DEDICATION

Forthewell-beingofgenerationstocome

CONTENTS

Dedication

1TheSubtleFaculty

PartI:TheAnatomyofAttention2Basics

3AttentionTopandBottom

4TheValueofaMindAdrift

5FindingBalance

PartII:Self-Awareness6TheInnerRudder

7SeeingOurselvesasOthersSeeUs

8ARecipeforSelf-Control

PartIII:ReadingOthers9TheWomanWhoKnewTooMuch

10TheEmpathyTriad

11SocialSensitivity

PartIV:TheBiggerContext12Patterns,Systems,andMesses

13SystemBlindness

14DistantThreats

PartV:SmartPractice15TheMythof10,000Hours

16BrainsonGames

17BreathingBuddies

PartVI:TheWell-FocusedLeader18HowLeadersDirectAttention

19TheLeader’sTripleFocus

20WhatMakesaLeader?

PartVII:TheBigPicture21LeadingfortheLongFuture

Acknowledgments

Resources

Notes

Index

AbouttheAuthor

AlsobyDanielGoleman

Credits

Copyright

AboutthePublisher

Footnotes

1

THESUBTLEFACULTY

TowatchJohnBerger,housedetective,tracktheshopperswanderingthefirstfloorofadepartmentstoreonManhattan’sUpperEastSideistowitnessatten-tioninaction.Inanondescriptblacksuit,whiteshirt,andredtie,walkie-talkiein hand, John moves perpetually, his focus always riveted on one or anothershopper.Callhimtheeyesofthestore.

It’sadauntingchallenge.Therearemorethanfiftyshoppersonhisflooratany one time, drifting from one jewelry counter to the next, perusing theValentinoscarves,sortingthroughthePradapouches.Astheybrowsethegoods,Johnbrowsesthem.

Johnwaltzes among the shoppers, a study inBrownianmotion. For a fewsecondshestandsbehindapursecounter,hiseyesgluedtoaprospect,thenflitstoavantagepointby thedoor,only toglide toacornerwhereaperchallowshimacircumspectlookatapotentiallysuspicioustrio.

Whilecustomersseeonlythemerchandise,oblivioustoJohn’swatchfuleye,hescrutinizesthemall.

There’sasayinginIndia,“Whenapickpocketmeetsasaint,allheseesarethepockets.”InanycrowdwhatJohnwouldseeare thepickpockets.Hisgazeroamslikeaspotlight. Icanimaginehisfaceseemingtoscrewupintoagiant

ocularorbreminiscentoftheone-eyedCyclops.Johnisfocusembodied.What does he scan for? “It’s a way their eyesmove, or amotion in their

body”thattipshimofftotheintentiontopilfer,Johntellsme.Orthoseshoppersbunchedtogether,ortheonefurtivelyglancingaround.“I’vebeendoingthissolongIjustknowthesigns.”

AsJohnzeroesinononeshopperamongthefifty,hemanagestoignoretheotherforty-nine,andeverythingelse—afeatofconcentrationamidaseaofdis-traction.

Such panoramic awareness, alternating with his constant vigilance for atellingbut rare signal, demands several varieties of attention—sustained atten-tion,alerting,orienting,andmanagingallthat—eachbasedinadistinctlyuniquewebofbraincircuitry,andeachanessentialmentaltool.1

John’ssustainedscanforarareeventrepresentsoneofthefirstfacetsofat-tention to be studied scientifically. Analysis of what helped us stay vigilantstartedduringWorldWarII,spurredonbythemilitary’sneedtohaveradarop-erators who could stay at peak alert for hours—and by the finding that theymissedmoresignalstowardtheendoftheirwatch,asattentionlagged.

At the height of the ColdWar, I remember visiting a researcher who hadbeencommissionedbythePentagontostudyvigilancelevelsduringsleepdepri-vationlastingthreetofivedays—abouthowlongitestimatedthemilitaryoffi-cersdeepinsomebunkerwouldneedtostayawakeduringWorldWarIII.For-tunatelyhisexperimentneverhadtobetestedagainsthardreality,althoughhisencouraging findingwas that even after three ormore sleepless nights peoplecouldpaykeenattentioniftheirmotivationwashighenough(butiftheydidn’tcare,theywouldnodoffimmediately).

Inveryrecentyearsthescienceofattentionhasblossomedfarbeyondvigi-lance.Thatsciencetellsustheseskillsdeterminehowwellweperformanytask.If theyarestunted,wedopoorly; ifmuscular,wecanexcel.Ourverynimble-nessinlifedependsonthissubtlefaculty.Whilethelinkbetweenattentionand

excellenceremainshiddenmostofthetime,itripplesthroughalmosteverythingweseektoaccomplish.

This supple toolembedswithincountlessmentaloperations.Ashort listofsome basics includes comprehension, memory, learning, sensing howwe feelandwhy,readingemotionsinotherpeople,andinteractingsmoothly.Surfacingthis invisiblefactor ineffectivenessletsusbetterseethebenefitsof improvingthismentalfaculty,andbetterunderstandjusthowtodothat.

Throughanopticalillusionofthemindwetypicallyregistertheendproductsofattention—ourideasgoodandbad,atellingwinkorinvitingsmile,thewhiffofmorningcoffee—withoutnoticingthebeamofawarenessitself.

Thoughitmattersenormouslyforhowwenavigatelife,attentioninallitsva-rietiesrepresentsalittle-noticedandunderratedmentalasset.Mygoalhereistospotlight thiselusiveandunderappreciatedmental faculty in themind’sopera-tionsanditsroleinlivingafulfillinglife.

Our journeybeginswithexploringsomebasicsofattention;John’svigilantalertnessmarksjustoneofthese.Cognitivesciencestudiesawidearray,includ-ing concentration, selective attention, and open awareness, aswell as how theminddeploysattentioninwardlytooverseementaloperations.

Vital abilities build on such basic mechanics of our mental life. For one,there’s self-awareness, which fosters self-management. Then there’s empathy,the basis for skill in relationship.These are fundamentals of emotional intelli-gence.Aswe’llsee,weaknessherecansabotagealifeorcareer,whilestrengthsincreasefulfillmentandsuccess.

Beyondthesedomains,systemssciencetakesustowiderbandsoffocusasweregardtheworldaroundus,tuningustothecomplexsystemsthatdefineandconstrainourworld.2Suchanouterfocusconfrontsahiddenchallengeinattun-ing to thesevital systems:ourbrainwasnotdesigned for that task,andsoweflounder.Yetsystemsawarenesshelpsusgrasptheworkingsofanorganization,aneconomy,ortheglobalprocessesthatsupportlifeonthisplanet.

Allthatcanbeboileddowntoathreesome:inner,other,andouterfocus.Awell-lived life demands we be nimble in each. The good news on attentioncomesfromneurosciencelabsandschoolclassrooms,where thefindingspointtowayswecanstrengthenthisvitalmuscleofthemind.Attentionworksmuchlikeamuscle—useitpoorlyanditcanwither;workitwellanditgrows.We’llseehowsmartpracticecanfurtherdevelopandrefine themuscleofouratten-tion,evenrehabfocus-starvedbrains.

For leaders toget results theyneedall threekindsof focus. Inner focusat-tunes us to our intuitions, guiding values, and better decisions. Other focussmoothsourconnectionstothepeopleinourlives.Andouterfocusletsusnavi-gateinthelargerworld.Aleadertunedoutofhisinternalworldwillberudder-less; one blind to theworld of otherswill be clueless; those indifferent to thelargersystemswithinwhichtheyoperatewillbeblindsided.

Andit’snotjustleaderswhobenefitfromabalanceinthistriplefocus.Allofusliveindauntingenvironments,rifewiththetensionsandcompetinggoalsandluresofmodern life.Eachof the threevarietiesofattentioncanhelpus findabalancewherewecanbebothhappyandproductive.

Attention, from the Latin attendere, to reach toward, connects uswith theworld, shapinganddefiningourexperience.“Attention,”cognitiveneuroscien-tistsMichael Posner andMaryRothbartwrite, provides themechanisms “thatunderlieourawarenessoftheworldandthevoluntaryregulationofourthoughtsandfeelings.”3

AnneTreisman,adeanof this researcharea,notes thathowwedeployourattentiondetermineswhatwesee.4OrasYodasays,“Your focus isyour real-ity.”

THEENDANGEREDHUMANMOMENT

Thelittlegirl’sheadcameonlyuptohermother’swaistasshehuggedhermom

and held on fiercely as they rode a ferry to a vacation island. The mother,though,didn’trespondtoher,orevenseemtonotice:shewasabsorbedinheriPadallthewhile.

Therewasa reprisea fewminutes later,as Iwasgetting intoa shared taxivanwithninesororitysisterswhothatnightwerejourneyingtoaweekendget-away.Withinaminuteoftakingtheirseatsinthedarkvan,dimlightsflickedonaseveryoneofthesisterscheckedaniPhoneortablet.DesultoryconversationssputteredalongwhiletheytextedorscrolledthroughFacebook.Butmostlytherewassilence.

Theindifferenceofthatmotherandthesilenceamongthesistersaresymp-tomsofhowtechnologycapturesourattentionanddisruptsourconnections.In2006thewordpizzledenteredourlexicon;acombinationofpuzzledandpissed,itcapturedthefeelingpeoplehadwhenthepersontheywerewithwhippedoutaBlackBerryandstartedtalkingtosomeoneelse.Backthenpeoplefelthurtandindignantinsuchmoments.Todayit’sthenorm.

Teens,thevanguardofourfuture,aretheepicenter.Intheearlyyearsofthisdecadetheirmonthlytextmessagecountsoaredto3,417,doublethenumberjusta fewyears earlier.Meanwhile their timeon thephonedropped.5TheaverageAmericanteengetsandsendsmorethanahundredtextsaday,aboutteneverywakinghour.I’veseenakidtextingwhileherodehisbike.

A friend reports, “I visited some cousins inNew Jersey recently and theirkidshadeveryelectronicgadgetknowntoman.AllIeversawwerethetopsoftheir heads. They were constantly checking their iPhones for who had textedthem,what had updated on Facebook, or theywere lost in some video game.They’re totally unaware of what’s happening around them and clueless abouthowtointeractwithsomeoneforanylengthoftime.”

Today’schildrenaregrowingupinanewreality,onewheretheyareattun-ingmoretomachinesandlesstopeoplethanhaseverbeentrueinhumanhis-tory.That’stroublingforseveralreasons.Forone,thesocialandemotionalcir-

cuitryofachild’sbrain learns fromcontact andconversationwitheveryone itencountersoverthecourseofaday.Theseinteractionsmoldbraincircuitry;thefewerhoursspentwithpeople—andthemorespentstaringatadigitizedscreen—portendsdeficits.

Digital engagement comes at a cost in face time with real people—themediumwherewe learn to“read”nonverbals.Thenewcropofnatives in thisdigitalworldmaybeadroitatthekeyboard,buttheycanbeallthumbswhenitcomestoreadingbehaviorface-to-face,inrealtime—particularlyinsensingthedismay of others when they stop to read a text in themiddle of talking withthem.6

Acollegestudentobservesthelonelinessandisolationthatgoalongwithliv-inginavirtualworldoftweets,statusupdates,and“postingpicturesofmydin-ner.”He notes that his classmates are losing their ability for conversation, letalone the soul-searchingdiscussions thatcanenrich thecollegeyears.And,hesays, “no birthday, concert, hangout session, or party can be enjoyedwithouttakingthetimetodistanceyourselffromwhatyouaredoing”tomakesurethatthoseinyourdigitalworldknowinstantlyhowmuchfunyouarehaving.

Thentherearethebasicsofattention,thecognitivemusclethatletsusfollowastory,seeataskthroughtotheend,learn,orcreate.Insomeways,aswe’llsee,the endless hours young people spend staring at electronic gadgets may helpthem acquire specific cognitive skills. But there are concerns and questionsabouthowthosesamehoursmayleadtodeficitsincorementalskills.

Aneighth-gradeteachertellsmethatformanyyearsshehashadsuccessiveclasses of students read the samebook,EdithHamilton’sMythology.Her stu-dentshavelovedit—untilfiveyearsorsoago.“Istartedtoseekidsnotsoex-cited—evenhigh-achievinggroupscouldnotgetengagedwithit,”shetoldme.“Theysaythereadingistoohard;thesentencesaretoocomplicated;it takesalongtimetoreadapage.”

Shewondersifperhapsherstudents’abilitytoreadhasbeensomehowcom-

promisedbytheshort,choppymessagestheygetintexts.Onestudentconfessedhe’dspent two thousandhours in the lastyearplayingvideogames.Sheadds,“It’s hard to teach comma ruleswhenyou are competingwithWorldofWar-Craft.”

At theextremes,Taiwan,Korea,andotherAsiancountries see Internetad-diction—togaming, socialmedia, virtual realities—amongyouth as a nationalhealthcrisis,isolatingtheyoung.Around8percentofAmericangamersbetweenageseightandeighteenseemtomeetpsychiatry’sdiagnosticcriteriaforaddic-tion;brainstudiesrevealchangesintheirneuralrewardsystemwhiletheygamethatareakin to those found inalcoholicsanddrugabusers.7Occasionalhorrorstoriestellofaddictedgamerswhosleepalldayandgameallnight,rarelystoptoeatorcleanthemselves,andevengetviolentwhenfamilymemberstrytostopthem.

Rapportdemandsjointattention—mutualfocus.Ourneedtomakeanefforttohavesuchhumanmomentshasneverbeengreater,giventheoceanofdistrac-tionsweallnavigatedaily.

THEIMPOVERISHMENTOFATTENTION

Thentherearethecostsofattentiondeclineamongadults.InMexico,anadver-tisingrepforalargeradionetworkcomplains,“Afewyearsagoyoucouldmakea five-minute video for your presentation at an ad agency.Todayyouhave tokeep it toaminuteandahalf. Ifyoudon’tgrab themby then,everyonestartscheckingformessages.”

A college professorwho teaches film tellsme he’s reading a biography ofoneofhisheroes,thelegendaryFrenchdirectorFrançoisTruffaut.But,hefinds,“Ican’treadmorethantwopagesatastretch.IgetthisoverwhelmingurgetogoonlineandseeifIhaveanewemail.IthinkI’mlosingmyabilitytosustaincon-centrationonanythingserious.”

The inability to resist checkingemailorFacebook rather than focuson thepersontalkingtousleadstowhatthesociologistErvingGoffman,amasterlyob-serverofsocialinteraction,calledan“away,”agesturethattellsanotherperson“I’mnotinterested”inwhat’sgoingonhereandnow.

At the thirdAllThingsD(igital)conferencebackin2005,conferencehostsunplugged the Wi-Fi in the main ballroom because of the glow from laptopscreens, indicating that those in the audiencewere not glued to the action on-stage.Theywereaway,inastate,asoneparticipantputit,of“continuouspartialattention,” a mental blurriness induced by an overload of information inputsfrom thespeakers, theotherpeople in the room,andwhat theyweredoingontheir laptops.8 To battle such partial focus today, some Silicon Valley work-placeshavebannedlaptops,mobilephones,andotherdigitaltoolsduringmeet-ings.

Afternotcheckinghermobileforawhile,apublishingexecutiveconfessesshegets “a jangly feeling.Youmiss thathit yougetwhen there’s a text.Youknowit’snotrighttocheckyourphonewhenyou’rewithsomeone,butit’sad-dictive.”Sosheandherhusbandhaveapact:“Whenwegethomefromworkweputourphonesinadrawer.If it’sinfrontofmeIgetanxious;I’vejustgottocheckit.Butnowwetrytobemorepresentforeachother.Wetalk.”

Ourfocuscontinuallyfightsdistractions,bothinnerandouter.Thequestionis,Whatareourdistractorscostingus?Anexecutiveatafinancialfirmtellsme,“WhenInoticethatmymindhasbeensomewhereelseduringameeting,Iwon-derwhatopportunitiesI’vebeenmissingrighthere.”

Patients are tellingaphysician Iknow that theyare “self-medicating”withdrugsforattentiondeficitdisorderornarcolepsytokeepupwiththeirwork.Alawyertellshim,“IfIdidn’ttakethis,Icouldn’treadcontracts.”Oncepatientsneededadiagnosisforsuchprescriptions;nowformanythosemedicationshavebecomeroutineperformanceenhancers.Growingnumbersofteenagersarefak-ingsymptomsofattentiondeficittogetprescriptionsforstimulants,achemical

routetoattentiveness.AndTonySchwartz,aconsultantwhocoachesleadersonhowtobestman-

age theirenergy, tellsme,“Wegetpeople tobecomemoreawareofhowtheyuse attention—which isalways poorly.Attention is now thenumber-one issueonthemindsofourclients.”

Theonslaughtofincomingdataleadstosloppyshortcuts,liketriagingemailbyheading,skippingmuchofvoicemails,skimmingmessagesandmemos.It’snotjustthatwe’vedevelopedhabitsofattentionthatmakeuslesseffective,butthat theweightofmessages leavesus too little time simply to reflect onwhattheyreallymean.

Allofthiswasforeseenwaybackin1977bytheNobel-winningeconomistHerbert Simon. Writing about the coming information-rich world, he warnedthat what information consumes is “the attention of its recipients. Hence awealthofinformationcreatesapovertyofattention.”9

PARTI

THEANATOMYOFATTEN‐

TION

2

BASICS

As a teenager I got into the habit of listening to the string quartets of BélaBartók—whichIfoundslightlycacophonousbutstillenjoyed—whiledoingmyhomework.Somehowtuningoutthosediscordanttoneshelpedmefocuson,say,thechemicalequationforammoniumhydroxide.

Years later, when I foundmyself writing articles on deadline for theNewYorkTimes,IrememberedthatearlydrillinignoringBartók.AttheTimesIla-bored away in themidst of the science desk,which in those years occupied aclassroom-sizedcavernintowhichwerecrammeddesksforthedozenorsosci-encejournalistsandahalfdozeneditors.

Therewas always a Bartók-ish hum of cacophony.Nearby theremight bethreeorfourpeoplechatting;you’doverhearthenearendofaphoneconversa-tion—or several—as reporters interviewed sources; editors shouted across theroomtoaskwhenanarticlewouldbereadyforthem.Therewererarely,ifever,thesoundsofsilence.

Andyetwesciencewriters,myselfamongthem,wouldreliablydeliverourready-to-editcopyrightontime,dayafterday.Nooneeverpleaded,Everyonepleasebequiet,sowecouldconcentrate.Wealljustredoubledourfocus,tuningouttheroar.

That focus in themidstofadin indicates selectiveattention, theneuralca-pacitytobeaminonjustonetargetwhileignoringastaggeringseaofincomingstimuli, each one a potential focus in itself. This is what William James, afounderofmodernpsychology,meantwhenhedefinedattentionas“thesuddentakingpossessionby themind, in clear andvivid form, of one ofwhat seemsseveralsimultaneouslypossibleobjectsortrainsofthought.”1

Therearetwomainvarietiesofdistractions:sensoryandemotional.Thesen-sorydistractorsareeasy:asyoureadthesewordsyou’retuningoutoftheblankmarginssurroundingthistext.Ornoticeforamomentthefeelingofyourtongueagainstyourupperpalate—justoneofanendlesswaveofincomingstimuliyourbrainweeds out from the continuouswash of background sounds, shapes andcolors,tastes,smells,sensations,andonandon.

More daunting is the second variety of lures: emotionally loaded signals.Whileyoumightfinditeasytoconcentrateonansweringyouremailinthehub-bub of your local coffee shop, if you should overhear someonemention yourname (potent emotional bait, that) it’s almost impossible to tuneout thevoicethatcarries it—yourattentionreflexivelyalerts tohearwhat’sbeingsaidaboutyou.Forgetthatemail.

