Floristic and ethnoecological diversity in various habitatsof a semi-arid area in the Chakwal district (Pakistan),with special emphasis on medicinal plants

Mehwish Jamil Noor • Mushtaq Ahmad • Muhammad Zafar • Maliha Sarfraz •

Ismail Yusoff • Yatimah Alias • Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf

Received: 15 April 2014 / Accepted: 17 July 2014

� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Abstract Floristic and ethnoecological studies were

conducted in the semi-arid areas of different habitats

of Chakwal. Forty-two plant species belonging to 39

genera and 25 plant families were studied and

collected during the year 2012. All of the families

were angiosperms; three were monocots, while 22

were dicots. A greater number of the species that were

used locally were herbs. Of the species studied,

18.60 % were shading species, while fodder species

were 16.2 % and vegetable/edible species were

20.93 % of the total. Forage, potted herbs, fuel and

ornamental species composed 9.30 % of the species

used. The pollen morphology indicated that Ipomoea

carneahas as the largest pollen (i.e., 109 lm), and

Eucalyptus camaldulensis has the smallest pollen size

of all the selected species (i.e., a size of 17.5 lm). The

pH values and electrical conductivities of the soil

samples from the various habitats showed that the soil

in the area is mostly alkaline, and the concentration of

soluble salts varies among the different habitats. The

population in the area depends on the indigenous

resources, but traditional agriculture is now being

replaced by modern techniques; therefore, local

resources are becoming extinct due to the loss of

habitats. The exploration of alternative resources and

proper management is required for the conservation of

habitats.

Keywords Ethnoecology � Medicinal plants �Diversity � Semiarid region � Pakistan

Introduction

Chakwal, a Barani district, gained an independent

district status of the Rawalpindi division in 1985.

Chakwal has a hilly terrain, located at edge of the

Potowar plateau and the Salt Range. Scrub forest cover

lies in the southwest, while in the north and northeast

are leveled plains with dry rocky patches. This district

covers an area of 1,631,190 acres. Chakwal has an

Communicated by J. B. Fontaine and G. Stewart.

M. J. Noor

Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah

Women University, The Mall, Rawalpindi 46000,

Pakistan

M. Ahmad � M. Zafar

Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University,

Islamabad 45320, Pakistan

M. Sarfraz

Department Physiology & Pharmacology, University of

Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan

I. Yusoff � M. A. Ashraf (&)

Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of

Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

e-mail: aqeelashraf@um.edu.my

Y. Alias

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University

of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

123

Plant Ecol

DOI 10.1007/s11258-014-0384-1RETRACTEDART

ICLE

appearance typical of the region and can be classified

into mountains, hills, rocks, plains, weathered rocky

plains, piedmont plains, loess plains, and river plains.

The southwest has the appearance of scrub forest, on

one side of which are flat plains; the north and

northeast areas are covered with patches of rocky

areas, ravines, gorges and some desert areas. Hence,

the plain areas on the hills are cultivated, and

considerable surrounding areas are covered by forests

(Fig. 1).

A diverse range of plants and animals is found in

the district. The vegetation is dry, deciduous scrub,

and the predominant grass species are sharila (Heter-

opogon contortus), khawi (Cymbopogon jwarancusa),

mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), and karir (Capparis

decidua). All of these plant species are found

throughout the district. The most abundant species in

the region are wild olive (Olea cuspidate), phulai

(Acacia modesta), sanatha (Dodonaea viscosa), gur-

gura (Monotheca buxifolia), and pataki (Gymnosporia

royleana).

Ethnoecology is essentially the cross-cultural study

of people’s perceptions and manipulation of their

surroundings or environments. According to Toledo

Fig. 1 Map of Chakwal district, Pakistan

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

(1987) and Patton (1993), ethnoecology includes the

facts, policies, approaches and abilities that enable a

rural area to benefit from the environment with the

proper management of nature’s resources. Ethnoecol-

ogy focuses on the traditional indigenous linguistic

investigation of the names for plants, animals, habi-

tats, and other ecological phenomena with the goal of

revealing the structure and behavior of the local

community (Costantini et al. 2006). This term was first

introduced by Harold Conklin in 1954. Heinrich

(2000) considered ethnoecology as an in-depth under-

standing of native people’s knowledge regarding the

environment and the various ways they use their

environment, an understanding of the structure and

intellectual relationships that each local culture has

with the non-human environment of that culture

(Heinrich 2000). Preliminary work was performed

by Conklin, Frake, Berlin and various other research-

ers, who documented the indigenous ethnoecological

knowledge representing the history of how humanity

flourished. The work of these investigators demon-

strates the significance of indigenous knowledge

compared with western scientific knowledge. The

difference is clearly explained in the ethnoecological

data, which is not only a bridge between two cultures

but also a source of the conservation of cultures and

biodiversity (Costantini et al. 2006).

Floristic studies are systematic studies of the plant

species of a specific area. Floristic studies cover a wide

range from the vascular plants of a small region to the

biosystematic study of the flora of an entire continent.

Floristic studies are utilized to determine species

richness, land-use history, plant species composition,

hybrids, and reforestation (Soo et al. 2009). A number

of studies have been conducted in Pakistan by the

following investigators: Qureshi and Bhatti (2005,

2010), Parveen and Hussain (2007), Qureshi (2008),

Shaheen et al. (2011), Khan et al. (2014), Hussain et al.

(1996), Sher et al. (2011), and Noor and Kalsoom

(2011). Palynology addresses the morphology and

formation of pollen grains (angiosperms) and spores

(fungi) as well as the preservation and dispersal of

these plant components (Moore et al. 1991).

This study is helpful for identifying the ethnoeco-

logically important plant species of Chakwal with the

support of a floristic analysis and provides general

information regarding the abundance of these species

in a semi-arid region. These data will be useful for

taxonomic studies. The information that was

generated by this study could be used to find and

implement solutions to current problems, such as the

cultivation of crops in water-scarce arid or semi-arid

regions, the conservation of biodiversity, or the

ecological restoration of disturbed sites.

