisors meet periodically with the FireExplorer’s Program director to review the juveniles’performance and address any concerns.

The juveniles participate in fire departmentoperations, such as monitoring the fire department’ssmoke detector give-away program, filling andmaintaining fire fighters’ self-contained breathingapparatus air bottles, and performing simpleequipment maintenance. They also carry pagersand attend emergency incidents. Some explorersalso provide administrative assistance to assignedfire officers during emergency operations, such asretrieving items from command vehicles or relayingcommunications. The explorers attend regular firefighter meetings to learn about safety protocols andother department issues. They also participate insome fire fighter training activities and drills to

become familiar with protocols and the physicaldemands of the job.

Maple Plain fire officers identify several benefits ofthe program. The explorers carry a strong fireprevention message to their peers as well as receivecareer direction from their fire department advisors.The fire department benefits from the assistance andperspective of the explorers on departmentoperations, as well as the interaction with potentialfuture fire fighters. Maple Plain fire officialsbelieve it is likely that several of their explorers willseek additional fire fighting training, and possiblyreturn to the Maple Plain Fire Department as firefighters.

Despite the time commitment required of the fiveadvisors, approximately 20 hours a monthcollectively, the Maple Plain Fire Department willcontinue its outreach efforts through the FireExplorer program. The fire fighters favor theprogram and their explorers demonstratecommitment and proficiency in skills. While thereare no monetary costs to the department, thislong-range approach to recruiting requires someadditional volunteer time to supervise and providedirection to the juveniles. Fire departments mustdetermine member availability and support beforeincorporating such a program into its recruitmentplans, and recognize that the program does notguarantee future recruits for the department.

For more information contact:

Chief Dave EisingerMaple Plain Fire Department612/479-2732

St. Louis Park Fire Department

When the St. Louis Park Fire Department hiredpart-time, on-call fire fighters in 1996, it offeredseveral benefits to help retain them. Seventeen ofthe original 21 part-time recruits are still with thedepartment two and a half years later.

The fire department required its part-time staff toundergo Fire Fighter I and II training initially, andannual training following that. The recruitsreceived $6.50 an hour to attend training. Becausemany of the recruits hoped to eventually find

88 FIRE SERVICES

careers in public safety, the training, as well as theexperience they were gaining, was advantageous totheir future. Because they went through the initialtraining as a group, the experience helped buildcohesiveness among them.

To help retain the part-time fire fighters, the cityincluded them among employees with access to thecity’s tuition reimbursement policy; the city pays upto $2,000 per year for employees taking classes.Like full-time staff, paid on-call members haveaccess to city technology, such as computers.Although the part-time fire fighters do not havetheir own relief association as the full-time firefighters do, they are eligible for annual performancebonuses. By performing well, the part-time firefighters can receive an additional $1,200 duringtheir first year and increasing amounts in successiveyears. Another incentive recently implemented wasthe addition of group leader positions in thepart-time component. These positions givepart-time staff the opportunity for professionaldevelopment of leadership skills.

The part-time personnel receive their hourly wagefor responses they make and for participating intraining and drills. They may participate in thecity’s deferred compensation plan, allowing them toset aside before-tax dollars for future uses. Whenthey participate in training outside the fire stations,the city pays the training costs.

Although the full effects of the city’s practices willnot be known for a few more years, these benefitshave helped the fire department retain most of its 21original recruits, and at a cost equivalent to that ofabout one full-time fire fighter. Because of the highstandards the on-call members had to meet, whenthe fire department needed to hire an additionalfull-time fire fighter it could do so from its on-callgroup. Although volunteer departments operatingon small budgets may not be able to afford the samelevel of benefits, combination departments that canmay find similar advantages.

For more information contact:

Chief Robert GillSt. Louis Park Fire Department612/924-2594

White Bear Lake Fire Department

The White Bear Lake Fire Department uses severalincentives to retain members in its paid on-callworkforce. Among its incentives contributing to alow turnover rate are training reimbursements and alow-cost lodging program.

Because the department operates advanced lifesupport ambulances, it has 20 members trained asparamedics and other members trained at theemergency medical technician (EMT) basic andintermediate levels. In exchange for agreeing towork with the White Bear Lake Fire Department forfive years, department members receivereimbursements from the city for the costs of tuitionand books for training up through the paramediclevel. The contract between the city and departmentmembers is a pro rata arrangement. Firedepartment members who leave after a year withthe department, for instance, have to repay the cityfor four-fifths of tuition costs.

Many recruits currently coming to the firedepartment are interested in careers as paramedicsor fire fighters. They need high levels of trainingand on-the-job experience to further their careers.Thus, they tend to view the training reimbursementsand experience with the department as significantreasons to continue as members. In return, the firedepartment receives services from stronglymotivated and highly trained employees.

The fire department also offers a lodging programfor single fire fighters. Young fire departmentmembers who have left their parents’ homes buthave not started familiesof their own are eligibleto rent rooms that the citymakes available at lowcost. Dormitory roomsare available in the firestations at $50 per month.Other rooms in housingadjacent to the firestations are available at$100 monthly rents.These rooms are inhousing units locatedwithin city-established redevelopment districts thatwere otherwise unoccupied and, if left vacant, could

BEST PRACTICES 89

A lodgingprogram isavailable for

singlefirefighters.

have been targets of vandalism or other problems.Monthly rent payments offset the costs ofmaintaining the properties.

In return for their living accommodations, theoccupants offer the fire department more immediateservice than if they lived farther from the stations.They begin operating the apparatus quickly andprovide shorter response times at emergencies.Between eight and ten department members takeadvantage of the lodging program.

Like most other fire departments, the White BearLake Fire Department offers pension benefits to itsmembers. The fire department acknowledges thatfew members appear to be initially attracted to theservice because of the pension. On the other hand,pensions seem to serve as a retention tool becausethe benefits become available to members after 20years of service.

For other fire departments, the cost of trainingreimbursements will vary depending on theprograms in which students enroll and the numberof enrollees. Fire departments can protect theirinvestment in fire fighters’ advanced training withcontracts that require recipients to provide servicesequivalent to training costs. Lodging programs aremost cost-effective when they take advantage ofhousing already available and may not be feasiblefor departments without sleeping rooms in theirstations or other nearby alternatives.

For more information contact:

Chief Tim VadnaisWhite Bear Lake Fire Department651/429-8567

Other fire departments we surveyed also met ourstandards of performance related to recruiting andretaining fire department members. Some are listedhere along with contact names.

Combination Departments:Fridley, Chief ChuckMcKusick, 612/572-3610;Hastings, Chief DonaldLatch, 651/437-5610.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments:AppleValley, Chief Marv Calvin, 612/423-5874;Chanhassen, Fire Marshal Mark Littfin,

612/937-1900;Eden Prairie, Chief SpencerConrad, 612/949-8335;Oakdale, RonaldEhnstrom, 651/731-8886;Spring LakePark-Blaine-Mounds View, Chief Nyle Zikmund,612/786-4436;St. Peter, Chief Windy Block,507/931-4840.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Albany, Chief Joseph Wedel, 320/845-4040;Amboy, Chief Tom Tallman, 507/674-3473;Browerville , Chief William Buhl, 320/594-2201;Canton, Chief Donald Helgeson, 507/743-5000;Dawson, Chief Jeff Olson, 320/769-2154;GraniteFalls, Chief Mike Ohliger, 320/564-3011;Greenbush, Chief Russel Wicklund, 218/782-2570;Janesville, Chief Bruce Manthe, 507/234-5110;Mora , Chief Gene Anderson, 320/679-1511;Pierz,Chief Dale Janson, 320/632-7351;St. Charles,Chief Linus Soppa, 507/932-4090;St. Paul ParkVolunteer, Chief Scott Gerry, 612/459-9918;WaitePark, Chief Gary Curtis, 320/252-4712;Winnebago Fire Service, Chief Jerome Behnke,507/893-3515;Zimmerman, 1998 Chief DaveGreenlun, 612/856-4666.

Support Safe Operations

Winnebago Fire Service

To prevent the occurrence of occupational injuriesand illnesses, the Winnebago Fire Service workedwith its city officials to develop a comprehensivehealth and safety program. The fire department’sapproach to manage risks to its fire fighters whilestill providing effective emergency responseservices includes: appointing a safety officer,developing strict safety protocols and trainingrequirements, and investing in personal protectiveequipment customized to fit individual fire fighters.

The fire department emphasizes accident preventionby requiring ongoing training of all fire fighters inthe duties they are expected to perform and in theuse and limitations of personal protectiveequipment. Several of the departments’ officershave attended training sessions at local technicalcolleges that enable them to better monitor safetypractices, as well as provide some in-house training.

90 FIRE SERVICES

As part of their training curriculum, officers rely onmaterials approved for use by MNOSHA.

City officials developed an exposure control planfor the fire department that outlines safe workpractices, such as minimizing exposure tobloodborne pathogens and consistent use ofpersonal protective equipment. Fire officersmaintain written standard operating guidelines thatincorporate risk management protocols, such asmaintaining minimum staffing levels duringincidents and taking precautions during confinedspace activities and carbon monoxide releaseinvestigations. Fire officers periodically review andupdate the department’s guidelines to reflect currentOSHA standards. The fire department keeps copiesof the written safety materials at the fire hall and onits apparatus so fire fighters can easily refer tothem.

All fire fighters are trained annually on these safetyprotocols to maintain skills and awareness of thedangers inherent in their occupation. The safetyofficer and training officer work as a team andmaintain fire fighter training records. Fire fightersthat miss a mandatory safety training session cannotparticipate in emergency responses until they fulfillthe requirement.

The safety officer is also the designated incidentsafety officer assigned to monitor hazards, identifyunsafe conditions, and otherwise assess risks to firefighters during emergency incidents. Playing thisdual role, the safety officer assesses theeffectiveness of the training program by monitoringfire ground activities and any occurrence of unsafeacts and practices. The fire department can thentarget its safety training to those areas needingimprovement. The incident safety officerdesignates additional safety officers duringlarge-scale incidents to adequately monitor firefighter safety.

The fire department also uses a system to monitorthe presence and location of all fire fightersthroughout an incident. Using individual name tagsand a personnel accountability board, the safetyofficer tracks fire fighters and determines when amember may be injured or incapacitated. The firedepartment supplements this tracking system byrequiring all fire fighters to wear personal alert

safety devices that sound alarms to notify otherswhen the member is in need of assistance.

To protect fire fighters from exposure to burns,hazardous chemicals, or bloodborne pathogens, thefire department provides each fire fighter withadequate personal protective gear and ensures thatthe equipment fits properly. For example, severalyears ago the fire department began investing inface pieces for helmets and self contained breathingapparatus that are custom-fitted for each fire fighter.The custom-fit face pieces are far more effectivethan generic sized masks at limiting smokeinhalation during fire fighting. MNOSHA nowrecommends that all fire departments providecustom-fit face pieces for all fire fighters. Fireofficials estimate their additional costs forupgrading to custom-fit turnout gear and equipmentare approximately $800 per fire fighter.

The fire department requires all members toparticipate in familiarity tours of local businessesand high-hazard facilities to make them aware ofpotential risks they may encounter in the event a firebreaks out. As an incentive, members receivetraining points and a small stipend for participating.Fire fighters are also compensated for their time intraining.

Fire departments’ costs for maintaining updatedsafety guidelines, providing custom-fit personalprotective equipment, and ensuring ongoingtraining for all members can be substantial andrequire significant person-hours. Because of thelimit on fire fighters’ time, volunteer departmentsmay require the assistance of city administrators indeveloping and updating an exposure control plan.Departments that respond to concurrent orlarge-scale incidents require multiple safety officersto cover their emergency responses.

For more information contact:

Chief Jerome BehnkeWinnebago Fire Service507/893-3515

BEST PRACTICES 91

Set Training Requirements

Alexandria Fire Department

To ensure the 30 volunteer members of theAlexandria Fire Department are well trained for abroad range of expected duties, fire officers use acomprehensive training program. Through its teamapproach to training, the fire department maintainsa workforce capable of providing confined-spaceand high-angle rescues, vehicle extrications, andhazardous materials responses, in addition to firefighting.

To make the most of fire fighters’ time, fire officersstructure training so that all members participatethroughout the session. Rather than have firefighters stand idle watching others learn methodsand protocols, the training officer groups themembers into small teams and conducts similardrills so that each member is always assigned a taskor activity.

To enlist the participation of all members in trainingactivities, fire officers organized the members intothree companies. Under the training officer’sdirection, the companies rotate responsibility forresearching and conducting training and drills foreach month throughout the year. During thetraining sessions, members take turns acting asincident commander. Given the departments’ rangeof services, fire fighters must become familiar withmany safety protocols and emergency responsestrategies.

With the company approach to training, membershave a better understanding of emergency responses

and fire ground activities.Fire officers also benefitbecause members addtheir own perspectives onappropriate responses toemergencies. In additionto the fire departmenttraining, each fire fightermust complete 12 hoursof training each year at aschool or other trainingfacility. Upon

completing outside training, fire fightersincorporate what they have learned into their

company training assignment so that all membersbenefit from each others’ education.

All members are trained in the proper use ofequipment including radios and fire suppression andrescue equipment. The department’s trainingschedule includes drills on communicationprotocols that require members to use their radios.All vehicle operators are required to practicedriving the apparatus they are expected to operateduring responses. By requiring members to practicestarting and using the equipment, fire officersreduce operator error as a cause for equipmentfailure and thus the department avoids repairing orreplacing equipment unnecessarily.

Fire fighters are also trained in the proper use andlimitations of personal protective equipment and onsafety protocols specific to each emergencyresponse activity, such as following minimumstaffing requirements for structural fire fighting andconfined-space rescues. Fire fighters who fail toattend an OSHA-related training session mustcomplete make-up assignments within one weekand are not allowed to participate in emergencyresponses until they satisfy the requirement. Toincrease fire fighter awareness of potential fire risksand safety hazards, fire fighters also walk throughlocal businesses and high-hazard facilities tobecome familiar with building construction andlayouts.

To properly investigate the cause and origin of fires,several Alexandria fire officers train to the arsoninvestigator level. The training officer trains firefighters in appropriate methods of overhaul andsalvage and precautionary steps for preserving thefire scene until the fire cause is determined.

To maintain its fire fighters’ emergency responseskills to large-scale incidents, the Alexandria FireDepartment participates in annual drills with otherpublic-safety agencies, such as local lawenforcement and emergency medical services.Local teachers accompany students who role playinjured victims. The departments jointly plan theinteragency drills and incorporate as many responseactivities as possible into the emergency scenario.For example, the scenario may include ahypothetical train wreck involving vehicles,passenger injuries, hazardous materials spills, and

92 FIRE SERVICES

Companies offire fighters

rotate trainingduties.

fires. Departments invite training instructors fromtechnical colleges to critique their performancethroughout the drill and recommend areas, such asradio communications or following standardoperating guidelines, for additional training. Thedepartments also critique each others’ performanceand identify areas for improving interagencycoordination. The departments share any suppliesexpenses for the mock incidents.

While the Alexandria Fire Department does not payits fire fighters for in-house training activities, itdoes pay tuition costs and per diems for the firefighters’ 12 annual hours of independent training.Volunteer fire departments may have difficultyaffording similar requirements if they have nottypically paid for training. Departments that wishto participate in countywide emergency responsedrills that involve hazardous materials training canapply for grants available through the Division ofEmergency Management. Neighboring firedepartments can reduce costs by pursuing jointtraining opportunities. Departments can increasemember participation by using a flexible trainingschedule. Well-planned sessions and drills thatinvolve all fire fighters make the most of members’time.

For more information contact:

Chief Rick GladeAlexandria Fire Department320/763-3501

Other fire departments we surveyed also met ourstandards of performance related to training andsafety practices. Some are listed here along withcontact names.

Full-Time Departments:Burnsville, Chief RonaldPayne, 612/895-4571;Richfield, Assistant ChiefSteven Sutter, 612/861-9855;St. Paul, ChiefTimothy Fuller, 651/224-7811.

Combination Departments:Fridley, Chief ChuckMcKusick, 612/572-3610;St. Anthony, Chief DickJohnson, 612/788-4885;St. Louis Park, ChiefRobert Gill, 612/924-2594;Winona, Chief EdKrall, 507-457-8266.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments:EdenPrairie , Chief Spencer Conrad, 612/949-8335;Lakeville, Chief Barry Christensen, 612/985-4701;Minnetonka, Chief Joe Wallin, 612/939-8598;Oakdale, Ronald Ehnstrom, 651/731-8886;Robbinsdale, Chief Mark Fairchild, 612/537-4534;White Bear Lake, Chief Tim Vadnais,651/429-8567.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Amboy, Chief Tom Tallman, 507/674-3473;CottonVolunteer, Chief Craig Kinsley, 218/482-5538;Dawson, Chief Jeff Olson, 320/769-2154;Gaylord,Chief Bill Walsh, 507/237-5483;Greenbush, ChiefRussel Wicklund, 218/782-2570;Janesville, ChiefBruce Manthe, 507/234-5110;Mora , Chief GeneAnderson, 320/679-1511;Ogilvie, Chief JonCramsie, 320/272-4822;Pierz, Chief Dale Janson,320/632-7351.

7. Plan for On-Scene Responses

Each of the following relates directly to activities atthe scenes of incidents. Yet they all requireplanning far in advance of incidents, consistentapplication of the plans, and training for the firepersonnel expected to respond to the incidents.

Prepare Preincident Plans

To prepare for an effective response to structure andwildland fires, as well as other emergency incidents,such as water rescues or vehicle accidents, firedepartments should collect information on all firerisks and hazards, hazardous materials facilities andtransport routes, and other emergency risks in theirresponse area.125 Based on these identified risks,

BEST PRACTICES 93

125 NFPA,NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning,1998 ed. (Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1998), 1-1.1; NFPA,NFPA 295,A.2-5; IAFC,Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,secs. 4-5, 4-6, 5-11, 5-12, 5-129; NFPA,NFPA 471,Recommended Practice for Responding to Hazardous Materials Incidents, 1997 ed. (Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1997), 2-1; Cote,FireProtection Handbook, secs. 10-5, 10-13; Kipp and Loflin,Emergency Incident Risk Management, 180.

departments should develop written “preincidentplans” as a way to arm themselves with theinformation to effectively manage emergencieswhile preserving personnel safety. Most of thelarger fire departments had preincident plans in1997, according to our survey.

· About 93 percent of larger firedepartments had preincident plans for atleast some of their fire risks andstructures.

More than 53 percent of volunteer or paid on-calldepartments in smaller communities reportedhaving written emergency response plans inpreparation for their fire responses.

Preincident planning helps incident commandersdecide on appropriate strategies for controllingincidents by providing them and other departmentmembers with vital information about fire risks andother hazards; locations of additional available firesuppression resources such as tankers or foam;building construction, layout, means of egress andoccupancy characteristics; fire protection featuressuch as automatic sprinkler coverage and portableextinguishers; and the geography of the servicearea, as well as related reference materials such asmaps of hydrant locations, roads, and other accesspoints.126 This information is critical for determin-ing minimum staffing levels and equipmentrequirements, developing preattack plans, andassessing fire flow needs, all of which are necessaryfor conducting successful emergency operations andreducing losses.127

Written preincident plans also provide a resourcefor consistent management by all individualsexpected to manage an emergency incident, in theevent that the first-arriving officer changes fromincident to incident or the fire chief or otherassigned incident commander is absent.128 To be

useful, the plans must be accessible while responseunits are en route to and during the incident. Forthe safety of fire personnel, all members who areexpected to respond to emergency incidents shouldbe familiar with preincident plan information, suchas the location and characteristics of complexoccupancies, special hazards, wildland fire risks,water supplies, and roads and terrain of theresponse area.129

In the case of preincident planning for buildings,gathering structure and fire protection informationfor the plans differs from data gathering done whileinspecting buildings for fire code compliance. Theformer is needed to prepare to manage emergenciesonce they occur and the latter to identify and correcthazards to prevent fires from ever happening.Despite this difference, departments may be able tocollect pertinent information for preincident plansduring inspections related to the fire code.

Preincident planning and the use of those plansshould be an ongoing process with annual updatesof plans and related materials, or more frequently ifbuildings or occupancies change.130 The processshould include: (1) gathering current informationon fire and other risks or hazards, (2) analyzing theinformation for what is vital to fire serviceoperations, (3) distributing plans in a format that iseasy to use and gain access to at emergency scenes,and (4) reviewing the plans with response crews.131

Establish an Incident ManagementSystem

Fire departments should establish within theirwritten plans an incident management system thatdefines the department’s roles and responsibilitieswhen responding to specific types of emergencyincidents.132 The plans should outline a standardmanagement structure by which departments direct

94 FIRE SERVICES

126 Kipp and Loflin,Emergency Incident Risk Management,180; NFPA,NFPA 1620,3-1 through 6-4.7.

127 NFPA,NFPA 1620,1-2.5, 2-3.1; NFPA,NFPA 295,A.2-5.

128 NFPA,NFPA 295,A.2-5; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-6.

129 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-5.

130 NFPA,NFPA 1620, 8-3.3; NFPA,NFPA 295,A.2-5; Kipp and Loflin,Emergency Incident Risk Management, 183.

131 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, secs. 10-6, 10-7.

132 NFPA,NFPA 1561, Standard on Fire Department Incident Management System, 1995 ed. (Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1995), 2-1.

emergency incidents, and provide standardoperating guidelines for specific on-scene functionand location assignments.133 For coordinatedoperations and compatibility with other emergencyresponse agencies, such as law enforcement, the firedepartment should develop its incident managementsystem in cooperation with these other agencies.134

We found that in 1997:

· About 69 percent of full-time firedepartments, 90 percent of thecombination departments, and 75 percentof the volunteer or paid on-calldepartments in larger communities hadwritten incident management systems fortheir fire suppression duties.

Another approximately 15 percent of these firedepartments had an incident management systemwith response plans, but they were not written; theremaining larger fire departments were developingtheir incident management systems in 1997.Similar data are not available for volunteer or paidon-call departments in smaller communities.

Implementation of the incident management systemis important. The incident management systemshould be flexible enough to allow the incidentcommander to adapt and apply the basic frameworkand principles to all sizes and types of incidents.135

At the same time, regardless of the level ofcomplexity of the incident, the department shouldalways use the same incident management systemto eliminate confusion when multiple agenciesrespond, to facilitate scene evaluation and strategicplanning, and to maintain control of the incident.136

Routine use of the same incident managementsystem will enhance fire fighters’ familiarity withon-scene operations, resulting in more rapid andeffective responses.137

Write Standard Operating Guidelines

For successful operations at emergency incidents,fire departments should develop and use standardoperating guidelines for all functions andactivities.138 Standard guidelines provide a structurefor conducting operations in a systematic, organizedmanner, and enhance fire departments’ capabilitiesfor effective and reliable fire suppression, rescue, orother emergency responses.139 As mentioned earlier,standard guidelines applied consistently alsoenhance safety for fire personnel. With suchguidelines, members can coordinate and prioritizetasks based on a common understanding of standardapproaches and strategies, regardless of the scale ofthe incident.140 According to our survey, in 1997:

· Seventy-five percent of full-time firedepartments, 95 percent of combinationdepartments, and 86 percent of volunteeror paid on-call departments in largercommunities had written standardoperating guidelines for their firesuppression activities. About 55 percentof volunteer or paid on-call departmentsin smaller communities reported that theyhad such guidelines.

Another 8 percent of larger departments hadstandard operating guidelines, but they were notwritten; about 3 percent were developing suchguidelines in 1997.

BEST PRACTICES 95

133 NFPA,NFPA 1561, 2-1, A-1-2.3.1, A-2-4.5 through A-2-4.5.3; NFPA,NFPA 1201, 2-6.1, 10-1; NFPA,NFPA 1500, 6-1.2; Cole-man and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 336.

134 NFPA,NFPA 1561, 2-3.1; Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 336.

135 NFPA,NFPA 1201, 10-1; NFPA,NFPA 1561, A-2-1.3.

136 NFPA,NFPA 1561, A-2-1.3; Coleman and Granito,Managing Fire Services, 336.

137 NFPA,NFPA 1561, A-2-1.3.

138 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-13; NFPA,NFPA 1201, 9.1; FEMA,Technical Rescue Pro-gram Development Manual,3-10.

139 NFPA,NFPA 1201, 9.1; FEMA,Technical Rescue Program Development Manual,3-10.

140 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-11.

Guidelines should be comprehensive enough toaddress the range of incidents to which thedepartment may be expected to respond, yet flexibleenough to allow fire fighters to react appropriatelyto the unpredictable nature of fires and naturaldisasters.141 Guidelines should: (1) addressadministrative functions such as commandstructure, communication protocols, minimumstaffing levels necessary for effective response, andpersonnel responsibilities; (2) provide instructionon how fire fighters should perform specific duties;and (3) describe tactical operating procedures thatcan accommodate variations in incident severity.142

Develop and Use Overhaul and SalvageGuidelines

As part of their standard operating guidelines forfire suppression, fire departments should developand use guidelines for salvage, overhaul, andmop-up operations to ensure they are conducted in aconsistent, comprehensive manner with minimaldamage to property.143 Well-thought out, systematicapproaches establish a basis for uniform, thorough,and effective activities following suppression of thefire. We found that:

· About 42 percent of full-time firedepartments, 61 percent of thecombination departments, and 48 percentof the volunteer or paid on-calldepartments in larger communities

reported having standard operatingguidelines that included procedures foroverhaul and salvage or mop up in 1997.