The biggest challenge for even themost focused, though, comes from theemotionalturmoilofourlives, likearecentblowupinacloserelationshipthatkeepsintrudingintoyourthoughts.Suchthoughtsbargeinforagoodreason:togetustothinkthroughwhattodoaboutwhat’supsettingus.Thedividinglinebetweenfruitlessruminationandproductivereflectionliesinwhetherornotwecomeupwithsometentativesolutionorinsightandthencanletthosedistressingthoughtsgo—orif,ontheotherhand,wejustkeepobsessingoverthesameloopofworry.

Themoreourfocusgetsdisrupted, theworsewedo.For instance,a testofhowmuchcollegeathletesarepronetohavingtheirconcentrationdisruptedbyanxietycorrelatessignificantlywithhowwellorpoorlytheywillperforminthe

upcomingseason.2

Theabilitytostaysteadyononetargetandignoreeverythingelseoperatesinthe brain’s prefrontal regions. Specialized circuitry in this area boosts thestrengthofincomingsignalswewanttoconcentrateon(thatemail)anddamp-ensdown thosewechoose to ignore (thosepeoplechatteringawayat thenexttable).

Since focus demands we tune out our emotional distractions, our neuralwiring for selective attention includes that for inhibiting emotion. Thatmeansthosewhofocusbestarerelativelyimmunetoemotionalturbulence,moreableto stayunflappable in a crisis and tokeeponanevenkeeldespite life’s emo-tionalwaves.3

Failuretodroponefocusandmoveontootherscan,forexample,leavethemind lost in repeating loops of chronic anxiety.At clinical extremes itmeansbeinglostinhelplessness,hopelessness,andself-pityindepression;orpanicandcatastrophizing in anxiety disorders; or countless repetitions of ritualisticthoughtsoracts(touchthedoorfiftytimesbeforeleaving)inobsessive-compul-sivedisorder.Thepowertodisengageourattentionfromonethingandmoveittoanotherisessentialforwell-being.

The stronger our selective attention, the more powerfully we can stay ab-sorbedinwhatwe’vechosentodo:getsweptawaybyamovingsceneinafilmor find a powerful poetry passage exhilarating. Strong focus lets people losethemselves in YouTube or their homework to the point of being oblivious towhatevertumultmightbenearby—ortheirparentscallingthemtocomeeatdin-ner.

You can spot the focused folks at a party: they are able to immerse them-selvesinaconversation,theireyeslockedontheotherpersonastheystayfullyabsorbed in theirwords—despite that speakernext to themblaring theBeastieBoys.Theunfocused,incontrast,areincontinualplay,theireyesgravitatingtowhatevermightgrabthem,theirattentionadrift.

Richard Davidson, a neuroscientist at the University ofWisconsin, namesfocus as one of a handful of essential life abilities, each based in a separateneuralsystem,thatguideusthroughtheturbulenceofourinnerlives,ourrela-tionships,andwhateverchallengeslifebrings.4

Duringsharpfocus,Davidsonfinds,keycircuitryintheprefrontalcortexgetsintoa synchronizedstatewith theobjectof thatbeamofawareness,a statehecalls“phase-locking.”5Ifpeoplearefocusedonpressingabuttoneachtimetheyhearacertaintone,theelectricalsignalsintheirprefrontalareafirepreciselyinsynchwiththetargetsound.

Thebetteryourfocus,thestrongeryourneurallock-in.Butifinsteadofcon-centrationthere’sajumbleofthoughts,synchronyvanishes.6Justsuchadropinsynchronymarkspeoplewithattentiondeficitdisorder.7

Welearnbestwithfocusedattention.Aswefocusonwhatwearelearning,thebrainmaps that informationonwhatwealreadyknow,makingnewneuralconnections.Ifyouandasmalltoddlershareattentiontowardsomethingasyouname it, the toddler learns that name; if her focuswanders as you say it, shewon’t.

Whenourmindwandersoff,ourbrainactivatesahostofbraincircuitsthatchatter about things that have nothing to do with what we’re trying to learn.Lackingfocus,westorenocrispmemoryofwhatwe’relearning.

ZONINGOUT

Timeforaquickquiz:

1.What’sthattechnicaltermforbrainwavesynchronywithasoundyou

hear?2.Whatarethetwomainvarietiesofdistraction?

3.Whataspectofattentionpredictshowwellcollegeathletesperform?

Ifyoucananswertheseoffthetopofyourhead,you’vebeensustainingfo-cusedattentionwhileyouread—theanswerswere in the last fewpagesof thisbook(andcanbefoundatthebottomofthispage).*

Ifyoucan’trecalltheanswers,youmayhavebeenzoningoutfromtimetotimewhileyouread.Andyou’renotalone.

A reader’smind typicallywanders anywhere from 20 to 40 percent of thetimewhile perusing a text. The cost for students, not surprisingly, is that themorewandering,theworsetheircomprehension.8

Evenwhenourmindsarenotwandering,ifthetextturnstogibberish—likeWemustmakesomecircusforthemoney,insteadofWemustmakesomemoneyforthecircus—about30percentofthetimereaderscontinuereadingalongforasignificantstretch(anaverageofseventeenwords)beforecatchingit.

Aswe read a book, a blog, or anynarrative, ourmind constructs amentalmodelthatletsusmakesenseofwhatwearereadingandconnectsittotheuni-verseofsuchmodelswealreadyholdthatbearonthesametopic.Thisexpand-ingweb of understanding lies at the heart of learning. Themorewe zone outwhile building thatweb, and the sooner the lapse afterwe begin reading, themoreholes.

Whenwereadabook,ourbrainconstructsanetworkofpathwaysthatem-bodiesthatsetofideasandexperiences.Contrastthatdeepcomprehensionwiththe interruptions and distractions that typify the ever-seductive Internet. Thebombardment of texts, videos, images, andmiscellaneous ofmessageswe getonline seems the enemyof themore full understanding that comes fromwhatNicholasCarrcalls“deepreading,”whichrequiressustainedconcentrationandimmersioninatopicratherthanhopscotchingfromonetoanother,nabbingdis-connectedfactoids.9

As educationmigrates ontoWeb-based formats, the danger looms that themultimediamassofdistractionswecalltheInternetwillhamperlearning.Wayback in the1950s thephilosopherMartinHeideggerwarnedagainsta looming“tideoftechnologicalrevolution”thatmight“socaptivate,bewitch,dazzle,andbeguilemanthatcalculativethinkingmaysomedaycometobe...theonlywayofthinking.”10Thatwouldcomeatthelossof“meditativethinking,”amodeofreflectionhesawastheessenceofourhumanity.

IhearHeidegger’swarningintermsoftheerosionofanabilityatthecoreofreflection,thecapacitytosustainattentiontoanongoingnarrative.Deepthink-ingdemands sustaininga focusedmind.Themoredistractedweare, themoreshallowourreflections;likewise,theshorterourreflections,themoretrivialtheyarelikelytobe.Heidegger,werehealivetoday,wouldbehorrifiedifaskedtotweet.

HASATTENTIONSHRUNK?

There’saswingbandfromShanghaiplayingloungemusicinacrowdedSwissconvention hall, with hundreds of people milling about. In the midst of themanic throng,standingstock-stillatasmallcircularbar table,ClayShirkyhaszonedintohislaptopandistypingfuriously.

ImetClay,aNewYorkUniversity–basedsocialmediamaven,someyearsback,butrarelyhavethechancetoseehimintheflesh.ForseveralminutesI’mstandingaboutthreefeetawayfromClay,offtohisright,watchinghim—posi-tioned inhisperipheralvision, ifhehadanyattentionbandwidth tospare.ButClaytakesnonoticeuntilIspeakhisname.Then,startled,helooksupandwestartchatting.

Attention is a limitedcapacity:Clay’s rapt concentration fills that fullboreuntilheshiftstome.

“Sevenplusorminustwo”chunksofinformationhasbeentakenastheupper

limit of the beam of attention since the 1950s, whenGeorgeMiller proposedwhat he called this “magical number” in one of psychology’smost influentialpapers.11

More recently, though, some cognitive scientists have argued that fourchunksistheupperlimit.12Thatcaughtthepublic’slimitedattention(forabriefmoment,anyway),asthenewmemespreadthatthismentalcapacityhadshrunkfromseventofourbitsofinformation.“Mind’sLimitFound:4BitsofInforma-tion,”onesciencenewssiteproclaimed.13

Sometookthepresumeddownsizingofwhatwecanholdinmindasanin-dictmentofthedistractednessofeverydaylifeinthetwenty-firstcentury,decry-ingtheshrinkingofthiscrucialmentalability.Buttheymisinterpretthedata.

“Workingmemoryhasn’tshrunk,”saidJustinHalberda,acognitivescientistat JohnsHopkinsUniversity.“It’snot thecase thatTVhasmadeourworkingmemorysmaller”—thatinthe1950sweallhadanupperlimitofsevenplusorminustwobitsofinformation,andnowwehaveonlyfour.

“The mind tries to make the most of its limited resources,” Halberda ex-plained.“Soweusememorystrategiesthathelp”—say,combiningdifferentele-ments,like4,1,and5,intoasinglechunk,suchastheareacode415.“Whenweperformamemory task, the resultmightbe sevenplusorminus twobits.Butthatbreaksdownintoafixedlimitoffour,plusthreeorfourmorethatmemorystrategiesadd.Sobothfourandsevenareright,dependingonhowyoumeasureit.”

Thenthere’swhatmanypeoplethinkofas“splitting”attentioninmultitask-ing, which cognitive science tells us is a fiction, too. Rather than having astretchable balloon of attention to deploy in tandem,we have a narrow, fixedpipeline to allot. Instead of splitting it, we actually switch rapidly. Continualswitchingsapsattentionfromfull,concentratedengagement.

“Themostpreciousresourceinacomputersystemisnolongeritsprocessor,memory, disk or network, but rather human attention,” a research group at

CarnegieMellon University notes.14 The solution they propose to this humanbottleneckhingesonminimizingdistractions:ProjectAuraproposestodoawaywithbothersomesystemsglitchessowedon’twastetimeinhassles.

Thegoalofahassle-freecomputingsystemislaudable.Thissolution,how-ever,maynotgetusthatfar:it’snotatechnologicalfixweneedbutacognitiveone.Thesourceofdistractionsisnotsomuchinthetechnologyweuseasinthefrontalassaultonourfocusingabilityfromthemountingtideofdistractions.

Which gets me back to Clay Shirky, particularly his research on socialmedia.15Whilenoneofuscanfocusoneverythingatonce,allofustogethercre-ateacollectivebandwidthforattentionthatweeachcanaccessasneeded.Wit-nessWikipedia.

As Shirky proclaims in his bookHereComes Everybody, attention can beseenasacapacitydistributedamongmanypeople,ascanmemoryoranycogni-tiveexpertise.“What’s trendingnow”indexeshowweareallottingourcollec-tiveattention.While someargue thatour tech-facilitated learningandmemorydumbusdown,there’salsoacasetobemadethattheycreateamentalprosthe-sisthatexpandsthepowerofindividualattention.

Oursocialcapital—andrangeofattention—increasesasweupthenumberofsocial ties throughwhichwe gain crucial information, like tacit knowledge of“howthingsworkhere,”whetherinanorganizationoranewneighborhood.Ca-sualacquaintancescanbeextrasetsofeyesandearsontheworld,keysourcesof theguidanceweneed tooperate incomplex social and informationecosys-tems.Mostofushaveahandfulofstrong ties—close, trusted friends—butwecanhavehundredsofso-calledweakties(forexample,ourFacebook“friends”).Weak ties have high value as multipliers of our attention capacity, and as asourceoftipsforgoodshoppingdeals,jobpossibilities,anddatingpartners.16

Whenwecoordinatewhatweseeandwhatweknow,oureffortsintandemmultiplyourcognitivewealth.Whileatanygivenmomentourquotaforwork-ingmemory remains small, the total of datawe can pull through that narrow

widthbecomeshuge.Thiscollectiveintelligence,thesumtotalofwhateveryoneinadistributedgroupcancontribute,promisesmaximalfocus,thesummationofwhatmultipleeyescannotice.

AresearchcenterattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyoncollectiveintelligenceseesthisemergingcapacityasabettedbythesharingofattentionontheInternet.Theclassicexample:millionsofwebsitescasttheirspotlightwithinnarrowniches—andaWebsearchselectsanddirectsourfocussowecanhar-vestallthatcognitiveworkefficiently.17

TheMITgroup’sbasicquestion:“Howcanweconnectpeopleandcomput-ers so that collectively we act withmore intelligence than any one person orgroup?”

Or,astheJapanesesay,“Allofusaresmarterthananyoneofus.”

DOYOULOVEWHATYOUDO?

Thebigquestion:Whenyougetupinthemorning,areyouhappyaboutgettingtowork,school,orwhateveritisthatoccupiesyourday?

Research by Harvard’s Howard Gardner, Stanford’s William Damon, andClaremont’sMihalyCsikszentmihalyizeroedinonwhattheycall“goodwork,”apotentmixofwhatpeopleareexcellentat,whatengagesthem,andtheirethics—whattheybelievematters.18Thosearemorelikelytobehigh-absorptioncall-ings:peoplelovewhattheyaredoing.Fullabsorptioninwhatwedofeelsgood,andpleasureistheemotionalmarkerforflow.

Peopleareinflowrelativelyrarelyindailylife.19Samplingpeople’smoodsatrandomrevealsthatmostofthetimepeopleareeitherstressedorbored,withonlyoccasionalperiodsofflow;onlyabout20percentofpeoplehaveflowmo-mentsatleastonceaday.Around15percentofpeopleneverenteraflowstateduringatypicalday.

Onekeytomoreflowinlifecomeswhenwealignwhatwedowithwhatwe

enjoy,asisthecasewiththosefortunatefolkswhosejobsgivethemgreatplea-sure. High achievers in any field—the lucky ones, anyway—have hit on thiscombination.

Apart from a career change, there are several doorways to flow.Onemayopen when we tackle a task that challenges our abilities to the maximum—a“just-manageable”demandonourskills.Anotherentrywaycancomeviadoingwhatwearepassionateabout;motivationsometimesdrivesusintoflow.Butei-therwaythefinalcommonpathwayisfullfocus:theseareeachwaystoratchetupattention.Nomatterhowyougetthere,akeenfocusjump-startsflow.

This optimal brain state for getting work done well is marked by greaterneuralharmony—arich,well-timedinterconnectionamongdiversebrainareas.20

In this state, ideally, the circuits needed for the task at hand are highly activewhile those irrelevantarequiescent,with thebrainpreciselyattuned to thede-mandsof themoment.Whenourbrainsare in thiszonewearemore likely toperformatourpersonalbestwhateverourpursuit.

Workplacesurveys,though,findlargenumbersofpeopleareinaverydiffer-entbrainstate: theydaydream,wastehourscruisingtheWeborYouTube,anddothebareminimumrequired.Theirattentionscatters.Suchdisengagementandindifferencearerampant,especiallyamongrepetitive,undemandingjobs.Togetthedisengagedworkersanynearerthefocusedrangedemandsuppingtheirmo-tivation and enthusiasm, evoking a sense of purpose, and adding a dollop ofpressure.

Ontheotherhand,anotherlargegrouparestuckinthestateneurobiologistscall“frazzle,”whereconstantstressoverloadstheirnervoussystemwithfloodsofcortisolandadrenaline.Theirattentionfixatesontheirworries,nottheirjob.Thisemotionalexhaustioncanleadtoburnout.

Full focus gives us a potential doorway into flow.Butwhenwe choose tofocusonone thingand ignore the rest,wesurfaceaconstant tension—usuallyinvisible—betweenagreatneuraldivide,wherethetopofthebraintussleswith

thebottom.

3

ATTENTIONTOPANDBOTTOM

I turnedmy attention to the study of some arithmetical questions, apparentlywithout much success,” wrote the nineteenth-century French mathematicianHenriPoincaré.“Disgustedwithmy failure, Iwent to spenda fewdaysat theseaside.”1

There,ashewalkedonabluffabovetheoceanonemorning,theinsightsud-denly came to him “that the arithmetical transformations of indeterminateternaryquadraticformswereidenticalwiththoseofnon-Euclidiangeometry.”

The specifics of that proof do notmatter here (fortunately so: I could notbegintounderstandthemathmyself).What’sintriguingaboutthisilluminationishowitcametoPoincaré:with“brevity,suddenness,andimmediatecertainty.”Hewastakenbysurprise.

The loreofcreativity is rifewithsuchaccounts.CarlGauss,aneighteenth-and nineteenth-century mathematician, worked on proving a theorem for fouryears,with no solution.Then, one day, the answer came to him “as a suddenflashof light.”Yethecouldnotnamethe threadof thought thatconnectedhisyearsofhardworkwiththatflashofinsight.

Whythepuzzle?Ourbrainhastwosemi-independent,largelyseparatemen-talsystems.Onehasmassivecomputingpowerandoperatesconstantly,purring

away in quiet to solve our problems, surprising us with a sudden solution tocomplexpondering.Sinceitoperatesbeyondthehorizonofconsciousawarenessweareblindtoitsworkings.Thissystempresentsthefruitofitsvastlaborstousasthoughoutofnowhere,andinamultitudeofforms,fromguidingthesyntaxofasentencetoconstructingcomplexfull-blownmathematicalproofs.

Thisback-of-the-mindattentiontypicallycomestothecenteroffocuswhenthe unexpected happens.You’re talking on your cell phonewhile driving (thedrivingpart isback-of-the-mind)and suddenlyahornhonkmakesyou realizethelighthaschangedtogreen.

Much of this system’s neuralwiring lies in the lower part of our brain, insubcortical circuitry, though its efforts break into awareness by notifying ourneocortex, the brain’s topmost layers, from below. Through their pondering,PoincaréandGaussreapedbreakthroughsfromthebrain’slowerlayers.

“Bottom-up”hasbecomethephraseofchoice incognitivescienceforsuchworkingsofthislower-brainneuralmachinery.2Bythesametoken,“top-down”referstomentalactivity,mainlywithintheneocortex,thatcanmonitorandim-poseitsgoalsonthesubcorticalmachinery.It’sasthoughthereweretwomindsatwork.

Thebottom-upmindis:

•fasterinbraintime,whichoperatesinmilliseconds•involuntaryandautomatic:alwayson•intuitive,operatingthroughnetworksofassociation•impulsive,drivenbyemotions•executorofourhabitualroutinesandguideforouractions•managerforourmentalmodelsoftheworld

Bycontrast,thetop-downmindis:

•slower•voluntary•effortful• the seat of self-control,which can (sometimes) overpower automatic

routinesandmuteemotionallydrivenimpulses•abletolearnnewmodels,makenewplans,andtakechargeofourauto-

maticrepertoire—toanextent

Voluntaryattention,willpower,andintentionalchoicearetop-down;reflex-iveattention,impulse,androtehabitarebottom-up(asistheattentioncapturedbyastylishoutfitoraniftyad).Whenwechoosetotuneintothebeautyofasunset,concentrateonwhatwe’rereading,orhaveadeeptalkwithsomeone,it’satop-downshift.Ourmind’seyeplaysoutacontinualdancebetweenstimulus-drivenattentioncaptureandvoluntarilydirectedfocus.

Thebottom-upsystemmultitasks,scanningaprofusionofinputsinparallel,includingfeaturesofoursurroundingsthathavenotyetcomeintofullfocus;itanalyzeswhat’sinourperceptualfieldbeforelettingusknowwhatitselectsasrelevantforus.Ourtop-downmindtakesmoretimetodeliberateonwhatitgetspresentedwith,takingthingsoneatatimeandapplyingmorethoughtfulanaly-sis.