Methodology

This study was performed in various habitats of

Chakwal in 2012. Selected species that had any

significant value to the people were collected on the

basis of interviews conducted according to the ques-

tionnaire method adopted. The data collection was

performed through interviews, informal meetings,

group discussions, and semi-structured questionnaires

that were prepared after observations and repeated

surveys of the study area were conducted with the

permission of the local people. The respondents were

primarily 30–65 years of age. After various field visits,

the plants were collected, dried, and preserved. The

pollen morphology and stomata and leaf shapes were

studied, and microscopic slides were prepared. The life

form and leaf size of the plants were also studied. The

pH and EC values of the soil in various habitats were

also recorded. The plants were mounted, and voucher

specimens were deposited in The Taxonomy Lab of

Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, for

future reference. For stomata study, the impression

technique (Hilu and Randall 1984) was used. The life

form of the plants was calculated according to the

Raunkiaer system. The leaf size area was measured in

mm2, and the leaf size classes were determined as

described by Raunkiaer (1934) and Hussain (1989).

The pollen morphology was performed following the

method of Noor et al. (2004). The pH and EC were

determined with a pH and EC meter (Fig. 2).

Status of selected species

0

5

10

15

20

25

Cultivated species Wild species Both

Species status

No

. of s

pec

ies

Fig. 2 Status of the selected species in Chakwal

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

Table 1 Ethnobotanical data of the plant species of Chakwal

Sample

no

Local

name

Scientific name Family name Local uses

1 Palwan Chloris barbata Poaceae Fodder

2 Ghandal Conyza

bonariensis

Asteraceae Fodder for cattle

3 Pohli Carthamus spp. Asteraceae Fodder for camels

4 Ghas Chrysopogon

machery

Poaceae Forage for live stock

5 Mena Medicago

polymorpha

Fabaceae Fodder

6 Gram Cicer arietinum Fabaceae Food and green leaves as potted herb

7 Deela Fimbristylis

turkestanica

Cyperaceae Forage for buffalo

8 Safaida Eucalyptus

camaldulensis

Myrtaceae Shade, fuel, and roof thatching spp., and the trunk is used for support

during construction

9 Lehli Convolvulus

arvensis

Convolvulaceae Fodder and forage leaves

10 Mongphali Arachis

hypogaea

Fabaceae Food; green leaves as fodder

11 Vlaitiak Ipomoea

carnea

Convolvulaceae Soil binding spp. and leaves are used as a poultice to cure swelling;

crushed leaves are used as poultice

12 Ghari Ziziphus

nummularia

Rhamnaceae Berries edible; used as fences and soil binding spp., also as roof

thatching and for honey bee species

13 Itsit Boerhaavia

procumbens

Nyctaginaceae As spiritual healing spp. for jaundice; woody stem is cut into pieces,

bound with thread and put on the necks of the children

14 Mahokari Solanum

surattense

Solanaceae Edible, and used for diabetic patients as soup

15 Mahokar Solanum

xanthocarpum

Solanacease Edible, and used for diabetic patients as soup

16 Sherinh Albizia lebbeck Leguminosae Shade and fuel

17 Anar Punica

granatum

Lythraceae Fruit

18 Beri Zizyphus jujuba Rhamnaceae Shade, timber, fuel, and also for making agricultural tools and furniture

19 Safaid toot Morus alba Moraceae Fruit edible and shade

20 Kerimar Heliotropium

strigosum

Boraginaceae Forage spp.

21 Kachmach Solanum

nigrum

Solanaceae Potted herb (making saag)

22 Dharek Melia

azedarach

Meliaceae Shade and agricultural tools

23 Athubathu Chenopodium

album

Chenopdiaceae Potted herb (making saag) and fodder

24 Ak Calotropis

procera

Asclepiadaceae Healing of wounds; leaves are crushed and applied on the wounds

25 Chatri

dhodhak

Euphorbia

helioscopia

Euphorbiaceae Milky juice is applied for eruptions; fresh leaves are crushed, and the

juice is extracted

26 Taramera Eruca sativa Cruciferae Potted herb and seeds for yielding oil

27 Bhutak Asphodelus

tenuifolius

Liliaceae Juice is applied on warts and used in making bread and milk for halwa

(sweet dish); fresh needles are crushed and juice is extracted and

applied

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

Results

This study was conducted in different habitats of

Chakwal, and plant species were collected and exam-

ined for pollen morphology, life form, leaf size, and

stomatal shapes. Soil samples were collected from

different habitats. The ethnoecological data of 42

plants from 39 genera and 25 families were collected

during 2012. Ethnobotanical data of the plant species

of Chakwal is shown in Table 1. All the families were

angiosperms; three were monocots, while 22 were

dicots. The ethnobotanical record includes the local

and botanical names, the corresponding family, the

plant part used, and the medicinal and botanical utility

(Table 1). Fifteen different uses were identified, of

which a higher percentage (30.23 %) was of medicinal

value. Summary of percentage use of the plants of

Chakwal on the basis of ethnoecology is shown in

Table 2. A greater number of species used locally

were herbs, while trees and shrubs had comparatively

fewer economic uses. Herbs were found in greater

numbers because the nutritional requirements from the

soil for herbs are less compared to other plant species.

Floristic analysis of the semi-arid area of Chakwal is

explained in Table 3. Most of the species that were

collected had more than one use, e.g., Acacia modesta,

Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Tribulus terrestris, etc.

A greater number of species were found in fields and

around the field (i.e., 31), and the fewest number of

species were found in the water-logged area. Of the

collected species, most were wild plants (Fig. 3).