Departments should conduct overhaul operations(activities undertaken to ensure a fire is completelyextinguished) according to well-formulated plansand standard operating guidelines.144 Systematic useof guidelines for overhaul activities preventunnecessary destruction of property and valuables.Overhaul plans should allow fire crews to make thepremises safe, yet preserve the scene to aidinvestigators in determining the cause and origin ofthe fire.145 As shown in Figure 2.3:

· Combination and full-time firedepartments were more likely thanvolunteer or paid on-call departments toinstruct their fire fighters in aspects ofarson scenes and how their actions affectthe work of fire investigators.

Developing and following plans for postfire salvageoperations can reduce damage due to smoke andwater.146 Guidelines can prevent additional lossesfor the property owner when they specify usingproper equipment and techniques for removingexcess water, covering roof openings and windowsto protect the interior structure and contents fromexposure to the elements, and providing security forvaluables removed from the structure by firefighters.147 Plans should detail restrictions onmoving or removing contents or otherwise

96 FIRE SERVICES

141 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-11.

142 NFPA,NFPA 1201, 9.1, 16-5.6; FEMA,Technical Rescue Program Development Manual,3-10, 3-11.

143 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-11, 10-12; FEMA,Risk Management Practices in the Fire Service,91, 96; NFPA,NFPA1201, 9-1, 9-2.1, A-9-2.2.

144 Eugene Mahoney,Fire Suppression Practices and Procedures(Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 99-100; Wil-liam E. Clark,Firefighting Principles and Practices, 2d ed. (Saddle Brook, NJ: Fire Engineering, 1991), 140-141; Cote,Fire Protec-tion Handbook,sec. 10-11.

145 John D. DeHaan,Kirk’s Fire Investigation, 3d ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 103-105; Mahoney,FireSuppression Practices and Procedures,99-100, 104; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook,sec. 10-12; NFPA,NFPA 921, Guide for Fireand Explosion Investigations, 1998 ed. (Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1998), 9-3.4.2.2; International Fire Service Training Association(IFSTA), Fire Service Practices for Volunteer and Small Community Fire Departments(Stillwater, OK: Fire Protection Publications,Oklahoma State University, 1986), 287-290.

146 Mahoney,Fire Suppression Practices and Procedures,110-111, 124.

147 Clark,Firefighting Principles and Practices, 139; International Association of Fire Chiefs, Risk Management and Liability Com-mittee,Readings in Fire Service Risk Management(Fairfax, VA.: International Association of Fire Chiefs, 1996), sec. 2-36; Mahoney,Fire Suppression Practices and Procedures,125.

disturbing the area until a fire investigator is able todocument and analyze the scene.148

Beyond typical salvage operations, fire departmentscan promote their image as a community resourceand enhance public relations by being prepared toprovide information for fire victims or refer them toother agencies with victim resources. As anexample, this may mean giving Red Cross contactinformation to owners of burned residences whoneed temporary shelter. Information for victimsmay come in the form of booklets, pamphlets, orother formats. In addition to contact names andphone numbers, useful information would covercommon actions that fire victims can take, such asclean-up procedures and steps to recover burnedrecords and property.

Develop a Process toInvestigate Fire Causes andOrigins

Fire departments should have aprocess in place for investigating theorigin and causes of fires whendamage exceeds $100.149 Identifyingarson incidents and incendiarytrends aids in the prosecution ofcriminal activities. Investigatingfires also provides fire departmentand forestry officials withinformation to understand thecircumstances under which firesoccur, and helps them developstrategies and actions, such asrefocusing fire safety awarenessefforts or increasing codeenforcement activities, to preventsimilar incidents from occurring in

the future.150 Adequate staffing, equipment, andsupplies are essential to conduct effective fireinvestigations.151

Several different agencies may performinvestigations depending on the training andexperience within the fire departments as well asvariations in the nature and types of fires. Firedepartments that do not conduct their owninvestigations are still responsible to makearrangements with other investigation resources,such as local law enforcement or the State FireMarshal Division, and should oversee theinvestigations to their conclusion even when othersconduct them.152 As we reported in Chapter 1, abouta quarter of the larger fire departments and almosttwo-thirds of the smaller ones relied heavily on theState Fire Marshal Division to conductinvestigations. Fire departments also need generalguidelines for notifying and cooperating with thosedesignated investigators. In answer to our survey:

BEST PRACTICES 97

Figure 2.3: Fire Departments That Instructed

Members in Preserving Fire Scenes, 1997

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor�s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

Percent of Departments

Full-Time Combination Volunteer or Paid

On-Call

84.6%

94.7%

60.2%

148 NFPA,NFPA 921, Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, 1998 ed. (Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1998), 9-3.4.2.3.

149 Minn. Stat. §299F.04, subd. 1; IAFC,Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-16.

150 Gerald J. Hoetmer, ed.,Fire Services Today, Managing a Changing Role and Mission(Washington, D. C.: InternationalCity/County Management, 1996), 152; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook,sec. 10-11.

151 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-16.

152 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-16;Minn. Stat.§299F.04, subd. 1; NFPA,NFPA 921,6-1.

· Nearly three-quarters of all firedepartments indicated that they haddeveloped guidelines on when to contactthe State Fire Marshal Division for fireinvestigations.

Investigation programs should include guidelinesfor examining and documenting the scene,collecting and preserving evidence, conductinginterviews, preparing reports, and presenting casesfor prosecution.153 For those Minnesota firedepartments that did not rely heavily on orfrequently use the State Fire Marshal forinvestigations, 67 percent of full-time departments,94 percent of combination departments, and 72percent of volunteer or paid on-call departmentsindicated they had such guidelines. Investigatorsshould be trained in the scientific principles ofcombustion and fire behavior, basic fire-causedetermination, arson detection, and investigationmethodology, and should remain current with fireprotection technology and code requirements.154

As mentioned earlier, fire fighters should considerthe needs of the pending investigation whensuppressing fires and conducting salvage andoverhaul activities.155 Fire crews can provide criticalassistance to investigators by (1) taking note ofpoints of origin and characteristics of the fire and(2) preserving the scene and taking precautionswhenever possible to avoid destroying potentialevidence of its cause.156 Training can raise firefighters’ awareness of how certain actions facilitatesuccessful investigations. The establishment of anarson training unit in the State Fire MarshalDivision and reimbursements authorized for fire

investigation training courses reinforce theimportance of fire fighterawareness in thissubject.157

Fire departments shouldwork with investigators todevelop specificmanagement protocolsthat maintain continuouscustody and control ofthe scene until aninvestigationcommences.158 By following guidelines that assignresponsibility for preserving the fire scene, theincident commander and investigator can determinea time frame for discontinuing salvage andoverhaul, while documenting and preservingrelevant evidence.159 Fire fighters also can helppreserve the integrity of evidence essential todetermining fire causes by monitoring activities andentry to the fire ground throughout the duration ofthe incident.160

Maintain Apparatus and Equipment

In addition to the long-term planning for replacingapparatus discussed in Action 1, fire departmentsshould have a routine maintenance program in placeto ensure that apparatus and equipment, includingpersonal protective equipment, are fully functionalwhen incidents occur.161 Routine maintenanceconsists of (1) maintaining fluid levels and airpressure, checking major components such asbrakes, belts, and hoses, and lubricating whereneeded, and (2) inspecting and testing apparatus and

98 FIRE SERVICES

Fire fighters�actions canpreserve firescenes for

investigators.

153 NFPA,NFPA 1033, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Investigator, 1993 ed. (Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 1993), 3-2through 3-7.

154 NFPA,NFPA 1201, 15-2.1; NFPA,NFPA 1033, 1-3.7.

155 NFPA,NFPA 921, 9-3.4.2.

156 DeHaan,Kirk’s Fire Investigation, 102-104.

157 Minn. Stat. §299F.051, subd. 1-subd. 4.

158 IAFC, Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-16; DeHaan,Kirk’s Fire Investigation, 105; NFPA,NFPA921, 9.3, 16.1.

159 NFPA,NFPA 921, 9.3, 9.3.5, 16.3.

160 NFPA,NFPA 921, 9.3.

161 NFPA,NFPA 1500, 4-4.2; IAFC,Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-23; Cote,Fire Protection Hand-book, sec. 10-209.

equipment according to an established schedule toidentify and correct unsafe conditions.162 As shownin Figure 2.4:

· All full-time and combination firedepartments and about 79 percent ofvolunteer or paid on-call departments hadpreventive maintenance programs inplace in 1997.

Another 3 percent of the volunteer or paid on-calldepartments had preventive maintenance programsunder development in 1997. Routine preventivemaintenance, including checking the properoperation of all safety features, can reduce the costof repairs, lessen the time apparatus is out ofservice, and result in efficient and reliable service

over a long period.163 A system of inspection andmaintenance following the use of apparatus isessential for keeping apparatus serviceable andready for subsequent incidents.164 A maintenanceschedule should require daily inspections ofapparatus subject to daily use, at least weeklychecks of all other apparatus, and inspections of allapparatus and equipment within 24 hours of use orrepair.165

Ladders, aerial devices, pumps, firehoses, and other equipment shouldbe subject to periodic service tests tocheck for cracks, tears, weld defects,or loose couplings, and to otherwiseensure the equipment is in goodoperating condition.166 Departmentsshould test equipment, or usequalified mechanics, to determinewhether it is safe and reliable foruse.167 Equipment failure duringemergency operations, such as aburst hose or broken ladder rung,can result in serious injury to a firefighter and loss of precious time inabating the emergency.

Qualified personnel familiar withfire department apparatus andequipment should inspect, maintain,and repair apparatus in accordance

with manufacturers’ recommendations.168 In manydepartments, most preventive maintenance dutiescan be conducted in-house by assigned firedepartment personnel. Those departments withoutin-house maintenance should have access to afacility that can provide 24-hour service byqualified mechanics.169

BEST PRACTICES 99

Figure 2.4: Fire Departments with Preventive

Maintenance Programs, 1997

0

20

40

60

80

100

Percent of Departments

Full-Time Combination Volunteer or Paid

On-Call

SOURCE: Legislative Auditor�s Office Survey of Fire Departments, 1998.

100%

78.7%

100%

162 NFPA,NFPA 1500, 4-4.1, 4-4.2, A-4-4.1; IFSTA,Fire Service Practices for Volunteer and Small Community Fire Departments,193-194.

163 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-16; IFSTA,Fire Service Practices for Volunteer and Small Community Fire Depart-ments,193-194.

164 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-16.

165 NFPA,NFPA 1500,4-4.1, 4-5.5, A-4-4.1, A-4-4.5.

166 NFPA,NFPA 1500,4-5.5; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, secs. 10-209 through 10-211.

167 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, secs. 10-209 through 10-211.

168 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-17.

169 Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-17; IAFC,Fire and Emergency Service Self-Assessment Manual,sec. 4-23.

Whether maintenance is performed in-house oroutside the department, fire departments shouldkeep complete, up-to-date records of all repair andservice activities.170 Service records provide asource of information for apparatus operating costs,are useful when developing equipment replacementplans, and provide guidance for decisions on thepermanent removal or replacement of equipmentfrom emergency service.171

Summary and Examples Related toPlanning Prior to On-Scene Responses

Advance planning is crucial to effective firedepartment responses. Developing plans andguidelines, training fire department members inthem, and then using them consistently, prepares thedepartment to manage emergencies. With thisadvance preparation, fire personnel work as a teamusing appropriate strategies and tactics to controlfires or other dangerous emergencies whilepreserving the safety of the force. Costs of theadvance planning include the time involved withinspecting buildings; drawing maps, site layouts,and building features; identifying the variety ofresponses to which the department may besummoned and developing guidelines for eachactivity; and familiarizing fire fighters with theinformation once developed.

The key benefit of an effective fire investigationprogram is information gained about fire causes thatcan potentially prevent future fires and avoidinjuries, deaths, and other personal losses. Withincendiary fires, another important benefit isidentifying the persons who set the fires, andthereby minimizing future criminal fire setting.Because fire investigation requires specializedknowledge, skills, and equipment, its costs arelargely those for personnel, training, andinvestigative supplies. Another cost is the timeinvestigators need to analyze fire investigationssystematically.

Routine vehicle and equipment maintenanceprevents minor mechanical problems fromdeveloping into major costly ones, and ensures the

safety of fire fighters using the equipment. Aroutine preventive maintenance program involvescosts for qualified mechanics as well as for theinformation system needed to establish amaintenance schedule and record repairs.

Preincident Planning

Brooklyn Park Fire Department

As part of its fire prevention work, the BrooklynPark Fire Department is closely involved withreviewing plans for new building construction andinspecting existing buildings. With informationcoming from plan reviews and fire code inspections,the department has data to prepare plans for firecontrol in the city’s large commercial structures.

As buildings are being built and inspections made,the fire inspector makes drawings of the buildingsand their relevant features such as access points,hydrant locations, gas shut-offs, exits, and thelocations of chemicals or corrosives. The firedepartment has drawings of all commercialbuildings as well as apartment complexes and townhouses. Working with the city engineeringdepartment, the fire department is computerizingthe building drawings for easy modifications. It hasassigned consistent labeling to building features sothat all who use the drawings can quickly retrievewhatever information is needed.

The drawings become the basis for the firedepartment’s preplanning activities. They provideinformation for the department to prepare inadvance for specific fire risks in its community.The preplans also give fire fighters information onwhat hazards to expect and the location of exits andavailability of fire protection systems before theyarrive at the scene of a fire. Fire fighters review theplans at training sessions and receive orientations tonew buildings annually. Each fire department rigcarries copies of the preplan drawings so firefighters can reacquaint themselves with thebuildings on the way to incidents.

100 FIRE SERVICES

170 IFSTA, Fire Service Practices for Volunteer and Small Community Fire Departments,193-194.

171 NFPA,NFPA 1201, A-17-3.3.1; Cote,Fire Protection Handbook, sec. 10-210.

To give police officers ready access to pertinentbuilding information, the department files copies ofthe preplan drawings with the police department.The department also provides information onchemical storage or other potential hazards to thepublic-safety answering point. This information isstored electronically and comes up on dispatchers’computer screens so that they can relay thatinformation when dispatching fire crews to specificbuildings.

In addition to the preplans, the fire departmenttracks the incidence of fire calls and identifies areaswith inordinately high calls. When departmentpersonnel see high problem areas, a fire inspectorgoes out to assess the causes of the recurrences.The department’s code of conduct for fire inspectorsemphasizes the promotion of fire-safety ideas. Asinspectors identify problems, they meet withbuilding owners to discuss the problems and correctthem. For instance, after a series of false alarms incertain apartment complexes, fire inspectors workedwith apartment owners to replace over time allhand-pull fire alarms with more reliable hard-wiredsmoke detectors, thereby reducing the rate of falsealarms there.

Fire departments in smallerjurisdictions without full-timepersonnel may not have the need fora full-time inspector. But with thecommitment of the fire chief, theycould incorporate buildinginspections for preplanningpurposes into their monthly training.Sharing the costs of a fire inspectoramong several communities isanother option to gather theinformation needed for preplanning.It is important that fire inspectorswork cooperatively with localbuilding inspectors and communityplanners because their workdovetails closely.

For more information contact:

Chief James DristeBrooklyn Park Fire Department612/493-8026

Winnebago Fire Service

As part of the Winnebago Fire Service’s preincidentplanning, fire fighters conduct site visits, surveyowners, and collect occupancy data of businesseswithin their response area. By compilinginformation on building construction, on-sitehazards, and fire protection systems, the firedepartment is able to evaluate the adequacy of itsresources and enhance fire fighter awareness ofpotential safety hazards in the event a fire occurs.

Fire fighters conduct scheduled site visits andinterviews after the department sends notice of thevisit to the business owner or manufacturer. Tofacilitate the preplan process and maintain goodrelations, the department limits the visit topreplanning activities and assures property ownersthat fire fighters are not there to enforce fire codeprovisions at that time.

During the site visit, fire fighters collect detailedinformation about the occupancy such as contactpersons, number of employees by shift, and theexistence of fire or emergency plans and back-uppower. Fire fighters also record buildingcharacteristics such as roof construction, false

BEST PRACTICES 101

Fire fighting rigs carry copies of the preplan drawings.

ceilings, or emergency lighting. Ifthe building owner does not have afloor plan available, fire fighterscompile building and roomdimensions and draft floor plansthat include pertinent information.The preplans follow a standardformat and make note of on-sitefire protection such as sprinklersand extinguishers, the locations ofhydrants and all gas and electricalshut-offs, means of egress, and theexistence and location of hazardousmaterials.

The fire department maintainscopies of the preplans in files in itsrescue truck and are easilyaccessible by all members duringincidents. The fire department haspreplans for all high-hazardoccupancies in its response area,and is completing the plans for theremaining fifty businesses there.Fire fighters update the preplansperiodically; some occupancies with vulnerablepopulations such as nursing homes, are reviewedmore frequently.

The fire department also conducts tours of thebusinesses to familiarize all members with buildinglayouts. The tours and preplans help incidentcommanders determine apparatus and personnelneeds and develop attack strategies in the event afire breaks out; they also reduce the risk of injury tofire fighters.

Winnebago Fire Service members are paid on-callfire fighters, however, they are awarded trainingpoints for conducting the preplan site visits and arepaid stipends for participating in familiarity tours.Fire officials estimate their costs for preplanningactivities are approximately 110 volunteer hoursannually. Using standardized forms keepsdepartment costs for supplies to a minimum.Strong support from members is necessary forconducting site visits and preparing preplans.Volunteer departments should determine fire fighterwillingness and availability prior to implementingon ongoing preplanning program. Fire departmentscan minimize the time required for preplan site

visits by requesting business owners to compile allnecessary information prior to the fire fighters’visits.

For more information contact:

Chief Jerome BehnkeWinnebago Fire Service507/893-3515

Standard Operating Guidelines

Cotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders

The chief of the Cotton Volunteer Fire Departmentwrote job descriptions and guidelines fordepartment members to follow when providing firstresponse services and when fighting fires. The jobdescriptions describe the duties and tasks assignedto fire fighters in various job classifications, and theguidelines outline the standard procedures firefighters typically follow for different types ofresponses.

Some guidelines are intended for the safety of firedepartment members. For instance, a guideline on

102 FIRE SERVICES

Copies of preplans are accessible by Winnebago fire fighters during incidents.

infection control spells out procedures thatvolunteers should follow to prevent the transmissionof disease and control infection while providingemergency medical responses.

Other guidelines are intended to give all firedepartment members a common understanding oftypical procedures the department follows. As anexample, the department wrote a policy on itsincident command procedures. This helps allvolunteers know who assumes command in anemergency and when control is to be transferred; itis especially useful for situations when the chief orspecific officers are not available to respond.

In its job descriptions, the department itemizes thespecific duties that fire fighters in particular jobpositions will be expected to perform. In a class“C” position for instance, members are expected tosupport other fire fighters at the exterior of a fire,lay down hose, and retrieve tools, among otherthings. Duties for class “B” fire fighters includesetting up ladders and running the portable pumpson fire trucks. The fire department’s training officeris responsible for keeping training records andmaking sure members have successfully completedtraining on the duties listed in job descriptionsbefore being allowed to perform them.

When fire fighters begin their service with theCotton Volunteer Fire Department, they receive abook that includes all of the job descriptions andoperating guidelines. They learn about the variousprocedures and guidelines when they go through thefire department’s orientation. The written materialsare useful as a reference in helping protect thesafety of fire department members. They alsoinform members about what training they will haveto complete if they want to respond to fires oremergency medical incidents.

The fire department based many of the operatingguidelines on materials produced by the MinnesotaState Fire Chiefs’ Association for this purpose, andthe chief modified some to reflect Cotton’s ownunique needs. Developing and using the standardsis an ongoing process requiring occasionalmodifications. The department updates theguidelines as rules or regulations change or whentheir own practices dictate.

For more information contact:

Chief Craig KinsleyCotton Volunteer Fire Department and FirstResponders218/482-5538

White Bear Lake Fire Department

With a “silent alarm” policy and the use of on-callteams, the White Bear Lake Fire Department is ableto more efficiently manage the deployment of itsfire fighters and reduce the high numbers ofpersonnel responding to numerous false alarms. Itspractices allow the department to respond to anincreasing volume of calls without supplementingits current workforce.

When calls come in indicating fire alarms aresounding but there is no evidence of smoke orflames, dispatchers ask specific questions of callersand call them back to determine whether they arelikely to be making false or nuisance calls. If thecall meets certain criteria that make it appear likelyto be a false alarm, dispatchers alert the incidentcommander who responds to the incident. Afterassessing the scene, the incident commander makesa judgment about whether to alert other departmentmembers.

With this policy, the department reduced thenumber of personnel responding to the more than300 false alarms received annually. Because of thesingle-person response to calls of this type, it haslowered payroll expenses by approximately$50,000. The practice enhances fire fighter safetyand reduces risk of injury to other drivers becauseof the reduced number of calls to which firecompanies must respond in an emergency modewith red lights and sirens.

Another practice to make more efficient use of firedepartment crews and retain the interest ofdepartment members is operating with on-callteams. The fire department divides its on-callmembers into two teams covering the northern andsouthern halves of the city. Teams are assignedtimes each week to be on standby. Whenemergency calls come in, the standby teamsrespond. Every fire fighter has a two-way radioand, once alerted, informs the incident commander

BEST PRACTICES 103

about his or her availability. Additional firedepartment members respond only when theincident commander determines it is necessary tocall other personnel.

With this practice, the department is able to handlean increasing number of calls without inducingburnout among its members. It has also improvedthe diligence of on-call members to respond whensummoned. Those on standby know they areresponsible for emergencies during their shifts; inthe past, some assumed that their personal responsewas unimportant because other departmentmembers who were also alerted made their presenceunnecessary.

To make silent alarm policies work, firedepartments must work with dispatchers to ensurethey appropriately assess the nature of the calls.Without appropriate training, dispatchers couldimproperly classify a fire as a nonthreatening eventand initial attack crews would be delayed. On-callteams are relevant mostly to fire departmentsoperating with volunteer or paid on-call members.Fire departments in communities with relatively fewcalls may not have a need for on-call teams,particularly if they have not experienced a problemwith too few volunteers showing up to responses.

For more information contact:

Chief Tim VadnaisWhite Bear Lake Fire Department651/429-8567

Other fire departments we surveyed also met ourstandards of performance related to emergencyresponse preparations including preplanning,incident management systems, and standardoperating guidelines. Some are listed here alongwith contact names.

Full-Time Department: Duluth , Chief DuaneFlynn, 218/723-3200.

Combination Department: St. Anthony, ChiefDick Johnson, 612/788-4885.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Chanhassen, Fire Marshal Mark Littfin,612/937-1900;Oakdale, Ronald Ehnstrom,

651/731-8886;Mendota Heights, Chief JohnMaczko, 651/452-1850;Eden Prairie, ChiefSpencer Conrad, 612/949-8335.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Amboy, Chief Tom Tallman, 507/674-3473;Gaylord, Chief Bill Walsh, 507/237-5483;Gonvick, Chief Ronald Rude, 218/487-5770;Janesville, Chief Bruce Manthe, 507/234-5110;Zimmerman, 1998 Chief Dave Greenlun,612/856-4666.

Fire Investigations

Duluth Fire Department

The Duluth Fire Department participates in a fireand police arson task force, consisting of the firemarshal, deputy fire marshal, and a policeinvestigator. Together the task force membersprovide complete fire investigation capabilities forDuluth and other areas outside the city.

Arson task force members received arson trainingthrough the Bureau of Criminal Apprehension andfrom other sources. Whenever a fire seems at allsuspicious, the fire marshal pages the policeinvestigator and they investigate as a team.

The task force represents a sharing of expertise andequipment. Among other items, the fire departmentsupplied the police investigator with a camera andbreathing apparatus, and equipped a policedepartment vehicle withevidence collectionequipment and additionalprotective gear forworking around firescenes. The policeinvestigator can drive thisvehicle from home whenincidents occur afterregular business hours.Duluth’s Fire Departmentalso fully equipped itsown arson van to allow it to operate as anindependent investigative unit.

Besides working together, the police and fireinvestigators made a point of becoming better

104 FIRE SERVICES

Fire and policeofficials work

togetherinvestigating

fires.

acquainted with local prosecutors. By familiarizingthemselves with the prosecutors’ needs, theinvestigators hoped to provide the kind of evidencethat would lead to more cases being presented forprosecution.

The fire department committed additional resourcesto training on arson-related issues. More firedepartment officers received arson training, not tobe able to conduct the investigation, but rather toknow how to best preserve the fire scene soinvestigators could do their job. In turn, other firefighters received training on preserving the sceneand taking care to avoid destroying evidence.

Because of the collaboration and widespread arsontraining, the task force identifies many more casesof arson than when the departments did not shareresources. The fire marshal estimates that up to 80percent of arson fires went undetected in the pastwhen only the most serious and flagrant cases wereinvestigated for incendiary causes. Because of theimportance of sharing information about arsonistsand patterns of arson behavior, Duluth’s firemarshal applied for and received a grant to organizean electronic database for a regional arsoninformation exchange via the Internet.

Duluth’s arson task force also assists investigationsat the request of other fire departments in serviceareas outside the city. In these cases, the arson taskforce does not take over the investigation but offersassistance at no charge to other investigators or inadvance of the arrival of an investigator from theState Fire Marshal Division. Assisting in this wayhelps other fire departments and Duluth becausearsonists tend to move around and repeat theircriminal behavior; if the arson task force’sassistance leads to an arrest and prosecution, it maybe preventing other fire incidents from occurringwithin the city. Plus, the additional investigationexperience helps keep investigators’ skills sharp.

Making the arson task force succeed requiredsupport from both the fire and police chiefs. It alsorequired initiative and willingness on the part of theinvestigators to work together. Unlike many otherfire departments, Duluth has a full-time fire marshalwho can build the expertise and workingrelationships needed for effective investigations.Although this practice is not applicable to fire

departments that do not conduct investigations,those departments with trained investigators mayalso find benefits from joint investigative effortswith local law enforcement.