Through what amounts to an optical illusion of the mind, we take what’swithinourawarenesstoequalthewholeofthemind’soperations.Butinfactthevastmajorityofmentaloperationsoccurinthemind’sbackstage,amidthepurrofbottom-upsystems.

Much (some say all) ofwhat the top-downmind believes it has chosen tofocuson,thinkabout,anddoisactuallyplansdictatedbottom-up.Ifthiswereamovie, psychologistDanielKahnemanwryly notes, the top-downmindwouldbea“supportingcharacterwhobelievesherselftobethehero.”3

Dating backmillions of years in evolution, the reflexive, quick-acting bot-

tom-upcircuitryfavorsshort-termthinking,impulse,andspeedydecisions.Thetop-downcircuitsatthefrontandtopofthebrainarealateraddition,theirfullmaturationdatingbackmerehundredsofthousandsofyears.

Top-down wiring adds talents like self-awareness and reflection, delibera-tion, and planning to ourmind’s repertoire. Intentional, top-down focus offerstheminda lever tomanageourbrain.Asweshiftourattentionfromonetask,plan,sensationortheliketoanother,therelatedbraincircuitrylightsup.Bringto mind a happy memory of dancing and the neurons for joy and movementspringtolife.Recallthefuneralofalovedoneandthecircuitryforsadnessacti-vates.Mentally rehearseagolfstrokeand theaxonsanddendrites thatorches-tratethosemoveswiretogetherabitmorestrongly.

Thehumanbraincountsamongevolution’sgood-enough,butnotperfect,de-signs.4Thebrain’smoreancientbottom-upsystemsapparentlyworkedwellforbasic survival during most of human prehistory—but their design makes forsometroublestoday.Inmuchoflifetheoldersystemholdssway,usuallytoouradvantagebutsometimes toourdetriment:overspending,addictions,and reck-lesslyspeedingdriversallcountassignsofthissystemoutofwhack.

Thesurvivaldemandsofearlyevolutionpackedourbrainswithpresetbot-tom-up programs for procreation and child-rearing, forwhat’s pleasurable andwhat’sdisgusting,forrunningfromathreator towardfood,andthelike.Fast-forward to today’sverydifferentworld:wesooftenneed tonavigate life top-downdespitetheconstantundertowofbottom-upwhimsanddrives.

A surprising factor constantly tips the balance towardbottom-up: the braineconomizesonenergy.Cognitiveeffortslikelearningtouseyourlatesttechup-gradedemandactiveattention,atanenergycost.Butthemorewerunthroughaonce-novel routine, themore itmorphs into rote habit and gets taken over bybottom-up circuitry, particularly neural networks in the basal ganglia, a golf-ball-sizedmass nestled at the brain’s bottom, just above the spinal cord. Themorewepracticea routine, themore thebasalganglia take itover fromother

partsofthebrain.The bottom/top systems distribute mental tasks between them so we can

makeminimaleffortandgetoptimalresults.Asfamiliaritymakesaroutineeas-ier, it getspassedoff from the top to thebottom.Thewayweexperience thisneural transfer is thatwe need pay less attention—and finally none—as it be-comesautomatic.

Thepeakofautomaticitycanbeseenwhenexpertisepaysoffineffortlessat-tentiontohighdemand,whetheramaster-levelchessmatch,aNASCARrace,orrenderinganoilpainting.Ifwehaven’tpracticedenough,allofthesewill takedeliberatefocus.Butifwehavemasteredtherequisiteskillstoalevelthatmeetsthe demand, theywill take no extra cognitive effort—freeingour attention fortheextrasseenonlyamongthoseattoplevels.

Asworld-classchampionsattest,atthetopmostlevels,whereyouropponentshavepracticedaboutasmanythousandsofhoursasyouhave,anycompetitionbecomes amental game: yourmind state determines howwell you can focus,and so howwell you can do. Themore you can relax and trust in bottom-upmoves,themoreyoufreeyourmindtobenimble.

Take,forexample,starfootballquarterbackswhohavewhatsportsanalystscall“greatabilitytoseethefield”:theycanreadtheotherteam’sdefensivefor-mationstosensetheopponent’sintentionstomove,andoncetheplaystartsin-stantlyadjusttothosemovements,gainingapricelesssecondortwotopickoutanopen receiver for apass.Such“seeing” requires enormouspractice, so thatwhatatfirstrequiresmuchattention—dodgethatrusher—occursonautomatic.

Fromamentalcomputationperspective,spottingareceiverwhileunder thepressureofseveral250-poundbodieshurtlingtowardyoufromvariousanglesisnosmallfeat:thequarterbackhastokeepinmindthepassroutesofseveralpo-tentialreceiversatthesametimeheprocessesandrespondstothemovesofallelevenopposingplayers—achallengebestmanagedbywell-practicedbottom-upcircuits(andonethatwouldbeoverwhelmingifhehadtoconsciouslythink

througheachmove).

RECIPEFORASCREWUP

LoloJoneswaswinning thewomen’s100-meterhurdles race,onherway toagoldmedalatthe2008BeijingOlympics.Inthelead,shewasclearingthehur-dleswithaneffortlessrhythm—untilsomethingwentwrong.

At first itwasverysubtle:shehadasense that thehurdleswerecomingathertoofast.Withthat,JoneshadthethoughtMakesureyoudon’tgetsloppyinyourtechnique....Makesureyourlegsaresnappingout.

Withthosethoughts,sheovertried,tighteningupabittoomuch—andhittheninthhurdleoften.Jonesfinishedseventh,notfirst,andcollapsedonthetrackintears.5

Lookingback as shewas about to try again at the 2012LondonOlympics(wheresheeventuallyfinishedfourthinthe100-meterrace),Jonescouldrecallthatearliermomentofdefeatwithcrystalclarity.Andifyouaskedneuroscien-tists,theycoulddiagnosetheerrorwithequalcertainty:whenshebegantothinkaboutthedetailsofhertechnique,insteadofjustleavingthejobtothemotorcir-cuitsthathadpracticedthesemovestomastery,Joneshadshiftedfromrelyingonherbottom-upsystemtointerferencefromthetop.

Brain studies find thathavingachampionathlete startpondering techniqueduringaperformanceoffersasurerecipeforascrewup.Whentopsoccerplay-ers raced a ball around and through a line of traffic cones—andhad to noticewhichsideof their footwascontrolling theball—theymademoreerrors.6Thesamehappenedwhenbaseballplayerstriedtotrackwhethertheirbatwasmov-ingupordownduringaswingforapitchedball.

Themotorcortex,which inawell-seasonedathletehas thesemovesdeeplyetchedinitscircuitsfromthousandsofhoursofpractice,operatesbestwhenleftalone. When the prefrontal cortex activates and we start thinking about how

we’redoing,howtodowhatwe’redoing—or,worse,whatnottodo—thebraingivesover somecontrol tocircuits thatknowhow to thinkandworry,butnothowtodeliverthemoveitself.Whetherinthehundredmeters,soccer,orbase-ball,it’sauniversalrecipefortrippingup.

That’swhy, asRickAberman,who directs peak performance for theMin-nesota Twins baseball team, tellsme, “When the coach reviews plays from agameandonlyfocusesonwhatnot todonexttime,it’sarecipeforplayerstochoke.”

It’snotjustinsports.Makinglovecomestomindasanotheractivitywheregetting too analytic and self-critical gets in the way. A journal article on the“ironiceffectsoftryingtorelaxunderstress”suggestsstillanother.7

Relaxationandmakinglovegobestwhenwejustletthemhappen—nottrytoforcethem.Theparasympatheticnervoussystem,whichkicksinduringtheseactivities, ordinarily acts independently of our brain’s executive,which thinksaboutthem.

EdgarAllanPoedubbed theunfortunatemental tendency tobringupsomesensitivetopicyouresolvednottomention“theimpoftheperverse.”Anarticlefittinglycalled“How toThink,Say,orDoPrecisely theWorstThing forAnyOccasion,” by Harvard psychologist Daniel Wegner, explains the cognitivemechanismthatanimatesthatimp.8

Flubs,Wegnerhasfound,escalate to thedegreewearedistracted,stressed,orotherwisementallyburdened.Inthosecircumstancesacognitivecontrolsys-tem that ordinarily monitors errors we might make (like don’t mention thattopic)caninadvertentlyactasamentalprime,increasingthelikelihoodofthatverymistake(likementioningthattopic).

WhenWegnerhashadexperimentalvolunteerstrynottothinkofaparticularword, when they then are pressured to respond quickly to a word associationtask,ironicallytheyoftenofferupthatsameforbiddenword.

Overloading attention shrinks mental control. It’s in the moments we feel

moststressedthatweforgetthenamesofpeopleweknowwell,nottomentiontheirbirthdays,ouranniversaries,andothersociallycrucialdata.9

Anotherexample:obesity.ResearchersfindthattheprevalenceofobesityintheUnitedStatesoverthelastthirtyyearstrackstheexplosionofcomputersandtechgadgetsinpeople’slives—andsuspectthisisnoaccidentalcorrelation.Lifeimmersedindigitaldistractionscreatesanear-constantcognitiveoverload.Andthatoverloadwearsoutself-control.

Forgetthatresolvetodiet.LostinthedigitalworldwemindlesslyreachforthePringles.

THEBOTTOM-UPSKEW

Asurveyofpsychologistsaskedthemiftheremightbe“onenaggingthing”thattheydidnotunderstandaboutthemselves.10

One said that for two decades he had studied how gloomyweathermakesone’swholelifelookbleak,unlessyoubecomeawareofhowthegloomworsensyourmood—butthateventhoughheunderstoodallthat,gloomyskiesstillmadehimfeelbad.

Anotherwaspuzzledbyhiscompulsiontowritepapersthatshowhowsomeresearchisbadlymisguided,andhowhecontinuestodosoeventhoughnoneoftherelevantresearchershaspaidmuchattention.

And a third said that though he had studied “male sexual overperceptionbias”—themisinterpretationofawoman’sfriendlinessasromanticinterest—hestillsuccumbstothebias.

Thebottom-upcircuitry learnsvoraciously—andquietly—taking in lessonscontinually aswego through theday.Such implicit learningneednever enterour awareness, though it acts as a rudder in life nonetheless, for better or forworse.

Theautomaticsystemworkswellmostofthetime:weknowwhat’sgoingon

andwhat todoandcanmeander through thedemandsof thedaywellenoughwhile we think about other things. But this system has weaknesses, too: ouremotionsandourmotivescreateskewsandbiasesinourattentionthatwetypi-callydon’tnotice,anddon’tnoticethatwedon’tnotice.

Take social anxiety. In general, anxious people fixate on anything evenvaguelythreatening;thosewithsocialanxietycompulsivelyspottheleastsignofrejection,suchasafleetingexpressionofdisgustonsomeone’sface—areflec-tionoftheirhabitualassumptionthattheywillbesocialflops.Mostofthisemo-tional transactiongoesonout of awareness, leadingpeople to avoid situationswheretheymightgetanxious.

An ingeniousmethod for remedying this bottom-up skew is so subtle thatpeoplehavenoidea that theirattentionpatternsarebeingrewired(justas theyhad no idea that wiring was going on as they acquired it in the first place).Called“cognitivebiasmodification,”orCBM, this invisible therapyhas thosesufferingfromseveresocialanxietylookatphotosofanaudiencewhiletheyareasked to track when flashing patterns of lights appear and press a button asquicklyastheycan.11

Flashes never appear in the area of the pictures that are threatening, likefrowningfaces.Thoughthisinterventionstaysbeneaththeirawareness,overthecourse of several sessions the bottom-up circuitry learns to direct attention tononthreateningcues.Thoughpeoplehaven’taclueaboutthesubtlerepatterningofattention,theiranxietyinsocialsituationsdialsdown.12

That’sabenignuseofthiscircuitry.Thenthere’sadvertising.Theold-schooltactics forgettingattention in a crowdedmarketplace—what’snew, improved,surprising—stillwork.Butamini-industryofbrainstudiesintheserviceofmar-ketinghasledtotacticsbasedonmanipulatingourunconsciousmind.Onesuchstudyfound,forexample,thatifyoushowpeopleluxuryitemsorjusthavethemthinkaboutluxurygoods,theybecomemoreself-centeredintheirdecisions.13

Oneof themost active areas of researchonunconscious choice centers on

whatgetsustoreachforsomeproductwhenweshop.Marketerswanttoknowhowtomobilizeourbottom-upbrain.

Marketing research finds, for instance, thatwhenpeopleare shownadrinkalongwithhappyfacesthatflitacrossascreentoorapidlytoberegisteredcon-sciously—but nonetheless are noticed by the bottom-up systems—they drinkmorethanwhenthosefleetingimagesareangryfaces.

Areviewofsuchresearchconcludesthatpeopleare“massivelyunaware”ofthese subtle marketing forces, even as they shape how we shop.14 Bottom-upawarenessmakesussuckersforsubconsciousprimes.

Lifetodayseemsruledtoatroublingdegreebyimpulse;afloodofadsdrivesus,bottom-up, todesireaseaofgoodsandspendtodaywithoutregardtohowwewillpaytomorrow.Thereignofimpulseformanygoesbeyondoverspend-ingandoverborrowing toovereatingandotheraddictivehabits, frombingeingonTwizzlerstospendingcountlesshoursstaringatoneoranothervarietyofdig-italscreen.

NEURALHIJACKS

Walkintosomeone’soffice,andwhat’sthefirstthingyounotice?That’sacluetowhat’sdrivingyourbottom-upfocusinthatmoment.Ifyou’resetonafinan-cial goal, you might immediately take in an earnings graph on the computerscreen.Ifyouhavearachnophobia,you’llfixateonthatdustywebinthecornerofthewindow.

These are subconscious choices in attention. Such attention capture occurswhen theamygdalacircuitry, thebrain’s sentinel foremotionalmeaning, spotssomethingitfindssignificant;anoversizeinsect,wrathfullook,orcutetoddlergivesyouanideaofthebrain’ssettingsforsuchinstinctualinterest.15Thismid-brainfixtureofthebottom-upsystemreactsfarmorequicklyinneuraltimethandoesthetop-downprefrontalarea;itsendssignalsupwardtoactivatehighercor-

tical pathways that alert the (relatively) sluggish executive centers towake upandpayattention.

Our brain’s attention mechanisms evolved over hundreds of thousands ofyearstosurviveinafang-and-clawjunglewherethreatsapproachedourances-torswithinaspecificvisualrangeandsetofrates—somewherearoundthelungeofasnakeandthespeedofaleapingtiger.Thoseofourancestorswhoseamyg-dalawasquickenoughtohelpusdodgethatsnakeandevadethat tigerpassedontheirneuraldesigntous.

Snakesandspiders,twoanimalsthatthehumanbrainseemsprimedtonoticewithalarm,captureattentionevenwhentheirimagesareflashedsofastwehavenoconsciousawarenessofhavingseenthem.Thebottom-upcircuitsspotthemmorequicklythanneutralobjects,andsendanalarm(flashthoseimagesbyanexpert on snakes or spiders and she will still have attention capture—but noalarmsignal).16

Thebrain finds it impossible to ignoreemotional faces,particularly furiousones.17 Angry faces have super-salience: scan a crowd and someone with anangry face will pop out. The bottom brain will even spot a cartoon with V-shaped eyebrows (like thekids inSouthPark)morequickly than it takes in ahappyface.

Wearewired topay reflexive attention to “super-normal stimuli,”whetherforsafety,nutrition,orsex—likeacatthatcan’thelpchasingafakemouseonastring.Intoday’sworld,adsthatplayonthosesamepre-wiredinclinationstugatus bottom-up, too, getting our reflexive attention. Just tie sex or prestige to aproduct toactivate thesesamecircuits toprimeus tobuyforreasonswedon’tevennotice.

Ourparticularproclivitiesmakeusallthemorevulnerable.That’swhyalco-holicsarerivetedbyvodkaads,randyfolksbythesexypeopleinaspotforava-cationgetaway.

This is bottom-up preselected attention; such capture from below is auto-

matic, an involuntarychoice.We’remostprone toemotionsdriving focus thisway when our minds are wandering, when we are distracted, or when we’reoverwhelmedbyinformation—orallthree.

Thenthereareemotionsgonewild.Iwaswritingthisverysectionyesterday,sittingatmydesktop,whenoutoftheblueIhadacripplingattackoflowerbackpain.Maybenotoutofnowhere:ithadbeenbuildingquietlysincemorning.Butthen as I sat atmy desk it suddenly ripped throughmy body, frommy lowerspinestraightuptothepaincentersinmybrain.

WhenItriedtostand,theboltofpainwassosevereIcrumpledbackintomychair.What’sworse,mymindstartedracingabouttheworstthatmighthappen:I’llbecrippledbythisforlife,I’llhavetogetregularsteroidinjections...andthat train of thought brought my panicked mind to recall that a fungus in apoorly run drug-compounding facility had led to the death frommeningitis oftwenty-sevenpatientswhohadgottenjustthoseveryinjections.

Asithappens,Ihadjustdeletedablockoftextonarelatedpoint,whichIin-tendedtomovetoabouthereinthisbook.Butwithmyattentioninthegripofpainandworry,Icompletelyforgotaboutit—andsoithasvanishedintoablackhole.

Suchemotionalhijacksare triggeredby theamygdala, thebrain’s radar forthreat,whichconstantlyscansoursurroundingsfordangers.Whenthesecircuitsspotathreat(orwhatweinterpretasone—theyareoftenmistaken),asuperhigh-wayofneuronalcircuitryrunningupwardtotheprefrontalareassendsabarrageofsignalsthatletthelowerbraindrivetheupper:ourattentionnarrows,gluedtowhat’supsettingus;ourmemoryreshuffles,makingiteasier torecallanythingrelevanttothethreatathand;ourbodygoesintooverdriveasafloodofstresshormonespreparesourlimbstofightorrun.Wefixateonwhat’ssodisturbingandforgettherest.

Thestrongertheemotion,thegreaterourfixation.Hijacksarethesuperglueofattention.But thequestion is,Howlongdoesour focusstaycaptured?That

depends,itturnsout,onthepoweroftheleftprefrontalareatocalmthearousedamygdala(therearetwoamygdalae,oneineachbrainhemisphere).

Thatamygdala-prefrontalneuronalsuperhighwayhasbranchestotheleftandrightprefrontalsides.Whenwearehijackedtheamygdalacircuitrycapturestherightsideandtakesover.Buttheleftsidecansendsignalsdownwardthatcalmthehijack.

Emotional resilience comes down to how quicklywe recover from upsets.People who are highly resilient—who bounce back right away—can have asmuchas thirty timesmoreactivation in the leftprefrontalarea than thosewhoare less resilient.18Thegoodnews: aswe’ll see inpart 5,wecan increase thestrengthoftheamygdala-calmingleftprefrontalcircuitry.

LIFEONAUTOMATIC

MyfriendandIareraptinconversationinabusyrestaurant,towardtheendofourlunch.He’simmersedinhisnarrative,tellingmeaboutaparticularlyintensemomenthe’shadrecently.

He’sbeensolostintellingmeaboutitthathe’snotdonewithhisfood.Myplatewasclearedawhileago.

Atthatpointtheservercomestoourtableandaskshim,“Areyouenjoyingyourlunch?”

Hebarelynoticesher,muttersadismissive,“No,notyet,”andcontinuesonwithhisstorywithoutmissingabeat.

My friend’s reply, of course,was not towhat the server actually said, butrathertowhatwaitersusuallysayatthatpointinameal:“Haveyoufinished?”