The questionnaire and interview respondents had

primary to middle levels of education. The older

people belonged to different professions, but the

Table 1 continued

Sample

no

Local

name

Scientific

name

Family name Local uses

28 Pohli Carthamus

oxycantha

Asteraceae Young plants for fodder, and seeds yield oil that is used for ulcer and

itching on the skin

29 Asgand Withania

somnifera

Solanaceae Root paste is applied on bleeding wounds; the root is dried and ground,

then mixed with water and used on wounds

30 Phuli Acacia

modesta

Mimosaceae Shade, fuel, timber, honey bee and resin yielding

31 Jaoundri Avena sativa Poaceae Fodder and used in prickling

32 Harmal Peganum

harmala

Zygophyllaceae Used for animals to increase meat production and also as an evil repellent

33 Soy Anetlum soya Apiaceae As medicine to regulate periods in women; soy seeds are used in

combination with sugar and ajwain

34 Bhakra Tribulus

terrestris

Zygophyllaceae Used in urinary, genital diseases and also for backache; used in the form

of halwa (sweet dish)

35 Kekar Acacia

arabica

Fabaceae Shade, fuel, timber, flowers for Leokoria, resin yielding and honey bee

species

36 Jangli

Shahtoot

Broussonetia

papyrifera

Moraceae Shade

37 Khakri Cucumis melo Cucurbitaceae Edible fruit, green leaves for fodder

38 Renda Citrullus

lanatus

Cucurbitaceae Edible fruit, green leaves for fodder

39 Sukhchain Pongamia

pinnata

Fabaceae Shade, ornamental

40 Gulabi

gulab

Rosa indica Rosaceae Ornamental and extraction of rose water

41 Safaid

gulab

Rosa alba Rosaceae Ornamental

42 Peela

gulab

Sonchus asper Asteraceae Ornamental

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

majority were farmers. Most of the local people had a

joint family system, in which a household composition

involved a maximum of 9 and minimum of 3 women in

a house. While in case of men, the maximum number

was 11, and the minimum was 5. The annual wages of

the farmers are approximately Rs. 30,000.

Fifteen different uses were identified for the 42

different plant species that were collected on the basis

of their economic use, and most of the selected species

had more than one use (Table 2). The percentages for

each of the uses were determined. The species are

mostly used for fodder, shade, medicine, and food.

The data indicate that most of the species are used for

medicinal purposes, while the number of species used

for fodder and shade and as fruits/vegetables is also

high. In contrast, the percentage of species used for

furniture and for repelling evil is low. Most of the

species are wild, while a smaller number of the species

fall into the category of both, i.e., species that grow as

wild plants and are also cultivated by the local people

(Figs. 4, 5).

The life form, leaf size, and stomatal shape of 42

species, mostly therophytes, were observed in the

selected species. The trees were microphanerophytes

and nanophanerophytes. The local name and family

name are described. After studying the shape of the

stomata, it was observed that paracytic, pericytic, and

anomotetracytic were the most common (Table 3).

The pollen morphologies of 34 plant species were

examined. Ten slides for each plant specimen were

prepared and examined with a microscope. The pH

values and electrical conductivities of the soil samples

were recorded (Table 4, Fig. 6a, b). Samples of the

soil were analyzed and the results are shown in

Table 4. The pollen morphology indicated that Ip-

omoea carneahas as the largest pollen (i.e., 109 lm),

and Eucalyptus camaldulensis has the smallest pollen

size of all the selected species (i.e., a size of 17.5 lm).

Pollen morphology of selected plant species is shown

in Table 5.

Discussion

The inhabitants of Chakwal have been utilizing plants

as medicines for centuries. This knowledge has been

transferred through their ancestors based on their

lifelong experiences. Heinrich (2000) believes that

local communities preserve comprehensive knowl-

edge regarding the ecology and utilization of indige-

nous organisms; this phenomenon was also observed

in this study. In addition, the villages are at a distance

from the urban areas, and there is a lack of proper

medical services (Shinwari and Khan 2000); therefore,

people prefer to use natural resources as a treatment.

The interview findings reflect that the respondents

belong to a diverse group of people from various walks

of life. The largest proportion of the information on the

ethnoecological species of Chakwal was obtained

from respondents who were over 35 years of age. The

elders prefer to live in the native villages, while the

newer generations are more modernized and tend to

leave their ancestral land due to poverty and the lack of

other basic necessities in search of education, jobs, and

a better life style away from nature.

Fifty percent of the respondents were illiterate or

had a primary level of education, which reflects the

concept that indigenous knowledge is very familiar to

the older and less educated people and is going to

diminish with the passage of time. It is recommended

that this inherited knowledge be incorporated into the

national biodiversity programs by using the practices

of the local people in the local management of these

species, including the spontaneous management

within the ecosystem and intensive management in

the cultivation of the flora (Heinrich 2000). The trend

Table 2 Summary of percentage use of the plants of Chakwal

on the basis of ethnoecology

Economic uses classes No. of

species

Percentage

use

1. Fodder species 7 16.2

2. Forage species 4 9.30

3. Potted herb (making saag) species 4 9.30

4. Shading species 8 18.60

5. Medicinal species 13 30.23

6. Fuel species 4 9.30

7. Roof-thatching species 2 4.65

8. Furniture-making species 1 2.32

9. Vegetable/edible fruit species 9 20.93

10. Honey bee food species 3 6.97

11. Agricultural tool-making species 3 6.97

12. Soil-binding species 2 4.65

13. Resin-yielding species 2 4.65

14. Evil-repellent species 1 2.32

15. Ornamental species 4 9.30

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

Table 3 Floristic analysis of the semi-arid area of Chakwal

S. no. Plant name Local name Family name Life forma Leaf sizeb Stomatal shape

1 Chloris barbata Palwan Poaceae TH N Paracytic

2 Conyza bonariensis Ghandal Asteraceae TH N Actinocytic

3 Carthamus oxycantha Poli Asteraceae TH N Anomotetracytic

4 Chrysopogon machery Ghas Poaceae TH L Paracytic

5 Medicago polymorpha Mena Fabaceae TH L –

6 Cicer arietinum Channy Fabaceae TH L Paracytic

7 Fimbristylis turkestanica Deela Cyperaceae TH N Paracytic

8 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Safaida Myrtaceae Mp Mic Pericytic