For more information contact:

Chief Duane Flynn andFire Marshal John StrongitharmDuluth Fire Department218/723-3200 and 218/723-3208

Maple Plain Fire Department

To preserve fire scenes and facilitate effective fireinvestigations, the Maple Plain Fire Departmentfollows guidelines on fire suppression, postfireactivities, and investigation guidelines. The firedepartment also coordinates fire investigations withlocal law enforcement and State Fire Marshalinvestigators to ensure all responsibilities arecovered while determining the cause and origin offires.

All fire fighters are trained to the Fire Fighter IIlevel to ensure any initial attack team can recognizesigns of arson, such as the presence of incendiaryliquids as indicated by the flames’ color. Thetraining also provides insight as to how suppressionactivities can affect the outcome of investigations.To minimize the damage to property and disruptionto the fire scene, fire fighters use caution during firesuppression, overhaul, and salvage activities. Theyensure the fire is extinguished, yet preserve thescene for investigators.

While the commanding officer’s attack strategydepends on the severity of the situation and mayrequire extensive use of water and buildingdestruction, fire fighters use water filledextinguishers, rather than fire hoses, in isolatedareas of the structure whenever possible tominimize damage to property. Fire fighters restrictmoving items on the fire scene to a minimum, andrather than removing valuables they will cover theitems with tarps. When a fire appears suspicious,the incident commander interviews all initial attackpersonnel and requires the fire fighters to completean investigative report form for fire department, lawenforcement, and State Fire Marshal records.

BEST PRACTICES 105

For those incidents when Maple Plain fire officersdetermine cause and origin, the fire departmentmaintains custody and control of the scene until theinvestigation concludes. For incidents involvingdamages exceeding approximately $10,000, majorinjuries, or death, the incident commander requeststhe services of a State Fire Marshal investigator.The fire department turns over custody of the firescene to the State Fire Marshal Division when itsinvestigator arrives. The fire chief estimatesbetween 3 and 5 percent of their structural andwildland fires involve arson.

Five members of the on-call Maple Plaindepartment are employed elsewhere as policeofficers. By virtue of their law enforcementbackground, these fire fighters bring to thedepartment outside expertise in investigationpractices, such as maintaining the chain of custodyof evidence, preserving the scene, and interview andinterrogation techniques. Their experience hasproven helpful during fire investigations as well asother incidents such as determining the cause ofvehicle crashes while extricating victims fromvehicle crashes.

A side benefit of having police officers serve as firefighters is lower fire department training costs; aspolice officers, the fire fighters receive firstresponder and investigation training which they useto augment their fire fighter skills. Fire officialsbelieve the officers also contribute to the excellentrelations between local law enforcement agenciesand the fire department. Each department benefitsfrom the insight these members provide about theother department’s activities. The fire and policedepartments coordinate training activities and havea clear understanding of each other’s roles andresponsibilities during emergency incidents. Onedrawback is that during large emergency incidents,the fire department loses the availability of thosefive members that respond first as police officers,and second as fire fighters.

Departments that cannot afford advancedinvestigation training should, at a minimum, instructtheir fire fighters on their responsibilities in the fireinvestigation process. Volunteer or paid on-calldepartments seeking to improve their fireinvestigation capabilities may consider targetingrecruitment efforts at individuals with investigation

backgrounds. Volunteer departments with limitedcapability to maintain custody of a scene whileawaiting an investigator can consider requestingowners to sign consent forms that permitinvestigators to return at a later date without theneed for a search warrant.

For more information contact:

Chief Dave EisingerMaple Plain Fire Department612/479-2732

Many other fire departments we surveyed also metour standards of performance related to fireinvestigations. Among them are the followingdepartments listed here along with contact names.

Full-Time Departments: Burnsville, Chief RonaldPayne, 612/895-4571;Rochester, Chief DavidKapler, 507/285-8072;St. Paul, Chief TimothyFuller, 651/224-7811;West St. Paul, Chief JohnEhret, 651/552-4230.

Combination Departments: Albert Lea , ChiefRichard Sydnes, 507/377-4340;Fridley, ChiefChuck McKusick, 612/572-3610;Hastings, ChiefDonald Latch, 651/437-5610;St. Louis Park,Chief Robert Gill, 612/924-2594.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Alexandria, Chief Rick Glade, 320/763-3501;Apple Valley, Chief Marv Calvin, 612/423-5874;Bloomington, Chief Ulysses Seal, 612/881-4062;Brooklyn Park, Chief James Driste, 612/493-8026;Chanhassen, Fire Marshal Mark Littfin,612/937-1900;Eden Prairie, Chief SpencerConrad, 612/949-8335;Elk River, Chief BruceWest, 612/441-4919;Lakeville, Chief BarryChristensen, 612/985-4701;Little Falls, Chief FredTabatt, 320/632-4461;Minnetonka, Chief JoeWallin, 612/939-8598;New Ulm, Chief David A.Wolf, 507/359-9261;Oakdale, Ronald Ehnstrom,651/731-8886;Robbinsdale, Chief Mark Fairchild,612/537-4534;Spring Lake Park-Blaine-MoundsView, Chief Nyle Zikmund, 612/786-4436.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Amboy, Chief Tom Tallman, 507/674-3473;Cambridge, 1998 Chief Thomas Minar,612/689-3211;Cotton Volunteer, Chief Craig

106 FIRE SERVICES

Kinsley, 218/482-5538;Granite Falls, Chief MikeOhliger, 320/564-3011;Greenbush, Chief RusselWicklund, 218/782-2570;Ogilvie, Chief JonCramsie, 320/272-4822;Pierz, Chief Dale Janson,320/632-7351;St. Charles, Chief Linus Soppa,507/932-4090;St. Paul Park Volunteer, ChiefScott Gerry, 612/459-9918;Spring Valley, ChiefNevin Stender, 507/346-7367;Waite Park, ChiefGary Curtis, 320/252-4712.

Preventive Maintenance

Alexandria Fire Department

The Alexandria Fire Department relies on afull-time paid mechanic with an on-site repair shopto maintain apparatus and equipment. Within-house maintenance and repair capabilities, thedepartment receives consistent inspections andquick repairs of its large fleet resulting inequipment and apparatus being available whenneeded.

Prior to 1994, the fire departmenthad relied on its volunteer membersto conduct weekly and monthlyinspections of its ten firesuppression vehicles. Thedepartment had at that timeacquired several specializedapparatus and, because of the firefighters’ limited mechanicalexpertise, fire officers had to shipout all trucks for repairs, either to avendor or the city garage. Due tothe fire department’s increasing callvolume and frequent use of itsapparatus, fire fighters had todevote a significant amount of timeto apparatus maintenance. Toreduce the volunteers’ time onmaintenance, fire officers workedwith city officials to add a city staffposition dedicated to fire-vehiclemaintenance and repairs. As aresult, volunteer fire fighters began devoting moretime to fire duties and training without increasingtheir volunteer hours.

The full-time on-site mechanic provides consistentand regular preventive maintenance, such aschecking engine oil and tire pressure, inspectingand conducting regular service tests of apparatus,and reinspecting equipment and vehicles within 24hours of use. With a repair shop housed in the firestation, the mechanic quickly fixes most equipmentand apparatus. Fire officers estimate thisarrangement reduces apparatus down-time byseveral days because they do not have to rely on anoutside mechanic’s availability for the repairs, and itreduces the need to ship apparatus to and from avendor.

Fire officers believe the in-house mechanicproduces higher quality work than that done byoutside vendors. Because the same individualworks on the apparatus daily, he is familiar withtheir performance and can accurately assess theremaining service life of parts and equipment. Thishelps fire officers plan and budget to replaceequipment and apparatus accordingly.

As part of the fire department’s repair program,members report any equipment or apparatusmalfunctions on a form, identifying the apparatus orequipment, detailing the date and purpose of its use,and describing the problem. Based on the firefighters’ reports, the mechanic assesses the damage

BEST PRACTICES 107

Alexandria’s Fire Department has an on-site repair shop.

and repairs or replaces the equipment. Inimmediately addressing all apparatus andequipment deficiencies, the fire department reducesthe risk of injury to its fire fighters by lowering thepossibility that equipment will break down duringemergency operations.

In addition to apparatus maintenance and repairs,the fire department assigns other in-house duties,such as maintaining the fire station, to the full-timeemployee. Alexandria fire officials estimate thecity’s costs for the full-time employee arecomparable to the overall costs that wouldotherwise be incurred for vendors’ repairs and firestation maintenance. They believe the full-timeposition is necessary, however, to ensure consistentquality apparatus maintenance and repairs and toreduce their volunteer fire fighters’ timecommitment. The costs of employing a full-timemechanic may be too high for small firedepartments with a low number of incidents or asmall fleet. Volunteer departments with limited firefighter availability or little mechanical expertisemay have to consider hiring part-time staff, sharingthe costs of a mechanic with a neighboringdepartment or city, or contracting with maintenancevendors.

For more information contact:

Chief Rick GladeAlexandria Fire Department320/763-3501

Gonvick Fire Department

To ensure apparatus are available for use and tomaintain peak response capability 24 hours a day,the Gonvick Fire Department uses an in-housepreventive maintenance program for its equipmentand apparatus. Through routine maintenance andregular service tests and inspections, fire fightersidentify equipment defects and, in most instances,make necessary repairs.

Five volunteer fire fighters employed elsewhere asfull-time mechanics, and one employed elsewhereas an electrician, work together conducting weeklyand monthly equipment checks. They rely on each

others’ expertise to diagnose the condition andreliability of equipment and apparatus. Themembers are also capable of making most repairson the apparatus, including minor repairs on pumps,either on-site or they can use a local garage facilityat no cost. To cover both anticipated andunanticipated costs for equipment, the fire fightersdetermine the life expectancy of the equipment andparts and allocate money to replace what is neededfrom the department’s annual budget to itsequipment replacement fund.

Based on experiences with outside vendors thatspecialize in fire suppression apparatus, thevolunteers believe they provide better maintenanceat a much lower cost. In the past, fire fighters havehad to assist the vendors’ mechanics duringapproximately half of the vendors’ billable hours.Members also found it necessary to conductfollow-up quality assurance checks after thevendors completed their work.

Because they offer immediate repairs, they reduceapparatus down time and avoid delays that canoccur when using outside services. The in-housemaintenance and repairs, however, require asignificant amount of volunteer time; membersestimate they spend 30 to 40 hours a monthcollectively on preventive maintenance and repair.

Besides saving money, in-house preventivemaintenance increases fire fighters’ familiarity withthe apparatus and equipment, which produces moreefficient maintenance time and effective emergencyoperations. Proper use and maintenance ofequipment and apparatus produces a longer servicelife. Local taxpayers also benefit due to moneysaved by avoiding outside repair services.

Volunteer or paid on-call departments seeking toreduce outside maintenance costs may benefit bytargeting fire fighting recruitment efforts atindividuals with mechanical skills to assist inon-site preventive maintenance activities. Due tothe large time commitment required for an in-houseprogram, however, it may be difficult fordepartments with a large fleet or specially equippedapparatus to ensure consistent, quality maintenanceand repairs without specially trained mechanics.

108 FIRE SERVICES

For more information contact:

Chief Ronald RudeGonvick Fire Department218/487-5770

Many other fire departments we surveyed also metour standards of performance related to preventivemaintenance programs. Among them are thefollowing departments listed here along withcontact names.

Full-Time Departments: Burnsville, Chief RonaldPayne, 612/895-4571;Duluth , Chief Duane Flynn,218/723-3200;St. Paul, Chief Timothy Fuller,651/224-7811;West St. Paul, Chief John Ehret,651/552-4230.

Combination Departments: Albert Lea , ChiefRichard Sydnes, 507/377-4340;Fridley, ChiefChuck McKusick, 612/572-3610;Hastings, ChiefDonald Latch, 651/437-5610;St. Louis Park,Chief Robert Gill, 612/924-2594;Winona, ChiefEd Krall, 507-457-8266.

Larger Volunteer or On-Call Departments: AppleValley, Chief Marv Calvin, 612/423-5874;Brooklyn Park, Chief James Driste, 612/493-8026;Chanhassen, Fire Marshal Mark Littfin,612/937-1900;Eden Prairie, Chief SpencerConrad, 612/949-8335;Lake Johanna Volunteer,Chief Don Szurek, 651/481-7024;New Ulm, ChiefDavid A. Wolf, 507/359-9261;North St. Paul,Chief David Zick, 651/770-4480;Oakdale, RonaldEhnstrom, 651/731-8886;Spring LakePark-Blaine-Mounds View, Chief Nyle Zikmund,612/786-4436;Vadnais Heights, Chief Jerry Auge,651/490-1355.

Smaller Volunteer or On-Call Departments:Albany, Chief Joseph Wedel, 320/845-4040;Amboy, Chief Tom Tallman, 507/674-3473;Browerville , Chief William Buhl, 320/594-2201;Cambridge, 1998 Chief Thomas Minar,612/689-3211;Canton, Chief Donald Helgeson,507/743-5000;Cotton Volunteer, Chief CraigKinsley, 218/482-5538;Dawson, Chief Jeff Olson,320/769-2154;Gaylord, Chief Bill Walsh,507/237-5483;Granite Falls, Chief Mike Ohliger,320/564-3011;Greenbush, Chief Russel Wicklund,

218/782-2570;Isanti Volunteer, Chief RandyPolzin, 612/444-8019;Janesville, Chief BruceManthe, 507/234-5110;Maple Plain, Chief DaveEisinger, 612/479-2732;Mora , Chief GeneAnderson, 320/679-1511;Pierz, Chief Dale Janson,320/632-7351;St. Charles, Chief Linus Soppa,507/932-4090;St. Paul Park Volunteer, ChiefScott Gerry, 612/459-9918;Spring Valley, ChiefNevin Stender, 507/346-7367;Waite Park, ChiefGary Curtis, 320/252-4712;Winnebago FireService, Chief Jerome Behnke, 507/893-3515;Zimmerman, 1998 Chief Dave Greenlun,612/856-4666.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

In this chapter we identify five goals for managingfire services. These goals apply to all firedepartments, although departments may usedifferent strategies for achieving them. The firstgoal is to prevent the outbreak of fires and achievefire safety awareness throughout the community. Asecond goal is to ensure the enforcement of fire andlife safety codes for the prevention and control ofstructure fires. The third goal is to investigate thecause, origin, and circumstances of fires in the firedepartment’s jurisdiction. The fourth is to maintaina response capability that is safe and effective.Finally, the fifth goal is to protect citizens’ lifesafety and property against the dangers of fires andother emergencies that may occur in the responsearea.

To help fire departments meet these goals, werecommend seven actions. These actions are basedon state laws and rules as well as on guidelines andstandards from within the fire industry. Althoughthe actions are appropriate for all sizes and types offire departments, the degree to which they applymay differ.

The first action is to assess risks and developlong-range plans. Long-range or master plans helpfire departments evaluate local demands for fireprotection and other services, adapt their services tothese needs, and match their services to availableresources. In developing the plans, fire departmentsshould assess the types and magnitude of fire andother hazardous risks to determine needed levels offire suppression resources and develop response

BEST PRACTICES 109

strategies. A fire department’s response capabilitiesshould be directly related to risks inherent to lifeand property in the service area.

A fire department’s master plan should includecontingency plans for ensuring continuousavailability of emergency responses, even in theevent of natural disasters or unplanned catastrophes.In addition, fire departments need capitalreplacement plans to be financially prepared toreplace fire vehicles and equipment as they wear outor become obsolete.

A second action we recommend is to evaluate firedepartment performance and use resourcescost-effectively. Setting goals and measuring howwell they meet their objectives helps firedepartments identify their strengths and weaknessesso they can reallocate resources and modifyprograms to meet community needs. Keeping andupdating records on fire department activitiesallows departments to analyze their performance,identify current resource needs, and plan futureservices.

Mutual aid agreements are a cost-effective way forfire departments to supplement each others’resources during prolonged or extraordinaryincidents; automatic aid provides additional staffand equipment on the first alarm, making

productive use of nearbyresources. Although lesscommon, mutual aid canprovide additionalbenefits when used forother joint activities, suchas sharing facilities orproviding help with fireinvestigations. Firedepartments can alsoachieve economies ofscale by pursuing

intergovernmental service contracts or joint powersagreements with other jurisdictions, orconsolidating service areas with neighboringdepartments. Using existing materials andresources and making joint purchases of equipmentare also cost-effective.

The third action for meeting fire department goals isto promote public awareness of fire safety. Firedepartments’ public education efforts should beongoing, tailored to specific audiences, and addressboth fire prevention and mitigation strategies. Byusing a variety of forums and communicationstrategies, fire departments can inform citizens ofall age groups about preventing fires in the homeand workplace.

The fourth action recommends that fire personnelensure the enforcement of theMinnesota UniformFire Code. Fire department personnel haveauthority to conduct fire-code related inspections ofbuildings. Through fire code inspections, firedepartments can identify fire hazards and order theircorrection, familiarize themselves with on-sitesprinkler systems and other fire protection systems,and educate building owners and occupants onfire-safe practices. In communities that haveadopted theState Building Code, adequate fire codeenforcement requires the cooperation of buildingand fire officials throughout construction andremodeling processes.

The fifth action is to maintain an effectivecommunications system. Fire departments needreliable hardware, standardized communicationprotocols, and adequate communication training tocontrol emergency responses and coordinate withother fire departments. Ongoing communicationwith others, such as law enforcement, water utilitiespersonnel, and local elected officials, helps firedepartments identify mutual concerns and plan tomeet their needs.

The sixth action recommends that fire departmentsmaintain a well-trained workforce and take steps tosupport safe emergency operations. Firedepartments with at least minimum trainingrequirements, health and safety protocols, standardoperating guidelines, and adequate personalprotective equipment reduce the risk of injury to firefighters and improve operations at emergencyscenes. They also need a recruitment programbased on their own personnel needs, and goodmanagement practices to retain members.

110 FIRE SERVICES

Firedepartmentsshould adoptbest practices.

The seventh action recommends advance planningand preparation for emergency response operations.Fire departments need preincident planninginformation, an incident command system, standardoperating guidelines, and well-maintained apparatusto provide effective, coordinated responses.Advance preparation also requires training for firefighters to understand and use the plans andguidelines. Part of this training should instruct firefighters on preserving fire scenes to aid the fireinvestigator. All fire departments need a process forinvestigating the origins and causes of fires to helpprevent similar incidents from occurring and aid inthe prosecution of criminal activities.

We used these goals and actions as a framework toidentify best practices in fire departments. Somebest practices are common throughout firedepartments around the state, and others are less so.Although we were able to visit only a few of the firedepartments that use best practices, we presentexamples of these departments’ successful activitiesand recommend them for consideration by others.

BEST PRACTICES 111

This appendix explains the process wefollowed to conduct this best practicesreview of fire services. It describes the steps

we took, the general timeline we followed, and theassistance we received from fire service personneland state and local government representatives.

BACKGROUND RESEARCH

In conducting this review we gathered informationfrom a variety of sources. We began with aliterature review of materials relevant to a broadrange of fire department services. To help definethe scope of this review, we invited fire personnel,state and local government officials, legislators, andothers interested in fire department services to aroundtable discussion in June 1998. At thismeeting, 54 participants, in addition to LegislativeAuditor’s Office staff, discussed key issues andpresented ideas for topics to include in the review.We also spent time speaking with fire chiefs,visiting fire departments of different sizes located invarious regions of the state to learn about theirequipment and apparatus and observe theiremergency responses, and interviewing stateofficials and others involved in this topic. We alsoattended meetings of fire service organizations tolearn about current issues in the fire service.

TECHNICAL ADVISORY PANEL

Throughout this review, an 18-member panelcomprised of fire service personnel and otherprofessionals assisted us in our study. The role ofthis panel was to provide expertise and commentsfrom the local fire departments’ perspectives onvarious issues and draft materials as we conductedthe study. To receive feedback from a variety ofviewpoints, we selected technical panel membersfrom various types and sizes of fire departments anddifferent regions of the state, as well asrepresentatives from state and local agencies.Members from the major fire organizations in thestate served on the advisory panel.

We are grateful to the panel members for theiradvice and help. The Legislative Auditor’s Officeremains responsible for the content of this report;panel members may or may not agree with theconclusions and recommendations of our study.Table A.1 lists the individuals that served on ourtechnical panel (titles indicate the person’s positionas our study began).

Study MethodologyAPPENDIX A

Table A.1: Technical Advisory PanelMembers, 1999

Marilyn Arnlund , Fire Marshal, Maple Grove; FireMarshal’s Association of Minnesota (FMAM) Vice-President

Al Bataglia , Assistant Fire Chief, St. Paul Fire and SafetyServices Department

Jeffrey Brennan , President, Minnesota Professional FireFighters

Duane Flynn , Fire Chief, Duluth Fire Department

David Ganfield, Member, Richfield Fire Department;Secretary, Minnesota State Fire DepartmentAssociation (MSFDA)

Jeff Juntunen , Fire Chief, Esko Fire Department;Minnesota State Fire Chiefs’ Association (MSFCA)Arrowhead Region 3 representative

Kim Kallestad, Fire Chief, Stillwater Fire Department

Kevin Leuer , Hazardous Materials Manager,Division of Emergency Management;District Fire Chief, Plymouth Fire Department

Tim Madigan , Faribault City Administrator

Charles McLaughlin, Captain, Crosby Fire Department;MSFDA Region 5 representative

Les Miller , Fire Chief, Rice Lake Township Fire Department

Jon Nisja , Code Development Bureau Chief, State FireMarshal Division; FMAM President

Jerry Pawelk , Fire Chief, Lester Prairie Fire Department;MSFCA Region 10 representative

Tom Pressler , President, MSFDA; retired member ofBloomington Fire Department

Jerry Rosendahl , Fire Chief, Owatonna Fire Department;MSFCA Board of Directors Chair

Ulie Seal , Fire Chief, Bloomington Fire Department; MSFCAParliamentarian

Dan Wilson , Fire Chief, Austin Fire Department

Nyle Zikmund, Fire Chief, Spring Lake Park - Blaine -Mounds View Fire Department; MSFCA legislative chair

Consultant

We retained a consultant to answer technicalquestions, comment on draft documents, andprovide information on the strengths andweaknesses of various practices. He also joined uson a number of our site visits to fire departmentsaround the state. Our consultant wasGreggDavies,former Carver County EmergencyManagement Director and Chaska Fire Departmentmember.

SURVEY METHODOLOGY

To gather information on fire services in Minnesota,we surveyed fire departments and fire marshaloffices on their operations, practices, revenues, andexpenditures for the 1997 calendar year. We usedthe survey responses to supplement data obtainedfrom the State Fire Marshal’s Division, theDepartment of Revenue, and the StateDemographer’s office. We developed surveyquestions based on fire department standardscompiled from our literature review, and pretestedthem with our technical panel members and otherfire chiefs.

We developed two separate survey instruments: afull survey for larger fire departments and a shorterone to lessen the time burden for fire chiefs in smallvolunteer departments. We mailed the full71-question survey to all departments thataccording to State Fire Marshal data were staffed by(1) entirely full-time members, (2) by acombination of full-time and volunteer or paidon-call members, or (3) volunteer or on-calldepartments in cities with populations greater than8,000. We mailed a shorter 24-question survey to astratified random sample of volunteer and paidon-call departments located in communities withless than 8,000 population. To ensure allgeographic regions in the state were represented inthe sample, we grouped these small departmentsaccording to the 13 economic development regionsin the state and randomly selected 65 percent of firedepartments in each region.

In mid-October 1998, we mailed surveys to 555 firedepartments with an initial due date three weekslater. Along with the survey and cover letter, we

enclosed a letter from the Minnesota State FireChiefs’ Association encouraging fire chiefs torespond. For a higher response rate, we mailedfollow-up letters and surveys to fire departmentsthat had not responded by the first due date. Staffalso made phone calls to several hundred fire chiefsrequesting they return a completed survey.

We received completed surveys from 88 of the 101large volunteer or on-call, combination, andfull-time departments in time for analysis, for aresponse rate of 87 percent. The results have amargin of error between plus or minus 4 percentagepoints. Because many respondents did not answerall questions in the survey, the margin of error maybe larger for responses where the number ofrespondents is low. In addition, the practicaldifficulties of conducting any opinion survey mayintroduce other sources of error that cannot bemeasured.

Of the 454 small volunteer departments wesurveyed, 307 returned surveys in time for analysisfor a response rate of 68 percent. Survey resultsfrom our sample have a margin of error rangingbetween plus or minus 4 percentage points due tosampling error. The margin of error may be largerfor responses to particular questions where thenumber of respondents is low. The departmentsselected to participate are listed below. At the endof this appendix, we list the aggregate results forboth surveys.

Fire Departments Included inSurvey

Table A.2 lists the fire departments to which wemailed our full survey. Full-time and combinationdepartments are footnoted. All other firedepartments are either volunteer or paid on-calldepartments located in communities withpopulations greater than 8,000. Three departments,Chisholm, Ely, and Eveleth, received our full surveyeven though these cities have populations under8,000 population because State Fire Marshal datadesignated them as combination departments. Weincluded their responses in our analysis of the fullsurveys.

Some local fire marshals operate independently ofthe fire departments in their community. With help

114 FIRE SERVICES

from the Fire Marshal’s Association of Minnesota,we identified 11 such fire marshals and mailed tothem questions pertinent to fire prevention,inspections, and fire-code enforcement. Table A.3lists the communities of these fire marshals.

Table A.4 lists the smaller community firedepartments to which we mailed our shorter survey.These communities all have populations less than8,000.