Thatsmallmistaketypifiesthedownsideofalifelivedbottom-up,onauto-matic:wemissthemomentasitactuallycomestous,reactinginsteadtoafixedtemplateofassumptionsaboutwhat’sgoingon.Andwemissthehumorofthemoment:

Waiter:“Areyouenjoyingyourlunch?”Customer:“No,notyet.”Backinthedaywhentherewereoftenlonglinesinmanyofficesaspeople

waitedtouseacopier,HarvardpsychologistEllenLangerhadpeoplegototheheadofthelineandsimplysay,“I’vegottomakesomecopies.”

Of course, everyone else in line was there to make copies, too. Yet moreoftenthannot,thepersonattheheadofthelinewouldletLanger’sconfederategoahead.That, saysLanger,exemplifiesmindlessness,attentiononautomatic.Anactiveattention,bycontrast,mightleadthepersonatthefrontofthelinetoquestionwhethertherereallywassomeprivilegedurgentneedforthosecopies.

Active engagement of attention signifies top-down activity, an antidote togoing through the day with a zombie-like automaticity. We can talk back tocommercials,stayalerttowhat’shappeningaroundus,questionautomaticrou-tinesorimprovethem.Thisfocused,oftengoal-orientedattention,inhibitsmind-lessmentalhabits.19

So while emotions can drive our attention, with active effort we can alsomanageemotionstop-down.Thentheprefrontalareastakechargeoftheamyg-dala,tuningdownitspotency.Anangryface,oreventhatcutebaby,canfailtocapture our attention when the circuits for top-down control of attention takeoverthebrain’schoicesofwhattoignore.

4

THEVALUEOFAMINDADRIFT

Let’s step back for amoment, and think again about thinking. In what I’vewritten so far there is an implicit bias: that focused, goal-driven attention hasmorevaluethanopen,spontaneousawareness.Buttheeasyassumptionthatat-tentionneedbeintheserviceofsolvingproblemsorachievinggoalsdownplaysthefruitfulnessofthemind’stendencytodriftwheneverlefttoitsowndevices.

Everyvarietyof attentionhas itsuses.Thevery fact that abouthalfofourthoughtsaredaydreamssuggeststheremaywellbesomeadvantagestoamindthatcanentertainthefanciful.1Wemightreviseourownthinkingabouta“wan-deringmind,”byconsideringthatratherthanwanderingawayfromwhatcounts,wemaywellbewanderingtowardsomethingofvalue.2

Brainresearchonmindwanderingfacesauniqueparadox: top-downintentdoesnotyieldafruitfulbottom-uproutine.It’simpossibletoinstructsomeonetohaveaspontaneousthought—thatis,tomaketheperson’smindwander.3Ifyouwanttocapturewanderingthoughtsinthewild,you’vegottotakethemwhen-ever theyhappen topopup.Onepreferred research strategy:whilepeople arehavingtheirbrainsscanned,askthematrandommomentswhattheyareexperi-encing.Thisyieldsamessymixof thecontentsof themind, includingagreatdealofwandering.

The inner tug to drift away from effortful focus is so strong that cognitivescientists see awanderingmind as the brain’s “default”mode—where it goeswhenit’snotworkingawayonsomementaltask.Thecircuitryforthisdefaultnetwork,aseriesofbrain imagingstudieshasfound,centerson themedial,ormiddle,zoneoftheprefrontalcortex.

More recent brain scans revealed a surprise: during mind wandering twomajorbrainareasseemtobeactive,notjustthemedialstripthathadlongbeenassociatedwith a driftingmind.4 The other—the executive system of the pre-frontal cortex—had been thought crucial for keeping us focused on tasks.Yetthescansseemtoshowbothareasactivatedasthemindmeandered.

That’sabitofapuzzle.Afterall,mindwanderingby itsverynature takesfocus from thebusiness athandandhampersourperformance,particularlyoncognitivelydemandingmatters.Researcherstentativelysolvethatpuzzlebysug-gestingthatthereasonmindwanderinghurtsperformancemaybeitsborrowingtheexecutivesystemforothermatters.

Thisgetsusbacktowhatthemindwanderstoward:moreoftenthannot,ourcurrentpersonalconcernsandunresolvedbusiness—stuffwe’vegottofigureout(moreonthisinthenextchapter).Whilemindwanderingmayhurtourimmedi-atefocusonsometaskathand,someportionofthetimeitoperatesintheser-viceofsolvingproblemsthatmatterforourlives.

Inaddition,amindadriftletsourcreativejuicesflow.Whileourmindswan-derwebecomebetteratanythingthatdependsonaflashofinsight,fromcomingupwithimaginativewordplaytoinventionsandoriginalthinking.Infact,peoplewho are extremely adept atmental tasks that demand cognitive control and aroaringworkingmemory—like solving complexmath problems—can strugglewithcreativeinsightsiftheyhavetroubleswitchingofftheirfullyconcentratedfocus.5

Amongotherpositivefunctionsofmindwanderingaregeneratingscenariosfor the future, self-reflection,navigatingacomplexsocialworld, incubationof

creative ideas, flexibility in focus, pondering what we’re learning, organizingourmemories,justmullinglife—andgivingourcircuitryformoreintensivefo-cusingarefreshingbreak.6

Amoment’sreflectionleadsmetoaddtwomore:remindingmeofthingsIhavetodosotheydon’tgetlostinthemind’sshuffle,andentertainingme.I’msure you can suggest some other useful features, if you let your mind driftawhile.

THEARCHITECTUREOFSERENDIPITY

APersian fairy tale tells of theThreePrinces of Serendip,who “were alwaysmakingdiscoveries,byaccidentand sagacity,of things theywerenot inquestof.”7Creativityinthewildoperatesmuchlikethat.

“New ideas won’t appear if you don’t have permission within yourself,”SalesforceCEOMarcBeniofftellsme.“WhenIwasaVPatOracle,ItookofftoHawaiiforamonthjusttorelax,andwhenIdidthatitopenedupmycareertonewideas,perspectives,anddirections.”

In that open spaceBenioff realized the potential uses for cloud computingthatledhimtoquitOracle,startSalesforceinarentedapartment,andevangelizeforwhatwasthenaradicalconcept.Salesforcewasapioneerinwhatisnowamultibillion-dollarindustry.

Bycontrast,ascientisttoodeterminedtoconfirmhishypothesisrisksignor-ing findings thatdon’t fit his expectations—dismissing themasnoiseor error,not a doorway to new discoveries—and so misses what might become morefruitfultheories.Andthenaysayerinthebrainstormingsession,theguywhoal-waysshootsdownanynewidea,throttlesinnovativeinsightinitsinfancy.

Openawarenesscreatesamentalplatformforcreativebreakthroughsandun-expectedinsights.Inopenawarenesswehavenodevil’sadvocate,nocynicismorjudgment—justutterreceptivitytowhateverfloatsintothemind.

Butoncewe’vehituponagreatcreativeinsight,weneedtocapturetheprizebyswitchingtoakeenfocusonhowtoapplyit.Serendipitycomeswithopen-nesstopossibility,thenhominginonputtingittouse.

Life’s creative challenges rarely come in the form ofwell-formulated puz-zles.Insteadweoftenhavetorecognizetheveryneedtofindacreativesolutioninthefirstplace.Chance,asLouisPasteurputit,favorsapreparedmind.Day-dreamingincubatescreativediscovery.

Aclassicmodelofthestagesofcreativityroughlytranslatestothreemodesoffocus:orienting,wherewesearchoutandimmerseourselves inallkindsofinputs; selective attention on the specific creative challenge; and open aware-ness,whereweassociatefreelytoletthesolutionemerge—thenhomeinonthesolution.

Thebrainsystems involved inmindwanderinghavebeenfoundactive justbeforepeoplehituponacreativeinsight—and,intriguingly,areunusuallyactivein thosewithattentiondeficitdisorder,orADD.AdultswithADD, relative tothosewithout,alsoshowhigherlevelsoforiginalcreativethinkingandmoreac-tual creative achievements.8The entrepreneurRichardBranson, founderof thecorporateempirebuiltonVirginAirandothercompanies,hasofferedhimselfasaposterboyforsuccesswithADD.

TheCenters forDiseaseControl and Prevention says almost 10 percent ofchildrenhavethedisorderinaformmixedwithhyperactivity.Inadults,thehy-peractivity fades, leaving ADD; around 4 percent of adults seem to have theproblem.9Whenchallengedbyacreative task, forexample, findingnovelusesforabrick,thosewithADDdobetter,despitetheirzoningout—orperhapsbe-causeofit.

Weallmightlearnsomethinghere.Inanexperimentwherevolunteerswerechallengedwiththenovel-usestask, thosewhosemindshadbeenwandering—compared with those whose attention had been fully concentrated—came upwith40percentmoreoriginalanswers.Andwhenpeoplewhohadcreativeac-

complishments like a novel, patent, or art show to their creditwere tested forscreening out irrelevant information to focus on a task, theirmindswanderedmorefrequently thandidothers’—indicatinganopenawareness thatmayhaveservedthemwellintheircreativework.10

In our less frenetic creativemoments, just before an insight the brain typi-callyrestsinarelaxed,openfocus,markedbyanalpharhythm.Thissignalsastateofdaydreamyreverie.Sincethebrainstoresdifferentkindsofinformationinwide-reachingcircuitry,afreelyroamingawarenessupstheoddsofserendipi-tousassociationsandnovelcombinations.

Rappers immersed in “freestyling,”where they improvise lyrics in themo-ment, show heightened activity in themind-wandering circuitry, among otherpartsof thebrain—allowing freshconnectionsbetween far-rangingneuralnet-works.11Inthisspaciousmentalecologywearemorelikelytohavenovelasso-ciations,theahasensethatmarksacreativeinsight—oragoodrhyme.

Inacomplexworldwherealmosteveryonehasaccesstothesameinforma-tion,newvaluearisesfromtheoriginalsynthesis,fromputtingideastogetherinnovelways,andfromsmartquestionsthatopenupuntappedpotential.Creativeinsightsentailjoiningelementsinauseful,freshway.

Imagine for amoment biting into a crisp apple: the patina of colors on itsskin,thesoundsofthecrunchasyoubiteintoit,thewashoftastes,smells,andtextures.Takeamomenttoexperiencethatvirtualapple.

As that imaginedmomentcame to life inyourmindyourbrainalmostcer-tainly generated a gamma spike. Such gamma spikes are familiar to cognitiveneuroscientists; they occur routinely during mental operations like the virtualapplebite—andjustbeforecreativeinsights.

Itwouldbemakingtoomuchofthistoseegammawavesassomesecretofcreativity. But the site of the gamma spike during a creative insight seemstelling: an area associatedwith dreams,metaphors, the logic of art,myth, andpoetry.These operate in the language of the unconscious, a realmwhere any-

thingispossible.Freud’smethodoffreeassociation,whereyouspeakwhatevercomesintoyourmindwithoutcensoring,opensonedoortothisopen-awarenessmode.

Ourmindholdsendless ideas,memories,andpotentialassociationswaitingtobemade.Butthelikelihoodoftherightideaconnectingwiththerightmem-orywithintherightcontext—andallthatcomingintothespotlightofattention—diminishes drastically when we are either hyperfocused or too gripped by anoverloadofdistractionstonoticetheinsight.

Thenthere’swhat’sstoredinotherpeople’sbrains.Foraboutayeartheas-tronomersArnoPenziasandRobertWilsonsearchedtheuniversewithpowerfulnewequipment,muchstrongerthananythathadyetbeenusedforscanningthevastnessoftheskies.Theywereoverwhelmedbyaseaoffreshdata,andtriedtosimplifytheirworkbyignoringsomemeaninglessstatictheyassumedwasduetofaultyequipment.

One day a chance encounterwith a nuclear physicist gave them an insight(andeventually, aNobelPrize).The insight led them to realize thatwhat theyhadbeen interpretingas“noise”wasactuallya faintsignal fromthecontinuedreverberationsofthebigbang.

THECREATIVECOCOON

“Theintuitivemindisasacredgiftandtherationalmindisafaithfulservant,”AlbertEinsteinoncesaid.“Wehavecreatedasocietythathonorstheservantandhasforgottenthegift.”12

Formanyofusit’saluxuryjusttogetsomeuninterruptedprivatemomentsduringthedaywhenwecanleanbackandreflect.Yet thosecountassomeofthemostvaluablemomentsinourday,especiallywhenitcomestocreativity.

Butthere’ssomethingmorerequiredifthoseassociationsaretobearfruitinaviableinnovation:therightatmosphere.Weneedfreetimewherewecansus-

tainanopenawareness.The nonstop onslaught of email, texts, bills to pay—life’s “full catastro-

phe”—throwsusintoabrainstateantitheticaltotheopenfocuswhereserendipi-tousdiscoveriesthrive.Inthetumultofourdailydistractionsandto-dolists,in-novationdead-ends;inopentimesitflourishes.That’swhytheannalsofdiscov-eryarerifewithtalesofabrilliantinsightduringawalkorabath,onalongrideorvacation.Opentimeletsthecreativespiritflourish;tightscheduleskillit.

TakethelatePeterSchweitzer,afounderofthefieldofevaluatingcryptogra-phy,encryptedcodesthat looklikenonsenseto theunschooledeyebutprotectthe secrecy of everything from government records to your credit card.13

Schweitzer’sspecialty:breakingcodesinafriendlytestofencryptionthattellsyouifsomeadversarylikearoguehackercancrackyoursystemandstealyoursecrets.

Thisdauntingchallengerequiresyoutogeneratealargearrayofnovelpoten-tialsolutionstoanextraordinarilycomplicatedproblem,andthentesteachonebyworkingitthroughamethodicalnumberofsteps.

Schweitzer’s laboratory for this intense taskwasnot some sound-insulated,windowlessoffice.Typicallyhe’dmullanencryptedcodewhileonalongwalkor simply soakingup somesun, eyesclosed. “It looked like someone takinganap,buthewasdoinghighermathinhishead,”asacolleagueputit.“He’dliearoundsunbathing,andmeanwhilehismindwouldbegoingazillionmilesanhour.”

TheimportofsuchcocoonsintimeandspaceemergedfromaHarvardBusi-ness School study of the innerwork lives of 238members of creative projectteamstaskedwithinnovativechallengesfromsolvingcomplexinformationtech-nologyproblemstoinventingkitchengadgets.14Progressinsuchworkdemandsasteadystreamofsmallcreativeinsights.

Good days for insights had nothing to do with stunning breakthroughs orgrandvictories.Thekeyturnedouttobehavingsmallwins—minorinnovations

andtroublingproblemssolved—onconcretestepstowardalargergoal.Creativeinsightsflowedbestwhenpeoplehadcleargoalsbutalsofreedominhowtheyreached them. And, most crucial, they had protected time—enough to reallythinkfreely.Acreativecocoon.

5

FINDINGBALANCE

Thefacultyofvoluntarilybringingbackawanderingattention,overandoveragain,istheveryrootofjudgment,character,andwill,”observedthefounderofAmericanpsychology,WilliamJames.

But, aswe’ve seen, if you ask people, “Are you thinking about somethingotherthanwhatyou’recurrentlydoing?”theoddsarefifty-fiftytheirmindswillbewandering.1

Thoseoddschangegreatlydependingonwhat thatcurrentactivityhappenstobe.Arandomsurveyofthousandsofpeoplefoundfocusinthehere-and-nowunderstandablywashighestbyfarwhiletheyweremakinglove(apparentlyevenamongthosepeoplewhoansweredthatbadlytimedinquiryfromaphoneapp).Amoredistant secondwasexercising, followedby talkingwith someone, andthen playing. In contrast,mindwanderingwasmost frequentwhile theywereworking(employerstakenote),usingahomecomputer,orcommuting.

Onaverage,people’smoodsweregenerallyskewedtotheunpleasantwhiletheirmindswandered; even thoughts that had seemingly neutral contentwereshadedwith a negative emotional tone.Mindwandering itself seemed to be acauseofunhappinesssomeormuchofthetime.

Wheredoourthoughtswanderwhenwe’renotthinkingofanythinginpar-

ticular?Mostoften,theyareallaboutme.The“me,”WilliamJamesproposed,weavestogetheroursenseofselfbytellingourstory—fittingrandombitsoflifeintoacohesivenarrative.Thisit’s-all-about-mestorylinefabricatesafeelingofpermanencebehindourever-shiftingmoment-to-momentexperience.

“Me” reflects the activity of the default zone, that generator of the restlessmind,lostinameanderingstreamofthoughtthathaslittleornothingtodowiththepresentsituationandeverythingtodowith,well,me.Thismentalhabittakesoverwheneverwegivethemindarestfromsomefocusedactivity.

Creativeassociationsaside,mindwandering tends tocenteronourselfandourpreoccupations:all themany things I have todo today; thewrong thing Isaidtothatperson;whatIshouldhavesaidinstead.Whilethemindsometimeswanderstopleasantthoughtsorfantasy,itmoreoftenseemstogravitatetorumi-nationandworry.

Themedialprefrontalcortexfiresawayasourself-talkandruminationsgen-erateabackgroundoflow-levelanxiety.Butduringfullconcentrationanearbyarea, the lateralprefrontalcortex, inhibits thismedialarea.Ourselectiveatten-tion deselects these circuits for emotional preoccupations, the most powerfultypeofdistraction.Respondingtowhat’sgoingon,oractivefocusofanykind,shutsoffthe“me,”whilepassivefocusreturnsustothiscomfymireofrumina-tion.2

It’snot thechatterofpeoplearoundus that is themostpowerfuldistractor,butratherthechatterofourownminds.Utterconcentrationdemandstheseinnervoicesbestilled.Starttosubtractsevenssuccessivelyfrom100and,ifyoukeepyourfocusonthetask,yourchatterzonegoesquiet.

THELAWYERANDTHERAISIN

Asalitigator,thelawyerhadfueledhiscareerbymobilizingaseethingangerattheinjusticesdonehisclients.Energizedbyoutrage,hewasrelentlessinpursu-

inghiscases,makinghisargumentswithafieryforce,stayinguplongintothenightresearchingandpreparing.Oftenhe’dlieawakemuchofthenightfumingashereviewedhisclients’predicamentoverandoverandplottedlegalstrategy.

Then,onavacation,hemetawomanwhotaughtmeditationandaskedherfor instruction. To his surprise, she started by handing him a few raisins. Shethenledhimthroughthestepsineatingoneoftheraisinsslowlyandwithfullfocus,savoringtherichnessofeverymoment in thatprocess: thesensationsashelifteditintohismouthandchewed,theburstofflavorsashebitintoit, thesoundsofeating.Heimmersedhimselfinthefullnessofhissenses.

Then,assheinstructedhim,hebroughtthatsamefullin-the-momentfocustothe natural flow of his breath, letting go of any and all thoughts that floatedthroughhismind.Withherguidancehecontinuedthatmeditationonhisbreathforthenextfifteenminutes.

Ashedidso,thevoicesinhismindwentquiet.“ItwaslikeflippingaswitchintoaZen-likestate,”hesaid.He liked it somuch thathehasmade itadailyhabit:“AfterI’mdone,Ifeelreallycalm—Ilikethatalot.”

Whenwe turn such full attention to our senses, the brain quiets its defaultchatter.Brainscansduringmindfulness—theformofmeditationthelawyerwastrying—revealitquietsthebraincircuitsforme-focusedmentalchatter.3

That in itself can be an immense relief. “To the extent absorption meansdropping this mind-wandering state and getting a total focus on an activity,we’re likely to be deactivating the default circuits,” neuroscientist RichardDavidsonsays.“Youcan’t ruminateaboutyourselfwhileyou’reabsorbed inachallengingtask.”

“This isonereasonpeople lovedangeroussports likemountainclimbing,asituationwhereyouhavetobetotallyfocused,”Davidsonadds.Powerfulfocusbringsasenseofpeace,andwithit,joy.“Butwhenyoucomedownthemoun-tain,theself-referencingnetworkbringsyourworriesandcaresrightback.”