9 Convolvulus arvensis Lehli Convolvulaceae TH L Axillocytic and staurocytic

10 Arachis hypogaea Mongphali Fabaceae TH L Paracytic

11 Ipomoea carnea Vlaitiak Convolvulaceae Mp Mic Apparently pericytic

12 Ziziphus nummularia Ghari Rhamnaceae Np L Apparently anomotetracytic

13 Boerhaavia procumbens Itsit Nyctaginaceae TH L Anomotetracytic

14 Solanum surattense Mahokari Solanaceae He N Anomotetracytic

15 Solanum xanthocarpum Mahokar Solanaceae He N Pericytic

16 Albizia lebbeck Sherinh Leguminosae Mp N Apparently anomocytic

17 Punica granatum Anar Lythraceae Mp N Pericytic

18 Zizyphus jujuba Beri Rhamnaceae Mp N –

19 Morus alba Safaid toot Moraceae Mep Mic Paracytic

20 Heliotropium strigosum Kerimar Boraginaceae TH N Pericytic

21 Solanum nigrum Kachmach Solanaceae Ch N

22 Melia azedarach Dharek Meliaceae Mp N Brachyparacytic

23 Chenopodium album Athubathu Chenopdiaceae TH N Brachyparacytic

24 Calotropis procera Ak Asclepiadaceae Mp Mes Actinocytic-diacytic

25 Euphorbia helioscopia Chatri dhodhak Euphorbiaceae TH N Apparently anomotetracytic

26 Eruca sativa Tara mera Brassicaceae TH N Anomotetracytic

27 Asphodelus tenuifolius Bhutak Liliaceae TH L Apparently pericytic

28 Carthamus oxycantha Pohli Asteraceae TH N Amphianisocytic–anomotetracytic

29 Withania somnifera Asgand Solanaceae Np N Amphianisocytic

30 Acacia modesta Phuli Mimosaceae Mp L Pericytic

31 Avena sativa Jaoundri Poaceae TH L Parasytic

32 Peganum harmala Harmal Zygophyllaceae He L Staurocytic–anomotetracytic

33 Anetlum soya Soy Apiaceae TH L Paracytic

34 Tribulus terrestris Bhakra Zygophyllaceae TH L –

35 Acacia arabica Kekar Fabaceae Mp-Mep L –

36 Broussonetia papyrifera Jangli Shahtoot Moraceae Mep Mic –

37 Cucumis melo Khakri Cucurbitaceae TH Mic –

38 Citrullus lanatus Renda Cucurbitaceae TH N Apparently anomotetracytic

39 Pongamia pinnata Sukhchain Fabaceae Mep N –

40 Rosa indica Gulabi gulab Rosaceae He N –

41 Rosa alba Safaid gulab Rosaceae He N –

42 Sonchus asper – Asteraceae TH N Anisocytic

a Key for life form: Mp microphanerophytes, Np nanophanerophytes, He hemicryptophytes, TH therophytes, Mep mesophenerophytesb Key for leaf size: Mes mesophyll, N nanophyll, M megaphyll, Mic microphyll, L leptophyll

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

of using resources by focusing on the significance of

indigenous communities was begun in 1980s (UICN

1984; WRI 1992); since that time, the people have

been given consideration in the sustainable develop-

ment of a specific region. Cultural traits have possibly

attracted attention because this focus was considered

irrelevant earlier in the management program (Han-

bury-Tension 1991). However, currently in environ-

mental research, the local inhabitants are given the

status of a research tool for gathering a record of the

flora and fauna and determining the obligatory

features of regional development (NAS 1992).

It has been found that those people have a

comprehensive knowledge of the plant species, and

the local inhabitants use their own approach to

identifying the plants based on diverse conditions,

such as usage, medicinal values, spiritual and religious

beliefs, habits, habitats, morphology, etc. According

to this study, in contrast to the previous study

conducted by Badshah et al. (1996), the species are

primarily used for medicine and as fodder species, and

it was observed that the fodder and medicinal species

have experienced degradation over the years because

the local people depend on these natural resources for

a living and the resources are quickly being exploited

with the increased population. It was observed that

another reason for species degradation is rural growth,

road construction, agriculture, and cattle grazing, etc.

In the current situation, in which everyone in the study

areas are now also cognizant of the environmental

challenges and the depletion of resources, there is a

need to focus on the traditional knowledge and to

develop a link, a bridge, between the local indigenous

knowledge of nature and the formal sciences. This link

will play a vital role in understanding how such

interdisciplinary studies played vital roles in combat-

ing famine in the past and will promote sustainable

development in future. Ethnoecology emphasizes the

role of local interests in the sustainable utilization of

natural resources; for example, by using the ethno-

ecological interests and with help of ethnoecological

ideas, the government agents of the Yucatan peninsula

(Mexico’s southern region) funded a conservation

development based on sustainable practices and

utilizing principles applied according to the local

ethnoecology of the land. Similar trends are advised

for this region. Accordingly, the knowledge of localFig. 3 Habit of the selected species of Chakwal

Fodder species

10%

Forage species 6%

Pot herb (saag making) species

6%

Shading species 12%

Medicinal species 19%

Fuel species 6%

Roof thatching species

3%

Furniture making species

2%

Vegetable/ediblefruit species

13%

Honey bee species 5%

Agricultural tool making species

4%

Soil binding species 3%

Resin yielding species

3%

Evil repellent species

2%Ornamental species

6%

Chart TitleFig. 4 Ratio of

ethnoecological significance

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

inhabitants must be spread by promoting university

training in such applied fields. A plan to implement

policies promoting sustainable rural development is

also required.

It was found that a greater number of species that

were locally used were herbs, while trees and shrubs

had less utilization. Most species that were collected

had more than one use, e.g., Acacia modesta, Euca-

lyptus cammodulenses camaldulensis, and Tribulus

terrestris, etc. A greater number of species were found

in and around fields (i.e., 31), and the fewest number of

species was found in the water-logged areas. Of the

collected species, most were wild plants, and fewer

had a status being cultivated as well as wild plants

(Fig. 7).