PERFORMANCE MEASURES FORFIRE SERVICES

To help identify effective and efficient firedepartment practices, we reviewed statutes, rules,standards, and guidelines from the state and federalgovernments and from the fire service industry. Werelied on these laws and standards to identify goalsand actions for effective and efficient firedepartment service. We reviewed the actions forsuccessful fire services with our technical panel andwith focus groups of fire fighters, as describedbelow.

APPENDIX A 115

Table A.2: Full-time, Combination, and Large Volunteer or Paid On-Call DepartmentsReceiving Survey

* Albert Lea1 * Crookston1 * Hopkins * New Ulm *St. Peter* Alexandria * Duluth2 * Hutchinson * North Mankato *Sauk Rapids

Andover Eagan * International Falls * North St. Paul Savage* Anoka-Champlin East Bethel * Inver Grove Heights * Northfield *Shakopee* Apple Valley East Grand Forks * Lake Johanna Volunteer * Oakdale *South St. Paul2

* Austin1 * Eden Prairie * Lakeville * Owatonna1 *Spring Lake Park-* Bemidji1 * Edina1 * Little Canada * Plymouth Blaine-Mounds View* Bloomington * Elk River * Little Falls * Prior Lake *Stillwater1

* Brainerd City1 * Ely3 Mankato * Ramsey *Thief River Falls1

* Brooklyn Center * Eveleth3 * Maple Grove * Red Wing1 *Vadnais Heights* Brooklyn Park * Fairmont * Maplewood * Richfield2 *Virginia2

* Buffalo Faribault * Marshall * Robbinsdale *Waseca* Burnsville2 * Farmington * Mendota Heights * Rochester2 *West Metro

Centennial * Fergus Falls * Minneapolis2 * Rochester Airport2 Fire-Rescue District* Chanhassen Fort Snelling * Minnetonka * Rosemount *West St. Paul2

* Chaska * Fridley1 Montevideo4 Roseville *White Bear Lake* Chisholm3 * Golden Valley * Moorhead2 * St. Anthony1 *Willmar* Cloquet2 * Grand Rapids Mound * St. Cloud1 *Winona1

* Columbia Heights1 * Ham Lake * Minneapolis/St. Paul * St. John’s University *Woodbury* Coon Rapids1 * Hastings1 International Airport2 * St. Louis Park1 Worthington* Cottage Grove * Hibbing1 * New Brighton * St. Paul2

Note: An asterisk (*) depicts fire departments from which we received completed surveys in time for analysis.

1Combination fire department staffed with 6 or more full-time members.2Fire department staffed with all full-time members.3Paid on-call fire department in communities with less than 8,000 population.4Returned survey too late to be included in our analysis.

Table A.3: Local Fire Marshal OfficesReceiving Survey

* Blaine * Mendota Heights* Bloomington New Brighton* Fairmont * Plymouth Fire Inspector* Farmington * Rosemount* Inver Grove Heights * Roseville* Little Canada * Spring Lake Park* Maple Grove Fire

Prevention Bureau

Note: An asterisk (*) depicts fire marshal offices from which wereceived completed surveys by the response deadline.

116 FIRE SERVICES

Table A.4: Small Volunteer and Paid On-Call Departments Receiving Survey

* Adrian * Browerville * Cromwell Volunteer * Floodwood * Harmony* Aitkin Browns Valley * Crooked Lake Volunteer * Foley Harris1

* Albany * Brownsville * Crosby Volunteer * Forada Twp. * Hawley* Albertville * Brownton Volunteer Crosslake * Foreston * Hayward* Alden * Bruno Culver * Fountain * Henning Volunteer* Almelund * Buffalo Lake Currie Volunteer Franklin * Heron Lake Volunteer* Alpha * Buhl Volunteer * Dalbo * Fredenberg * Hill City

Alvarado Volunteer1 Butterfield * Dawson * Freeport * Hills* Amboy * Buyck Community Dayton1 * French Twp. Volunteer * Hitterdal* Annandale Volunteer De Graff Frost * Hoffman* Arco Byron * Deer Creek * Fulda Hokah Volunteer* Argyle Callaway * Deerwood Garfield * Holdingford* Arrowhead Calumet * Delavan Volunteer Garrison * Holland* Askov Volunteer * Cambridge Dennison * Garvin * Hollandale* Atwater * Campbell * Dent * Gary Volunteer * Houston* Audubon * Canby * Detroit Lakes * Gaylord Hovland* Aurora * Cannon Falls * Dexter Volunteer Geneva * Hoyt Lakes* Babbitt Volunteer * Canton * Dilworth Ghent Ideal Twp.* Backus Volunteer * Carlos Dodge Center * Gibbon * Industrial Volunteer* Balsam Volunteer Carlton Volunteer * Dover Gilbert * Iona* Barnesville * Carver * Dumont * Glencoe * Ironton* Barrett * Cass Lake * Dunnell-Lake Fremont * Glyndon Volunteer * Isanti Volunteer* Baudette Central Lakes Volunteer * Eagle Lake Volunteer Gnesen Volunteer Itasca Twp. Volunteer* Bear Creek * Ceylon * East Hubbard County * Gonvick Jackson

Bearville Twp. Chisago City Fire Protection District * Goodhue Jacobson* Beaver Bay Volunteer * Chokio * Echo * Goodland Volunteer * Janesville* Belgrade * Clara City * Eden Valley * Goodridge Area * Jasper

Bellingham Claremont * Eitzen * Granada Jeffers* Beltrami * Clarissa Elbow Lake1 * Grand Lake Volunteer * Jordan

Bena Clarkfield * Elgin * Grand Marais Volunteer * Kabetogama* Bethel * Clarks Grove Volunteer * Ellsworth * Grand Meadow Kandiyohi* Big Lake Clearbrook * Elmer Grand Portage Karlstad Volunteer* Bigfork Volunteer * Clements * Elrosa * Granite Falls * Kasota* Birchdale Rural * Climax * Elysian * Grasston * Keewatin Volunteer

Bird Island * Clinton Emily Volunteer Greaney-Rauch-Silverdale Kelsey VolunteerBiwabik Twp. Volunteer * Clontarf * Emmons * Greenbush Kennedy

* Biwabik Volunteer * Cohasset * Erskine Grygla Kenneth VolunteerBlackhoof Cokato * Evansville * Gunflint Trail Volunteer * KensingtonBlue Earth * Cologne Eyota Volunteer Hackensack Area Kent/Abercrombie FireBorup * Comfrey * Fairfax Hallock Protection District

* Bowlus Conger * Fayal * Hamburg * KenyonBoyd * Cook Federal Dam * Hamel Kerrick

* Brandon Correll * Fertile * Hampton KilkennyBreckenridge * Cotton Volunteer * Fifty Lakes * Hangaard Twp. Kimball

* Breitung Cottonwood Finlayson Hanska1 * La SalleBrimson Area *Courtland * Flensburg * Hardwick * La Crescent

Volunteer

Note: An asterisk (*) depicts fire departments from which we received completed surveys by the response deadline.

1Returned survey too late to be included in our analysis.

APPENDIX A 117

Table A.4: (continued)

* Lake Bronson * Meadowlands Area * Ogilvie * Sacred Heart Tyler* Lake Crystal Volunteer Oklee * St. Bonifacius Ulen* Lake Elmo Medford Volunteer * Olivia * St. Charles * Underwood* Lake George Medicine Lake Ormsby St. Clair Upsala

Lake Henry * Melrose * Oronoco * St. Francis Vergas1

* Lake Wilson * Miesville Volunteer Ortonville * St. Joseph Volunteer * Vermilion Lake* Lancaster * Milaca * Oslo * St. Martin * Vernon Center* Lanesboro * Milan * Ottertail * St. Paul Park Volunteer Vesta

La Porte/Lakeport * Millerville * Palisade Volunteer * St. Stephen * Villard VolunteerLe Center * Milroy * Palo Regional * Sanborn Vining

* Le Roy * Minneota Parkers Prairie * Sandstone Volunteer * Wabasha* Le Sueur * Minnesota City * Paynesville * Sauk Centre * Wabasso Volunteer* Lester Prairie * Minnesota Lake * Pelican Rapids Volunteer Scandia Valley * Waite Park* Lewisville Monticello * Pemberton Scanlon Volunteer Waldorf* Lexington * Montrose * Pequaywan Lake Area * Seaforth Walnut Grove* Linwood Volunteer * Mora Pequot Lakes * Sedan Wanamingo* Lismore * Morgan * Perch Lake Volunteer * Shelly * Wanda* Litchfield * Morris * Perley-Lee Twp. Shevlin * Warba-Feeley-Sago

Littlefork Morse Twp. Volunteer * Pickwick Area * Silver Bay WarroadLondon Morton * Pierz * Silver Lake WatkinsLong Lake * Motley Pine City Slayton * Watson CommunityLonsdale Mountain Iron * Pine Island * Sleepy Eye Fire Fighters Inc.

* Loretto Volunteer Mountain Lake * Pipestone Solway Twp. WaubunLower St. Croix Valley Murdock Plato * South Bend WelcomeLutsen Twp. Volunteer * Nashwauk Plummer Spring Grove * Wendell

* Luverne * Nassau * Porter * Spring Valley * West Brevator Volunteer* Lyle * Nerstrand Volunteer * Preston * Springfield Volunteer * West Concord

Madelia * Nevis * Princeton * Squaw Lake * Westbrook* Madison Lake * New Auburn Prinsburg1 * Staples * Wheaton* Magnolia * New Germany * Randall Stephen White Earth Volunteer* Mahnomen New London * Randolph Stewartville Williams

Mahtomedi New Market * Raymond * Storden * Wilmont* Makinen * New Munich * Redwood Falls * Sturgeon Lake * Wilson Volunteer* Manchester * New Prague * Remer * Sturgeon Twp. * Windom* Maple Hill * New Richland * Renville Sunburg Winger* Maple Lake * New York Mills * Revere * Swanville * Winnebago Fire Service* Maple Plain Nielsville * Richmond Taconite * Winthrop Volunteer* Mapleton * Nisswa * Riverton * Taylors Falls Wolf Lake* Mapleview Normanna Volunteer Rockford Tintah Wolverton

Marietta1 * North Branch Rogers * Tofte * Wood Lake* Mayer North Star Twp. * Rose Creek Area Toivola Twp.1 Wright Volunteer* Mazeppa Volunteer * Northome * Rothsay * Tower * Wykoff

McDavitt Northrop Round Lake Trimont * Wyoming* McGrath * Norwood-Young America * Royalton Twin Lakes * Zimmerman* McIntosh Oak Grove * Rushford Twin Lakes Volunteer * Zumbro Falls

McKinley Volunteer * Odessa * Rushmore Two Harbors

Note: An asterisk (*) depicts fire departments from which we received completed surveys by the response deadline.

1Returned survey too late to be included in our analysis.

We also used these standards to develop measuresof performance for fire services. In September1998, we met with our technical advisory panel tovalidate these standards of performance. Based onthe panel’s feedback, we revised the measures.Combined with data from fire departments’ surveyresponses, we used the measures to compareperformance of Minnesota fire departments andidentify departments reporting effective andefficient practices.

FOCUS GROUP METHODOLOGY

To gather reactions and feedback to the actions weidentified for effective and efficient service, wesponsored small group meetings, or “focus groups,”of fire personnel in four locations around the state.In the focus groups, participants (1) reviewed theactions we identified as essential to highperformance in fire departments, (2) suggestedmodifications, and (3) identified innovativepractices and effective methods in their firedepartments.

To organize and facilitate the focus groups, wehired an agency experienced in local governmentfocus group research. The meetings were held inAlbert Lea, Alexandria, Grand Rapids, and theTwin Cities in November 1998. Each groupincluded 8 to 11 members from fire departmentslocated in the vicinity of these communities. Theparticipants were randomly selected from rosterssupplied by nearby fire departments. For a varietyof perspectives, we selected a cross-section of fireofficers and fire fighters from all types and sizes ofdepartments. To supplement the focus groupresponses, representatives of the St. Paul andMinneapolis Fire Departments were interviewedindividually. Members of fire departments from 32communities participated. Table A.5 lists them.

SITE VISITS OF SELECTED FIREDEPARTMENTS

Using data from our survey and the State FireMarshal Division to identify fire departmentsmeeting our performance standards, we selected 11departments to visit for in-depth interviews on theirmethods and practices. Based on survey responses,

many fire departments around the statedemonstrated effective and efficient services.Because we could not visit all of these departments,we chose a limited number representing differentsizes, types, and geographic locations of firedepartments.

In January 1999, we visited these departments tocollect additional detailed information on theirspecific practices and programs. The site visits alsohelped reveal circumstances under which certainpractices are transferable to other departments.During the interviews, we asked fire personnel todescribe the advantages and disadvantages of thepractices, initial startup and ongoing costs, andsavings in time, personnel, or other resources.Those interviewed also offered tips and advice forother departments considering similar practices. Ateach visit we used a standard questionnaire with 11open-ended questions to systematically collect theinformation. A copy of the site-visit questionnaireis included in this appendix.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADVISORYCOUNCIL

When the Minnesota Legislature established theprogram of best practices reviews, it charged a local

118 FIRE SERVICES

Table A.5: Communities with FireDepartments Represented in FocusGroups

Albert Lea Ham LakeAlexandria HermantownAustin LorettoBalsam LyleBarrett *MinneapolisBricelyn North St. PaulCanyon Norwood - Young AmericaCarlos OsakisCohasset St. AnthonyElrosa *St. PaulEly ScandiaForest Lake ShakopeeFreeborn StillwaterFrench Township VillardFridley WasecaGrand Rapids Wayzata

Note: An asterisk (*) depicts fire departments with representa-tives that were interviewed individually.

government advisory council with recommendinglocal government services for review. The councilrecommended the topic of fire services in 1997.Council members also reviewed a draft report. Theindividuals that currently serve on the LocalGovernment Advisory Council are listed in TableA.6.

APPENDIX A 119

Table A.6: Local Government AdvisoryCouncil Members, 1999

Dave ChildsMinnetonka City Manager

Don HelmstetterSpring Lake Park Schools Superintendent

Tim HouleMorrison County Coordinator

Lynn LanderHermantown City Administrator

Charles MeyerSt. Louis Park City Manager

Scott NealNorthfield City Administrator

Brandt RichardsonDakota County Administrator

Steve SarkozyRoseville City Manager

James SchugWashington County Administrator

Lothar Wolter, Jr.Norwood-Young America Township Clerk

120 FIRE SERVICES

Office of the Legislative Auditor

Fire Services: A Best Practices Review

SITE VISIT QUESTIONNAIRE

Staff: _______________________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Fire Dept.: ___________________________________________________ Phone: ________________________

Interviewee(s): _______________________________________________ Title: _________________________

_______________________________________________ Title: _________________________

Best Practices:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

1. Describe the practice. What is it? How does it work? When did you start it?

2. Why did you first begin the practice? What problems, if any, were you hoping to overcome?

3. Did the practice solve these problems? Why or why not?

4. Does the practice produce savings in time, money, labor, resources, or hassles? Can you quantifysavings?

5. Have you found other advantages from using the practice?

6. Have you found any problems or disadvantages with the practice? Have you had to modify it over timeto improve it?

7. Thinking back to when you began the practice, did you have any problems with the initial startup? If so,how did you overcome them?

8. What are the costs of the practice? How much time and how many personnel are involved?

9. Do you think other fire departments could also use the practice? Does a department have to be of acertain size or type to successfully use the practice?

10. What tips or advice would you offer to another fire department considering starting this same practice?

11. Do you have any additional thoughts or comments?

12. Unless you object, I’d like to use your name as a contact person and list your number in the final reportfor readers who may want additional information. Is this all right with you?

q Yesq No

Fire Services: A Best Practices ReviewSurvey of Minnesota Fire Departments

Office of the Legislative Auditor

Thank you for answering this survey of fire departments. Most of the questions pertain to the1997 calendar year. We recognize that some questions may refer to data that you do notroutinely collect, but we encourage you to provide us with estimated answers where you may nothave precise data. Direct questions about the survey to Jody Hauer at 651/296-8501.

Please return the completed survey in the enclosed postage-paid envelope by November 25, 1998.

Name: _______________________________________ Phone: ___________________________

1. How was your fire department structured in 1997?(Mark one box.)

Number Percent (N=88)

1. Municipal department79 89.8%

2. Private nonprofit organization7 8.0

3. Special fire protection district0 0.0

4. Other (Please specify.)__________2 2.3

2. How satisfied were you that the number and location of your fire station(s) permitted the department in1997 to respond within a satisfactory response time in your primary response area?(Circle one number foreach statement.)

Very Somewhat Neither Satisfied Somewhat VerySatisfied Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percenta. Number of stations

(N=87)52 59.8% 20 23.0% 5 5.7% 6 6.9% 4 4.6%

b. Location of stations(N=83)

39 47.0 22 26.5 4 4.8 16 19.3 2 2.4

Comments:

3. Did any of the following apply to your department in 1997? If so, please list the cities and townshipsinvolved. (Circle one number for each statement and list communities if applicable.)(N=88)

Yes NoNumber Percent Number Percent

a. My department operated under a joint powers agreement (Cities and townsinvolved:)

6 6.8% 82 93.2%

b. My department was a consolidated department (Cities and towns involved:) 2 2.3 86 97.7

c. My department provided services by contract (Cities and towns involved:) 48 54.5 40 45.5

d. A joint powers agreement or consolidation was under development (Citiesand towns involved:)

4 4.5 84 95.5

We received responses from 88 of 101full-time, combination, and volunteer or paidon-call departments in areas with populationsgreater than 8,000, for a response rate of 87.1percent.

4. How many cities or townships in your primary response area had by 1997 adopted any ordinances or zoningcodes that affect the provision of fire services, such as local adoption of the Uniform Fire Code, ordinanceson fire resistant construction materials, charging fees for fire services, or permits for installing fireprotection systems? (N=85)

Total Median Number Percent

a. Number of cities or townships b. Unknown or unable to estimate103 1.0

5. What percent of the following buildings in your primary response area (including contract areas) do youestimate had full automatic sprinkler coverage in 1997?(Circle one response for each type of occupancy or“7” for not applicable if your area had no such occupancies.)(N=85)

100 75 50 25 10 Less UnknownType of Building to to to to to Than or Unableby Main Occupancy 76% 51% 26% 11% 5% 5% N/A to Estimate

# % # % # % # % # % # % # % # %a. Occupancies storing or

processing high-hazardmaterials, e.g., repairgarages with open flamesor welding, facilitieswith high quantities ofhazardous materials

21 24.7% 12 14.1% 20 23.5% 9 10.6% 3 3.5% 12 14.1% 1 1.2% 7 8.2%

b. Low- and moderate-hazard industrial andstorage occupancies, e.g.,bakeries, dry cleaners

12 14.1 12 14.1 16 18.8 12 14.1 11 12.9 14 16.5 2 2.4 6 7.1

c. Professional and serviceoccupancies, e.g.,mercantile and educa-tional occupancies,hospitals, correctionalinstitutions, nurseries

26 30.6 18 21.2 19 22.4 5 5.9 5 5.9 7 8.2 0 0.0 5 5.9

d. Single- and two-familyhomes, familyday care, and livingfacilities for 10 orfewer persons

0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 3.5 4 4.7 61 71.8 6 7.1 11 12.9

APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT6. Did the department use a preventive maintenance program for its apparatus and equipment in 1997 with

routine, scheduled maintenance in accordance with manufacturers’ recommendations?(Mark one.)Number Percent (N=88)

1. Yes86 97.7%

2. No (Go to Question 9.)1 1.1

3. A preventive maintenance program was under development(Go to Question 9.)1 1.1

122 FIRE SERVICES

10 11.8%

7. Which of the following components of a preventive maintenance program for apparatus and equipment didyour department have in 1997? (Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=86)

a. Routine maintenance (checking engine oil level, tire pressure, etc.) following a set checklist86 100.0%

b. Complete records were kept of repairs and service to apparatus and equipment84 97.7

c. Within 24 hours of use or repair, inspections were conducted of apparatus and equipment theycarried

64 74.4

d. Regular service tests were made on pumper engines and other fire apparatus81 94.2

e. The equipment maintenance program included a system for inventory control59 68.6

f. Replacement equipment was scheduled and budgeted for75 87.2

g. Regular service tests and structural examination of ground ladders, hoses, and other equipment75 87.2

h. None of the above0 0.0

8. What percentage of the maintenance scheduled in your preventive maintenance program during 1997 wascompleted as scheduled?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=86)

1. 100% was completed as scheduled38 44.2%

2. 95 to 99% was completed as scheduled31 36.0

3. 90 to 94% was completed as scheduled9 10.5

4. 85 to 89% was completed as scheduled6 7.0

5. less than 85% was completed as scheduled2 2.3

9. Did your department have in place in 1997 a replacement plan for capital purchases that estimated theexpected replacement year of apparatus based on their expected life cycles and their costs?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=88)

1. Yes68 77.3%

2. No12 13.6

3. An apparatus replacement plan was under development8 9.1

10. What purchasing arrangements has your department used in the past 10 years to purchase apparatus suchas pumpers, ladder trucks, tankers, brush trucks, rescue rigs, or other types of vehicles?(Mark all thatapply.)

Number Percent (N=87)

a. Developed specifications and selected vendors through bidding process87 100.0%

b. Bought or leased vehicles through the Federal Excess Property Program14 16.1

c. Purchased apparatus jointly with another department2 2.3

d. Used lease arrangement with another department1 1.1

e. Used contributions from civic organizations or charitable gambling proceeds in making the purchase17 19.5

f. Received apparatus in exchange for service provided by contract2 2.3

g. Other (Please specify.) _________________________________________________________8 9.2

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 123

11. What percentage of your pumper apparatus would you estimate are properly matched to your local roadconditions and to local fire fighting pumper performance needs, such as local needs for certain pump ratings(gpm), tank capacities and discharge rates, hose and nozzle loads, etc.?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=88)

1. 100% of our pumper apparatus are suited to our local road conditions and pumping performanceneeds

68 77.3%

2. At least 75% of our pumper apparatus are well suited, but about 25% are either overloaded orunderpowered for our needs

15 17.0

3. At least 50% of our pumper apparatus are well suited, but about half are either overloaded orunderpowered for our needs

4 4.5

4. Less than 50% of our pumper apparatus are well suited, and more than half of our apparatus areeither overloaded or underpowered for our needs

1 1.1

5. Unknown or unable to estimate0 0.0

12. How adequate was the following, if available to your department at the end of 1997?(Circle one number foreach category.)

Equipment Department Not ApplicableVery Not Does Not to Our

Category Adequate Adequate Inadequate Available Provide Department# % # % # % # % # % # %

a. Protective clothing, hoods,helmets, goggles, gloves, andfootwear appropriate to thetasks expected of each member(N=88)

73 83.0% 15 17.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%

b. Protective breathingapparatus(N=88)

67 76.1 21 23.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

c. Standard attack hose(1.5 to 2.5 inch)(N=88)

72 81.8 14 15.9 2 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

d. Personal alert safety systemto warn others when afirefighter is incapacitated(N=87)

58 66.7 21 24.1 3 3.4 0 0.0 4 4.6 1 1.1

e. For wildland fires, personalequipment for each fire fighterincluding a fire shelter, canteens,flares, and portable two-way radios(N=85)

2 2.4 15 17.6 12 14.1 4 4.7 5 5.9 47 55.3

f. Vehicles equipped withtwo-way radios(N=88)

72 81.8 14 15.9 2 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

g. For rural departments, year-round water drafting sites(N=85)

2 2.4 10 11.8 10 11.8 0 0.0 9 10.6 54 6.35

h. In areas with limited watersupply accessibility, portablepumps(N=86)

5 5.8 30 34.9 5 5.8 3 3.5 3 3.5 40 46.5

i. Large diameter hose (3.5inches or more) for movingrural water supplies or asback-up to gaps in municipalwater systems when watermains are under repair(N=88)

60 68.2 24 27.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 3.4 1 1.1

j. Portable drop or foldingwater tanks(N=87)

35 40.2 21 24.1 1 1.1 3 3.4 3 3.4 24 27.6

k. Extrication tools, hydraulictools, and torches(N=88)

54 61.4 31 35.2 2 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.1

l. Firefighter hand tools forcutting, striking, andprying (N=88)

59 67.0 29 33.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

124 FIRE SERVICES

13. How satisfied were you in 1997 with your department’s system for alerting members to respond to anincident and the ability of your department’s communication system (telephones, radio base stationequipment, two-way radios, pagers, etc.) to perform in emergency situations and normal daily activitieswithout excessive delays or interference?(Circle one number for each statement.)

Very Somewhat Neither Satisfied Somewhat VerySatisfied Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percenta. System for alerting

members(N=88)65 73.9% 16 18.2% 2 2.3% 4 4.5 1 1.1%

b. Department communi-cation system(N=87)

55 63.2 22 25.3 3 3.4 4 4.6 3 3.4

14. What innovative or effective methods regarding the purchase or maintenance of apparatus and equipmentare used by your department or other departments you are aware of? ______________________________

MUTUAL AID

15. Which of the following activities were included in your department’s mutual aid associations or automaticaid agreements during 1997 (not including services you provided by contract)?(Circle “1” or “2” or bothnumbers to indicate whether you provided and/or received mutual aid. Circle “3” if the activity was not includedin mutual aid agreements.)