InAldousHuxley’sutopiannovelIsland,trainedparrotsflyovertopeopleat

randomandchirp,“Hereandnow,boys,hereandnow!”Thatreminderhelpsthedenizensof this idyllic islandpop theirdaydreamsand refocusonwhat’shap-peninginthisveryplaceandmoment.

Aparrotseemsanaptchoiceasmessenger:animalsliveonlyinthehere-and-now.4Acathoppingintoalaptobestroked,adogeagerlywaitingforyouatthedoor,ahorsecockingitsheadtoreadyourintentionsasyouapproach:allsharethesamefocusonthepresent.

Thiscapacitytothinkinwaysthatareindependentofanimmediatestimulus—aboutwhat’shappenedandwhatmighthappeninallitspossibilities—setsthehumanmindapartfromthatofalmosteveryotheranimal.Whilemanyspiritualtraditions,likeHuxley’sparrots,seemindwanderingasasourceofwoe,evolu-tionarypsychologists see thisasagreatcognitive leap.Bothviewshavesometruth.

InHuxley’s vision the eternal now harbors everythingwe need for fulfill-ment.Yetthehumanabilitytothinkaboutthingsnothappeninginthateternalpresentrepresentsaprerequisiteforalltheachievementsofourspeciesthatre-quiredplanning, imagination,or logisticskill.And that’s justabouteverythingthat’sauniquelyhumanaccomplishment.

Mullingthingsnotgoingonhereandnow—“situation-independentthought”as cognitive scientists call it—demandswedecouple the contents of ourmindfrom what our senses perceive at the moment. So far as we know, no otherspeciescanmakethisradicalshiftfromanexternalfocustoaninwardonewithanythingnearthepowerofthehumanmind,ornearlysooften.

Themoreourmindwanders, the lesswecanregisterwhat’sgoingonrightnow,righthere.Takecomprehendingwhatwe’rereading.Whenvolunteershadtheir gazemonitoredwhile they read the entirety of JaneAusten’s Sense andSensibility,erraticeyemovementssignaledthatagreatdealofmindlessreadingwenton.5

Wanderingeyesindicateabreakdownintheconnectionbetweenunderstand-

ing and visual contact with the text, as the mind meanders elsewhere (theremighthavebeen far lessmeandering if thevolunteershadbeen free tochoosewhattheyread—sayBlinkorFiftyShadesofGrey,dependingontheirtaste).

Using tools such as fluctuations in eye gaze or “random experience sam-pling”(inotherwords,justaskingsomeonewhat’shappening)whilepeoplearehavingtheirbrainsscanned,neuroscientistsobservethatmajorneuraldynamic:whilethemindwanders,oursensorysystemsshutdown,and,conversely,whilewefocusonthehereandnow,theneuralcircuitsformindwanderinggodim.

Attheneurallevelmindwanderingandperceptualawarenesstendtoinhibiteach other: internal focus on our train of thought tunes out the senses, whilebeingraptinthebeautyofasunsetquietsthemind.6Thistune-outcanbetotal,aswhenwegetutterlylostinwhatwe’redoing.

Ourusualneuralsettingsallowabitofwanderingwhileweengagetheworld—orjustenoughengagementwhileweareadrift,aswhenwedaydreamwhilewedrive.Ofcourse,suchpartialtuningoutbearsrisks:onestudyofathousanddriversinjuredinaccidentsfoundthatabouthalfsaidtheirmindwaswanderingjustbeforetheaccident;themoreintensethedisruptivethoughts,themorelikelyitwasthatthedrivercausedtheaccident.7

Situations that do not demand constant task-focus—particularly boring orroutine ones—free themind towander.As theminddrifts off and the defaultnetworkactivatesmorestrongly,ourneuralcircuitsfortask-focusgoquiet—an-othervarietyofneuraldecouplingakintothatbetweenthesensesanddaydream-ing.Sincedaydreamingcompetesforneuralenergywithtask-focusandsensoryperception, there’ssmallwonder thataswedaydreamwemakemoreerrors inanythingthatrequiresustopayfocusedattention.

THEWANDERINGMIND

“Wheneveryounoticeyourmindwandering,”afundamentalinstructioninmed-

itation advises, “bring your mind back to its point of focus.” The operativephrasehereiswheneveryounotice.Asourminddriftsoff,wealmostneverno-ticethemomentit launchesintosomeotherorbitonitsown.Ameanderawayfromthefocusofmeditationcanlastseconds,minutes,ortheentiresessionbe-forewenotice,ifwedoatall.

Thatsimplechallenge issohardbecause theverybraincircuitsweneedtocatchourmindasitwandersarerecruitedintotheneuralwebthatsetsthemindadriftinthefirstplace.8Whataretheydoing?Apparently,managingtherandombitsthatfillawanderingmindintoadetailedtrainofthought,likeHowdoIpaymy bills? Such thoughts require cooperation between the mind’s drifting cir-cuitryandtheorganizationaltalentsoftheexecutivecircuits.9

Catchingawanderingmind in theact iselusive;moreoften thannotwhenwearelostinthoughtwefailtorealizethatourmindhaswanderedinthefirstplace.Noticing thatourmindhaswanderedmarksashift inbrainactivity; thegreater thismeta-awareness, theweaker themindwandering becomes.10Brainimaging reveals that at themomentwecatchourmindadrift that actofmeta-awareness lessens the activityof the executive andmedial circuits, but it doesnotcompletelysuppressthem.11

Modernlifevaluessittinginschooloranoffice,focusingononethingatatime—an attentional stance thatmaynot always havepaid off in early humanhistory.Survivalinthewild,someneuroscientistsargue,mayhavedependedatcrucialmomentsonarapidlyshiftingattentionandswiftaction,withouthesitat-ingtothinkwhattodo.Whatwenowdiagnoseasanattentionaldeficitmayre-flectanaturalvariationinfocusingstylesthathadadvantagesinevolution—andsocontinuestobedispersedinourgenepool.

When facing a focus-demandingmental task like toughmath problems, aswe’veseen,thosewithADDshowbothmoremindwanderingandincreasedac-tivity in themedialcircuitry.12Butwhenconditionsare right, thosewithADDcan have keen focus, fully absorbed in the activity at hand. Such conditions

mightarisemoreofteninanartstudio,basketballcourt,orstockexchangefloor—justnotintheclassroom.

ANEVENKEEL

On12/12/12,theverydayaquirkintheMayancalendarsupposedlyforetoldasthe end of theworld (according to clearly unfounded rumors),mywife and Ihappened to takeoneofourgranddaughters to theMuseumofModernArt.Abuddingartist,shewaskeentoseetheofferingsofthatfamousNewYorkCitymuseum.

Among the firstdisplays togreetusonentering the firstgalleryatMoMAwere two industrial-sizedvacuumcleaners, spotlesswhite three-wheeledcylin-ders with neat pin-striping. They were stacked one atop the other encased inPlexiglas cubes, theneon lights beneath eachmaking themgleam.Ourgrand-daughterwasnotimpressed;shewaseagertoseeVanGogh’sStarryNightinagalleryseveralfloorsabove.

Justthenightbefore,themaincuratoratMoMAhadconvenedaneveningonthethemeof“attentionanddistraction.”Thefocusingofattentionholdsthekeytomuseumdisplays:theframesaroundtheartannouncewhereweshouldlook.Those glass cubes and neon lights directed our attention here, toward thesparkling vacuum cleaners, and away from there—whatever else was in thegallery.

Thatpointcamehometomeasweleft.Nearanout-of-the-waywall inthemuseum’scavernous lobbyInoticedsomechairsstackedhaphazardly,waitingtobeplacedforsomespecialevent.Lurkingnearthemintheshadows,Icouldbarelydiscernwhatappearedtobeavacuumcleaner.Noonepaidittheleastat-tention.

Butourattentionneednotbeatthemercyofhowtheworldaroundusgetsframed;wecanchoosetoobservethevacuumcleanerintheshadowasmuchas

theoneinthespotlight.Anevenkeelinattentionreflectsamentalmodewherewesimplynoticewhatevercomes intoawarenesswithoutgettingcaughtuporsweptawaybyanyparticularthing.Everythingflowsthrough.

Thisopennesscanbeseenineverydaymomentswhen,forinstance,youfindyourselfwaiting a turn behind a customerwho is taking endless time, and in-steadoffocusingonresentmentoronhowthiswillmakeyoulate,yousimplyletyourselfenjoythestore’sbackgroundmusic.

Emotionalreactivityflipsusintoadifferentmodeofattention,onewhereourworldcontractsintofixationonwhat’supsettingus.Thosewhohavedifficultysustainingopenawareness typicallygetcaughtupby irritatingdetails like thatpersoninfrontoftheminthesecuritylineattheairportwhotookforevertogetcarry-onreadyfor thescanner—andwillstillbefumingabout itwhilewaitingfortheirplaneatthegate.Buttherearenoemotionalhijacksinopenawareness—justtherichnessofthemoment.

One brain measure for such open attention assesses how well people cantrackanoccasionalnumberembeddedinastreamofletters:S,K,O,E,4,R,T,2,H,P...

Manypeople,itturnsout,fixtheirattentiononthefirstnumber,4,andmissseeing the second, 2. Their attention blinks. Those with strong open focus,though,registerthesecondnumber,too.

People who are able to rest their attention in this openmode noticemoreabout their surroundings. Even in the bustle of an airport they can maintainawarenessofwhat’sgoingon,ratherthangettinglostinonedetailoranother.Inbraintests,thosewhoscorehighestonopenawarenessregisteragreateramountof detail flashing by in amoment’s time than domost people.Their attentiondoesnotblink.13

Thisenrichingofattentionapplies,too,toourinteriorlife—intheopenmodewetakeinfarmoreofourfeelings,sensations,thoughts,andmemoriesthanwedowhen, say,we’re focused onmarching through our to-do list or rushing to

back-to-backmeetings.“Thecapacitytoremainwithyourattentionopeninapanoramicawareness,”

saysDavidson,“letsyouattendwithequanimity,withoutgettingcaughtinabot-tom-upcapturethatensnaresthemindinjudgingandreactivity,whethernega-tiveorpositive.”

Italsodecreasesmindwandering.Thegoal,headds, is tobebetterable toengageinmindwanderingwhenyouwantto,andnototherwise.

RESTORINGATTENTION

Onvacationat a tropical resortwithhis family,magazineeditorWilliamFalkbemoans,hefoundhimselfsittingstaringathisworkwhilehisdaughterwaitedforhimtogotothebeach.

“Notsolongago,”Falkreflects,“Iwouldhavefounditunthinkabletoworkwhileonvacation; I recallglorious two-weeksojournswhere Ihadnocontactwith bosses, employees, even friends. But that was before I traveled with asmartphone,aniPad,andalaptop,andlearnedtolikelivinginaconstantstreamofinformationandconnection.”14

Considerthecognitiveeffortdemandedbyournewnormalinformationover-load—theexplosionofnewsstreams,emails,phonecalls, tweets,blogs,chats,reflectionsaboutopinionsaboutopinions thatweexposeourcognitiveproces-sorstodaily.

Thatneuralbuzzaddstensiontothedemandsofgettingsomethingdone.Se-lectingonesharpfocusrequiresinhibitingamultitudeofothers.Themindhastofightoffthepullofeverythingelse,sortingoutwhat’simportantfromwhat’sir-relevant.Thattakescognitiveeffort.

Tightlyfocusedattentiongetsfatigued—muchlikeanoverworkedmuscle—whenwepushtothepointofcognitiveexhaustion.Thesignsofmentalfatigue,suchasadropineffectivenessandariseindistractednessandirritability,signify

thatthementaleffortneededtosustainfocushasdepletedtheglucosethatfeedsneuralenergy.

Theantidotetoattentionfatigueisthesameasforthephysicalkind:takearest.Butwhatrestsamentalmuscle?

Tryswitchingfromtheeffortoftop-downcontroltomorepassivebottom-upactivities,takingarelaxingbreakinarestfulsetting.Themostrestfulsurround-ings are in nature, arguesStephenKaplan at theUniversity ofMichigan,whoproposeswhathecalls“attentionrestorationtheory.”15

Such restorationoccurswhenweswitch fromeffortful attention,where themindneedstosuppressdistractions,tolettinggoandallowingourattentiontobecapturedbywhateverpresentsitself.Butonlycertainkindsofbottom-upfocusact to restore energy for focused attention. Surfing the Web, playing videogames,oransweringemaildoesnot.

Wedowelltounplugregularly;quiettimerestoresourfocusandcomposure.Butthatdisengagementisjustthefirststep.Whatwedonextmatters,too.Tak-ingawalkdownacitystreet,Kaplanpointsout,stillputsdemandsonattention—we’vegottonavigatethroughcrowds,dodgecars,andignorehonkinghornsandthehumofstreetnoise.

Incontrast,awalkthroughaparkorinthewoodsputslittlesuchdemandonattention. We can restore by spending time in nature—even a few minutesstrollinginaparkoranysettingrichinfascinationslikethemutedredsofcloudsatsunsetorabutterfly’sflutter.Thistriggersbottom-upattention“modestly,”asKaplan’s groupput it, allowing circuits for top-down efforts to replenish theirenergy,restoringattentivenessandmemory,andimprovingcognition.16

Awalk through an arboretum led to better focus on return to concentratedtasksthanastrollthoughdowntown.17Evensittingbyamuralofanaturescene—particularlyonewithwaterinit—isbetterthanthecornercoffeeshop.18

ButIwonder.Thesemomentsseemfineforswitchingoffintenseconcentra-tion,butopen thewayfor thestill-busywanderingmind-setof thedefaultcir-

cuitry. There’s another step we can take in switching off the busymind: fullfocusonsomethingrelaxing.

The key is an immersive experience, one where attention can be total butlargely passive. This starts to happenwhenwe gently arouse the sensory sys-tems,whichquietdownthoseforeffortfulfocus.Anythingwecangetenjoyablylost inwilldo it.Remember, in thatsurveyofpeople’smoods thesinglemostfocusingactivityinanyone’sday,andthemostpleasant,islovemaking.

Total, positive absorption shuts off the inner voice, that running dialoguewithourselvesthatgoesonevenduringourquietmoments.That’samaineffectofvirtuallyeverycontemplativepracticethatkeepsyourmindfocusedonaneu-traltarget,likeyourbreathoramantra.

Traditionaladviceforidealsettingsfora“retreat”seemstoincludeallthein-gredientsneededforcognitiverestoration.Monasteriesdesignedformeditationaretypicallyinrestful,quietnaturalenvironments.

Not thatwe need go to such extremes. ForWilliam Falk, the remedywassimple: he stoppedhiswork andwent toplaywithhis daughter in thewaves.“Tumblingandhootinginthepoundingsurfwithmydaughter,Iwasfullypre-sentinthemoment.Fullyalive.”

PARTII

SELF-AWARENESS

6

THEINNERRUDDER

Football,basketball,debate,youname it—thebig rival tomyhighschool intheCentralValleyofCaliforniawasinthenexttowndownHighway99.OvertheyearsI’vegottenfriendlywithastudentfromthatotherschool.

Duringhighschoolhewasn’tmuchinterestedinstudies—infact,healmostflunkedout.Growingupona ranchon theoutskirtsof townhe spenta lotoftimealone,readingsciencefictionandtinkeringwithhotrods,hispassion.Theweekbeforehewastograduate,acarspedpastfrombehindashewasmakingaleftturnintohisdriveway,smashinghissmallsportscartobits.Healmostdied.

Afterrecuperating,myfriendwenttothelocalcommunitycollege,wherehediscoveredacallingthatrivetedhisattentionandmobilizedhiscreativetalents:filmmaking.AftertransferringtoafilmschoolhemadeamovieforhisstudentprojectthatcaughttheeyeofaHollywooddirector,whohiredhimasanassis-tant.Thedirectoraskedmyfriendtoworkonapetproject,asmall-budgetfilm.

That, in turn, led tomy friendgettinga studio tobackhimasdirector andproducerofanothersmallfilmbasedonhisownscript—amoviethatthestudioalmostkilledbeforeitsrelease,yetwhichdidsurprisinglybetterthananyoneex-pected.

Butthearbitrarycuts,edits,andotherchangesthestudiobossesmadebefore

releasingthatmoviewereabitterlessonformyfriend,whovaluedcreativecon-trolofhisworkasparamount.Whenhewentontomakeamoviebasedonan-other script of his own, a big Hollywood studio offered him a standard dealwhereby thestudio financed theprojectandheld thepower tochange the filmbeforeitsrelease.Herefusedthedeal—hisartisticintegritywasmoreimportant.

Instead my friend “bought” creative control by going off on his own andputting every penny of his profits from the first film into this second project.Whenhewasalmostdone,hismoney ranout.Hewent looking for loans,butbankafterbankturnedhimdown.Onlya last-minute loanfromthetenthbankheimploredsavedtheproject.

ThefilmwasStarWars.GeorgeLucas’s insistence on keeping creative control despite the financial

strugglethatitentailedforhimsignifiesenormousintegrity—and,astheworldknows, it also turnedout tobe a lucrativebusinessdecision.But thisdecisionwasn’tmotivatedbythepursuitofmoney;backthenancillaryrightsmeantsell-ingmoviepostersandT-shirts,atrivialsourceofrevenue.Atthetime,everyonewhoknewthefilmindustrywarnedGeorgeagainstgoingoutonhisown.

Suchadecision requires immenseconfidence inone’sownguidingvalues.Whatallowspeopletohavesuchastronginnercompass,aNorthStarthatsteersthemthroughlifeaccordingtothedictatesoftheirdeepestvaluesandpurposes?

Self-awareness, particularly accuracy in decoding the internal cues of ourbody’smurmurs, holds the key. Our subtle physiological reactions reflect thesumtotalofourexperiencerelevanttothedecisionathand.

The decision rules derived from our life experiences reside in subcorticalneuralnetworksthatgather,store,andapplyalgorithmsfromeveryeventinourlives—creatingourinnerrudder.1Thebrainharborsourdeepestsenseofpurposeandmeaninginthesesubcorticalregions—areasconnectedpoorlytotheverbalareasoftheneocortex,butrichlytothegut.Weknowourvaluesbyfirstgettinga visceral sense ofwhat feels right andwhat does not, then articulating those

feelingsforourselves.Self-awareness,then,representsanessentialfocus,onethatattunesustothe

subtlemurmurswithinthatcanhelpguideourwaythroughlife.And,asweshallsee,thisinnerradarholdsthekeytomanagingwhatwedo—andjustasimpor-tant,whatwedon’tdo.Thisinternalcontrolmechanismmakesallthedifferencebetweenalifewelllivedandonethatfalters.

SHE’SHAPPYANDSHEKNOWSIT

Thescientifictestforself-awarenessinanimalsis,intheory,simple:putamarkon their face, show them amirror, and observewhether their actions indicatetheyrealizethatthefacewiththemarkovertherereflectstheirown.

Actuallydoing sucha test for self-awareness in elephants isnot so simple.For starters, youneed to build an elephant-proofmirror.Try an eight-foot-by-eight-foot acrylic reflecting surfaceglued toplywoodsupportedby steel fram-ing,andboltedtotheconcretewallofanelephantenclosure.

That’swhat researchers did at theBronxZoo,whereHappy, a thirty-four-year-oldAsianelephant, liveswithher twohulkingfriends,MaxineandPatty.The researchers let the elephants get used to themirrors for a fewdays.ThentheyputalargewhiteXontheheadofoneoranotheroftheelephantstoseeifshewouldrealizeshehadamarkthere—anindicationofself-recognition.