The life-form spectrum provides basic climatic

information (Danin and Orshan 1990). In this study,

the spectrum of life forms according to Raunkiaer was

utilized because this method has a greater predictive

power for the climatic conditions and is potentially

applicable in any environment but most useful in a

seasonal climate. The measurement of the life forms of

the ethnoecologically significant plants revealed that

most of the plants were therophytes; these plants are

annual and have the ability to survive during an

unfavorable season, such as that seen in the Chakwal

region, and survive there in the form of seeds,

completing the plant’s life-cycle when the favorable

season returns. Therophytes are stated to be present

under conditions of low precipitation and high tem-

perature in regions that contain arid and semi-arid life-

form spectra (Araujo et al. 2005). Microphanero-

phytes, nanophanerophytes, and hemicryptophytes

were also observed (Table 1). However, when the

ratios were compared, it was found that the presence of

these three types of plants is negligible: 22 plants were

therophytes; 9 were microphanerophytes; 3 were

mesophanerophytes; 5 were nanophanerophytes; and

Fig. 5 Percentage of life form representation

Table 4 pH and electrical conductivity of various habitats of

Chakwal

S.

no.

Habitat pH at 25 �C

(mean)

Electrical

conductivity

(mean)

1 Saline area 9.34 846 ls at 34.3 �C

2 Field 8.33 235 ls at 32.3 �C

3 Forest patches 8.05 152.5 ls at

34.3 �C

4 Around the

wetland

8.15 240 ls at 36.2 �C

5 Pasture 8.02 440 ls at 33.3 �C

6 Home garden 7.49 207 ls at 30.5 �C

7 Roadside 8.39 222 ls at 27.6 �C

8 Graveyard 7.82 318 ls at 32.2 �C

Mean 8.19875 332.5625

STDV 0.542281885 224.840171

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Salinearea

Field Forestpatches

Aroundthe

wetland

Pasture Homegarden

Roadside

Graveyard

pH

Habitats

pH of Soil of Various habitats (25˚C)

pH at 25˚C(Mean)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Saline area Field Forestpatches

Aroundthe

wetland

Pasture Homegarden

Road side Grave yard

Ele

cttr

ical

Co

nd

uct

ivit

y

Electrical Conductivity (Mean)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 6 a pH of soil of various habitats (25 �C) and b electrical

conductivity (mean)

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

Ta

ble

5P

oll

enm

orp

ho

log

yo

fse

lect

edp

lan

tsp

ecie

s

Pla

nt

nam

eP

oll

ensi

zel

m

(40

9)

Sh

ape

(409

)A

per

ture

typ

e(4

09

)E

xin

e

thic

kn

ess

lm(4

09

)

Po

llen

typ

e(4

09

)M

arg

in

(409

)

P(l

m)

E(l

m)

P(l

m)

E(l

m)

Po

ri

(lm

)

Co

lpi

(lm

)

1.

Co

nvo

lvu

lus

arv

ensi

s5

54

7.5

Cir

cula

rP

rola

te7

.5–

2.5

Tri

colp

ate

Psi

late

2.

Cic

era

riet

inu

m2

52

3.3

Sem

ian

gu

lar

Cir

cula

r7

.5–

2.5

Tri

po

rate

Psi

late

3.

Eu

ph

orb

iah

elio

sco

pia

33

.25

31

.6P

ola

rP

rola

te–

12

.5co

lpo

ri2

.5T

rico

lpo

rate

Psi

late

4.

Peg

an

um

ha

rma

la1

91

8.3

Po

lar

Pro

late

–1

0co

lpo

ri2

–2

.5T

rico

lpo

rate

Psi

late

5.

Med

ica

go

po

lym

orp

ha

27

.53

0C

ircu

lar

Pro

late

10

–2

.5M

on

op

ora

teP

sila

te

6.

Ca

rth

am

us

oxy

can

tha

43

.75

43

.3P

ola

rP

rola

te1

2.5

–5

Tri

po

rate

Ech

inat

e

7.

Eru

casa

tiva

19

18

.3P

ola

rP

erp

rola

te7

.5–

2.5

Tri

po

rate

Psi

late

8.

Ipo

mo

eaca

rnea

10

98

0.8

Cir

cula

rR

ho

mb

oid

alA

pp

aren

tly

inp

ort

un

ate

12

.5In

po

rtu

nat

eE

chin

ate

9.

Ara

chis

hyp

og

aea

35

32

.5S

emil

ob

ate

Ap

ple

-sh

aped

2.5

–2

.5T

rip

ora

teP

sila

te

10

.A

caci

am

od

esta

43

.34

3.3

Cir

cula

rO

val

––

\2

.5P

oly

adP

sila

te

11

.A

net

hu

mso

ya2

51

5.5

Tu

bu

lar

Su

bo

bla

te–

2.5

2.5

Dic

olp

ate

Psi

late

12

.C

on

yza

bo

na

rien

sis

21

.52

2.5

Po

lar

Ap

ple

-sh

aped

–7

.52

.5–

3.7

5T

rico

lpat

eE

chin

ate

13

.C

hry

sop

og

on

ma

uch

ery

33

.33

0.8

Cir

cula

rA

pp

le-s

hap

ed2

.5–

2.5

Mo

no

po

rate

Psi

late

14

.C

art

ha

mu

ssp

p.

36

.63

3.3

Tu

bu

lar-

ob

lon

g

Ap

ple

-sh

aped

52

.5D

ipo

rate

Psi

late

15

.F

imb

rist

ylis

turk

esta

nic

a

24

.16

23

.3C

ircu

lar

Rh

om

bo

idal

2.5

–2

.5M

on

op

ora

teP

sila

te

16

.H

elio

tro

piu

m

stri

go

sum

28

.33

0.8

Cir

cula

rP

rola

te–

2.5

2.5

Mo

no

-,d

i-,

tric

olp

ate

Psi

late

17

.S

ola

nu

mn

igru

m2

1.6

20

An

gu

lar

Ap

par

entl

y

rho

mb

oid

al

–5

2.5

Tri

colp

ate

Psi

late

18

.P

un

ica

gra

na

tum

20

.81

8.3

An

gu

lar

Pro

late

app

aren

tly

5–

2.5

Tri

po

rate

Psi

late

19

.A

ven

asa

tiva

40

.84

1.6

Ro

un

dS

ph

ero

idal

-pro

late

2.5

–2

.5M

on

op

ora

teP

sila

te

20

.A

lbiz

iale

bb

eck

79

.16

85

.8C

ircu

lar

Ov

al–

–2

.5P

oly

adP

sila

te

21

.S

ola

nu

m

xan

tho

carp

um

24

.12

5C

ircu

lar

Rh

om

bo

idal

3.7

5–

2.5

Mo

no

-,d

i-,

tri-

,

tetr

apo

rate

Psi

late

22

.S

ola

nu

msu

ratt

ense

25

23

.3C

ircu

lar

Su

bo

bla

te–

pro

late

–5

\2

.5D

i-,

tric

olp

ate

Psi

late

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

Ta

ble

5co

nti

nu

ed

Pla

nt

nam

eP

oll

ensi

zelm

(409

)