Number Percent (N=88)

1. We did not participate in mutual aid or automatic aid(Go to Question 21.)1 1.1%Not Part

Activity Provided Mutual Aid Received Mutual Aid of Mutual AidNumber Percent Number Percent Number Percent

a. Fire suppression(N=86) 82 95.3% 71 82.6% 1 1.2%

b. Technical rescues(N=86) 59 68.6 29 33.7 24 27.9

c. First Responders(N=85) 36 42.4 27 31.8 44 51.8

d. Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Basic or AdvancedLife Support(N=85)

39 45.9 29 34.1 42 49.4

e. Hazardous materials responses(N=85) 48 56.5 40 47.1 24 28.2

f. Enforcement of fire codes and/or related local ordinances,including inspections(N=86)

21 24.4 12 14.0 61 70.9

g. Fire investigations(N=86) 25 29.1 25 29.1 50 58.1

h. Fire safety awareness efforts(N=85) 32 37.6 18 21.2 52 61.2

i. Public relations activities(N=85) 25 29.4 13 15.3 59 69.4

j. Training courses or seminars(N=86) 57 66.3 43 50.0 23 26.7

k. Drills and exercises(N=86) 64 74.4 56 65.1 16 18.6

l. Use of specialized equipment or apparatus(N=86) 61 70.9 42 48.8 20 23.3

m. Use of facilities(N=86) 51 59.3 32 37.2 32 37.2

n. Cooperative purchasing arrangements(N=85) 16 18.8 17 20.0 63 74.1

o. Exchanged information and expertise(N=86) 73 84.9 61 70.9 12 14.0

p. Other (Please specify.)(N=85) 3 3.5 3 3.5 81 95.3

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 125

16. Of the departments or communities participating in your mutual aid association(s), list those in which youactually responded to mutual aid requests during 1996or 1997. (Use additional sheet, if needed.)

Mutual Aid Association Departments/Cities to Which We Responded with Aid

a. ______________________________ ___________________________________________________________

(association name) ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

b. ______________________________ ___________________________________________________________

(association name) ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

c. ______________________________ ___________________________________________________________

(association name) ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

d. ______________________________ ___________________________________________________________

(association name) ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

17. Which of the following was part of your mutual aid association(s) in 1997?(Mark all that apply.)Number Percent (N=86)

a. Standard operating procedures that were agreed to by the participating departments40 46.5%

b. Familiarity of all departments’ members with mutual aid procedures, equipment, and safetymeasures

53 61.6

c. A standard approach to incident command77 89.5

d. Designated radio frequencies and standard radio procedures or other communications system forinterdepartmental communications

67 77.9

e. Interagency training on an ongoing basis43 50.0

f. Coordinated approaches to long-term planning23 26.7

g. None of the above3 3.5

18. If you participated in mutual aid through written agreements in 1997, which of the following was describedin them? (Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=83)

a. We participated in mutual aid but had no written agreements6 7.2%

b. Incident command responsibility51 61.4

c. Clarification of jurisdictional issues43 51.8

d. Insurance coverage57 68.7

e. Defined legal responsibilities45 54.2

f. Financing arrangements (if any)40 48.2

g. Standardized communications and protocols41 49.4

h. We had written mutual aid agreements but they did not contain the elements above9 10.8

126 FIRE SERVICES

19. How satisfied were you with the following characteristics of your 1997 mutual aid?(Circle one number foreach characteristic or circle “6” if the characteristic was not available.)

Very Somewhat Neither Satisfied Somewhat Very NotCharacteristics Satisfied Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Available

# % # % # % # % # % # %a. Access to or reaching

additional fire fighters(N=85)

63 74.1% 13 15.3% 5 5.9% 1 1.2% 0 0.0% 3 3.5%

b. Coordination of firefighters from multipledepartments(N=83)

40 48.2 30 36.1 7 8.4 3 3.6 0 0.0 3 3.6

c. Use of apparatus/equipmentfrom other departments(N=84)

60 71.4 12 14.3 8 9.5 1 1.2 0 0.0 3 3.6

d. Communication amongdepartments(N=85)

32 37.6 32 37.6 9 10.6 8 9.4 1 1.2 3 3.5

e. Availability of staffing forprolonged or extraordinaryincidents(N=80)

42 52.5 20 25.0 11 13.8 1 1.3 0 0.0 6 7.5

f. Response by otherdepartments to yourrequests for aid(N=80)

64 80.0 9 11.3 3 3.8 2 2.5 0 0.0 2 2.5

20. What innovative or effective methods regarding mutual aid associations are used by your department orother departments you are aware of?(Use additional sheet, if needed.)

FIRE, RESCUE, EMS, AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS RESPONSES

21. Did your fire department have an incident management system in place in 1997 with response plans thatdescribed your fire department’s role and activities for fire suppression incidents?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=88)

1. Yes, we had an incident management system with written response plans68 77.3%

2. Yes, we had an incident management system with response plans but they were not written13 14.8

3. Incident management system with response plans was under development7 8.0

4. No, we did not have an incident management system with response plans0 0.0

22. How satisfied were you with (a.) the process of planning and providing water supplies for fire protection inyour community, such as hydrant placement, and (b.) your involvement in that process?(Circle one numberfor each statement; circle “6” if it does not apply.)

Very Somewhat Neither Satisfied Somewhat VerySatisfied Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied N/A

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percenta. Process of planning

water supplies forfire protection(N=88)

48 54.5% 28 31.8% 1 1.1% 6 6.8% 2 2.3% 3 3.4%

b. Fire department involve-ment in water planningprocess(N=87)

40 46.0 25 28.7 7 8.0 10 11.5 2 2.3 3 3.4

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 127

23. What credit for the water supply in your fire department’s primary response area did the InsuranceServices Office, Inc. assign as of 1997?(Please provide the credit--ranging from 1 to 40--that applies to watersupply only, not the overall ISO rating. Indicate the credit for each of your urban and rural areas or mark “NA” ifnot applicable in your area.)(N=82)

Unknown N/AMedian (N=41) Number Percent Number Percent

a. Total credits assigned by the ISO for water supply in urban areas 34 41.5% 6 7.3%36.6 Credits

Median (N=4)

b. Total credits assigned by the ISO for water supply in rural areas 38 46.3 24 29.317.6 Credits

24. Approximately what was your fire department’s average response time in minutes to fire suppression callsfor your primary response area in 1997 (starting from the time companies were alerted about the incidentto the time a full response unit capable of initial attack arrived at the scene)?(Fill in only oneof thefollowing. Fill in a. unless your department only records response times from the time a call comes in to thedispatcher, instead of the time fire fighters are alerted to an incident.)(N=88)

Median (N=63) Number Percent

a. Average response time startingfrom time companies were alerted

ORb. Average response time starting

from the time the call came in tothe dispatcher

c. Unknown or unable to estimate

25. Did your fire department have written standard operating guidelines for fire suppression activities in 1997?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=87)

1. Yes, we had written standard operating guidelines75 86.2%

2. We had standard operating guidelines but they were not written(Go to Question 27.)7 8.0

3. Standard operating guidelines were under development(Go to Question 27.)3 3.4

4. We did not have standard operating guidelines(Go to Question 27.)2 2.3

26. What information, if any, was included within your fire department’s written standard operating guidelinesfor fire suppression activities in 1997? (Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=74)

a. Procedures for designation of an incident commander and command structure70 94.6%

b. Procedures for on-scene duty and apparatus assignments57 77.0

c. Duty roster of fire fighters and their assignments33 44.6

d. Minimum staffing levels and equipment requirements (for number of suppression personnel for firstalarm assignment and other activities)

54 73.0

e. Provisions for developing pre-attack plans41 55.4

f. Procedures for fireground search and rescue56 75.7

g. System of accounting for fire fighter whereabouts during responses68 91.9

h. Communications plan51 68.9

i. Information management system, such as standardized tactical reference worksheets or status boards45 60.8

j. Procedures for using available water supplies49 66.2

k. Pre-fire plans for all target hazards37 50.0

l. Standard incident reporting system64 86.5

m. Procedures for overhaul and salvage or mop up43 58.1

n. None of the above0 0.0

128 FIRE SERVICES

5.0 Minutes

Median (N=20)5.7 Minutes

5 5.7%

27. Did your fire department have a long-range strategic plan (or master plan) in 1997 looking beyond athree-year horizon that (a) contained financial and strategic planning for personnel, apparatus, and firestations based on a risk analysis in the community and (b) described contingency plans to guarantee servicein the event of a disaster?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=87)

1. Yes, we had a written strategic plan or master plan containing these elements28 32.2%

2. We had a strategic plan or master plan containing these elements but it was not written14 16.1

3. We had a written strategic plan or master plan but it did not contain these elements8 9.2

4. A strategic plan or master plan was under development11 12.6

5. No, we did not have a strategic plan or master plan26 29.9

28. Approximately what percentage of the fire risks and structures in your primary response area were coveredby documented pre-incident planning in 1997?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=86)

1. 100 to 81%13 15.1%

2. 80 to 61%9 10.5

3. 60 to 41%19 22.1

4. 40 to 21%10 11.6

5. 20 to 1%29 33.7

6. Pre-incident planning was under development(Go to Question 30.)3 3.5

7. We did not document pre-incident plan information for any fire risks or structures(Go to Question 30.)

3 3.5

29. What written information was compiled as part of your pre-incident planning? (Mark all that apply.)Number Percent (N=81)

a. A list of cooperating agencies and how to contact them58 71.6%

b. A master list of additional available resources of personnel, equipment, supplies, and facilities45 55.6

c. Mutual aid agreements, automatic response agreements, and other protection agreements48 59.3

d. Up-to-date maps of protection areas, including boundaries, roads, and other means of access andegress

58 71.6

e. Site location of heliports and airports, as needed for wildland fire fighting (where applicable)17 21.0

f. Identification of the types and levels of fire risks, such as fuel type and loading in forested areas,aviation hazards, or buildings with hazardous contents

45 55.6

g. Building floor plans, diagrams, site plans, or maps of specific hazards72 88.9

h. On-site fire control equipment59 72.8

i. Names and phone numbers of persons responsible for the security of specific hazards64 79.0

j. Identification of sprinklered buildings68 84.0

k. Identification of fire flow needs (minimum water supply required)22 27.2

l. Occupancy information of high-hazard buildings51 63.0

m. Hydrant locations (wet or dry) and sewer maps70 86.4

n. Identification of alternative water sources29 35.8

o. Requirements for familiarity tours by fire fighters of special hazards53 65.4

p. Appropriate minimum staffing levels during DNR “Fire Weather Watch” (where applicable)4 4.9

q. None of the above1 1.2

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 129

30. What practices, if any, did your fire department have as part of a health and safety program for yourmembers in 1997?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=88)

a. Written protocols that describe safety procedures and limit the risk of exposure to infectious andhazardous substances during response operations

78 88.6%

b. Provision of personal protective equipment to all personnel87 98.9

c. Training and education of fire fighters in the use and limitations of personal protective equipment86 97.7

d. Provision of an incident safety officer at each incident66 75.0

e. Designation of a health and safety officer to manage the fire department health and safety program53 60.2

f. Physical examination requirements for employment, including annual medical exams68 77.3

g. Critical incident stress debriefing78 88.6

h. Rapid intervention protocols to assist injured fire fighters51 58.0

i. Requirement that apparatus are driven and operated only by trained and qualified personnel76 86.4

j. Local training requirements based on level and type of risks in the response area69 78.4

k. Ongoing training for specialized services, such as hazardous materials responses and rescue services,if applicable

80 90.9

l. None of the above0 0.0

31. Which of the following, if any, did your fire department have in place for (1.) hazardous materials responseor (2.) technical rescue activities in 1997?(Circle the appropriate number(s) for each statement. If yourdepartment did not offer hazmat or technical rescue services, mark the appropriate box below and circle responsesonly for the service you offered.)(N=87)

Number Percent

1. We did not offer hazardous materials responses9 10.3%

2. We did not offer technical rescues15 17.2

Practice Hazardous Materials Technical RescueNumber Percent Number Percent

a. Written emergency response plan that defines the firedepartment’s roles during the incident

63 72.4% 38 43.7%

b. Written standard operating guidelines for conducting the services 57 65.5 32 36.8

c. Risk assessment for rescue needs and target hazards in thecommunity

32 36.8 20 23.0

d. Minimum staffing level requirements according to OSHA andFEMA standards

40 46.0 26 29.9

e. Written pre-incident plans specified for all target hazards andpotential rescue needs

23 26.4 8 9.2

f. Specialists (or contracts with them) to perform services in the eventfire department does not provide service

43 49.4 18 20.7

g. None of the above 3 3.4 7 8.0

130 FIRE SERVICES

32. What was the average response time in minutes by first responders to emergency medical incidents for yourprimary response area in 1997 (starting from the time responders were alerted to the time the response unitarrived at the emergency)? (Fill in only one. Fill in a. unless your department only records response times fromthe time a call comes in to the dispatcher.)(N=85)

Median (N=40) Number Percent

a. Average response time from timefirst responders were alerted to incident

OR

c. Unknown or unable to estimate

b. Average response time starting fromtime call came in to dispatcher

d. Not applicable because departmentdid not offer first response

e. Not applicable because departmentdid not receive calls for firstresponders in 1997

33. What was your fire department’s average response time in minutes for responding to hazardous materialsincidents--awareness and/or operations level responses--in 1997 (starting from the time a team wasdispatched to the time the team arrived at the incident)?(Fill in only one. Fill in a. unless your departmentonly records response times from the time a call comes in to the dispatcher.)(N=87)

Median (N=48) Number Percent

a. Average response time from timefire fighters were alerted

c. Unknown or unable to estimate

ORb. Average response time starting from

time call came in to dispatcherd. Not applicable because department

did not offer hazmat responses

e. Not applicable because departmentdid not receive hazmat calls in 1997within its primary response area

34. What practices, if any, did your fire department follow in 1997 to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness offire department activities? (Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=88)

a. Kept a log of all on-scene incident activities54 61.4%

b. Maintained a management information system to record information on all fire department activities55 62.5

c. Conducted post-incident analysis and debriefing following emergency responses65 73.9

d. Measured progress toward department goals with a formal program of setting goals and objectivesand measuring department performance

33 37.5

e. Followed a quality assurance program16 18.2

f. Measured department progress informally through budget process, employee performanceevaluations, contract renewals, etc.

51 58.0

g. Other (Please specify.) ____________________________________________________________7 8.0

h. None of the above5 5.7

35. What innovative or effective methods regarding the management of fire suppression, rescues, EMS, orhazmat responses are used by your department or other departments you are aware of?

_________________________________________________________________________________________

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 131

5.0 Minutes

Median (N=11)5.0 Minutes

0 0.0%

33 38.8

1 1.2

5.1 Minutes

Median (N=15)5.7 Minutes

14 16.1%

2 2.3

8 9.2

PERSONNEL

36. Did your department have a recruitment program in 1997 that was structured according to thedepartment’s ongoing personnel needs?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=88)

1. We had a recruitment program based on a structured assessment of ongoing needs for personnel38 43.2%

2. We had a recruitment program that was based on an informal assessment of personnel needs13 14.8

3. We had an informal recruitment program used only upon a position vacancy26 29.5

4. A recruitment program was under development1 1.1

5. We did not have a program for recruiting department members10 11.4

37. How satisfied were you that your recruitment process in place during 1997 produced candidates able toperform their required duties? (Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=88)

1. Very satisfied39 44.3%

2. Somewhat satisfied29 33.0

3. Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied7 8.0

4. Somewhat dissatisfied4 4.5

5. Very dissatisfied2 2.3

6. We did not have a recruitment process7 8.0

38. For each of the following services in 1997, approximately how many person-hours of department staff timewere spent, and how many responses did the department make? Also indicate whether your departmentcharged fees for any of these services.(If necessary, please check your records to verify number of hours andresponses; if you do not record hours or number of responses, mark the “Don’t Know” column. Include hours forfire marshal staff and support staff, where applicable, but exclude staff, such as city building inspectors, who werenot part of or on contract with your department.)(N=84)

Total Total Responses Did Not Don’t DepartmentService Person-Hours or Events Offer Know Charged Fees

Median Median # % # % # %

a. Fire suppressionI 1,484.0 (N=48) 108.0 (N=76) 0 0.0% 2 2.4% 6 7.1%b. False alarms 625.5 (N=46) 98.0 (N=70) 0 0.0 5 6.0 20 23.8c. Technical rescues

(e.g., vehicle extrications,water/ice rescues, etc.)II 252.0 (N=46) 31.0 (N=68) 4 4.8 4 4.8 8 9.5

d. EMS - FirstRespondersIII 351.0 (N=12) 102.0 (N=20) 32 38.1 5 6.0 1 1.2

e. EMS - Basic LifeSupport responseservicesIV * 222.5 (N=6) 46 54.8 4 4.8 2 2.4

f. EMS - Basic LifeSupport transportV 1,280.0 (N=5) 436.0 (N=6) 68 81.0 1 1.2 5 6.0

g. EMS - Advanced LifeSupport responseservices * * 65 77.4 2 2.4 2 2.4

h. EMS - Advanced LifeSupport transportVI 2,739.5 (N=6) 1,126.0 (N=9) 68 81.0 1 1.2 4 4.8

i. Hazardous materialsresponse 82.0 (N=44) 19.0 (N=67) 1 1.2 4 4.8 13 15.5

j. Code enforcement(inspections and planreviews) 695.0 (N=41) 649.0 (N=39) 12 14.3 8 9.5 15 17.9

k. Fire investigations 100.0 (N=47) 21.5 (N=46) 4 4.8 12 14.3 0 0.0(Footnotes are explained at bottom of page 133.)

132 FIRE SERVICES

Question 38, continued ...

Total Total Responses Did Not Don’t DepartmentService Person-Hours or Events Offer Know Charged Fees

Median Median # % # % # %

l. Public education(e.g., school programs,fire-safe house)VII 200.0 (N=54) (N/A) 2 2.4 13 15.5 1 1.2

m. Emergency manage-ment services 100.0 (N=26) (N/A) 7 8.3 19 22.6 (N/A)

n. Public relationsactivitiesVIII 150.0 (N=47) (N/A) 2 2.4 17 20.2 (N/A)

o. Apparatus/equipmentmaintenanceIX 466.0 (N=52) (N/A) 2 2.4 15 17.9 (N/A)

p. Building/groundsmaintenance 365.0 (N=41) (N/A) 6 7.1 18 21.4 (N/A)

q. Hydrant maintenance/inspection 50.0 (N=18) (N/A) 28 33.3 9 10.7 (N/A)

r. Reduction of flammablebrush/vegetation 20.0 (N=13) (N/A) 35 41.7 9 10.7 (N/A)

s. Training and drills 2,923.0 (N=64) (N/A) 0 0.0 7 8.3 (N/A)t. Administration 1,800.0 (N=47) (N/A) 1 1.2 18 21.4 (N/A)u. Support staff (not

assigned to a specificservice) 1,250.0 (N=24) (N/A) 9 10.7 18 21.4 (N/A)

v. Standby time 257.5 (N=28) (N/A) 6 7.1 21 25.0 (N/A)w. Other (Please specify below.)

___________________2,223.0 (N=20) (N/A) 1 1.2 4 4.8 0 0.0

x. TOTALS 10,893.5 (N=74) 817.5 (N=78)

*Too few responses to report median.

I Medians may differ slightly from actual because a few respondents included false alarms, hazardous materials response,technical rescues, EMS-First Responders, and/or BLS activities in their fire suppression estimates.

II Medians may differ slightly from actual because several respondents included EMS-First Responders and/or fire suppressionactivities in their technical rescue estimates.

III The person-hours median excludes 2 respondents and the responses median excludes 5 respondents who did not separatetechnical rescues, BLS, and/or ALS activities from their EMS-First Responder estimates.

IV The responses median excludes 9 respondents who did not separate technical rescues, first responder services, BLS transport,and/or ALS activities from their BLS response services estimate.

V The responses median may differ slightly from actual because 2 respondents included EMS-First Responders, BLS responseservices and/or ALS activities in their BLS transport estimate.

VI Medians may differ slightly from actual because several respondents included EMS-First Responders, BLS, and/or ALSresponse services in their ALS transport estimates.

VII Median may differ slightly from actual because 2 respondents included public relations activities in their public educationestimates.

VIIIMedian may differ slightly from actual because 1 respondent included public education activities in the public relations estimate.IX Median may differ slightly from actual because 2 respondents included building and grounds maintenance in their estimates for

apparatus and equipment maintenance.

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 133

39. If your department charged fees for services in 1997, under what circumstances were those fees imposed?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=86)

1. The department did not charge fees for any services in 199728 32.6%

2. The recipient of the service had insurance for the service provided18 20.9

3. The department had responded to repeat false alarms at a particular occupancy23 26.7

4. The department had to provide services due to reckless actions or violations of statutes or ordinances11 12.8

5. Recipients of the service did not reside within the primary response area15 17.4

6. The department granted permits20 23.3

7. Other (Please specify.) _____________________________________________________________19 22.1

40. How many fire fighters, fire officers, and other staff were in your fire department or on contract to thedepartment at the end of 1997?(Exclude any staff, such as a building inspector, who is nota member of, or oncontract to, the fire department.)(N=88)

Number ofNumber of Other Staff

Fire Fighters (include supportand Officers staff, if any) TOTAL

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

a. Full-time career members (1) 18.5 2.0 (2) 1.9 0.0 (3) 20.3 2.562

b. Members earning stipend,hourly or on-call wage (1) 32.0 30.0 (2) 0.1 0.0 (3) 32.1 30.0

74

c. Volunteers earning pension butno compensation for responses(1) 3.2 0.0 (2) 0.0 0.0 (3) 2.3 0.0

5

d. Volunteers earning neithercompensation nor pension (1) 0.2 0.0 (2) 0.0 0.0 (3) 0.2 0.0

2

41. Was the chief’s position a paid one in 1997?(Mark one.)Number Percent (N=88)

1. The chief was paid88 100.0%

2. The chief was not paid but earned a pension0 0.0

3. The chief earned neither compensation nor a pension0 0.0

42. Of the number of fire suppression responses reported in Question 38a above, what percentage were for grassor forest fires (including those fires fought under contract with the Department of Natural Resources)?

Median (N=70)

% of suppression responses5.0

43. How sufficient do you consider the number of on-call or volunteer members who were located within an areathat allowed them to promptly respond to calls in 1997?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=88)

1. The department did not use on-call or volunteer members(Go to Question 49.)14 15.9%

2. Very sufficient41 46.6

3. Somewhat sufficient26 29.5

4. Neither sufficient nor insufficient2 2.3

5. Somewhat insufficient4 4.5

6. Very insufficient1 1.1

134 FIRE SERVICES

Number ofDepartmentswith Staff in EachCategory

44. How did your department identify the practices and activities in 1997 that encourage volunteers to continueas members and the issues or problems that may cause volunteers to resign?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=73)

a. The department surveyed or questioned members about what motivates them and what does not23 31.5%

b. The department conducted exit interviews when volunteers resigned to determine their reasons forleaving

22 30.1

c. The chief used informal approaches that allowed members to speak their minds about problems53 72.6

d. The department did not identify what motivates volunteers9 12.3

e. A process to identify motivational factors was under development8 11.0

f. Other (Please specify.) ____________________________________________________________9 12.3

45. How consistently did the following characterize your department’s interactions with volunteers or on-callmembers in 1997?(Circle one for each statement.)

Consistently Sometimes Rarely, If EverNumber Percent Number Percent Number Percent

a. Provided recognition to volunteers forjobs well done (such as in newsletters,at banquets, with press releases, etc.)(N=70)

34 48.6% 27 38.6% 9 12.9%

b. Took steps to maintain a good reputationand positive image to keep volunteersinterested, such as maintaining apparatusand equipment as a point of pride(N=71)

59 83.1 7 9.9 5 7.0

c. Leadership consistently used a managementstyle that encouraged member participation(N=70)

49 70.0 20 28.6 1 1.4

d. Stated an explicit mission and goals sovolunteers knew what to expect(N=69)

37 53.6 26 37.7 6 8.7

e. Used a process for communicating relevantinformation so members were informed(N=72)

54 75.0 18 25.0 0 0.0

f. Used standard procedures for dealingequitably with grievances(N=68)

41 60.3 19 27.9 8 11.8

g. Required training that was relevant and fitthe volunteers’ time availability(N=71)

61 85.9 10 14.1 0 0.0

h. Offered monetary incentives per hour,per call, or as a stipend(N= 72)

66 91.7 3 4.2 3 4.2

i. Offered medical, death, or disabilitybenefits to its volunteers(N=69)

47 68.1 7 10.1 15 21.7

j. Offered a retirement or pension plan forits volunteers(N= 72)

71 98.6 0 0.0 1 1.4

k. None of the above(N=1) 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 100.0

46. On the average, of those volunteers or on-call members contacted for incidents in 1997, what percentagewould you estimate responded to an average incident?(Circle one.)(N=72)

100 to 81% 80 to 61% 60 to 41% 40 to 21% 20% or Less N/A# % # % # % # % # % # %

Percentage of volunteersresponding when contacted

9 12.5% 17 23.6% 40 55.6% 5 6.9% 1 1.4% 0 0.0%

47. What was the retention rate of volunteers in your department over the past five years (1993 - 1997),disregarding retirements due to age or injury? (Circle one.)(N=73)

100 to 81% 80 to 61% 60 to 41% 40 to 21% 20% or Less N/A# % # % # % # % # % # %

Retention rate 46 63.0% 16 21.9% 5 6.8% 3 4.1% 2 2.7% 1 1.4%

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 135

48. Did members of your department in 1997 serve as “sleepers” who slept at the station in anticipation ofresponse to overnight incidents?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=74)

1. Yes19 25.7%

2. No48 64.9

3. Not applicable7 9.5

49. How well did your department’s training program and training requirements prepare your members toperform the following services in 1997?(Circle one number for each service. If your department did not offerthat service, circle “2.”)