There’s a further complication when it comes to testing elephants. They“groom”themselvesbytakingmudbathsandsprayingdustalloverthemselveswiththeirtrunks.Thataddsafairamountofdebristotheirskin,uppingtheoddsthatwhatwehumansthinkofasaprominentmarkmightbetrivial—justmoreoftheusualdetritus—toanelephant.And,indeed,MaxineandPattypaidnoat-tentiontotheirX.

ButthedayHappygotthebigwhiteXonherheadshewentovertothemir-ror and spent ten seconds looking at herself, thenwalked off—rather like hu-

manswhenweglanceinthemirrorbeforegoingouttostartourday.ShethenrepeatedlyfeltaroundtheXwiththesensitivetipofher trunk,signifyingself-awareness.

Onlyahighlyselectfewintheanimalkingdomhavepassedthistest,includ-ingsomevarietiesofapesandchimps,anddolphins(inanaquaticadaptationofthetest).Thesespecies,likeelephants,areamongthehandfulofanimalswhosebrainsharboraclassofneuronssomeneuroscientistsbelieveareuniquelyessen-tial for self-awareness. Named for their discoverer, Constantin von Economo(andcalledVENsforshort),thesespindle-shapedneuronscanbedoublethesizeofmostbraincellsandhavefewerbranches—thoughmuch longerones—con-nectingtoothercells.2

Theirsizeandspindle-likeshapegiveVENsauniqueadvantageoverotherneurons:thesignalstheysendtravelfasterandfarther.Andtheirmainlocationsinareasthatconnecttheexecutivebraintotheemotionalcenterspositionthemaspersonalradar.Theseareaslightupwhenweseeourreflectioninthemirror.Neuroscientistssee themaspartof thebrain’scircuitryforoursenseofselfateverylevel:of“thisisme,”of“howIfeelnow,”andofourpersonalidentity.

THEBRAIN’SMAPOFTHEBODY

Afterbeingdiagnosedwiththelivercancerthatwastotakehislifeafewyearslater,SteveJobsgaveaheartfelt talk toagraduatingclassatStanfordUniver-sity.Hisadvice:“Don’t let thevoiceofothers’opinionsdrownoutyour innervoice.Andmostimportant,havethecouragetofollowyourheartandintuition.Theysomehowalreadyknowwhatyoutrulywanttobecome.”3

Buthowdoyouhear“yourinnervoice,”whatyourheartandintuitionsome-howalreadyknow?Youneedtodependonyourbody’ssignals.

Youmayhaveseentheratherbizarreimageofabodyasmappedbytheso-matosensory cortex,which tracks the sensations registeredbyvarious areas of

our skin: this critter has a tiny head but huge lips and tongue, teeny arms butgiant fingers—all reflecting the relative sensitivity of nerves in various bodyparts.

Similarmonitoringofourinternalorgansisdonebytheinsula,tuckedbehindthe frontal lobesof thebrain.The insulamapsourbody’s insidesviacircuitrylinkingtoourgut,heart,liver,lungs,genitals—everyorganhasitsspecificspot.Thisletstheinsulaactasacontrolcenterfororganfunctions,sendingsignalstothehearttoslowitsbeat,thelungstotakeadeeperbreath.

Attention turned inward toward any part of the body amps up the insula’ssensitivity to the particular areawe’re checking on. Tune in to your heartbeatand the insula activates more neurons in that circuitry. How well people cansensetheirheartbeat, infact,hasbecomeastandardwaytomeasuretheirself-awareness.Thebetterpeopleareatthis,thebiggertheirinsula.4

Theinsulaattunesustomorethanourorgans;ourverysenseofhowwearefeelingdependsonit.5Peoplewhoareoblivioustotheirownemotions(andalso—tellingly,aswe’llsee—tohowotherpeoplefeel)havesluggishinsulaactivitycomparedwiththehighactivationfoundinpeoplehighlyattunedtotheirinneremotional life. At the tuned-out extreme are thosewith alexithymia,who justdon’tknowwhattheyfeel,andcan’timaginewhatsomeoneelsemightbefeel-ing.6

Our“gutfeelings”aremessagesfromtheinsulaandotherbottom-upcircuitsthat simplify life decisions for us by guiding our attention toward smarter op-tions.Thebetterweareatreadingthesemessages,thebetterourintuition.

Takethattugyoumightsometimesfeelwhenyoususpectyou’reforgettingsomethingimportantjustasyou’releavingonabigtrip.Amarathonrunnertellsmeofatimeshewasonherwaytoaracefourhundredmilesaway.Shefeltthattug—andignoredit.Butasshecontinuedondownthefreeway,itkeptcomingback.Thensherealizedwhatwastuggingather:shehadforgottenhershoes!

Astopatamallthatwasjustabouttoclosesavedtheday.Buthernewshoes

wereadifferentbrandfromtheonesshenormallywore.Asshetoldme,“Ihaveneverbeenmoresore!”

SomaticmarkerisneuroscientistAntonioDamasio’stermforthesensationsinourbodythattelluswhenachoicefeelswrongorright.7Thisbottom-upcir-cuitrytelegraphsitsconclusionsthroughourgutfeelings,oftenlongbeforethetop-downcircuitscometoamorereasonedconclusion.

Theventromedialprefrontalarea,akeypartofthiscircuitry,guidesourdeci-sionmakingwhenwefacelife’smostcomplexdecisions,likewhotomarryorwhethertobuyahouse.Suchchoicescan’tbemadebyacold,rationalanalysis.Insteadwedobetter tosimulatewhat itwouldfeel like tochooseAversusB.Thisbrainareaoperatesasthatinnerrudder.

Therearetwomajorstreamsofself-awareness:“me,”whichbuildsnarrativesaboutourpastandfuture;and“I,”whichbringsusintotheimmediatepresent.The “me,” aswe’ve seen, links togetherwhatwe experience across time.The“I,” in stark contrast, exists only in the raw experience of our immediatemo-ment.

The “I,”ourmost intimate senseofour self, reflects thepiecemeal sumofour sensory impressions—particularly our body states. “I” builds from ourbrain’ssystemformappingthebodyviatheinsula.8

Such internal signals are our inner guides, helpingus atmany levels, fromliving a life in keeping with our guiding values to remembering our runningshoes.

AsaveteranperformeratCirqueduSoleiltoldme,fortheirgruelingroutinesCirqueperformersstriveforwhatshecalled“perfectpractice,”where the lawsofphysicalmotionandrulesofbiomechanicscometogetherwithtiming,angles,andspeed,soyouget“moreperfectmoreofthetime—you’reneverperfectallofthetime.”

Andhowdotheperformersknowwhenthey’renearingperfection?“It’sthefeeling.Youknowitinyourjointsbeforeyouknowitinyourhead.”

7

SEEINGOURSELVESASOTHERSSEEUS

Wehavea‘Nojerksallowed’rule,butourchieftechofficerisone,”anexec-utiveataCaliforniatechincubatortellsme.“Heexecutesverywell,buthe’sahugebully,freezespeopleoutwhohedoesn’tlike,playsfavorites.

“He’sgotzeroself-awareness,”sheadds.“Hejustdoesnotrealizewhenhe’sbeingabully.Ifyoupointouttohimhe’sjustdoneitagain,heshiftstheblame,getsangry,orthinksyou’retheproblem.”

Thecompany’sCEOlater toldme,“Weworkedwithhimforanother threemonthsorso,andthenfinallyhadtolethimgo.Hecouldn’tchange—hewasabully,anddidn’tevenseeit.”

Alltoooftenwhenwe“loseit”andfallbackonalessdesirablewayofact-ing,we’reoblivioustowhatwedo.Andifnoonetellsus,westaythatway.

One surefire test for self-awareness is a “360-degree” evaluation, whereyou’re asked to rate yourself on a range of specific behaviors or traits. Thoseself-ratingsarecheckedagainstevaluationsbyadozenorsopeoplewhomyouhaveaskedtorateyouonthesamescale.Youpickthembecausetheyknowyouwellandyourespecttheir judgment—andtheirratingsareanonymous,sotheycan feel free tobe frank.Thegapbetweenhowyou seeyourself andhow theothersrateyouoffersoneofthebestevaluationsyoucangetanywhereofyour

ownself-awareness.There’sanintriguingrelationshipbetweenself-awarenessandpower:There

are relatively few gaps between one’s own and others’ ratings among lower-levelemployees.Butthehighersomeone’spositioninanorganization,thebig-gerthegap.1Self-awarenessseemstodiminishwithpromotionsuptheorganiza-tion’sladder.

Onetheory:Thatgapwidensbecauseaspeopleriseinpowerwithinanorga-nization the circle shrinks of otherswilling or courageous enough to speak tothem honestly about their quirks. Then there are thosewho simply deny theirdeficits,orcan’tseetheminthefirstplace.

Whateverthereason,tuned-outleadersseethemselvesasbeingfarmoreef-fectivethandothosetheyareguiding.Alackofself-awarenessleavesyouclue-less.ThinkTheOffice.

A360-degree evaluation applies thepowerof seeingourselves through theeyes of others,whichoffers another pathway to self-awareness.RobertBurns,theScottishpoet,praisedthispathwayinverse:

OhthatthegodsThegiftwouldgi’eusToseeourselvesAsothersseeus.

AmoresardonicviewwasofferedbyW.H.Auden,whoobservedthat,so“Imaylovemyself,”weeachcreateapositiveself-imageinourmindsbyselectiveforgettingofwhat’sunflatteringtousandrecallingwhat’sadmirableaboutus.And,headded,wedosomethingsimilarwiththeimagewetrytocreate“inthemindsofothersinorderthattheymayloveme.”

AndphilosopherGeorgeSantayanatookthisfullcircle,bynotingthatwhatotherpeoplethinkofuswouldmatterlittle—exceptthatonceweknowit,it“so

deeplytingeswhatwethinkofourselves.”Socialphilosophershavecalledthismirroringeffectthe“lookingglassself,”howweimagineothersseeus.

Oursenseofself,inthisview,dawnsinoursocialinteractions;othersareourmirrors,reflectingusbacktoourselves.Theideahasbeensummedupas“IamwhatIthinkyouthinkIam.”

THROUGHOTHERS’EYES—ANDEARS

Lifeaffordsuslittlechancetoseehowothersreallyseeus.ThatmaybewhythecourseBillGeorgeteachesatHarvardBusinessSchool,calledAuthenticLead-ershipDevelopment,isamongthemostpopular,overenrolledeverytimeitisof-fered(thesamegoeswithasimilarcourseatStanford’sbusinessschool).

AsGeorge toldme, “We don’t knowwhowe are until we hear ourselvesspeakingthestoryofourlivestosomeonewetrust.”Toexpeditethatheighten-ingof self-awareness,Georgehas createdwhathe calls “TrueNorthGroups,”with“TrueNorth”referringtofindingone’sinnercompassandcorevalues.Hiscoursegivesstudentsthechancetobeinsuchagroup.

Apreceptofthegroups:self-knowledgebeginswithself-revelation.Thesegroups(whichanyonecanform)areasopenandintimateas—oreven

more so than—twelve-step meetings or therapy groups, according to George,providing“asafeplacewherememberscandiscusspersonalissuestheydonotfeel they can raise elsewhere—often not evenwith their closest familymem-bers.”2

It’snotjustseeingourselvesasothersseeus.There’salsohearingourselvesasothershearus.Wedon’t.

ThejournalSurgeryreportsastudywheresurgeons’toneofvoicewasevalu-ated,basedonten-secondsnippetsrecordedduringsessionswiththeirpatients.3

Half thesurgeonswhosevoiceswereratedhadbeensuedformalpractice;halfhadnot.Thevoicesof thosewhohadbeen suedwere farmoreoften rated as

domineeringanduncaring.Surgeons spendmore time thanmost other physicians explaining technical

detailstotheirpatients,aswellasdisclosingtheworstrisksofsurgery.It’sadif-ficult conversation,one thatcanputpatients intoa stateofhighanxietyandaheightenedvigilancetoemotionalcues.

Whenitcomestothepatientlisteningtothesurgeonexplainthetechnicalde-tails—andthefrighteningpotentialrisks—thebrain’sradarfordangergoesintohighalert,searchingforcuesandcluestohowsafeallthisreallymightbe.Thatheightenedsensitivitymaybeonereasontheempathyorconcern—orrather,thelackofeither—conveyed inasurgeon’s toneofvoice tends topredictwhetherhewillbesuedifsomethinggoeswrong.

Theacousticsofourskullcaserenderourvoiceasitsoundstousverydiffer-entfromwhatothershear.Butour toneofvoicematters immenselytotheim-pactofwhatwesay:researchhasfoundthatwhenpeoplereceivenegativeper-formancefeedbackinawarm,supportivetoneofvoice,theyleavefeelingposi-tive—despitethenegativefeedback.Butwhentheygetpositiveperformancere-views in a cold and distant tone of voice, they end up feeling bad despite thegoodnews.4

OneremedyproposedintheSurgeryarticle:givesurgeonsanaudioreplayoftheirvoiceas theytalkedtopatients,so theycanhearhowtheysoundandgetcoaching on ways to make their voice communicate empathy and caring—tohearthemselvesasothershearthem.

GROUPTHINK:SHAREDBLINDSPOTS

In thewake of the economicmeltdown of investment vehicles based on sub-primederivatives,afinancialtypewhosejobhadbeencreatingthoseveryderiv-ative instrumentswas interviewed.Heexplainedhow inhis jobhewould rou-tinelytakehugelotsofsubprimemortgagesanddividethemintothreetranches:

thebestoftheworst,thenot-as-good,andtheworstoftheworst.Thenhewouldtakeeachofthetranchesandagaindivideitintothirds—andcreatederivativesforinvestmentsbasedoneach.

Hewasasked,“Whowouldwanttobuythese?”Hisreply:“Idiots.”Ofcourse,seeminglyverysmartpeopledidinvestinthosederivatives,ignor-

ingsignals that theywerenotworth the risk,andemphasizingwhatevermightsupport their decision.When this tendency to ignore evidence to the contraryspreads intoasharedself-deception, itbecomesgroupthink.Theunstatedneedtoprotectatreasuredopinion(bydiscountingcrucialdisconfirmingdata)drivessharedblindspotsthatleadtobaddecisions.

President GeorgeW. Bush’s inner circle and their decision to invade Iraqbasedonimaginary“weaponsofmassdestruction”offersaclassicexample.Sodo thecirclesof financialplayerswho fostered themortgagederivativesmelt-down.Bothinstancesofcatastrophicgroupthinkentailedinsulatedgroupsofde-cision-makers who failed to ask the right questions or ignored disconfirmingdatainaself-affirmingdownwardspiral.

Cognitionisdistributedamongmembersofagroupornetwork:somepeoplearespecialistsinonearea,whileothershavecomplementarystrengthsofexper-tise.Wheninformationflowsmostfreelyamongthegroupandintoit, thebestdecisionswillbemade.ButgroupthinkbeginswiththeunstatedassumptionWeknoweverythingweneedto.

AfirmthatmanagesinvestmentsforverywealthypeoplegaveDanielKah-nemanatreasuretrove:eightyearsofinvestmentresultsfortwenty-fiveofitsfi-nancialadvisers.Analyzing thedata,Kahnemanfound that therewerenorela-tionshipsbetweenanygivenadviser’sresultsfromyeartoyear—inotherwords,noneoftheadviserswasconsistentlyanybetterthantheothersatmanagingtheclients’money.Theresultswerenobetterthanchance.

Yeteveryonebehavedasthoughtherewereaspecialskillinvolved—andthe

topperformers eachyear got big bonuses.His results in hand,Kahnemanhaddinnerwiththetopbrassatthefirmandinformedthemthattheywere“reward-ingluckasifitwereskill.”

That should have been shocking news. But the executives calmlywent onwith their dinner and,Kahneman says, “I have no doubt that the implicationswerequickly sweptunder the rugand that life in the firmwenton just asbe-fore.”5

The illusion of skill, deeply embedded in the culture of that industry, wasunder attack. But “facts that challenge such basic assumptions—and therebythreatenpeople’slivelihoodandself-esteem—aresimplynotabsorbed,”headds.

Backin the1960s,as thecivil rightsmovementwasboiling in theSouth,IjoinedapicketlineatalocalgrocerystoreinmyCaliforniahometownthatdidnot thenhireAfrican-Americans.But itwasnotuntilyears later,whenIheardabouttheworkofJohnOgbu,aNigeriananthropologistthenattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley—whocametomynearbytowntostudywhathecalledits“caste system”—that I realized therewas one, akindofde facto segregation.6

Myhigh schoolwas all-white,with a sprinkling ofAsians andHispanics; an-otherhighschoolwasmostlyblack,withsomeHispanics;thethirdwasamix.Ihadjustneverthoughtaboutit.

Whenitcametothegrocerystore,Icouldreadilyseetheirpartindiscrimi-nation—butIwasblindtothelargerpatternIwasenmeshedwithin,theoverallsocial ladder inherent inwherepeople lived,andsowheretheywent toschool(in thosedays). Inequity ina society fades into thebackground, somethingwehabituatetoratherthanorienttoward.Ittakesefforttoshiftitbackintoourcol-lectivefocus.

Suchself-deceptionseemsauniversaltwistofattention.Forinstance,whendrivers rated theirabilitiesbehind thewheel, about three-quarters thought theywere better than average. Strangely, those who had been in an auto accidentweremore likely torate themselvesasbetterdrivers thandid thosewhosedri-

vingrecordwasaccident-free.Even stranger: In general,most people rate themselves as being less likely

thanotherstooverratetheirabilities.Theseinflatedself-ratingsreflectthe“bet-ter-than-average”effect,whichhasbeenfoundforjustaboutanypositivetrait,fromcompetenceandcreativitytofriendlinessandhonesty.

I readKahneman’saccount inhis fascinatingbookThinkingFastandSlowwhileonaBoston-to-Londonflight.AstheplanelandedIchattedwiththefel-lowacrosstheaisle,whohadbeeneyeingthecover.Hetoldmeheplannedtoreadthebook—andhappenedtomentionthatheinvestedtheassetsofwealthyindividuals.

AsourplanetaxieddownthelongrunwayandfounditswaytoourgateatHeathrow,Isummarizedthemainpointsforhim,includingthistaleaboutthefi-nancial firm—adding that it seemed to imply his industry rewarded luck asthoughitwereskill.

“Iguess,”herepliedwithashrug,“Idon’thavetoreadthebooknow.”WhenKahnemanhadreportedhisresultstothemoneymanagersthemselves,

they responded with a similar indifference. As he says of such disconcertingdata,“Theminddoesnotdigestthem.”

Ittakesmeta-cognition—inthiscase,awarenessofourlackofawareness—tobring to lightwhat thegrouphasburied inagraveof indifferenceor suppres-sion.Claritybeginswithrealizingwhatwedonotnotice—anddon’tnoticethatwedon’tnotice.

Smartrisksarebasedonwideandvoraciousdata-gatheringcheckedagainstagut sense; dumb decisions are built from too narrow a base of inputs.Candidfeedbackfromthoseyoutrustandrespectcreatesasourceofself-awareness,onethatcanhelpguardagainstskewedinformationinputsorquestionableassump-tions.Anotherantidotetogroupthink:expandyourcircleofconnectionbeyondyourcomfortzoneandinoculateagainstin-groupisolationbybuildinganamplecircleofno-BSconfidantswhokeepyouhonest.

Asmartdiversificationgoesbeyondgenderandethnicgroupbalanceto in-cludeawiderangeofages,clients,orcustomers,andanyotherswhomightofferafreshperspective.

“Earlyoninouroperation,ourserversfailed,”anexecutiveatacloudcom-putingcompanysays.“Ourcompetitorsweremonitoringus,andsoonwegotafloodof calls from reporters askingwhatwasgoingon.Wedidn’t answer thecalls,becausewedidn’tknowwhattosay.