Sh

ape

(409

)A

per

ture

typ

e(4

09

)E

xin

e

thic

kn

ess

lm(4

09

)

Po

llen

typ

e(4

09

)M

arg

in

(409

)

P(l

m)

E(l

m)

P(l

m)

E(l

m)

Po

ri

(lm

)

Co

lpi

(lm

)

23

.E

uca

lyp

tus

cam

ald

ule

nsi

s

17

.51

8.3

An

gu

lar

Pro

late

,sp

her

oid

al–

sub

pro

late

2.5

–2

.5T

rip

ora

teP

sila

te

24

.B

oer

ha

avi

a

pro

cum

ben

s

78

.34

5.8

Cir

cula

rS

ub

pro

late

–5

10

Mo

no

colp

ate

Ech

inat

e

25

.C

hlo

ris

ba

rba

ta2

5.8

27

.5R

ou

nd

Rh

om

bo

idal

sub

pro

late

–5

2.5

Ap

par

entl

yin

app

erte

rate

Psi

late

26

.A

sph

od

elu

s

ten

uif

oli

us

60

.86

4.1

6S

ph

ero

idal

Rh

om

bo

idal

–A

pp

aren

tly

in

op

ertu

rate

2.5

Tri

-,te

trap

ora

teIr

reg

ula

r

27

.S

on

chu

sa

sper

35

.83

6.2

5R

ou

nd

Su

bp

rola

te5

5D

i-,

trip

ora

teP

sila

te

28

.W

ith

an

iaso

mn

ifer

a2

3.3

19

.16

Ro

un

dS

ub

pro

late

52

.5P

sila

te

29

.R

osa

alb

a(w

hit

e

rose

)

25

25

Cir

cula

rP

rola

te–

7.5

colp

ori

2.5

Tri

colp

ora

teP

sila

te

30

.R

osa

ind

ica

(Pin

k

rose

)

35

30

Rec

tan

gu

lar–

circ

ula

r

––

7.5

2.5

Tet

raco

lpat

eP

sila

te

31

.R

osa

sp.

(yel

low

rose

)

35

30

Rec

tan

gu

lar–

circ

ula

r

––

7.5

2.5

Tet

raco

lpat

eP

sila

te

32

.C

ucu

mis

mel

o5

04

7.5

Po

lar

Pro

late

–1

02

.5T

rico

lpat

eP

sila

te

33

.C

itru

llu

sla

na

tus

60

52

.5R

ou

nd

Rh

om

bo

idal

–p

rola

te–

15

2.5

–3

.75

Tri

colp

ate

Psi

late

34

.T

rib

ulu

ste

rres

tris

18

45

Cir

cula

rA

pp

aren

tly

pro

late

––

2.5

Ap

par

entl

yin

app

erte

rate

Ech

inat

e

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

4 were hemicryptophytes. Raunkiaer’s system is most

popular one; although it is often refined (Barkman

1988), the fundamental classifications, such as phan-

erophytes, chamaephytes, hemicryptophytes, geo-

phytes, and therophytes, are generally maintained.

This life-form spectrum has predictive signs of

particular climates because Raunkiaer (1910) believed

that life-form spectra could be predicted for the

particular climate properties of any continent, bioge-

ography, and altitude. The leaf size classification

indicated that the leaf sizes mostly were in the

nanophyll category, but leptophyll leaves were also

present in large numbers. Mesophyll and megaphyll

leaves were also observed. Stomata were first studied

by Stresburger (1866). Twenty-five types of stomata

based on the epidermal cells were discovered by

Metcalfe and Chalk (1979).

In this study, the shapes that were observed were

paracytic, actinocytic, anomotetracytic, pericytic,

brachyparacytic, anomocytic, amphianisocytic, tauro-

cytic, and anisocytic. Paracytic shapes were observed

most frequently. Sixty-nine stomatal forms of dicots

belonging to 64 genera and 28 families were studied

with LM and SEM. Six stomatal types, i.e., anisocytic,

parallelocytic, anomocytic, cyclocytic, paracytic, and

diacytic, were identified by Perveen et al. (2007). In

this study, pericytic, paracytic, and anomoparacytic

were the most common.

Fig. 7 Selected pollen micrographs. a Acacia modesta, b Eucalyptus camaldulensis, c Sonchus asper, and d Avena sativa

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

The study of pollen morphology indicates the

variation in the shape, size, apertures, number of

apertures, exine thickness, and aperture size. Spores

and pollen are marvelous objects for study. The

morphology of these components is noticeably vari-

able (Jansonius and McGregor 1996). Of the 36 plant

species that were studied for pollen morphology, it

was observed that Ipomoea carnea has the largest

pollen size of all the selected species, i.e., 109 lm,

while Albizia lebbeck has a size of 79.16 lm,

Boerhaavia procumbens has 78.3 lm pollen, Asph-

odelus tenuifolius has 60.8 lm pollen, Citrullus

lanatus has 60 lm pollen, Convolvulus arvensis has

55 lm pollen, and Cucumis melo has a 50 lm pollen

size. Eucalyptus camaldulensis has smallest size of all

the selected species, i.e., a pollen size of 17.5 lm. The

most common shapes of the pollens were round, polar,

circular, and angular in the polar view, while a prolate

shape was most commonly found in the equatorial

view. Perprolate, rhomboidal, apple-shaped, oval, and

suboblate shapes were also found. The different

species had different apertures, i.e., poricolpi, and

some species had both types; the number of apertures

also differed. The following pollen types were found:

mono-, di-, tri-, and tetraporate, mono-, di-, and

tricolpate, mono-, di-, and tricolporate. Two species,

Acacia modesta and Albizia lebbeck, had a polyad

pollen type. The margins were mostly psilate or

echinate. These results were similar to the pollen

morphology of the 16 species of aquatic angiosperms

observed by Perveen (1999).