Members Members MembersTraining Did Not Demonstrated Demonstrated Demonstrated

Not Offer Above Average Average Below AverageService Available Services Mastery of Skills Mastery of Skills Mastery of Skills

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percenta. Structural and vehicle

fires (N=86)2 2.3% 0 0.0% 63 73.3% 21 24.4% 0 0.0%

b. Wildland fires(N=84)

8 9.5 16 19.0 20 23.8 40 47.6 0 0.0

c. Operating apparatus(N=86)

0 0.0 0 0.0 48 55.8 38 44.2 0 0.0

d. Maintenance of apparatusand equipment(N=85)

1 1.2 4 4.7 38 44.7 40 47.1 2 2.4

e. Public education(N=86)

1 1.2 2 2.3 45 52.3 37 43.0 1 1.2

f. Inspection/codeenforcement(N=86)

6 7.0 14 16.3 24 27.9 37 43.0 5 5.8

g. Fire investigation(N=86)

2 2.3 6 7.0 36 41.9 41 47.7 1 1.2

h. Technical rescues(N=85)

0 0.0 3 3.5 38 44.7 41 48.2 3 3.5

i. HazMat first responder-Awareness Level(N=85)

0 0.0 0 0.0 37 43.5 46 54.1 2 2.4

j. HazMat first responder-Operations Level(N=84)

1 1.2 15 17.9 31 36.9 34 40.5 3 3.6

k. HazMat Technician(N=85)

6 7.1 43 50.6 21 24.7 15 17.6 0 0.0

l. HazMat Specialist(N=85)

7 8.2 51 60.0 15 17.6 10 11.8 2 2.4

m. HazMat On-Scene IncidentCommander(N=84)

5 6.0 27 32.1 23 27.4 27 32.1 2 2.4

n. First response (medicalincidents)(N=81)

1 1.2 21 25.9 45 55.6 13 16.0 1 1.2

o. First aid and CPR(N=82)

1 1.2 7 8.5 52 63.4 21 25.6 1 1.2

p. EMT-Basic(N=86)

2 2.3 37 43.0 40 46.5 7 8.1 0 0.0

q. EMT-Intermediate(N=83)

2 2.4 63 75.9 16 19.3 2 2.4 0 0.0

r. EMT-Paramedic(N=81)

2 2.5 68 84.0 8 9.9 2 2.5 1 1.2

s. Use and limitations ofpersonal protectiveequipment(N=85)

0 0.0 3 3.5 64 75.3 18 21.2 0 0.0

136 FIRE SERVICES

50. How satisfied were you in 1997 with the availability of training facilities (for training on ground ladders, livesmoke and fire operations, apparatus operation, etc.) and members’ understanding of the department’sstandards for training and operations? (Circle one number for each statement.)

Very Somewhat Neither Satisfied Somewhat VerySatisfied Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percenta. Availability of training

facilities (N=88)24 27.3% 24 27.3% 5 5.7% 23 26.1% 12 13.6%

b. Members’ understandingof training & operationstandards(N=88)

35 39.8 37 42.0 12 13.6 4 4.5 0 0.0

51. Which of the following, if any, describes your department’s policies in effect in 1997 regarding training?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=88)

a. The department identified the training needs of individual members67 76.1%

b. The department ensured that members received the training that supported their individual needs66 75.0

c. The department had an assigned training officer(s)79 89.8

d. The department maintained fire fighter training records86 97.7

e. The department measured the effectiveness of the training that it provided50 56.8

f. The department assessed its members’ proficiency in the subjects for which training was received57 64.8

g. None of the above0 0.0

52. What was the minimum number of fire fighters typically required by your department for performing dutiesin the hazardous area of structural fires in 1997?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=88)

1. 1 to 3 fire fighters8 9.1%

2. 4 to 6 fire fighters48 54.5

3. 7 to 9 fire fighters13 14.8

4. 10 or more fire fighters19 21.6

53. What innovative or effective methods regarding recruitment or use of personnel are used by yourdepartment or other departments you are aware of?(Use additional sheet, if needed.)

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 137

REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES

54. From which of the following sources did your department receive revenues in 1997? Approximately whatpercent of your total revenues in 1997 came from each source?(For each revenue source, circle “1” if youreceived revenues from that source and then indicate its approximate percentage of total revenues).

Received Approximate PercentageSource Some in 1997? of Total Revenues

Number Percent (N=85) Mean Median (N=76)

a. Property taxes 81 95.3% (1) Yes 81.6% 95.0%

b. Fees for services 35 41.2 (1) Yes 2.6 0.0

c. Charitable gambling proceeds, e.g., pull tabs 16 18.8 (1) Yes 1.4 0.0

d. Contributions from civic organizations(Lions Clubs, Jaycees, etc.) 34 40.0 (1) Yes .7 0.0

e. Revenue from events(softball tournaments, dances, etc.) 13 15.3 (1) Yes .8 0.0

f. Revenues from contracts for services 40 47.1 (1) Yes 6.5 0.0

g. Reimbursements for services provided 17 20.0 (1) Yes .9 0.0

h. State aid that came to department, not to

relief association 10 11.8 (1) Yes 1.4 0.0

i. Other (Please specify.) 6 7.1 (1) Yes 4.2 0.0

________________________________ ========

100.0%

j. Did your department receive in-kind contributions,such as gifts of equipment, in 1997?(Mark one.)

55. What were your department’s total operating expenditures in 1997 (excluding capital purchases ofapparatus, land, computer hardware or other capital expenses)?

Median (N=83)

$500,000.00 Total operating expenditures

56. Which of the following items were included in your estimate of 1997 operating expenditures reported above?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=82)

a. Salaries, wages, or stipends paid to department members, contracted employees, and otherdepartment staff

81 98.8%

b. Benefits (vacation, sick leave, etc.) paid to members and other staff57 69.5

c. Supplies (e.g., office supplies, manuals, and equipment purchases not part of a capital purchase)82 100.0

d. Training, drills, certification fees, and equipment used in training82 100.0

e. Building space rental, maintenance, and utilities70 85.4

f. Maintenance of vehicles and equipment81 98.8

g. Administrative and overhead expenses (legal services, human resources services, etc.)63 76.8

h. Insurance premiums68 82.9

i. Other operating expenditures(Please specify.) ___________________________________________13 15.9

57. What do you estimate were your department’s capital expenditures on purchases of apparatus over the mostrecent ten-year period of 1987-1997 (not adjusted for inflation)?(N=86)

Median (N=75)

$600,000 a. Total capital expenditures on apparatus and equipment (1987-1997)Number Percent

b. Unknown or unable to estimate11 12.8%

138 FIRE SERVICES

Number Percent (N=71)23 32.4% 1. Yes48 67.6 2. No

FIRE PREVENTIONThis section of the survey is intended to be completed by the fire marshal, if one is designated. If the department has nofire marshal designated, the person completing the first section of this survey should also complete this section. Inanswering these questions, consider all staff who are either members of the department or its fire marshal office, or oncontract with the department. Exclude staff, such as a building inspector, who is not a member of, or on contract to, thefire department.

PUBLIC EDUCATION

58. Approximately what percent of the population in your primary response area do you estimate receivedpublic education information or materials (including people reached by school programs, home inspections,fire safety information, etc.) from your department or its fire marshal office in 1997? (Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=86)

1. 100 to 75 percent11 12.8%

2. 75 to 51 percent18 20.9

3. 50 to 26 percent21 24.4

4. 25 to 1 percent31 36.0

5. Unknown or unable to estimate5 5.8

6. Not applicable0 0.0

59. Which of the following components of a public education program, if any, did your department or its firemarshal office have in 1997?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=87)

a. Identification of the most important local fire risks and hazards, and targeting of specific audiencesbased on community risks

51 58.6%

b. Availability of a smoke detector program57 65.5

c. Participation in the nationally observed annual Fire Prevention Week84 96.6

d. Collaboration with school teachers and administrators in the fire prevention effort78 89.7

e. Use of public education programs, tools, and literature available from other sources (NFPA’s “LearnNot to Burn” program, a safe house, etc.)

73 83.9

f. Availability of materials published in languages spoken within the community34 39.1

g. Monitoring of program’s effectiveness on a routine basis22 25.3

h. Designation of a public fire safety education officer, to coordinate all fire safety education programs,who meets professional qualifications in line with industry standards, such as NFPA 1035,Standardfor Professional Qualifications for Public Fire and Life Safety Educator

34 39.1

i. Use of media and other community organizations for delivering fire safety messages69 79.3

j. Availability and promotion of public education services and materials for use by individuals,businesses, and community organizations

61 70.1

k. Establishment of a program of fire-safety surveys in private homes21 24.1

l. Other(Please specify.)_____________________________________________________________9 10.3

m. None of the above4 4.6

60. Did your department or its fire marshal office have a juvenile fire-setter program in 1997?(Mark one.)Number Percent (N=87)

1. Yes44 50.6%

2. No36 41.4

3. A juvenile fire-setter program was under development7 8.0

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 139

INSPECTIONS/CODE ENFORCEMENT

61. Who was responsible for conducting fire code-related inspections in your primary response area in 1997?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=87)

1. The fire department, its fire marshal, or an agency contracted by the fire department conducted someor all fire code-related inspections

75 86.2%

2. Fire code-related inspections were conducted only by a county or city agency or some other agencynot under contract with the fire department or part of the department’s budget(Go to Question 65.)

10* 11.5

3. Fire code-related inspections were not conducted(Go to Question 65.)2 2.3

62. Please circle the percentage of new and existing buildings and premises in your fire department’s primaryresponse area that your department or its fire marshal office inspected or from which you receiveddocumentation of code compliance during 1997.(Circle “6” for not applicable if your department was notinvolved with that type of inspection. The following statements do not apply to single- and two-family homes andother occupancies where automatic fire-extinguishing systems are not required, or to hotels and other buildingsunder the State Fire Marshal’s inspection jurisdiction.)

100 to 76% 75 to 51% 50 to 26% 25 to 6% 5% or less N/A# % # % # % # % # % # %

a. Percent of existing buildingsthat you inspected in 1997(N=77)

6 7.8% 10 13.0% 24 31.2% 21 27.3% 13 16.9% 3 3.9%

b. Percent of existing buildings fromwhich you requested documentationof code compliance in 1997(N=70)

5 7.1 6 8.6 15 21.4 16 22.9 13 18.6 15 21.4

c. Percent of existing buildings fromwhich you received documentationof code compliance in 1997(N=70)

4 5.7 7 10.0 13 18.6 19 27.1 15 21.4 12 17.1

d. Percent of new buildingsconstructed in 1997 for whichyou performed inspections orplan reviews(N=76)

55 72.4 7 9.2 7 9.2 3 3.9 2 2.6 2 2.6

63. Which of the following components of an inspection/code enforcement program, if any, did your departmentor its fire marshal office have in 1997 (excluding inspections conducted by the State Fire Marshal’s Office ofbuildings such as schools, motels, nursing homes, etc.)?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=76)

a. Process for determining inspection priorities that targets life-safety and property hazards andspecifies inspection frequency

53 69.7%

b. Establishment of job performance requirements for inspectors consistent with industry standards,such as NFPA 1031,Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector

27 35.5

c. Evaluation of inspectors based on their performance of job requirements, including scheduled fieldchecks to determine the quality of inspections performed

23 30.3

d. Collaboration with other agencies, such as a building inspections agency, involved in codeadministration and enforcement

71 93.4

e. Interaction between code enforcement and fire suppression staff in developing prefire plans60 78.9

f. Consultation with a fire protection engineer when necessary for plan reviews, interpretations, andvariances (through a staff fire protection engineer, a contract, or the State Fire Marshal)

57 75.0

g. Establishment of a board of appeals to appeal orders issued under the fire code36 47.4

h. Retention for at least three years of records of each inspection made66 86.8

i. None of the above1 1.3

*The analysis for questions 62-64 includes responses from 2 fire marshal offices that conducted code enforcement but were notincluded in their fire department budgets.

140 FIRE SERVICES

64. In which of the following ways, if any, was your department or its fire marshal office involved in the planreview process for new buildings constructed in your jurisdiction in 1997?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=76)

a. Participation in preconstruction meetings (taking place before construction plans were submitted)60 78.9%

b. Involvement in the plan review process once construction plans were submitted68 89.5

c. Coordination of reviews with local building department and technical construction trades58 76.3

d. Establishment of fire prevention sign-off authority on the construction permit50 65.8

e. Participation in certificate of occupancy process56 73.7

f. None of the above3 3.9

INVESTIGATIONS

65. To what extent did your department or its fire marshal office rely on the State Fire Marshal’s Office or locallaw enforcement for fire investigations in 1997?(Circle one number for each line.)

Rarely,Frequently Sometimes If Ever

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

a. State Fire Marshal’s Office(N=86) 20 23.3% 47 54.7% 19 22.1%

b. Local law enforcement(N=85) 26 30.6 38 44.7 21 24.7

66. Of the total 1997 investigations of suspicious fire origins investigated by investigators from your department,approximately what percentage do you estimate were presented for prosecution?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=80)

1. 100 to 81%2 2.5%

2. 80 to 61%1 1.3

3. 60 to 41%4 5.0

4. 40 to 21%5 6.3

5. 20% or less42 52.5

6. Not applicable because the State Fire Marshal’s Office or local law enforcement conducted allcriminal investigations

26 32.5

67. Which of the following components of an investigation program, if any, did your department or its firemarshal office have in 1997?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=85)

a. Guidelines for when to contact the State Fire Marshal65 76.5%

b. Establishment of general guidelines for conducting scene examinations, scene documentation,interviews and interrogation, post-incident investigations, and presentations of findings which are inline with industry standards, such as those outlined in NFPA 1033,Standard for ProfessionalQualifications for Fire Investigator

46 54.1

c. Ongoing training and professional information for investigators provided in the areas ofinvestigation methodology, fire protection technology, and current code requirements

63 74.1

d. State Fire Marshal provided with a written statement of all the facts relating to the cause and originof the fire within one week of fire’s occurrence

23 27.1

e. Fire fighters instructed in aspects of arson scenes, how their actions impact the work of fireinvestigators, and cautionary measures they can take in the suppression, overhaul, and salvage of afire scene

77 90.6

f. Fire fighters and peace officers from your jurisdiction jointly attended investigation training coursesoffered by the Bureau of Criminal Apprehension

33 38.8

g. None of the above3 3.5

STUDY METHODOLOGY: FULL SURVEY 141

68. In approximately what percent of fires to which your fire department responded in 1997 would you estimatean investigator (including State Fire Marshal investigators) was on the scene of the fire immediately afterthe fire was extinguished (or earlier)? (Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=84)

1. 100 percent17 20.2%

2. 90 to 99 percent18 21.4

3. 80 to 89 percent9 10.7

4. 70 to 79 percent11 13.1

5. Less than 70 percent24 28.6

6. Unknown or unable to estimate5 6.0

69. How satisfied were you with the quality of the services your department or its fire marshal office provided inthe following areas in 1997?(Circle one response for each service; if your office did not offer that service, circle“6” for not applicable.)

Very Somewhat Neither Satisfied Somewhat VerySatisfied Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied N/A# % # % # % # % # % # %

a. Public education(N=86)

43 50.0% 28 32.6% 7 8.1% 5 5.8% 1 1.2% 2 2.3%

b. Inspection/codeenforcement(N=87)

35 40.2 24 27.6 10 11.5 4 4.6 6 6.9 8 9.2

c. Investigation(N=87)

51 58.6 22 25.3 7 8.0 3 3.4 0 0.0 4 4.6

70. What innovative or effective methods regarding fire prevention activities are used by your department orother departments you are aware of?(Use additional sheet, if needed.)

71. Do you have any additional comments?

Thank you for completing this survey!Please return the completed survey in the postage-paid envelope by November 25th to:

Legislative Auditor’s OfficeCentennial Building - First Floor South

658 Cedar StreetSt. Paul, MN 55155

Or fax to: 651/296-4712

142 FIRE SERVICES

Fire Services: A Best Practices ReviewSurvey of Minnesota Fire Departments

Office of the Legislative Auditor

Thank you for answering this survey of fire departments. Most of the questions pertain to the1997 calendar year. We recognize that some questions may refer to data that you do notroutinely collect, but we encourage you to provide us with estimated answers where you may nothave precise data. Direct questions about the survey to Jody Hauer at 651/296-8501.

Please return the completed survey in the enclosed postage-paid envelope by November 25, 1998.

Name: __________________________________________ Phone: ___________________________

1. How was your fire department structured in 1997?(Mark one box.)

Number Percent (N=304)

1. Municipal department276 90.8%

2. Private nonprofit organization20 6.6

3. Special fire protection district5 1.6

4. Other (Please specify.)___________3 1.0

2. Did any of the following apply to your department in 1997? If so, please list the cities and townshipsinvolved. (Circle one number and list communities if applicable.)

Yes NoNumber Percent Number Percent

a. My department operated under a joint powers agreement (Cities andtowns involved:)(N=298)

42 14.1% 256 85.9%

b. My department was a consolidated department (Cities and townsinvolved:) (N=298)

11 3.7 287 96.3

c. My department provided services by contract (Cities and towns involved:)(N=298)

214 71.8 84 28.2

d. A joint powers agreement or consolidation was under development (Cities andtowns involved:)(N=297)

3 1.0 294 99.0

3. Did your department have in place in 1997 a preventive maintenance program for apparatus andequipment that prescribed routine, scheduled maintenance?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=306)

1. Yes231 75.5%

2. No51 16.7

3. Preventive maintenance program was under development24 7.8

4. Did your department have in place in 1997 a replacement plan for capital purchases that estimated theexpected replacement year of apparatus based on their expected life cycles and their costs?(Mark one.)

Number Percent (N=305)

1. Yes120 39.3%

2. No147 48.2

3. Replacement plan was under development38 12.5

We received responses from 307 of asample of 454 volunteer or on-calldepartments in areas under 8,000population, for a response rate of 67.6percent.

5. What purchasing arrangements has your department used in the past 10 years to purchase pumpers,ladder trucks, tankers, brush trucks, or other apparatus? (Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=301)

a. Developed specifications and selected vendors through bidding process211 70.1%

b. Bought or leased vehicles through the Federal Excess Property Program106 35.2

c. Purchased apparatus jointly with another department6 2.0

d. Used lease arrangement with another department2 0.7

e. Used contributions from civic organizations or charitable gambling proceeds in making thepurchase

173 57.5

f. Received apparatus in exchange for service provided by contract14 4.7

g. Other (Please specify.) _________________________________________________________54 17.9

6. How many fire fighters, fire officers, and other staff were in your fire department or on contract to thedepartment at the end of 1997?(Exclude any staff, such as a building inspector, who was nota member of,or on contract to, the fire department.)(N=305)

Number ofNumber of Other Staff

Fire Fighters (include supportand Officers staff, if any) TOTAL

RespondingDepartments Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

a. Full-time career members (1) 0.0 0.0 (2) 0.0 * (3) 0.0 0.0

b. Members earning stipend, hourly oron-call wage (1) 11.0 2.0 (2) 0.2 0.0 (3) 11.2 2.0

c. Volunteers earning pension but nocompensation for responses (1) 10.1 0.0 (2) 0.1 0.0 (3) 10.2 0.0

d. Volunteers earning neither compensationnor pension (1) 1.0 0.0 (2) 0.1 0.0 (3) 1.0 0.0

(Mark one response for each statement.)

e. The chief’s position was a paid one Number Percent (N=306)196 64.1% 1. Yes110 35.9 2. No

f. City or county inspectors (who were not Number Percent (N=273)fire department members or on contractthrough the department) performedbuilding inspections

7. Which of the following, if any, did your fire department have in place for fire suppression, hazardousmaterials response, or technical rescue activities in 1997?(Circle a number in each column if the practicewas available for that service and your department offered the service. If your department did not offerhazmat or technical rescue services, mark the appropriate box below and circle responses only for theservices you offered.)(N=298)

Number Percent

1. We did not offer hazardous materials responses145 48.7%

2. We did not offer technical rescues124 41.6

*Too few responses to report median.

144 FIRE SERVICES

1186

144

21

Number of

67 24.5% 1. Yes206 75.5 2. No

Question 7, continued ...Fire Hazardous Technical

Practice Suppression Materials RescueNumber Percent Number Percent Number Percent

a. Written emergency response plan that defines the firedepartment’s roles during the incident

159 53.4% 70 23.5% 54 18.1%

b. Written standard operating guidelines for conducting theservices

165 55.4 69 23.2 59 19.8

c. Risk assessment for rescue needs and target hazards in thecommunity

97 32.6 42 14.1 33 11.1

d. Minimum staffing level requirements according to OSHAand FEMA standards

112 37.6 46 15.4 31 10.4

e. Written pre-incident plans specified for all fire risks, targethazards, or potential rescue needs

84 28.2 39 13.1 33 11.1

f. Specialists (or contracts with them) to perform services inthe event fire department does not provide service

39 13.1 47 15.8 23 7.7

g. None of the above 39 13.1 46 15.4 53 17.8

8. Which of the following activities were included in your department’s mutual aid associations orautomatic aid agreements during 1997?(Circle “1,” “2,” or both numbers to indicate whether youprovided and/or received mutual aid. Circle “3” if the activity was not included in your mutual aid.)(N=301)

Number Percent

1. We did not participate in mutual aid or automatic aid7 2.3%

Provided Received Not Part ofActivity Mutual Aid Mutual Aid Mutual Aid

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

a. Fire suppression 279 92.7% 250 83.1% 5 1.7%

b. Technical rescues 106 35.2 109 36.2 160 53.2

c. First responders 156 51.8 127 42.2 118 39.2

d. Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Basic or AdvancedLife Support

74 24.6 99 32.9 177 58.8

e. Hazardous materials responses 56 18.6 77 25.6 204 67.8

f. Enforcement of fire codes and/or related local ordinances,inspections

22 7.3 26 8.6 258 85.7

g. Fire investigations 33 11.0 55 18.3 224 74.4

h. Fire safety awareness efforts 76 25.2 43 14.3 213 70.8

i. Public relations activities 78 25.9 35 11.6 214 71.1

j. Training courses or seminars 158 52.5 149 49.5 106 35.2

k. Drills and exercises 201 66.8 180 59.8 75 24.9

l. Use of specialized equipment or apparatus 132 43.9 129 42.9 135 44.9

m. Use of facilities 123 40.9 98 32.6 160 53.2

n. Cooperative purchasing arrangements 23 7.6 24 8.0 267 88.7

o. Other (Please specify.) 0 0.0 1 0.3 293 97.3

STUDY METHODOLOGY: SHORT SURVEY 145

9. How satisfied were you with the following characteristics of your 1997 mutual aid?(Circle one numberfor each characteristic or circle “6” if the characteristic was not available.)

Very Somewhat Neither Satisfied Somewhat Very NotCharacteristics Satisfied Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Available

# % # % # % # % # % # %

a. Access to or reachingadditional fire fighters(N=300)

239 79.7% 39 13.0% 13 4.3% 3 1.0% 2 0.7% 4 1.3%

b. Coordination of fire fightersfrom multiple departments(N=297)

186 62.6 75 25.3 25 8.4 5 1.7 0 0.0 6 2.0

c. Use of apparatus/equipmentfrom other departments(N=295)

204 69.2 55 18.6 28 9.5 1 0.3 0 0.0 7 2.4

d. Communication amongdepartments(N=299)

135 45.2 94 31.4 40 13.4 22 7.4 4 1.3 4 1.3

e. Availability of staffing forprolonged or extraordinaryincidents(N=287)

123 42.9 71 24.7 53 18.5 6 2.1 2 0.7 32 11.1

f. Response by other depart-ments to your requests foraid (N=299)

252 84.3 32 10.7 10 3.3 1 0.3 0 0.0 4 1.3

10. Approximately what was your fire department’s average response time in minutes to incidents in yourprimary response area in 1997 (starting from the time companies were alerted to the time a fullresponse unit arrived at the scene)?(Fill in only oneresponse. Fill in a. unless your department onlyrecords response times from the time a call comes in to the dispatcher, instead of the time firefighters arealerted.)(N=292)

Median (N=179) Number Percent

a. Average response time starting fromtime companies were alerted

ORb. Average response time starting

from the time the call came in to the dispatcher

c. Unknown or unable to estimate

11. For each of the following services, approximately how many person-hours of staff time were spent in1997, and how many responses did the department make? Also indicate whether your departmentcharged fees for any of these services.(If necessary, please check your records to verify number of hoursand responses; if you do not record hours or number of responses, mark the “Don’t Know” column. Includehours for fire marshal staff and support staff, where applicable, but exclude staff, such as city buildinginspectors, who were not part of or on contract with your department.)(N=291)

Total Total Responses Did Not Don’t DepartmentService Person-Hours or Events Offer Know Charged Fees

Median Median Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

a. Fire suppression 213.0 (N=192) 13.0 (N=218) 0 0.0% 40 13.7% 93 32.0%

b. False alarms 14.0 (N=156) 3.0 (N=173) 8 2.7 49 16.8 17 5.8

c. Technical rescuesI

(e.g., vehicle extrications,water/ice rescues, etc.)

35.5 (N=132) 3.0 (N=145) 73 25.1 27 9.3 31 10.7

d. EMS - FirstII

Responders120.0 (N=89) 27.0 (N=107) 112 38.5 36 12.4 11 3.8

I Medians may differ slightly from actual because two respondents included EMS-First Responders activities in their estimates fortechnical rescues.II Medians may differ slightly from actual because several respondents included BLS, ALS, and/or technical rescues in theirestimates for EMS-First Responders.

146 FIRE SERVICES

63 21.6%7.0 Minutes

Median (N=50)8.0 Minutes

Question 11, continued ...