“Thenoneemployee,aformerjournalist,cameupwithacreativesolution:awebsite called ‘TrustCloud’wherewewere completely open aboutwhatwashappeningwithourserver—whattheproblemwas,howweweretryingtofixit,everything.”

Thatwasa foreign idea tomostexecutives there; theyhadcomefromtechcompanieswhereheightenedsecrecywasroutine.Theunquestionedassumptionthattheyshouldkeeptheproblemtothemselveswasapotentialseedofgroup-think.

“But oncewe became transparent,” the executive says, “the problemwentaway.Ourcustomerswerereassuredtheycouldknowwhatwashappening,andreportersstoppedcalling.”

“Sunlight,”asSupremeCourtjusticeFelixFrankfurteroncesaid,“isthebestdisinfectant.”

8

ARECIPEFORSELF-CONTROL

Whenmysonswerejusttwoorsoandwouldgetupset,Isometimesuseddis-traction tocalm themdown:Lookat thatbirdie,or anall-service, enthusiasticWhat’s that?withmygazeor fingerdirecting their focus towardsomethingorother.

Attentionregulatesemotion.Thislittleployusesselectiveattentiontoquiettheagitatedamygdala.Solongasatoddlerstaystunedtosomeinterestingobjectoffocus,thedistresscalms;themomentthatthinglosesitsfascination,thedis-tress,ifstillheldontobynetworksintheamygdala,comesroaringback.1Thetrick,ofcourse,liesinkeepingthebabyintriguedlongenoughfortheamygdalatocalm.

Asinfants learn touse thisattentionmaneuverfor themselves, theyacquireoneof their firstemotionalself-regulationskills—onethathasvast importancefortheirdestinyinlife:howtomanagetheunrulyamygdala.Suchaploytakesexecutiveattention,acapacitythatstartstoflowerinthethirdyearoflifewhenatoddlercanshow“effortfulcontrol”—focusingatwill,ignoringdistractions,andinhibitingimpulse.

Parents might notice this landmark when a toddler makes the intentionalchoicetosay“no”toatemptation,likewaitingfordessertuntilaftershe’staken

somemorebitesofwhat’sonherplate.That, too,dependsonexecutiveatten-tion, which blossoms into willpower and self-discipline—as in managing ourdisturbingfeelingsandignoringwhimssowecanstayfocusedonagoal.

By age eight most children master greater degrees of executive attention.Thismental toolmanages the operation of other brain networks for cognitiveskills like learning to read and domath, and academics in general (we’ll lookintothismoreinpart5).

Ourminddeploysself-awareness tokeepeverythingwedoon track:meta-cognition—thinking about thinking—lets us know how our mental operationsaregoingandadjustthemasneeded;meta-emotiondoesthesamewithregulat-ingtheflowoffeelingandimpulse.Inthemind’sdesign,self-awarenessisbuiltintoregulatingourownemotions,aswellassensingwhatothersfeel.Neurosci-entistsseeself-controlthroughthelensofthebrainzonesunderlyingexecutivefunction, whichmanagesmental skills like self-awareness and self-regulation,criticalfornavigatingourlives.2

Executiveattentionholds thekey to self-management.Thispower todirectour focusontoone thingand ignoreothers letsusbring tomindourwaistlinewhenwespotthosequartsofCheesecakeBrownieicecreaminthefreezer.Thissmallchoicepointharborsthecoreofwillpower,theessenceofself-regulation.

Thebrainisthelastorganofthebodytomatureanatomically,continuingtogrowandshapeitselfintoourtwenties—andthenetworksforattentionarelikeanorganthatdevelopsinparallelwiththebrain.

Aseveryparentofmorethanonechildknows,fromdayoneeachbabydif-fers:oneismorealert,orcalmer,ormoreactivethananother.Suchdifferencesintemperamentreflectthematurationandgeneticsofvariousbrainnetworks.3

Howmuchofourtalentforattentioncomesfromourgenes?Itdepends.Dif-ferentattentionsystems,itturnsout,havedifferentdegreesofheritability.4Thestrongestheritabilityisforexecutivecontrol.

Evenso,buildingthisvitalskilldependstoalargeextentonwhatwelearnin

life.Epigenetics,thescienceofhowourenvironmentaffectsourgenes,tellsusthat inheriting a set ofgenes isnot in itself enough for them tomatter.Geneshavewhatamounts toabiochemicalon/offswitch; if theyarenever turnedonwemayaswellnothavethem.The“on”switchcomesinmanyforms,includingwhatweeat,thedanceofchemicalreactionswithinthebody,andwhatwelearn.

WILLPOWERISDESTINY

Decadesofresearchresultsshowthesingularimportanceofwillpowerindeter-mining the course of life.One of the first of thesewas a small project in the1960s in which kids from deprived homes were given special attention in apreschool program that helped them cultivate self-control, among other lifeskills.5ThatprojecthadhopedtoboosttheirIQ,butitfailedatthat.Still,yearslater, when those preschoolers were compared with similar kids who had notparticipatedintheprogram,overthecourseoflifetheyhadlowerratesofteenpregnancies, school dropouts, delinquency, and even daysmissed fromwork.6

The findings were a major argument for what has become the Head Startpreschoolprograms,nowfoundeverywhereintheUnitedStates.

Andthentherewasthe“marshmallowtest,”alegendarystudydonebypsy-chologistWalterMischel at StanfordUniversity in the 1970s.Mischel invitedfour-year-oldsonebyoneintoa“gameroom”attheBingNurserySchoolontheStanfordcampus.Intheroomthechildwasshownatraywithmarshmallowsorothertreatsandtoldtopickoneshewouldlike.

Then came the hard part. The experimenter told the child, “You can haveyourtreatnow,ifyouwant.Butifyoudon’teatituntilIcomebackfromrun-ninganerrand,youcanhavetwothen.”

Theroomwassanitizedofdistractions:notoys,nobooks,notevenapicture.Self-control was a major feat for a four-year-old under such dire conditions.About a thirdgrabbed themarshmallowon the spot,while another thirdor so

waitedtheendlessfifteenminutesuntiltheywererewardedwithtwo(theotherthirdfellsomewhereinthemiddle).Mostsignificant:theoneswhoresistedthelureofthesweethadhigherscoresonmeasuresofexecutivecontrol,particularlythereallocationofattention.

Howwe focus holds the key towillpower, saysMischel. His hundreds ofhoursofobservationoflittlekidsfightingofftemptationreveal“thestrategical-locationofattention,”asheputsit,tobethecrucialskill.Thekidswhowaitedoutthefullfifteenminutesdiditbydistractingthemselveswithtacticslikepre-tendplay,singingsongs,orcoveringtheireyes.Ifakidjuststaredatthemarsh-mallow,hewasagoner(ormoreprecisely,themarshmallowwas).

At least three sub-varieties of attention, all aspects of the executive, are atplaywhenwepitself-restraintagainstinstantgratification.Thefirstistheabilitytovoluntarilydisengageourfocusfromanobjectofdesirethatpowerfullygrabsourattention.Thesecond,resistingdistraction,letsuskeepourfocuselsewhere—say,onfantasyplay—ratherthangravitatingbacktothatjuicywhatever.Andthethirdallowsustokeepourfocusonagoalinthefuture,likethetwomarsh-mallowslater.Allthataddsuptowillpower.

Well and good for childrenwho show self-control in a contrived situationlikethemarshmallowtest.Butwhataboutresistingthetemptationsofreallife?EnterthechildrenofDunedin,NewZealand.

Dunedinhasapopulaceofjustoveronehundredthousandsoulsandhousesoneofthatcountry’slargestuniversities.Thiscombinationmadethetownripeforwhatmaybethemostsignificantstudyyetintheannalsofscienceonthein-gredientsoflifesuccess.

Inadauntinglyambitiousproject,1,037children—allthebabiesbornoveraperiod of twelve months—were studied intensively in childhood and thentracked down decades later by a team assembled from several countries. Theteam representedmany disciplines, eachwith its own perspective on that keymarkerforself-awareness,self-control.7

Thesekidsunderwentanimpressivebatteryoftestsovertheirschoolyears,suchasassessingtheirtoleranceforfrustrationandtheirrestlessness,ontheonehand,andpowersofconcentrationandpersistenceontheother.8

Afteratwo-decadelullallbut4percentofthekidsweretrackeddown(afeatfar easier in a stable country likeNewZealand than, say, in the hypermobileUnitedStates).Bythenyoungadults,theywereassessedfor:

• Health. Physicals and lab tests looked at their cardiovascular,meta-bolic, psychiatric, respiratory, even dental and inflammatory condi-tions.

• Wealth.Whether they had savings, were single and raising a child,ownedahome,hadcreditproblems,hadinvestments,orhadretirementfunds.

•Crime.AllcourtrecordsinAustraliaandNewZealandweresearchedtoseeiftheyhadbeenconvictedofacrime.

Thebetter their self-control in childhood, thebetter theDunedinkidsweredoing in their thirties. They had sounder health, were more successful finan-cially,andwere law-abidingcitizens.Theworse theirchildhood impulseman-agement,thelesstheymade,theshakiertheirhealth,andthemorelikelyitwasthattheyhadacriminalrecord.

Thebigshock:statisticalanalysisfoundthatachild’slevelofself-controliseverybitaspowerfulapredictorofheradult financialsuccessandhealth(andcriminalrecord,forthatmatter)asaresocialclass,wealthoffamilyoforigin,orIQ.Willpower emerged as a completely independent force in life success—infact,forfinancialsuccess,self-controlinchildhoodprovedastrongerpredictorthaneitherIQorsocialclassofthefamilyoforigin.

Thesamegoesforschoolsuccess.InanexperimentwhereAmericaneighthgraderswereofferedadollarnowortwodollarsinaweek,thissimplegaugeof

self-controlturnedouttocorrelatewiththeirgradepointaveragebetterthandidtheirIQ.Highself-controlpredictsnotjustbettergrades,butalsoagoodemo-tionaladjustment,better interpersonalskills,asenseofsecurity,andadaptabil-ity.9

Bottomline:kidscanhavethemosteconomicallyprivilegedchildhood,yetif they don’t master how to delay gratification in pursuit of their goals thoseearlyadvantagesmaywashoutinthecourseoflife.IntheUnitedStates,forex-ample,onlytwoinfivechildrenofparentsinthetop20percentofwealthendupinthatprivilegedstatus;about6percentdriftdowntothebottom20percentinincome.10Conscientiousnessseemsaspowerfulaboostinthelongrunasfancyschools,SATtutors,andpriceyeducationalsummercamps.Don’tunderestimatethevalueofpracticingtheguitarorkeepingthatpromisetofeedtheguineapigandcleanitscage.

Anotherbottomline:Anythingwecandotoincreasechildren’scapacityforcognitivecontrolwillhelpthemthroughoutlife.EvenCookieMonstercanlearntodobetter.

COOKIEMONSTERLEARNSTONIBBLE

ThedayIdroppedbySesameWorkshop,headquartersfortheTVneighborhoodofBertandErnie,BigBird,CookieMonster,andtherestofthegangbelovedinthe120-plusnationswhereSesameStreetairs, therewasameetingofthecorestaffwithcognitiveandbrainscientists.

Sesame Street’s DNAwraps entertainment around the science of learning.“AtthecoreofeverycliponSesameStreetisacurriculumgoal,”saidMichaelLevine,executivedirectoroftheJoanGanzCooneyCenterattheshow’swork-shop.“Everythingweshowispretestedforitseducationalvalue.”

Anetworkofacademicexpertsreviewsshowcontent,whiletherealexperts—preschoolersthemselves—ensurethatthetargetaudiencewillunderstandthe

message. And shows with a particular focus, like a math concept, are testedagainfortheireducationalimpactonwhatthepreschoolersactuallylearned.

Thatday’smeetingwithscientistshadcognitiveessentialsasatheme.“Weneed top researchers sitting with top writers in developing the shows,” saidLevine.“Butweneedtogetitright:listentothescientists,butthenplaywithit—havesomefun.”

Take a lesson in impulse control, the secret sauce in a segment about theCookieConnoisseurClub.Alan,theownerofHooper’sStoreonSesameStreet,bakedcookies tobe sampledby theclub—butnoonehadplanned forCookieMonster to join.WhenCookie arrives by surprise on the scene he, of course,wantstoeatallthecookies.

Alan explains toCookie that if youwant to be amember of the club, youneedtocontrolyourimpulsetogobbleupallthecookies.Instead,youlearntosavor the experience.First youpickup the cookie and look for imperfections,thensmell it,andfinallynibbleabit.ButCookie, impulseembodied,canonlygobblethecookiedown.

To get the self-regulation strategies right in this segment, says RosemarieTruglio, senior vice president for education and research, they consultedwithnoneotherthanWalterMischel,themastermindbehindthemarshmallowtest.

MischelproposedteachingCookiecognitivecontrolstrategieslike“Thinkofthe cookie as something else” and reminding himself of that something. SoCookieseesthecookieisroundandlookslikeayo-yo,anddutifullyrepeatstohimselfoverandoverthatthecookieisayo-yo.Butthenhegobblesanyway.

TohelpCookietakejustanibble—amajortriumphofwillpower—Mischelsuggestedadifferent impulse-delaystrategy.AlantellsCookie,“Iknowthis ishard for you, butwhat’smore important: this cookie now, or getting into theclubwhereyou’llgetallkindsofcookies?”Thatdidthetrick.

Amind tooeasilydistractedby the leasthintofacookiewillnothave thestaying power to understand fractions, let alone calculus. Parts of the Sesame

Streetcurriculumhighlightsuchelementsofexecutivecontrol,whichcreatesamentalplatformprerequisite for tackling the “STEM” topics: science, technol-ogy,engineering,andmath.

“Teachersinearlygradestellus,Ineedkidstocometomereadytositdown,focus, manage their emotions, listen to directions, collaborate, and makefriends,”Truglioexplained.“ThenIcanteachthemlettersandnumbers.”

“Cultivatingasense formathandearly literacyskills,”Levine toldme, re-quiresself-control,basedonchangesinexecutivefunctionduringthepreschoolyears.The inhibitorycontrols related toexecutive functioningcorrelatecloselywithbothearlymathandreadingability.“Teachingtheseself-regulationskills,”he added, “may actually rewire parts of the brain for kids inwhom theyhavebeenunderdeveloped.”

THEPOWERTOCHOOSE

Likethispieceofart?Peoplearoundtheworldsaydepictionsofsceneslikethisareamongtheirveryfavorite:anidyllicviewfromahighvantagepoint,lookingtowardwater,ameadow,maybesomeanimals.Perhapsthisuniversalpreferencedatesbacktothelongepochinhumanprehistorywhenourspeciesroamedthesavannas,orhuddledincavestuckedintoahillsideforprotectionandwarmth.

IffromhereyoumanagetostaywithwhatI’vewrittenandnotlookbackatthat peaceful scene, though youmay feel amental pull to peek, you create inyourownbrainatusslebetweenfocusanddistraction.Thattensionoccursany-timewetrytostayconcentratedononethingandignorethelureofanother.Itmeansthere’saneuralconflictgoingon,anarousalleveltug-of-warintop-downversusbottom-upcircuitry.

Andbytheway,remember,don’tlookoverthereatthatart—stayrightherewithwhatI’mtellingyouaboutwhat’sgoingoninyourbrain.Thisinnercon-flictduplicatesthebattleakidfightswhenhermindwantstowanderawayfromhermathhomework,tocheckfortextsfromherBFF.11

Test high school students for their natural talent inmath and you’ll find aspread:somekidsareprettyterrible,manyaremerelynotsogood,and10per-centorsoshowgreatpotential.Takethattop10percentandtrackthemastheygothroughatoughmathclassforayear;mostwillgettopgrades.Butcontrarytopredictions,aportionofthesehigh-potentialstudentswillfarepoorly.

Now give each of themath students a device that buzzes at random timesthroughthedayandasksthemtoratetheirmoodatthatmoment.Iftheyhappentobeworkingonmath,thosewhodidwellwillreportbeinginapositivemoodfarmoreoftenthanbeinginananxiousone.Butthosewhodopoorlywillreportthereverse:aboutfivetimesmoreanxiousepisodesthanpleasantepisodes.12

That ratioholds a secretofwhy thosewithgreatpotential for learningcansometimesendupfloundering.Attention,cognitivesciencetellsus,hasalimitedcapacity:workingmemorycreatesabottleneckthatletsusholdjustsomuchinmindatanygivenmoment(aswesawinchapter1).Asourworriesintrudeon

the limitedcapacityofourattention, these irrelevant thoughtsshrink theband-widthleftfor,say,math.

Theability tonotice thatwearegettinganxiousand to takesteps to renewourfocusrestsonself-awareness.Suchmeta-cognitionletsuskeepourmindinthestatebestsuitedforthetaskathand,whetheralgebraicequations,followingarecipe,orhautecouture.Whateverourbesttalentsmaybe,self-awarenesswillhelpusdisplaythemattheirpeak.

Of themanynuancesandvarietiesofattention, twomattergreatly forself-awareness.Selectiveattentionletsusfocusononetargetandignoreeverythingelse.Open attention lets us take in informationwidely in theworld aroundusandtheworldwithinus,andpickupsubtlecueswe’dotherwisemiss.

Extremesineitherofthesekindsofattention—beingtoofocusedoutwardlyor too open towhat’s going on around us—can, asRichardDavidson puts it,“makeitimpossibletobeself-aware.”13Executivefunctionincludesattentiontoattention itself, ormore generally, awareness of ourmental states; this lets usmonitorourfocusandkeepitontrack.

Executive function (ascognitivecontrol is sometimescalled)canbe taught(aswe’vejustseen,andwillexploreinmoredetailinpart5).Teachingexecu-tive skills to preschoolersmakes themmore ready for their school years thandoesahigh IQorhavingalready learned to read.14As theSesameStreet teamknows,teacherswantstudentswithgoodexecutivefunction,assignifiedbyself-discipline,attentioncontrol,andtheabilitytoresisttemptations.Suchexecutivefunctionspredictgoodmathandreadingscoresthroughoutschool,apartfrom—andmorethan—achild’sIQ.15

Ofcourseit’snotjustforkids.Thispowertodirectourfocusontoonethingandignoreothersliesatthecoreofwillpower.

ABAGOFBONES

In fifth-century India, monks were encouraged to contemplate the “thirty-twobodyparts,”alistofunappealingcornersofhumanbiology:dung,bile,phlegm,pus,blood,fat,snot,andsoon.Thisfocusondistastefulaspectswasmeant tobuilddetachment fromone’sownbody,aswellas tohelpcelibatemonksdis-avowlust—inotherwords,toboostwillpower.

Fast-forward sixteen hundred years and contrast that ascetic effortwith itsextremeopposite.AsIwastoldbyasocialworkerwhorescuesteensexworkersinLosAngeles:“It’sunbelievablehowimpulsivesomekidscanbe.They liveonthestreets,butiftheygotathousanddollars,they’dspenditallonthemostexpensiveiPhone,insteadofgettingaroofovertheirheadstofindthesecuritytheyneed.”

His program helps HIV-infected youngsters get government funds; takesthemoffthestreets;andgivesthemfreemedicalcare,astipendforanapartmentand food, even a gymmembership. “I actually saw friends of some of thesekids,”hetellsme,“goouttobecomeHIV-positivesotheycouldgetthebene-fits.”

Thatsamecontrastbetweenhighcognitivecontrolanditsutterlackwasdis-covered inamore innocentveinyearsago in thatStanford testofgratificationdelay in four-year-olds tempted by amarshmallow.When fifty-seven of thoseStanfordpreschoolersweretrackeddownfortyyearslater,“highdelayers”whoresistedthemarshmallowatagefourwerestillabletodelaygratification,butthe“lowdelayers”werestillpooratstiflingimpulse.