The pH values and electrical conductivities of the

soil samples from various habitats showed that the soil

of the area is mostly alkaline. The graveyard and home

gardens had neutral pH values, while the saline area

had a slightly more alkaline pH, i.e., 9.34. The

electrical conductivities of the samples also varied

greatly. The saline area had higher EC, i.e., 846 at

34.3 �C. The forest patches had the lowest EC value,

i.e., 152.5 ls at 34.3 �C. The pH and EC measure-

ments vary with different environmental factors, such

as climate, plants, animals, bedrock and superficial

geology, as well as anthropogenic activities. Suresh

et al. (2009) believe that these variations are a result of

the variations in feed type and effluent management

systems. The calculated ECs of the different soil

samples indicate that the different habitats have

variable soluble salts. The saline area has a higher

EC, which means that the water saline area has a high

number of salts, while the forest patches have fewer

salts, i.e., a smaller EC compared to the other soil

samples.

This study will prove useful in understanding the

perspective of the local people regarding the floristic

components, ecology, soil status and identification of

the plants, especially the medicinal plant species. As

Costantini et al. (2006) states, this consideration of the

use and distribution of environmental resources or the

surroundings is important because this information

will help us to understand the evolutionary process by

which we adapt to our environment. Sometimes a

lopsided distribution of these factors produces con-

flicts, which may be due to less adaptation to the

changing scenario. To keep the ecosystem functioning

and productive, the sustainable use and preservation of

biodiversity are indispensible (Srivastava and Vellend

2005).

Conclusion and recommendations

It has been suggested that if a study such as this is

expanded and covers more area, then that study will

prove helpful in tracing the links between different

regions and the migration patterns of plant species,

along with the effects of climate change and the

impacts of human activities, etc. This information will

help to bridge ecology and sociology. However, for

conservation management, an understanding is

required of how the impacts of human activities on

vegetation, along with the societal indicators, such as

poverty, low literacy rates, and ignorance, and the

improper utilization of vegetation result in the over-

exploitation of plant resources; therefore, such studies

should be planned locally and internationally (Zobel

and Singh 1997).

The present investigation suggests that the flora of

Chakwal is rich with significant economic value and

requires further exploration. Although the population

depends on such natural resources, the trend is shifting

toward a modern life. Habitats are being reduced

because of the replacement of traditional agricultural

tools by faster modern techniques, in addition to

suburbanization and various housing development

schemes. In general, the indigenous knowledge is

diminishing because people do not know the exact

methods for the collection of the plants for various

purposes, the entire plant is damaged during

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

collection, and the abundant species are becoming

endangered. Environmental groups, which are influ-

ential regarding the ecosystem, and NGO’s must pay

attention to these environmental concerns for future

sustainable development (Stewart and Pullin 2008).

The change in the climate, overgrazing, and over-

harvesting are also depleting the natural resources

along with other anthropogenic activities. A loss of

habitat results from urbanization because people are

ignoring the natural environment as they migrate to

cities and other countries and use the natural resources

only for construction purposes, and trees are being cut

down for such expansion purposes. Due to the access

to local markets, the only emphasis is on cultivated

species, and the natural habitat of the species is being

lost. An increase in pollution results in a change in the

pH and EC of the habitat, and the soil does not support

a large number of species. The excess use of natural

resources and turning one’s attention toward commer-

cial species, e.g., cultivated species, resources of a

decrease in biodiversity. More land is cleared for

agricultural purposes, and the natural habitat of

various species is destroyed, thus decreasing biodi-

versity. The inhabitants have been overexploiting the

wild flora of the area by utilizing these plants as a

source of fodder and for other domestic uses, thus

disturbing the vegetation and risking the plant biodi-

versity. For appropriate and sustainable use, it is

crucial to understand the ethnoecological relationships

among humans and their local flora.

This research has been useful in learning about the

local/indigenous perspective regarding the floristic

components, ecology, soil status and identification of

the plants, especially the medicinal plant species.

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved for the

next generation so that this knowledge can be used by

future generations in proper ways. The proper methods

for the collection of the species should be imple-

mented, and the farmers and local people should be

aware of these methods so that the species can be

preserved. Alternative resources should be used

instead of endangered species for the sake of the

conservation of these species. Proper management is

required for the sake of habitat loss due to urbanization

and modern agricultural techniques. Farmers should

be informed about the agricultural methods that will

not destroy the natural habitat of the species. In the

case of palynology, the pollen atlas of the flora of

Pakistan will provide guidance and easy access to

pollen morphology that will enable researchers to

identify the plants.

Acknowledgments This research is supported by High Impact

Research MoE Grant UM.C/625/1/HIR/MoE/SC/04 from the

Ministry of Education Malaysia and University Malaya Centre

for Ionic Liquids (UMCiL). Similarly the PPP research grant

University Malaya PG008-2013B, RG257-13AFR is also

acknowledged.

References

Araujo FS, Costa RC, Figueiredo MA, Nunes EP (2005) Veg-

etacao e flora da area Reserva Serra das Almas, Ceara. In:

Araujo FS, Rodal MJN, Barbosa MRV (eds) Analise das

variacoes da biodiversida de dobioma Caatinga: suporte a

estrategia sregionais de conservacao. Ministerio do Meio

Ambiente, Brasılia, pp 91–119

Badshah L, Husssain F, Mohammad Z (1996) Floristic and

ethnobotanical studies on some plants of Pirghar Hills, S.