Total Total Responses Did Not Don’t DepartmentService Person-Hours or Events Offer Know Charged Fees

Median Median Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

e. EMS - Basic LifeIII

Support responseservices

150.0 (N=21) 46.5 (N=18) 218 74.9 16 5.5 1 0.3

f. EMS - Basic LifeIV

Support transport2.0 (N=5) 1.0 (N=5) 249 85.6 12 4.1 3 1.0

g. EMS - Advanced LifeSupport responseservices

* * 263 90.4 6 2.1 0 0.0

h. EMS - Advanced LifeSupport transport

* * 263 90.4 7 2.4 1 0.3

i. Hazardous materialsresponse

0.0 (N=98) 0.0 (N=100) 72 24.7 27 9.3 11 3.8

j. Code enforcement(inspections and planreviews)

10.0 (N=42) 3.0 (N=35) 199 68.4 12 4.1 1 0.3

k. Fire investigations 8.0 (N=78) 2.0 (N=75) 105 36.1 40 13.7 2 0.7

l. Public education(e.g., school programs,fire-safe house)

20.0 (N=172) (N/A) 40 13.7 35 12.0 0 0.0

m. Emergency manage-ment services

10.0 (N=56) (N/A) 93 32.0 46 15.8 (N/A)

n. Public relationsactivities

20.0 (N=132) (N/A) 42 14.4 54 18.6 (N/A)

o. Apparatus/equipmentmaintenance

60.0 (N=177) (N/A) 7 2.4 59 20.3 (N/A)

p. Building/groundsmaintenance

30.0 (N=118) (N/A) 39 13.4 61 21.0 (N/A)

q. Hydrant maintenance/inspection

10.0 (N=83) (N/A) 88 30.2 46 15.8 (N/A)

r. Reduction of flammablebrush/vegetation

13.0 (N=62) (N/A) 97 33.3 41 14.1 (N/A)

s. Training and drills 441.0 (N=202) (N/A) 2 0.7 45 15.5 (N/A)

t. Administration 60.0 (N=136) (N/A) 20 6.9 64 22.0 (N/A)

u. Support staff (notassigned to a specificservice)

0.0 (N=44) (N/A) 79 27.1 62 21.3 (N/A)

v. Standby time 10.0 (N=77) (N/A) 46 15.8 73 25.1 (N/A)

w. Other (Please specifybelow.) ____________

57.0 (N=23) (N/A) 17 5.8 27 9.3 0 0.0

x. TOTALS 894.0 (N=237) 32.5 (N=222)

* Too few responses to report median.

III Medians may differ slightly from actual because several respondents included EMS-First Responders, BLS transport, and/orALS activities in their estimates for BLS response services. The person-hours median includes some numbers that are estimatesbased on a ratio of person-hours for BLS response services to person-hours for BLS transport.IV Medians exclude those responses that did not separate time spent on BLS transport from time spent on EMS-First Responders,BLS response, or ALS activities.

STUDY METHODOLOGY: SHORT SURVEY 147

12. How consistently did the following characterize your department’s interactions with volunteers oron-call members in 1997?(Circle one number for each statement.)

Rarely,

Characteristic Consistently Sometimes If EverNumber Percent Number Percent Number Percent

a. Provided recognition to volunteers for jobs well done(such as in newsletters, at banquets, with press releases,etc.)(N=282)

64 22.7% 137 48.6% 81 28.7%

b. Took steps to maintain a good reputation and positiveimage to keep volunteers interested, such as maintainingapparatus and equipment as a point of pride(N=287)

173 60.3 108 37.6 6 2.1

c. Leadership used a management style that encouragedmember participation(N=284)

161 56.7 102 35.9 21 7.4

d. Stated an explicit mission and goals so volunteers knewwhat to expect(N=283)

121 42.8 126 44.5 36 12.7

e. Used a process for communicating relevant informationso members were informed(N=285)

178 62.5 95 33.3 12 4.2

f. Used standard procedures for dealing equitably withgrievances(N=276)

108 39.1 92 33.3 76 27.5

g. Required training that was relevant and fit the volunteers’time availability(N=283)

198 70.0 78 27.6 7 2.5

h. Offered monetary incentives per hour, per call, or asa stipend(N=280)

133 47.5 24 8.6 123 43.9

i. Offered medical, death, or disability benefits to itsvolunteers(N=276)

158 57.2 17 6.2 101 36.6

j. Offered a retirement or pension plan for its volunteers(N=287)

265 92.3 1 0.3 21 7.3

k. Used a recruitment plan that was structured according tothe department’s personnel needs(N=281)

130 46.3 77 27.4 74 26.3

13. Did your department offer or require training for all members expected to perform the followingservices in 1997?(Circle“1” if training was offered or required. If your department did not offer thatservice, circle “2.”) (N=302)Service Training Offered or Required Did Not Offer Service

Number Percent Number Percent

a. Structural and vehicle fires 293 97.0% 0 0.0%

b. Wildland fires 232 76.8 60 19.9

c. Operating apparatus 298 98.7 2 0.7

d. Maintenance of apparatus and equipment 262 86.8 20 6.6

e. Public education 162 53.6 54 17.9

f. Inspection/code enforcement 58 19.2 211 69.9

g. Fire investigation 126 41.7 117 38.7

h. Technical rescues 184 60.9 77 25.5

i. HazMat first responder-Awareness Level 219 72.5 73 24.2

j. HazMat first responder-Operations Level 90 29.8 197 65.2

k. First response (medical incidents) 191 63.2 106 35.1

l. First aid and CPR 255 84.4 38 12.6

m. EMT-Basic 91 30.1 202 66.9

n. EMT-Intermediate 21 7.0 266 88.1

o. EMT-Paramedic 11 3.6 274 90.7

p. Use and limitations of personal protective equipment 254 84.1 34 11.3

148 FIRE SERVICES

14. On the average, of those volunteers or on-call members contacted for incidents in 1997, whatpercentage would you estimate responded to an average incident?(Circle one.)(N=301)

100 to 81% 80 to 61% 60 to 41% 40 to 21% 20% or Less N/A# % # % # % # % # % # %

Percentage of volunteersresponding when contacted

36 12.0% 127 42.2% 114 37.9% 18 6.0% 2 0.7% 4 1.3%

15. What was the retention rate of volunteers in your department over the past five years (1993 - 1997),disregarding retirements due to age or injury? (Circle one.)(N=293)

100 to 81% 80 to 61% 60 to 41% 40 to 21% 20% or Less N/A# % # % # % # % # % # %

Retention rate 173 59.0% 64 21.8% 15 5.1% 13 4.4% 21 7.2% 7 2.4%

16. From which of the following sources did your department receive revenues in 1997? Approximatelywhat percent of your total revenues in 1997 came from each source?(For each revenue source, circle“1” if you received revenues from that source and then indicate its approximate percentage of totalrevenues.)

Approximate PercentageSource Received Some in 1997? of Total Revenues

Number Percent (N=293) Mean Median (N=243)

a. Property taxes 229 78.2% (1) Yes 53.5% 60.0%

b. Fees for services 123 42.0 (1) Yes 4.4 0.0

c. Charitable gambling proceeds, e.g., pull tabs 114 38.9 (1) Yes 8.1 0.0

d. Contributions from civic organizations (Lions Clubs,Jaycees, etc.) 94 32.1 (1) Yes 2.4 0.0

e. Revenue from events (softball tournaments, dances, etc.) 85 29.0 (1) Yes 3.3 0.0

f. Revenues from contracts for services 164 56.0 (1) Yes 23.1 5.0

g. Reimbursements for services provided 57 19.5 (1) Yes 1.3 0.0

h. State aid that came to department, not to relief association 48 16.4 (1) Yes 1.7 0.0

i. Other (Please specify.) _________________ 31 10.6 (1) Yes 2.2 0.0

j. Did your department receive in-kind contributions,

such as gifts of equipment, in 1997?(Mark one box.) 1. Yes

2. No

17. What were your fire department’s total operating expenditures in 1997 (excluding capital purchases ofapparatus, land, computer hardware or other capital expenses)?

Mean Median (N=257)

$29,500.00 Total operating expenditures$39,461.00

18. Which of the following items were included in your estimate of 1997 operating expenditures reportedabove? (Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=259)

a. Salaries, wages, or stipends paid to department members, contracted employees, other departmentstaff

183 70.7%

b. Benefits (vacation, sick leave, etc.) paid to members and other department staff16 6.2

c. Supplies (e.g., office supplies, manuals, and equipment purchases not part of a capital purchase)240 92.7

d. Training, drills, certification fees, and equipment used in training253 97.7

e. Building space rental, maintenance, and utilities190 73.4

f. Maintenance of vehicles and equipment253 97.7

g. Administrative and overhead expenses (legal services, human resources services, insurance, etc.)179 69.1

h. Other operating expenditures(Please specify.) ______________________20 7.7

STUDY METHODOLOGY: SHORT SURVEY 149

Number Percent (N=276)42 15.2%

234 84.8

19. What do you estimate were your department’s capital expenditures on purchases of apparatus over themost recent ten-year period of 1987-97 (not adjusted for inflation)?(N=295)

Mean Median (N=217)

$166,890.63 $120,000.00 a. Total capital expenditures on apparatus and equipment (1987-97)

Number Percent

b. Unknown or unable to estimate78 26.4%

20. Which of the following components of a public education program, if any, did your department have in1997? (Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=300)

a. Identification of the most important local fire risks and hazards, and targeting of specific audiencesbased on community risks

100 33.3%

b. Availability of a smoke detector program114 38.0

c. Participation in the nationally observed annual Fire Prevention Week229 76.3

d. Collaboration with school teachers and administrators in the fire prevention effort204 68.0

e. Use of public education programs, tools, and literature available from other sources (NFPA’s“Learn Not to Burn” program, a safe house, etc.)

136 45.3

f. Availability of materials published in languages spoken within the community46 15.3

g. Monitoring of program’s effectiveness on a routine basis23 7.7

h. Designation of a public fire safety education officer, to coordinate all fire safety educationprograms, who meets professional qualifications in line with industry standards, such as NFPA1035,Standard for Professional Qualifications for Public Fire and Life Safety Educator

32 10.7

i. Use of media and other community organizations for delivering fire safety messages134 44.7

j. Availability and promotion of public education services and materials for use by individuals,businesses, and community organizations

57 19.0

k. Establishment of a program of fire-safety surveys in private homes18 6.0

l. Other(Please specify.)____________________________________________10 3.3

m. None of the above35 11.7

21. Which of the following components of an inspection/code enforcement program, if any, did yourdepartment have in 1997 (excluding inspections conducted by the State Fire Marshal’s Office ofbuildings such as schools, hotels, nursing homes, etc.)?(Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=194)

a. An inspection/code enforcement program was not provided by the fire department nor contractedthrough it

137 70.6%

b. Process for determining inspection priorities that targets life-safety and property hazards andspecifies inspection frequency

13 6.7

c. Establishment of job performance requirements for inspectors consistent with industry standards,such as NFPA 1031,Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector

4 2.1

d. Evaluation of inspectors based on their performance of job requirements, including scheduled fieldchecks to determine the quality of inspections performed

3 1.5

e. Collaboration with other agencies, such as a building inspections agency, involved in codeadministration and enforcement

38 19.6

f. Interaction between code enforcement and fire suppression staff in developing prefire plans28 14.4

g. Consultation with a fire protection engineer when necessary for plan reviews, interpretations, andvariances (through a staff fire protection engineer, a contract, or the State Fire Marshal)

28 14.4

h. Establishment of a board of appeals to appeal orders issued under the fire code3 1.5

i. Retention for at least three years of records of each inspection made18 9.3

j. Other (Please specify.) ___________________________________________________9 4.6

150 FIRE SERVICES

22. Which of the following components of an investigation program, if any, did your department have in1997? (Mark all that apply.)

Number Percent (N=289)

a. Guidelines for when to contact the State Fire Marshal211 73.0%

b. Establishment of general guidelines for conducting scene examinations, scene documentation,interviews and interrogation, post-incident investigations, and presentations of findings which are inline with industry standards, such as those outlined in NFPA 1033,Standard for ProfessionalQualifications for Fire Investigator

54 18.7

c. Ongoing training and professional information for investigators provided in the areas ofinvestigation methodology, fire protection technology, and current code requirements

41 14.2

d. State Fire Marshal provided with a written statement of all the facts relating to the cause and originof the fire within one week of fire’s occurrence

53 18.3

e. Fire fighters instructed in aspects of arson scenes, how their actions impact the work of fireinvestigators, and cautionary measures they can take in the suppression, overhaul, and salvage of afire scene

158 54.7

f. Fire fighters and peace officers from your jurisdiction jointly attended investigation training coursesoffered by the Bureau of Criminal Apprehension

26 9.0

g. The department relied heavily on the State Fire Marshal’s Office for investigations184 63.7

h. None of the above27 9.3

23. What innovative or effective methods regarding fire suppression, rescues, first response or EMS,hazmat, mutual aid, or fire prevention activities are used by your department or other departmentsyou are aware of? (Use additional sheets if needed.)

24. Do you have any additional comments?

Thank you for completing this survey!Please return the completed survey in the postage-paid envelope by November 25th to:

Legislative Auditor’s OfficeCentennial Building - First Floor South

658 Cedar StreetSt. Paul, MN 55155

Or fax to: 651/296-4712

STUDY METHODOLOGY: SHORT SURVEY 151

This appendix describes the measures we usedto evaluate the performance of fire depart-ments for our study. It also offers a checklist

of performance measures that fire departments maywish to use in assessing their own performance. Wefirst explain briefly the importance of measuringperformance and the process for doing so. Then welist the measures of performance we identified forthis review, many of which we used in our analysis.Fire departments that measure their performancemay choose to use these measures or develop onesof their own.

THE VALUE OF PERFORMANCEMEASUREMENT

Fire departments that develop goals, objectives, andperformance measures are able to evaluate the levelof services they provide. They analyze informationon their departments’ impact, efficiency, andeffectiveness. Performance data provide a record ofthe value a fire department offers for the dollars itexpends.

Fire departments that measure their performanceover time will have information to quantify theirachievements as well as identify areas needingimprovement. Performance data show the actualresults of fire departments’ actions. They allow firedepartments to demonstrate their real needs withverifiable data on workload, personnel, and otherresources, which can be helpful in justifying budgetrequests, charting a direction for the department’sfuture, and suggesting changes in service.

It is important to note that, when done correctly,measuring the performance of any governmentfunction, including fire services, is a sizable task. Itrequires resources and time for identifying themission and goals of the department, developingyardsticks to measure performance, actuallyrecording all the department’s activities, and then

analyzing what is measured. An automated systemhelps in the collection, recording, and analysis ofdata. To provide useful information, evaluatingperformance must be done consistently and overtime; it is not something to do quickly or only once.Further, support for performance measurement mustcome from fire department leadership if the data areto provide meaningful help in setting direction forthe department.

Defining a Mission, Goals,Objectives, and Measures

Before evaluating its performance, a fire departmentshould define its mission. A fire department’smission describes its fundamental purpose andprograms. This is the foundation from which adepartment’s goals, objectives, and performancemeasures come.

The next step is setting goals. Goals are broadstatements that outline the outcomes a firedepartment intends to produce. For firedepartments, goals should cover all aspects of theirservice—whether it is fighting fires, educating thepublic on fire safety, providing emergency medicalservices, conducting rescues, or other activities.

After articulating its mission and goals, a firedepartment sets objectives for what it hopes toachieve and by when. Objectives are typically veryspecific and measurable, targeted to individualactivities or programs, and they relate directly to thedepartment’s goals. For example, in line with ageneral goal to provide fire education materials toschool students, a fire department’s objective mightbe to increase by 5 percent the number of thirdgraders demonstrating knowledge of appropriateactions to take when confronted by a fire, asdetermined by testing.

Then, to determine how well it is meeting itsobjectives, a fire department has to develop

A Checklist for MeasuringPerformance

APPENDIX B

measures of its performance. The measures arequantifiable and are typically one of four types:measures of outputs, outcomes, efficiency, andcost-effectiveness. “Output” measures are usuallysimple counts of services, such as the number ofcalls for fire suppression in a given year. The“outcome” measures indicate the actual results offire department actions. An example might be thehigh percentage of incidents to which the firedepartment responded within an acceptableresponse time. “Efficiency” measures look at costs(in terms of dollars, personnel, or time) per output.One example of an efficiency measure isexpenditures per number of fire calls in a year.Finally, “cost-effectiveness” measures assess costsper unit of outcome. An example is expendituresper number of incidents responded to within anacceptable response time.

PERFORMANCE MEASURES FORFIRE SERVICES

We identified numerous performance measuresrelated to the five goals and seven actionsrecommended in Chapter 2. We based the measureson state statutes and rules, as well as onrecommendations of national organizations such asthe National Fire Protection Association and theInternational Association of Fire Chiefs.

Because the measures we used in this study are alsousable by individual fire departments, we arranged

them below in a way that allows fire departments toreview their own performance. In some measuresused during our analysis, we compared firedepartments to statewide median rankings, such asthe number of fire fighter hours spent on fire-safetyeducation. For these measures, fire departmentsmaking their own evaluations may compare theiractions to their individual baseline data instead ofstatewide data. That is, to measure changes adepartment would compare its number of fire-safetyeducation hours one year to that in a subsequentyear.

We list the following measures in an order thatcorresponds to the seven actions we recommend inChapter 2. We have converted them to a “yes orno” format to make it easier for fire departments toapply to their own performance; questions answered“yes” indicate the fire department meets thatperformance measure. Some measures may relateto several of the actions we recommend. Forinstance, having adequate health and safetypractices applies both to our Action 6 related tosupporting safe operations and to Action 7 relatedto preparing for on-scene responses.

This is not a comprehensive list of all measures toreview fire department performance, and firedepartments may wish to supplement it withappropriate measures of their own. A final caveat:Because fire departments did not collect data forsome of these measures, we used most, but not all,of them in this study.

154 FIRE SERVICES

Checklist of Performance Measures

1. Action: Assess risks and develop long-range plans.

These performance measures relate to the need for assessing the risks of fire and other emergencies in theresponse area and developing long-range plans for the fire department based on the identified risks and oncommunity resources.

Measure Yes No

A. Has the fire department written a long-range strategic plan that looks out at least threeyears into the future? The plan should be based on a risk analysis of the response areaand contain (1) financial and strategic planning for personnel, apparatus, and firestations and (2) contingency plans to guarantee service in the event of a disaster.

q q

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT 155

Action 1, continued ...

Measure Yes No

B. Are fire stations sufficient in number and located in areas that permit the fire departmentto respond to all points within its response area in an acceptable response time for 90percent of the calls? (One NFPA rule of thumb for response times is 8 minutes fromreceipt of alarm to when an initial attack team is on the scene; for volunteer, non-staffedstations, the rule of thumb is about 12 minutes.)

q q

C. For fire departments in areas with municipal water systems, has the fire department beeninvolved and satisfied with the process for planning and providing water supplies forfire protection in the response area?

q q

D. Has the ISO credit for water supply been maintained at or improved to acceptable levels(the credit includes measures of fire flow capacity, hydrant spacing, water storage andpumping capacity)?

q q

E. Do all fire pumper apparatus properly match local road conditions and local fire fightingpumper performance needs (such as gallon per minute ratings, tank capacities anddischarge rates, hose and nozzle loads)?

q q

F. Does the fire department have a replacement plan for capital purchases that provides forfuture acquisitions and estimates the expected replacement year of apparatus based ontheir projected life cycles and costs?

q q

G. Are the fire department’s capital expenditures per capita over the past ten years at orbelow the median for similar departments in the region (or, alternatively, withinacceptable levels in the community)?

q q

H. Are the fire department’s capital expenditures per capita over the past ten years at orbelow the median for similar fire departments in the region that have properly matchedtheir pumper apparatus to local road conditions and pumper performance needs?

q q

I. Does the fire department have a systematic process of determining road and fire fightingperformance requirements that can be used in developing bid specifications forpurchasing department vehicles?

q q

2. Action: Evaluate fire department performance and use resources cost-effectively.

The following performance measures relate to evaluating the fire department’s response activities and itsoverall performance over time. They also refer to the extent of the fire department’s involvement with mutualaid activities and examination of alternative service-delivery mechanisms.

Measure Yes No

A. Does the fire department take steps throughout the year to evaluate the effectiveness andefficiency of its activities?

q q

B. Does the fire department keep a log of on-scene activities at emergency incidents? q q

C. Does the fire department maintain an information system (such as a computer programor regularly updated manual system) to record and retrieve information on firedepartment activities?

q q

D. Does the fire department conduct postincident analyses and debriefings followingemergency responses to identify what to either change or reinforce in future responses?

q q

156 FIRE SERVICES

Action 2, continued ...

Measure Yes No

E. Has the fire department developed a formal program of setting goals and objectives andmeasuring its progress toward meeting those goals?

q q

F. Has the fire department used alternative means of purchasing apparatus (pumpers,ladder trucks, tankers, grass rigs, other vehicles) such as acquiring vehicles either inexchange for services delivered by contract, or jointly with another fire department, orthrough the Federal Excess Property Program, or via bids developed in collaborationwith other fire departments?

q q

G. Are the fire department’s total expenditures per capita at or below the median for similardepartments in the region (or, alternatively, within acceptable levels in its community)?

q q

H. Are the fire department’s total expenditures per emergency response at or below themedian for similar departments in the region (or, alternatively, within acceptable levelsin its community)?

q q

I. For those responses made within acceptable response times, are the fire department’snumber of work hours spent per incident, and the expenditures per incident, at or belowthe median for other fire departments responding to similar incidents?

q q

J. Does the fire department participate in a mutual aid association and, if so, does itconduct joint operations using standard operating guidelines agreed to by participatingdepartments?

q q

K. Are all of the fire departments’ active members familiar with mutual aid procedures,equipment, standard operating guidelines, and safety measures?

q q

L. Does the fire department and its mutual aid association offer interagency training on anongoing basis?

q q

M. Has the fire department and its mutual aid association agreed on a standard approach toincident command?

q q

N. Has the fire department designated radio frequencies and standard radio procedures forinterdepartmental communications with those departments for whom mutual aid iscommonly provided?

q q

O. Has the fire department and its mutual aid association agreed to operate with writtenagreements that address: incident command responsibility, jurisdictional issues,insurance coverage, legal responsibilities, and standardized communications systemsand protocols?

q q

P. Is the fire department highly satisfied with its ability through mutual aid to: receiveaccess to additional fire fighters; coordinate fire fighters from multiple departments; getaccess to apparatus or equipment from other departments; allow for effectivecommunication; and provide quick, effective response to its requests for aid?

q q

Q. For fire departments satisfied with the effectiveness of their mutual aid arrangements, isthe fire department’s expenditures per capita at or below the median for similardepartments in the region satisfied with the effectiveness of their mutual aid (or,alternatively, within acceptable levels in its community)?

q q

R. Does the fire department participate with its mutual aid association in: educating thepublic about fire safety, making cooperative purchases of equipment, jointly usingspecialized equipment or apparatus and facilities, investigating fires, and providingother specialized services?

q q

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT 157

3. Action: Promote public awareness of fire safety.

These indicators measure fire departments’ activities regarding public education on fire safety.

Measure Yes No

A. Are the fire department’s fire-safety awareness efforts based on local fire risks andhazards it identified in the community?

q q

B. Are the fire department’s fire-safety messages targeted to specific audiences? q q

C. Does the fire department conduct activities in conjunction with the annual FirePrevention Week in October?

q q

D. Does the fire department collaborate with local teachers and school administrators onfire education programs?

q q

E. Does the fire department use public-education materials and literature available fromother sources, such as NFPA’s “Learn Not to Burn,” a safe-escape house owned byanother department or group, etc.?

q q

F. Does the fire department provide fire-safety materials in languages other than English ifthey are spoken within the community?

q q

G. Does the fire department monitor its education programs on an ongoing basis todetermine their effectiveness?

q q

H. Has the fire department designated a fire-safety public education officer whocoordinates education programs and who meets professional qualifications (such asthose specified by NFPA 1035,Standard for Professional Qualifications for Public Fireand Life Safety Educator)?

q q

I. Does the fire department use a variety of media to convey fire-safety messages and useother community organizations as partners in delivering the messages?

q q

J. Does the fire department’s education program include activities with businesses, such asinstructing employees on fire-safety practices?

q q

K. Does the fire department offer voluntary fire-safety surveys for private residences? q q

L. Does the fire department participate in an intervention program to prevent repeatbehavior by juvenile fire setters?

q q

M. Does a high percentage of the population in the fire department’s response area receivefire-safety messages on an ongoing basis?

q q

N. Does a high percentage of people receiving the fire-safety messages understand what thefire department conveyed, as measured through mechanisms such as citizen surveys ortests administered before and after the instruction?

q q

O. Is the fire department highly satisfied with the quality of the services provided for publicfire-safety awareness?

q q

P. Is the rate of fire incidents per capita at or below the median rate for similarcommunities in the region?

q q

Q. Is the number of fire fighter work hours spent on fire-safety education activities at orabove the median hours for similar fire departments in the region (or, alternatively,within acceptable levels in its community)?

q q

R. Are the fire department’s expenditures per capita on fire-safety education at or belowthe median for similar departments in the region that have reached a high percentage oftheir populations with fire prevention messages (or, alternatively, within acceptablelevels in the community)?

q q

158 FIRE SERVICES

4. Action: Ensure fire code enforcement.

The measures below help evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of ensuring fire-code inspection andenforcement.