Wizaristan, Pakistan. Pak J Plant Sci 2:167–177

Barkman JJ (1988) New systems of plant growth forms and

phenological plant types. In: Werger MJA, van der Aart

PJM, During HJ, Verhoeven JTA (eds) Plant form and

vegetation structure. SPB Academic Publishing, The

Hague, pp 9–44

Costantini D, Casagrande S, De Filippis S, Brambilla A, Fanfani

G (2006) Correlates of oxidative stress in wild kestrel

nestlings (Falco tinnunculus). J Comp Phys B 176:

329–337

Danin A, Orshan G (1990) The distribution of Raunkiaer life

forms in Israel in relation to the environment. J Veg Sci

1:41–48

Hanbury-Tension R (1991) Povostribais. In: Porrit J (ed) Salve a

Terra. Cırculo do Livro, Sao Paulo, pp 137–141

Heinrich M (2000) Situated knowledge/located lives. J Ethno-

pharmacol 69:197–198

Hilu KW, Randall JL (1984) Convenient method for studying

grass leaf epidermis. Taxon 33:413–415

Hussain F (1989) Field and laboratory manual of plant ecology.

University Grants Commission, Islamabad

Hussain Z, Chaudhry MR, Zubri FA, Hussain Q, Sharif M

(1996) Contaminants and the soil environment in Pakistan.

In: Naidu R, Kookuna RS, Oliver DP, Rogers S,

McLanghlin MJ (eds) Contaminants and the soil environ-

ment in the Australia-Pacific region. Kluwer, Dordrecht,

pp 629–646

Jansonius J, McGregor DC (1996) Introduction, palynology:

principles and applications. AASP Foundation 1:1–10

Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D (2014) Ethno-ecological

importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems

with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan

Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Indic 37:175–185

Metcalfe CR, Chalk L (1979) Anatomy of the dicotyledons,

systematic anatomy of the leaf and stem, vol 1, 2nd edn.

Clarendon Press, Oxford

Moore PD, Webb JA, Collinson ME (1991) An illustrated guide

to pollen analysis, 2nd edn. Hodder and Stoughton, London

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE

National Academy of Science (NAS) (1992) Conserving bio-

diversity—a research agenda for development agencies.

National Academy Press, Washington, DC

Noor MJ, Kalsoom U (2011) Ethnobotanical studies of selected

plant species of Ratwal Village, District Attock, Pakistan.

Pak J Bot 43(2):781–786

Noor MJ, Ahmad M, Asghar R, Kanwal A, Pervaiz S (2004)

Palynological studies of cultivated plant species at Uni-

versity of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Asian J

Plant Sci 3:476–479

Parveen A, Hussain MI (2007) Plant biodiversity and phytoso-

ciological attributes of Gorakh Hill (Khirthar Rage). Pak J

Bot 38:691–698

Patton D (1993) Ethnoecology: the challenge of cooperation.

Ethnoecologica 1:5–15

Perveen A (1999) A palynological survey of aquatic flora of

Karachi–Pakistan. Turk J Bot 23:309–317

Perveen A, Abid R, Fatima R (2007) Stomatal types of some

dicots within flora of Karachi, Pakistan. Pak J Bot

39:1017–1023

Qureshi R (2008) Preliminary floristic list of Chotiari Wetland

Complex, Nawab Shah, Sindh, Pakistan. Pak J Bot

40:2281–2288

Qureshi R, Bhatti GR (2005) Nara Desert, Pakistan. Part I: soils,

climate and vegetation. Rangelands 27:27–31

Qureshi R, Bhatti GR (2010) Floristic inventory of Pie forest,

Nawabshah, Sindh forest, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 42:

2215–2224

Raunkiaer C (1910) Statistik der Lebensformen als Grundlage

fur die biologische Pflanzengeographie. Beih Bot Centralbl

27:171–206

Raunkiaer C (1934) The life forms of plants and statistical plant

geography. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 632

Shaheen H, Khan SM, Harper DM, Ullah Z, Qureshi RA (2011)

Species diversity, community structure, and distribution

patterns in western Himalayan alpine pastures of Kashmir,

Pakistan. Mt Res Dev 31:153–159

Sher Z, Farrukh H, Badhshah L, Wahab M (2011) Floristic

composition, communities, and ecological characteristics

of weeds of wheat field of Lahore, District Swabi, Pakistan.

Pak J Bot 43:2817–2820

Shinwari MI, Khan MA (2000) Folk use of medicinal herbs of

Margalla hills National Park, Islamabad. J Ethnopharm

69:45–56

Soo T, Tullus A, Tullus H, Roosaluste E (2009) Floristic

diversity responses in young hybrid aspen plantations to

land-use history and site preparation treatments. Forest

Ecol Manag 257:858–867

Srivastava DS, Vellend M (2005) Biodiversity-ecosystem

function research: is irrelevant to conservation? Annu Rev

Ecol Evol S36:267–294

Stewart GB, Pullin AS (2008) The relative importance of

grazing stock type and grazing intensity for conservation of

mesotrophic ‘old meadow’ pasture. J Nat Conserv

16:175–185

Stresburger E (1866) Ein Beitragzur Entwick lungsgeschichte

der spaltoffnungen, Jahrb. Wiss Bot 5:297–342

Suresh A, Choi HL, Lee JH, Zhum K, Yao HQ, Choi HJ, Moon

OK, Park CK, Kim JJ (2009) Swine slurry characterization

and prediction equations for nutrients on South Korean

farms. Trans ASABE 52:267–273

Toledo VM (1987) Ethnoecology, peasant economy and rural

production in Mexico. Unpublished text of a speech pre-

sented at the University of California, Berkeley

Uniao Internacional para a Conservacao da Natureza (UICN)

(1984) Estrategiamundial paraaconservacao: a conser-

vacao dos recursosvivospara um desen volvimentosusten-

tado. CESP, Sao Paulo

World Resources Institute (WRI) (1992) World resources

1992/93. Oxford University Press, Oxford

Zobel DB, Singh SP (1997) Himalayan forests and ecological

generalizations: forest in the Himalaya differs significantly

from both tropical and temperate forest. Bioscience

47:735–745

Plant Ecol

123

RETRACTEDART

ICLE