Measure Yes No

A. Do a high percentage of the buildings covered by the fire code receive inspections bythe fire department or local building inspectors within a time cycle established locally?

q q

B. Does the fire department or local building inspectors set code inspection prioritiesamong life-safety hazards and property hazards in the community?

q q

C. If directly involved with code inspections, has the fire department established jobperformance requirements for its inspectors, and does it offer training in line withprofessional qualifications (such as those specified by NFPA 1031,Standard forProfessional Qualifications for Fire Inspector)?

q q

D. If directly involved with code inspections, does the fire department evaluate inspectorsbased on their performance, including scheduled field checks to assess the quality ofinspections performed?

q q

E. If directly involved with code inspections, do fire department fire-code inspectorsroutinely gather prefire planning information to share with other fire fighters for usewhen responding to fires?

q q

F. If directly involved with code inspections, do fire department fire-code inspectorsemphasize educating building owners on fire safety as well as enforcing codeprovisions?

q q

G. If directly involved with code inspections, do fire department fire-code inspectorsparticipate in preconstruction meetings, review construction plans for compliance withfire codes, participate in the sign-off for construction permits andcertificates-of-occupancy, and coordinate reviews with local building officials anddesign professionals?

q q

H. If directly involved with code inspections, does the fire department retain records of allinspections and their dispositions for at least three years?

q q

I. If directly involved with code inspections, is the number of fire-code inspections perhour of inspection activities at or above the median number for fire departments in theregion with similar building structures (or, alternatively, within acceptable levels in thecommunity)?

q q

J. Does the fire department collaborate with other agencies involved with codeadministration and enforcement, such as a local building inspection agency?

q q

K. Does the fire department consult with a fire protection engineer, when necessary, forplan reviews, interpretations, and variances (through a staff fire protection engineer, bycontract, or the State Fire Marshal Division)?

q q

L. Does the fire department or local building inspector work to ensure that code violationsare corrected within a reasonable time after providing initial notice of the violations?

q q

M. If directly involved with requesting occupancies to document code compliance, does thefire department receive a high percentage of code compliance documentation?

q q

N. Is a board of appeals in place allowing building owners to appeal orders issued pursuantto the fire code?

q q

O. Is the fire department highly satisfied with the quality of fire-code inspection andenforcement activities?

q q

P. Is the rate of fires low in occupancies inspected for fire-code provisions within a locallyset time cycle?

q q

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT 159

5. Action: Develop effective communications systems.

The following measures relate to fire departments’ communication abilities and systems. They apply tocommunication within the department, and they apply to communication between the department andindividuals and organizations outside it.

Measure Yes No

A. Is the fire department highly satisfied with its system for alerting members to respond toan incident?

q q

B. Is the fire department highly satisfied with the ability of its communications system(telephones, radio base station equipment, two-way radios, pagers, etc.) to performwithout excessive delays or interference in emergencies as well as in normal dailyactivities?

q q

C. Is the fire department’s communication system adequate to allow emergency responsesto fires, EMS calls, and other incidents within acceptable response times?

q q

D. Is the fire department highly satisfied with the ability of its communications system totransmit and receive information between incident commanders and departmentmembers and among mutual aid departments?

q q

E. Is the fire department’s communication system adequate to allow fire departmentresponses that contain flames to the room of origin in a high percentage of structurefires?

q q

F. Does the fire department use standard operating guidelines for radio communicationswith common terminology and integrated radio frequencies?

q q

G. Does the fire department include a written description of its communications systemwith standard protocols for transmitting messages in its incident management systemand response plans (which are drawn up in advance of actual emergencies)?

q q

H. Does the fire department have access to mobile command units or similar arrangementsto provide a central emergency communications point for prolonged incidents?

q q

I. Does the fire department actively and regularly communicate with others outside thedepartment, including local elected officials, utility companies, fire-related associations,law enforcement, local water and building agencies, and school officials?

q q

160 FIRE SERVICES

6. Action: Prepare a competent work force and support safe operations.

The following measures relate to fire fighter recruitment and retention, training, and personal protectiveequipment. They also refer to necessary procedures and guidelines for safety.

Measure Yes No

A. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, has the fire department’srecruitment process provided it with a sufficient number of on-call or volunteermembers located within an area that allowed them to promptly respond to calls?

q q

B. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does the fire departmentconsistently receive an adequate number of volunteer or on-call members respondingwhen contacted for incidents?

q q

C. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does the fire department have ahigh retention rate of its active members?

q q

D. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does the fire departmentidentify what encourages members to continue and what causes them to resign throughmeans such as formally surveying members, conducting exit interviews when they optto resign, or consistently following procedures designed to help members resolveproblems?

q q

E. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does the fire departmentprovide recognition to members for jobs well done (in newsletters, at banquets, etc.)

q q

F. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does the fire departmentmaintain a good reputation and positive image to keep members interested (such asmaintaining apparatus in prime condition as a point of departmental pride)?

q q

G. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does fire department leadershipconsistently exhibit a management style that encourages member participation?

q q

H. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, has the fire department statedan explicit mission and goals so members know what to expect?

q q

I. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does the fire department followa process for communicating relevant information so members stay informed aboutdepartment business?

q q

J. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does the fire departmentconsistently follow procedures to deal equitably with grievances?

q q

K. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does the fire departmentrequire training that is relevant and fits volunteers’ time availability to the extentpossible?

q q

L. For fire departments with volunteer or on-call members, does the fire department offerincentives in the form of monetary compensation, medical or disability benefits, orretirement or pension plans?

q q

M. Has the fire department developed a recruitment program based on its identifiedongoing personnel needs?

q q

N. Is the fire department highly satisfied that its recruitment process produces candidatesable to perform the required duties?

q q

O. Does the fire department offer or require training that prepares members in all areas ofservice in which they are expected to perform and that is based on the types of risks inthe response area?

q q

P. Does the fire department offer or require ongoing training in any specialized servicesthat fire fighters perform, such as hazardous materials responses or emergency medicalservices?

q q

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT 161

Action 6, continued ...

Measure Yes No

Q. Does the fire department identify the training needs of individual members and ensurethey receive the training to support those needs?

q q

R. Has the fire department designated training officers, and does it maintain fire fightertraining records?

q q

S. Does the fire department measure the effectiveness of the training offered or assessmembers’ proficiency after receiving training?

q q

T. Is the fire department highly satisfied with its members’ understanding of departmentstandards for training and operations?

q q

U. Is the fire department highly satisfied with the availability of training facilities forvarious training and drills, including use of ground ladders, live smoke and fireoperations, and apparatus operation?

q q

V. Does the fire department follow written protocols describing safety procedures designedto limit the risk of exposure to infectious and hazardous substances during responses?

q q

W. Does the fire department provide to all personnel adequate personal protectiveequipment designed for the tasks they are expected to perform?

q q

X. Does the fire department offer or require training on the use and limitations of personalprotective equipment?

q q

Y. Does the fire department designate a safety officer at all incidents? q q

Z. Does the fire department designate a health and safety officer to manage thedepartment’s safety program?

q q

AA.Does the fire department require physical examinations and periodic medical exams formembers on active duty?

q q

BB. Does the fire department follow a system for monitoring the whereabouts of fire fightersduring incidents and has it developed rapid intervention protocols to assist injured firefighters?

q q

CC. Does the fire department require that only trained and qualified fire fighters drive andoperate department apparatus?

q q

DD.During its responses, does the fire department consistently maintain the number of firefighters required to operate in atmospheres that are immediately dangerous to life andhealth?

q q

EE. Do fire department members have access to stress debriefing following critical ortraumatic incidents?

q q

FF. Are the fire department’s expenditures per capita at or below the median for similar firedepartments that consistently follow safety procedures and maintain the requirednumber of fire fighters in immediately dangerous atmospheres?

q q

GG.Is the fire department’s ratio of fire fighter injuries to incidents at or below the medianof similar fire departments in the region (or, alternatively, within acceptable levels in thecommunity)?

q q

HH.Is the training offered or required by the fire department adequate to allow fire fightersto respond to emergencies within acceptable response times?

q q

II. Is the training offered or required by the fire department adequate to allow firedepartment responses that contain flames to the room of origin in a high percentage ofstructure fires?

q q

162 FIRE SERVICES

7. Action: Plan for on-scene responses.

The following measures relate to the advance planning and activities required to operate successfully atemergency incidents. They also include measures for fire investigations and maintenance of equipment andapparatus.

Measure Yes No

A. Does the fire department have an incident management system that details departmentroles and activities during fire suppression and other emergency incidents? The incidentmanagement system should include: designation of incident commander and other rolesfor completing functions at the scene, standard operating guidelines for radio and othercommunication, plans for interagency coordination, and provisions for managingreserve personnel and equipment. Further, all fire fighters should be trained in theincident management system, and it should be periodically reviewed and updated.

q q

B. Does the fire department have written standard operating guidelines for fire suppressionas well as any other emergency service its members may be expected to perform?

q q

C. Do the fire department’s standard operating guidelines include provisions for:designating an incident commander and other on-scene duties, maintaining thepredetermined minimum number of fire fighters for effective operations, developingpreattack plans, accounting for fire fighter whereabouts and conducting search andrescue on the fire ground, resting fire fighters during operations, ongoingcommunications, using available water supplies, overhaul and salvage or mop up, andrecording and reporting information.

q q

D. For fire departments providing rescue services, emergency medical services, hazardousmaterials management, or other specialized services, has the fire department: assessedthe risks and target hazards in the response area for those services? written emergencyresponse plans describing department responsibilities and members’ roles duringresponses? consistently maintained the number of fire fighters required to effectivelyprovide the response? developed preincident plans for responding to target hazards andidentified risks?

q q

E. Does the fire department have contacts with adequately trained and equipped personnelto conduct rescues, emergency medical services, hazardous materials management, orother specialized services, if the department does not itself provide these services?

q q

F. Has the fire department written, and periodically updated, preincident plans for thetargeted fire risks and hazards in its response area?

q q

G. Do the fire department’s preincident plans for fire suppression contain the followinginformation: identification of fire risks and hazards; current maps with propertyboundaries, roads, and means of access and egress; building floor plans, site plans, ormaps of specific hazards; location of on-site fire control equipment; occupancyinformation for high-hazard buildings; fire flow needs, hydrant locations, and primaryand back-up water supplies; location of airports and airstrips if needed for wildland firefighting; lists of cooperating agencies and contact names; and lists of reserve personneland equipment and mutual aid resources.

q q

H. Does the fire department use a preventive maintenance program for its apparatus andequipment with routine, scheduled maintenance in accordance with manufacturers’recommendations?

q q

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT 163

Action 7, continued ...

Measure Yes No

I. Does the fire department’s preventive maintenance program include the following:providing routine maintenance following a set checklist (checking fluid levels, tirepressure, etc.), keeping complete records of repairs and service; conducting inspectionsof apparatus and equipment within 24 hours of their use; making regular service tests onpumper engines and other apparatus; maintaining a system of inventory control forequipment; scheduling and budgeting for replacing equipment as needed; andconducting regular service tests of ground ladders, hoses, and other equipment?

q q

J. Does the fire department’s preventive maintenance program complete 100 percent of themaintenance scheduled within a year?

q q

K. Does the fire department have adequate protective clothing and self-contained breathingapparatus for its fire fighters, including personal equipment such as fire shelters andportable radios for wildland fire fighters?

q q

L. Does the fire department have an adequate personal alert safety system or alternative towarn others when a fire fighter is incapacitated?

q q

M. Does the fire department have adequate hose for standard attack and large diameterhose?

q q

N. Does the fire department have adequate extrication tools, hydraulic tools, torches, andhand tools for cutting, striking, and prying?

q q

O. In areas with limited water supplies, does the fire department have adequate year-roundwater drafting sites, portable pumps, and portable drop or folding water tanks?

q q

P. Are the fire department’s equipment and advance planning adequate to allow firefighters to respond to emergencies within acceptable response times?

q q

Q. Are the fire department’s equipment and advance planning adequate to allow thenumber of work hours per incident to be at or below the median for other firedepartments responding to similar types of incidents in the region?

q q

R. For fire investigations, does the fire department have predetermined guidelines for whento contact the State Fire Marshal Division?

q q

S. Has the fire department established fire investigation guidelines for conducting sceneexaminations and documenting scenes, interviewing witnesses, conducting postincidentinvestigations, and presenting analyses and findings?

q q

T. Does the fire department offer or require ongoing training for investigators ininvestigation methodology, fire protection technology, and current fire coderequirements?

q q

U. Does the fire department provide the State Fire Marshal Division with writtenstatements of facts on the cause and origin of the fire within one week of the fire’soccurrence?

q q

V. Does the fire department offer or require instruction for fire fighters in: aspects of arsonscenes, how their actions impact the work of investigators, and cautionary measuresthey can take in suppression, overhaul, and salvage to aid the investigation?

q q

W. Does the fire department offer or require joint investigation training with local lawenforcement?

q q

X. Is the fire investigator on the scene immediately after the fire was extinguished (if notbefore) for a high percentage of fire investigations?

q q

Y. Is the fire department highly satisfied with the quality of fire investigation activities? q q

Z. Is a high percentage of investigations of suspicious fires presented for prosecution? q q

Bailey, Bob, David Bryson, Lenworth Jacobs, Jr.,Steve Mercer, Leslee Stein-Spencer, and VincentVerdile. State of Minnesota A Reassessment ofEmergency Medical Services.Minneapolis:EMS Regulatory Board, July 1997.

Clark, William E. Firefighting Principles andPractices,2nd ed. Saddle Brook, NJ: FireEngineering Books and Videos, 1991.

Coleman, Ronny and John Granito, eds.ManagingFire Services,2nd ed. Washington, D.C.:International City Management Association,1988.

Cote, Arthur, ed.Fire Protection Handbook,18thed. Quincy, MA.: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1997.

DeHaan, John D.Kirk’s Fire Investigation,3rd ed.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Brady, A Prentice HallDivision, 1991.

Diamentes, David.Fire Prevention: Inspection andCode Enforcement. Albany: Delmar Publishers,1998.

Dugan, Elin, Jennifer Kavanaugh, and Leo D.Stapleton, eds.Winning Strategies for FireDepartment Management.Boston: QuinlanPublishing Co., 1997.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. FireAdministration. Fire DepartmentCommunications Manual: A Basic Guide toSystem Concepts and Equipment. WashingtonD. C.: FEMA, 1995.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, U. S. FireAdministration. Fire in the United States1985-1994, ninth ed.Washington D.C.: FEMA,1997.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, U. S. FireAdministration. Firefighter Fatalities in theUnited States in 1997.Washington D.C.:FEMA, 1998.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. FireAdministration. Guide for Preparing FirePumper Apparatus Specifications, Parts I-V.Washington D.C.: U.S. Fire Administration,1980.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, U. S. FireAdministration. Risk Management Practices inthe Fire Service.Washington D.C.: FEMA,December 1996.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, U. S. FireAdministration. Short Guide to EvaluatingLocal Public Fire Education Programs.Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1991.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, U. S. FireAdministration. Technical Rescue ProgramDevelopment Manual. Washington D.C.:FEMA, August 1995.

Ford, Jim. Saving Lives, Saving Money: AutomaticSprinklers—A 10 Year Study.Scottsdale, AZ:Rural/Metro Fire Department, 1997.

Hall, John R. “Regular Inspections Prevent Fires.”FIRE Command, September 1979.

Hall, John R.The U.S. Fire Problem OverviewReport: Leading Causes and Other Patterns andTrends.Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1998.

Hoetmer, Gerard J.Fire Services Today: Managinga Changing Role and Mission.Washington D.C.: International City/County ManagementAssociation, 1996.

BibliographyAPPENDIX C

Hogan, Lawrence J.Legal Aspects of the FireService. Frederick, MD: Amlex, Inc., 1995.

International Association of Fire Chiefs, NationalFire Service Accreditation Task Force.Fire andEmergency Service Self-Assessment Manual.Fairfax, VA: International Association of FireChiefs, 1995.

International Fire Code Institute.1997 UniformFire Code Volume 1.Whittier, CA:International Fire Code Institute, 1997.

International Fire Service Training Association.Fire Inspection and Code Enforcement,5th ed.Stillwater, OK: Oklahoma State University FireProtection Publications, October 1987.

International Fire Service Training Association.Fire Service Ground Ladders,9th ed. Stillwater,OK: Fire Protection Publications, OklahomaState University, 1996.

International Fire Service Training Association.Fire Service Practices for Volunteer and SmallCommunity Fire Departments,6th ed.Stillwater, OK: Oklahoma State University FireProtection Publications, 1984.

International Fire Service Training Association.Fire Service Rescue,6th ed. Stillwater, OK:Oklahoma State University Fire ProtectionPublications, 1996.

Jenaway, William F., International Association ofFire Chiefs, Risk Management and LiabilityCommittee.Readings in Fire Service RiskManagement. Fairfax, VA: InternationalAssociation of Fire Chiefs, 1996.

Kipp, Jonathan D and Murrey E. Loflin.Emergency Incident Risk Management: A Safetyand Health Perspective.New York. VanNostrand Reinhold, 1996.

Mahoney, Eugene.Fire Suppression Practices andProcedures.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Brady,1992.

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National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1, FirePrevention Code,1997 ed. Quincy, MA.:National Fire Protection Association, 1997.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 13,Standard for the Installation of SprinklerSystems,1996 ed. Quincy, MA.: National FireProtection Association, 1996.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 13E,Guide for Fire Department Operations inProperties Protected by Sprinkler and StandpipeSystems,1995 ed. Quincy, MA.: National FireProtection Association, 1995.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 25,Standard for the Inspection, Testing, andMaintenance of Water-Based Fire ProtectionSystems,1995 ed. Quincy, MA.: National FireProtection Association, 1995.

166 FIRE SERVICES

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 101,Code for Safety to Life from Fire in Buildingsand Structures,1997 ed. Quincy, MA: NationalFire Protection Association, 1997.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 291,Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testingand Marking of Hydrants,1995 ed. Quincy,MA: National Fire Protection Association,1995.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 295,Standard for Wildfire Control,1991 ed. Quincy,MA: National Fire Protection Association,1991.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 297,Guide on Principles and Practices forCommunications Systems,1995 ed. Quincy,MA: National Fire Protection Association,1995.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 299,Standard for Protection of Life and Propertyfrom Wildfire,1991 ed. Quincy, MA: NationalFire Protection Association, 1991.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 471,Recommended Practice for Responding toHazardous Materials Incidents,1997 ed.Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1997.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 921,Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations,1998 ed. Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1998.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1001,Standard for Fire Fighter ProfessionalQualifications,1997 ed. Quincy, MA: NationalFire Protection Association, 1997.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1002,Standard for Fire Department VehicleDriver/Operator Professional Qualifications,1993 ed. Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1993.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1021,Standard for Fire Officer ProfessionalQualifications,1992 ed. Quincy, MA: NationalFire Protection Association, 1992.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1031,Standard for Professional Qualifications for FireInspector,1993 ed. Quincy, MA: National FireProtection Association, 1993.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1033,Standard for Professional Qualifications for FireInvestigator,1993 ed. Quincy, MA: NationalFire Protection Association, 1993.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1051,Standard for Wildland Fire Fighter ProfessionalQualifications,1995 ed. Quincy, MA: NationalFire Protection Association, 1995.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1201,Standard for Developing Fire ProtectionServices for the Public,1994 ed. Quincy, MA:National Fire Protection Association, 1994.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1231,Standard on Water Supplies for Suburban andRural Fire Fighting,1993 ed. Quincy, MA:National Fire Protection Association, 1993.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1452,Guide for Training Fire Service Personnel toMake Dwelling Fire Safety Surveys,1993 ed.Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1993.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1500,Standard on Fire Department OccupationalSafety and Health Program,1997 ed. Quincy,MA: National Fire Protection Association,1997.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1521,Standard for Fire Department Safety Officer,1997 ed. Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1997.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1561,Standard on Fire Department IncidentManagement System,1995 ed. Quincy, MA:National Fire Protection Association, 1995.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 167

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1620,Recommended Practice for Pre-IncidentPlanning,1998 ed. Quincy, MA: National FireProtection Association, 1998.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1901,Standard for Pumper Fire Apparatus,1991 ed.Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1991.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1902,Standard for Initial Attack Fire Apparatus,1991ed. Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1991.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1903,Standard for Mobile Water Supply FireApparatus,1991 ed. Quincy, MA: NationalFire Protection Association, 1991.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1904,Standard for Aerial Ladder and ElevatingPlatform Fire Apparatus,1991 ed. Quincy, MA:National Fire Protection Association, 1991.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1906,Standard for Wildland Fire Apparatus,1995 ed.Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1995.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1971,Standard on Protective Ensemble for StructuralFire Fighting,1997 ed. Quincy, MA: NationalFire Protection Association, 1997.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1977,Standard on Protective Clothing and Equipmentfor Wildland Fire Fighting,1993 ed. Quincy,MA: National Fire Protection Association,1993.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1982,Standard on Personal Alert Safety Systems(PASS) for Fire Fighters,1993 ed. Quincy, MA:National Fire Protection Association, 1993.

National Fire Protection Association.NFPA 1983,Standard on Fire Service Life Safety Rope andSystem Components,1995 ed. Quincy, MA:National Fire Protection Association, 1983.

National Volunteer Fire Council and FederalEmergency Management Agency, U.S. FireAdministration. Retention and Recruitment inthe Volunteer Fire Service: Problems andSolutions, 2nd ed. Washington D. C.: FEMA,December 1995.

Office of Minnesota Attorney General Hubert H.Humphrey III. Report of the Attorney General’sArson Task Force.St. Paul: Attorney General’sOffice, 1997.

Robertson, James C.Introduction to FirePrevention,3rd ed. New York: MacmillanPublishing Co., 1989.

Queen, Phillip L.Fighting Fire In the Wildland/Urban Interface. Bellflower, CA: FirePublications, Inc., 1993.

Schaenman, Philip S.International Concepts inFire Protection. Arlington, VA: TriData, 1982.

U.S. Census Bureau.State and Local GovernmentFinances by Level of Government: 1994-1995.WWW.document: http://www.census.gov/govs/estimate/95stlus.txt, February 1999.

U.S. Fire Administration.The Major Conclusionsfor Experience with Sprinklers.WWWdocument: http://www.usfa.fema.gov/safety/sprinklers.htm, August 1998.

168 FIRE SERVICES

Pollution Control Agency,January 1991 91-01Nursing Homes: A Financial Review,

January 1991 91-02Teacher Compensation,January 1991 91-03Game and Fish Fund, March 1991 91-04Greater Minnesota Corporation: Organizational

Structure and Accountability,March 1991 91-05

State Investment Performance, April 1991 91-06Sentencing and Correctional Policy, June 1991 91-07Minnesota State High School League Update

June 1991 91-08University of Minnesota Physical Plant

Operations: A Follow-Up Review,July 1991 91-09

Truck Safety Regulation,January 1992 92-01State Contracting for Professional/Technical

Services, February 1992 92-02Public Defender System, February 1992 92-03Higher Education Administrative and Student

Services Spending: Technical Colleges,Community Colleges, and State Universities,March 1992 92-04

Regional Transit Planning, March 1992 92-05University of Minnesota Supercomputing

Services,October 1992 92-06Petrofund Reimbursement for Leaking

Storage Tanks,January 1993 93-01Airport Planning, February 1993 93-02Higher Education Programs, February 1993 93-03Administrative Rulemaking, March 1993 93-04Truck Safety Regulation, Update, June 1993 93-05School District Financial Reporting,

Update, June 1993 93-06Public Defender System, Update,

December 1993 93-07Game and Fish Fund Special Stamps and

Surcharges, Update, January 1994 94-01Performance Budgeting, February 1994 94-02Psychopathic Personality Commitment Law,

February 1994 94-03Higher Education Tuition and State Grants,

February 1994 94-04Motor Vehicle Deputy Registrars,March 1994 94-05Minnesota Supercomputer Center, June 1994 94-06Sex Offender Treatment Programs, July 1994 94-07Residential Facilities for Juvenile Offenders,

February 1995 95-01Health Care Administrative Costs,

February 1995 95-02Guardians Ad Litem, February 1995 95-03

Early Retirement Incentives, March 1995 95-04State Employee Training: A Best Practices

Review,April 1995 95-05Snow and Ice Control: A Best Practices

Review,May 1995 95-06Pollution Control Agency’s Use of AdministrativePenalty Orders, UpdateJuly 1995 95-07Development and Use of the 1994 Agency

Performance Reports, July 1995 PR95-22State Agency Use of Customer Satisfaction

Surveys, October 1995 PR95-23Funding for Probation Services,January 1996 96-01Department of Human Rights,January 1996 96-02Trends in State and Local Government

Spending, February 1996 96-03State Grant and Loan Programs for Businesses

February 1996 96-04Post-Secondary Enrollment Options Program,

March 1996 96-05Tax Increment Financing, March 1996 96-06Property Assessments: Structure and Appeals,

A Best Practices Review, May 1996 96-07Recidivism of Adult Felons,January 1997 97-01Nursing Home Rates in the Upper Midwest,

January 1997 97-02Special Education, January 1997 97-03Ethanol Programs, February 1997 97-04Statewide Systems Project,February 1997 97-05Highway Spending,March 1997 97-06Non-Felony Prosecution, A Best Practices

Review, April 1997 97-07Social Service Mandates Reform, July 1997 97-08Child Protective Services, January 1998 98-01Remedial Education,January 1998 98-02Transit Services,February 1998 98-03State Building Maintenance, February 1998 98-04School Trust Land,March 1998 98-059-1-1 Dispatching: A Best Practices Review,

March 1998 98-06Minnesota State High School League,

June 1998 98-07State Building Code, January 1999 99-01Juvenile Out-of-Home Placement,January 1999 99-02Metropolitan Mosquito Control District,

January 1999 99-03Animal Feedlot Regulation, January 1999 99-04Occupational Regulation, February 1999 99-05Counties’Use of Administrative Penalties

for Violations of Solid and HazardousWaste Ordinances, February 1999 99-06

Fire Services: A Best PracticesReview, April 1999 99-07

Recent Program Evaluations

Evaluation reports can be obtained free of charge from the Legislative Auditor’s Office, Program Evaluation Division,Centennial Office Building, First Floor South, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55155, 651/296-4708. A complete list of reportsissued is available upon request. Full text versions of recent reports are also available at the OLA web site:http://www.auditor.leg.state.mn.us