Thentheirbrainswerescannedwhiletheyresistedtemptation.Highdelayersactivated circuits in their prefrontal cortex key to controlling thoughts and ac-tions—includingtheright inferiorfrontalgyrus,whichsaysnotoimpulse.Butlowdelayersactivatedtheirventralstriatum,acircuitinthebrain’srewardsys-temthatspringstolifewhenweyieldtolife’stemptationsandguiltypleasures,likeadrugoralusciousdessert.16

IntheDunedinstudy,theteenyearsmatteredespeciallyforcognitivecontrol.

Asadolescentsthoselowerinself-controlweretheonesmostlikelytotakeupsmoking, to become an unplanned teen parent, or to drop out of school—allsnaresthatclosedoorstolateropportunitiesandtraptheminlifestylesthatac-celeratethatpathtolower-incomejobs,poorerhealth,and,insomecases,crimi-nalcareers.

Sodoesthismeanthatkidswithhyperactivityorattentiondeficitdisorderaredoomedtoproblems?Notatall—asforkidsoverall,therewasagradientofbad-to-good outcomes among those with ADHD. Even for this group relativelygreaterself-controlpredictedabetterlifeoutcome,despitetheirattentionprob-lemswhileinschool.

It’s not just four-year-olds and teens. The chronic cognitive overload thattypifieslifeforsomanyofusseemstolowerourthresholdforself-control.Thegreater the demands on our attention, it seems, the poorer we get at resistingtemptations.Theepidemicofobesityindevelopedcountries,researchsuggests,maybedueinparttoourgreatersusceptibility,whiledistracted,togoonauto-maticandreachforsugary,fattyfoods.Thosewhohavebeenmostsuccessfulatlosingpoundsandkeepingthemoff,brainimagingstudiesfind,exhibitthemostcognitivecontrolwhenfacingacalorie-ladenmorsel.17

Freud’sfamousdictum“Whereidwas,thereegoshallbe”speaksdirectlytothis inner tension.Id—thebundleof impulses thatmakeusreachfor theDoveBar,buythatreally-too-expensiveluxuryitem,orclickonthatlusciousbutto-tallytime-wastingwebsite—constantlystruggleswithourego,themind’sexecu-tive.Egoletsusloseweight,savemoney,andallottimeeffectively.

In the mind’s arena, willpower (a facet of “ego”) represents a wrestlingmatch between top and bottom systems. Willpower keeps us focused on ourgoalsdespitethetugofourimpulses,passions,habits,andcravings.Thiscogni-tivecontrolrepresentsa“cool”mentalsystemthatmakesanefforttopursueourgoalsinthefaceofour“hot”emotionalreactions—quick,impulsive,andauto-matic.

The two systems signify a critical difference in focus. The reward circuitsfixate on hot cognition, thoughts with a high emotional charge, like what’stemptingaboutthemarshmallow(it’syummy,sweet,andchewy).Thegreaterthecharge,thestrongertheimpulse—andthemorelikelyitisthatourmoresober-mindedprefrontallobeswillbehijackedbyourdesires.

Thatprefrontalexecutivesystem,incontrast,“coolsthehot,”bysuppressingthe impulse tograb, and reappraising the temptation itself (it’salso fattening).You(oryourfour-year-old)canactivate thissystembythinkingabout, forex-ample,theshapeofthemarshmallow,oritscolor,orhowit’smade.Thisswitchinfocuslowerstheenergychargetograbforit.

JustashesuggestedforCookieMonster,inhisexperimentsatStanfordMis-chelhelpedsomeof thekidsoutwithasimplemental trick:he taught themtoimaginethatthecandyisjustapicturewithaframearoundit.Suddenlythatir-resistible hunk of sugar that loomed so large in theirmind became somethingtheycouldpretendwasnotreal,somethingtheycouldfocusonornot.Changingtheirrelationshiptothemarshmallowwasabitofmentaljudothatletkidswhohadn’tbeenable todelay theirgrabfor thesweetmore thanoneminutedeftlyresisttemptationforfifteen.

Suchcognitivecontrolofimpulsebodeswellinlife.AsMischelputsit,“Ifyou can deal with hot emotions, then you can study for the SAT instead ofwatchingtelevision.Andyoucansavemoremoneyforretirement.It’snotjustaboutthemarshmallow.”18

Intentional distractions, cognitive reappraisal, and other meta-cognitivestrategiesenteredpsychology’splaybook in the1970s.But similarmentalma-neuversweredeployed longagoby those fifth-centurymonksas theycontem-platedthebody’s“loathsome”parts.

Atalefromthosedayshasitthatoneofthesemonksiswalkingalongwhenagorgeouswomancomesrunningby.19Thatmorningshehadaheatedquarrelwithherhusbandandshe’snowfleeingtoherparents’house.

Afewminutes later,herhusband, inpursuit, showsupandasks themonk,“Venerablesir,didyoubyanychanceseeawomangoby?”

And themonkanswers, “Manorwoman, I cannot say.Butabagofbonespassedthisway.”

PARTIII

READINGOTHERS

9

THEWOMANWHOKNEWTOOMUCH

Herfatherhadanexplosivetemper,andasachildshewasalwaysterrifiedthathemightbeabouttoerupt.SoKatrina,asI’llcallher,learnedtobehypervigi-lant,strainingtosensethesmallcues—ariseinhistoneofvoice,theloweringof his eyebrows into a glower—that signaled he was heading toward anotherrampage.

ThatemotionalradargrewmoresensitiveasKatrinagrewolder.Ingraduateschool,forexample,justbyreadingtheirbodylanguagesherealizedthatafel-lowstudenthadsecretlysleptwithaprofessor.

Shesawhowtheirbodiessynchronizedinasubtledance.“Theywouldshifttogether, move in unison,” Katrina toldme. “When she wiggled, he wiggled.WhenIsawtheywereintimatelyattunedatthebodylevel,likelovers,Ihadthethought,Oh,creepy...

“Loversdon’tknowthey’redoingit,butyoubothbecomesuper-responsivetoeachotherataprimallevel,”sheadded.

Onlymonths later did the student confide the clandestine affair toKatrina,whoadds,“Theiraffairhadstopped,buttheirbodieswerestilltogether.”

Whenevershe’swithsomeone,Katrinasays,“I’mhyperawareofdozensofstreamsofinformationpeopledon’tusuallysense—thingsliketheliftofaneye-

brow,themovementofahand.It’sdisruptive—Iknowwaytoomuchanditkillsme.I’moverlyaware.”

WhatKatrina senses—and sometimes spills into theopen—notonlyupsetsotherpeople;itcanthrowheroff,too.“Icamelatetoameetingandmadeevery-onewait. Theywere all being perfectly friendly inwhat they said—butwhattheyweretellingmewiththeirbodieswasnot.Icouldseebytheirposturesandthewaytheywouldnotmeetmyeyesthateveryonetherewasangry.Ifeltarushofsadnessandalumpinmythroat.Themeetingdidn’tgogreat.

“I’m always seeing things I’m not supposed to—and it’s a problem,” sheadded.“Ipokeintoprivatestuffwithoutmeaningto.ForalongtimeIdidn’tre-alizeIdonothavetoshareeverytellingthingIknow.”

Aftergettingfeedbackfrompeopleonherteamthatshewasbeingtoointru-sive,Katrinabeganworkingwithanexecutivecoach.“ThecoachtoldmeIhaveaproblemleakingemotionalcues—whenIpickupthisstuffI’mnotsupposedtonotice,IreactinawaythatmakespeoplethinkI’mangryallthetime.SonowIhavetobecarefulaboutthat,too.”

PeoplelikeKatrinaaresocialsensitives,keenlyattunedtothemostminimalemotionalsignals,withanalmostuncannyknackforreadingcuessosubtlethatotherpeoplemiss them.A slightdilationofyour iris, lift ofyour eyebrow,orshiftofyourbodyisalltheyneedtoknowhowyoufeel.

Thismeanstroubleif,likeKatrina,theycan’thandlesuchdatawell.But these same talents can make us socially astute, sensing when not to

broachatouchytopic,whensomeoneneedstobealone,orwhenpeoplewouldwelcomewordsofcomfort.

A trainedeye for thesubtlecueoffersadvantage inmany lifearenas.Taketopplayersinsportslikesquashandtennis,whocansensewhereanopponent’sservewilllandbynotingsubtleshiftsinhispostureashepositionshimselftohittheball.Manyofbaseball’sgreathitters, likeHankAaron,wouldwatch filmsoverandoverofthepitcherstheywouldfaceintheirnextgame,tospottelling

cuesthatrevealedwhichpitchwouldcomenext.Justine Cassell, director of the Human-Computer Interaction Institute at

CarnegieMellonUniversity, applies a similarwell-trained empathy in the ser-viceofscience.“Observingpeoplewasagameweplayedinourfamily,”Cas-selltoldme.Thatchildhoodpropensitywasrefinedwhenasagraduatestudentshespenthundredsofhoursstudyinghandmovements invideosofpeoplede-scribingacartoontheyhadjustseen.

Workingwith thirty-frames-per-secondslicesof thevideo,she’dannotateahand’s shape as it changed, as well as the stream of shifts in its orientation,placement in space, and trajectory of movement. And to check her accuracy,she’dthenworkbackfromhernotestoseeifshecouldpreciselyreproducethemovementofthehand.

Cassellmorerecentlyhasdonesimilarworkwithtinymovementsofthefa-cialmuscles,witheyegaze,eyebrowraises,andheadnods,allscoredsecondbysecondandchecked.She’sdonethatforhundredsofhours—anddoesittothisdaywithgradstudentsinherlabatCarnegieMellon.

“Gesturesalwaysoccurjustbeforethemostemphasizedpartofwhatyou’resaying,”Casselltellsme.“Onereasonwhysomepoliticiansmaylookinsincereis that they have been taught to make particular gestures, but have not beentaught the correct timing, and so when they produce those gestures after theword,theygiveusthesensethatsomethingfakeisgoingon.”

Thetimingofthegestureinterpretsitsmeaning.Ifyourtimingisoff,aposi-tivestatementcanhavenegativeimpact.Cassellgivesthisexample:“Ifyousay,‘She’sagreatcandidateforthejob’andraiseyoureyebrows,nod,andempha-sizethewordgreatallatthesametime,yousendaverypositiveemotionalmes-sage.Butifasyousaythesamesentenceyourheadnodandeyebrowraisecomeintheshortsilenceaftergreat,thenitshiftstheemotionalmeaningtosarcasm—you’rereallysayingshe’snotallthatgreat.”

Suchreadingsofmeta-messagesinnonverbalchannelsoccurtousinstantly,

unconsciously,andautomatically.“Wecannotnotmakemeaningofwhatsome-one tellsus,”saysCassell,whether inwordsor justgestures,orboth together.Everythingweattendtoinanotherpersongeneratesmeaningatanunconsciouslevel,andourbottom-upcircuitryconstantlyreadsit.

Inonestudy,listenersrememberedhaving“heard”informationtheyonlysawingesture.Forexample,somebodywhoheard“Hecomesoutthebottomofthepipe”butsawthespeaker’shandformedintoafistandbouncingupanddownsaidthathehadheard“andthengoesdownstairs.”1

Cassell’sworkmakesvisiblewhattypicallywhizzesbyusinmicroseconds.Ourautomaticcircuitrygetsthemessage,butourtop-downawarenessmissesal-mostallofit.

Thesehiddenmessageshavepowerfulimpacts.Maritalresearchershavelongknown,forinstance,thatifoneofthepartnersrepeatedlymakesfleetingfacialexpressionsfordisgustorcontemptduringconflicts, theoddsaregreatagainstthatcouplestayingtogether.2Inpsychotherapy,ifthetherapistandclientmoveinsynchwithoneanother,therearelikelytobebettertherapeuticoutcomes.3

WhileCassellwasaprofessoratMIT’sMediaLab,onewayshedeployedthisextremelypreciseanalysisofhowweexpressourselveswasindevelopingasystemthatguidesprofessionalanimatorsintheartofnonverbalbehavior.Thesystem—calledBEAT—allowsanimators to typeinasegmentofdialogueandgetbackanautomaticallyanimatedcartoonpersonwiththerightgestures,headandeyemovement,andposture,whichtheycanthentweakforartisticvalue.4

Getting the“feel” just rightofavirtual actor’s remarks, toneofvoice, andgesturesseemstodemandatop-downgraspofbottom-upprocesses.ThesedaysCassellisbuildingsimilarlyanimatedcartoonswhere,shesays,imagesofchil-dren “act as virtual peers to elementary school students, using social skills tobuildrapport,andthenusingthatrapporttofacilitatelearning.”

Whenwemetovercoffeewhileonabreakataconference,Cassellexplainedhowthosehundredsofhoursofparsingnonverbalmessageshavefine-tunedher

sensitivity.“NowIautomaticallytrackthiswhenI’mwithanyone,”shetoldme—which,Iconfess,mademeabitself-conscious(evenmoresowhenIrealizedsheprobablynoticedthat,too).

10

THEEMPATHYTRIAD

Supersensitive reading of emotional signals represents a zenith of cognitiveempathy,oneofthreemainvarietiesoftheabilitytofocusonwhatotherpeopleexperience.1 This variety of empathy lets us take other people’s perspective,comprehendtheirmentalstate,andatthesametimemanageourownemotionswhilewetakestockoftheirs.Thesecanbetop-downmentaloperations.2

Incontrast,withemotionalempathywejointheotherpersoninfeelingalongwithhimorher;ourbodiesresonateinwhateverkeyofjoyorsorrowthatper-sonmaybegoing through.Suchattunement tends tooccur throughautomatic,spontaneous—andbottom-up—braincircuits.

Whilecognitiveoremotionalempathymeanswerecognizewhatanotherper-sonthinksandresonatewiththeirfeelings,itdoesnotnecessarilyleadtosympa-thy,concernforothers’welfare.Thethirdvariety,empathicconcern,goesfur-ther:leadingustocareaboutthem,mobilizingustohelpifneedbe.Thiscom-passionate attitude builds on bottom-up primal systems for caring and attach-mentdeepdowninthebrain,thoughthesemixwithmorereflective,top-downcircuitsthatevaluatehowmuchwevaluetheirwell-being.

Our circuitry for empathy was designed for face-to-face moments. Today,workingtogetheronlineposesspecialchallengesforempathy.Take,forexam-

ple, thatfamiliarmoment inameetingwheneveryonehasreacheda tacitcon-sensus,andonepersonthenarticulatesaloudwhateveryonealreadyknowsbuthasnotsaid:“Okay,thenweallagreeonthis.”Headsnod.

Butcomingtosuchconsensusinanonlinetext-baseddiscussionrequiresfly-ingblind,withoutrelyingonthecontinuouscascadeofnonverbalmessagesthatin a realmeeting let someone announce aloud the as-yet-unspoken agreement.Wecanbaseourreadingofothersonlyonwhattheyhavetosay.Beyondthat,there’sreadingbetweenthelines:onlinewerelyoncognitiveempathy,thevari-etyofmind-readingthatletsusinferwhat’sgoingoninsomeoneelse’smind.

Cognitiveempathygivesustheabilitytounderstandanotherperson’swaysofseeingandofthinking.Seeingthroughtheeyesofothersandthinkingalongtheirlineshelpsyouchooselanguagethatfitstheirwayofunderstanding.

Thisability,ascognitivescientistsputit,demands“additionalcomputationalmechanisms”:weneedtothinkaboutfeelings.JustineCassell’sresearchersrou-tinelyemploythisvarietyofempathyintheirwork.

An inquisitivenature,whichpredisposesus to learn fromeverybody, feedsourcognitiveempathy,amplifyingourunderstandingofotherpeople’sworlds.Onesuccessfulexecutivewhoexemplifiesthisattitudeputitthisway:“I’veal-waysjustwantedtolearneverything,tounderstandanybodythatIwasaround—whytheythoughtwhat theydid,whytheydidwhat theydid,whatworkedforthem,andwhatdidn’twork.”3

Theearliestrootsinlifeofsuchperspective-takingtracetothewaysinfantslearn thebasicbuildingblocksofemotional life, suchashow theirownstatesdiffer from other people’s and how people react to the feelings they express.Thismostbasicemotionalunderstandingmarksthefirsttimeaninfantcantakeanotherperson’spointofview,entertainseveralperspectives,andsharemeaningwithotherpeople.

Byage twoor three, toddlerscanputwords tofeelingsandnameafaceas“happy” or “sad.”A year or so later, kids realize that how another child per-

ceiveseventswilldeterminehowtheotherchildwillreact.Byadolescence,an-other aspect, accurately reading a person’s feelings, gets stronger, paving thewayforsmoothersocialinteractions.

Tania Singer, director of the social neuroscience department at the MaxPlanckInstituteforHumanCognitiveandBrainSciencesinLeipzig,Germany,hasstudiedempathyandself-awarenessinalexythimics—peoplewhohavegreatdifficultyunderstanding theirown feelingsandputting these intowords. “Youneedtounderstandyourownfeelingstounderstandthefeelingsofothers,”shesays.

Theexecutivecircuitsthatallowustothinkaboutourownthoughtsandfeel-ingsletusapplythesamereasoningtootherpeople’sminds.“Theoryofmind,”the understanding that other people have their own feelings, desires, andmo-tives, lets us reason aboutwhat someone elsemight be thinking andwanting.Suchcognitiveempathysharescircuitrywithexecutiveattention;itfirstbloomsaround theyearsbetween twoand fiveandcontinues todevelop right throughtheteenyears.

EMPATHYRUNAMOK

Amuscle-bound inmate in aNewMexico prisonwas being interviewed by apsychologystudent.Theinmatewassodangerousthattheofficewasequippedwithabuttonfortheinterviewertopressifthingsgotoutofcontrol.Theinmatetoldthepsychologystudentingraphicdetailthegruesomewayhehadkilledhisgirlfriend—butdidsoinsuchacharmingfashionthatthestudentfounditdiffi-cultnottolaughalongwithhim.

Aboutathirdofprofessionalswhosejobrequirestheyinterviewcriminalso-ciopathslikethatmurdererreportfeelingtheirskincrawl,acreepysensationthatsomethinksignifiesthetriggeringofaprimitivedefensiveempathy.4

Adarker sideof cognitive empathy emergeswhen someoneuses it to spot

weakness in others and so takes advantage of them. This strategy typifies so-ciopaths,whousetheircognitiveempathytomanipulate.Theyfeelnoanxiety,andsothethreatofapunishmentdoesnotdeterthem.5

The classic work on sociopaths (they were known as “psychopaths” backthen), the 1941 book The Mask of Sanity, by HerveyM. Cleckley, describesthemasconcealing“anirresponsiblepersonality”behind“aperfectmimicryofnormalemotion,fine intelligence,andsocialresponsibility.”6Theirresponsiblepartemergesinahistoryofpathologicallying,livingoffothersasaparasite,andthelike.Tellingly,otherindicatorssignaldeficitsinattention,suchasboreddis-tractibility,poorimpulsecontrol,andalackofemotionalempathyorofsympa-thyforothersindistress.

Sociopathyisthoughttooccurinabout1percentofthepopulation;ifso,theworkingworldharborsmillionsofwhat clinicianscall “successful sociopaths”(BernieMadoffonce in jail exemplifies anunsuccessfulone).Sociopaths, liketheirclosecousins“Machiavellianpersonalities,”areable to readothers’emo-tionsbutregisterfacialexpressionsinadifferentpartoftheirbrainthantherestofusdo.

Insteadofregisteringemotionintheirbrain’slimbiccenters,sociopathsshowactivity in the frontal areas, particularly the language centers. They tell them-selvesaboutemotions,butdonotfeelthemdirectlyasotherpeopledo;insteadofanormalbottom-upemotionalreaction,sociopaths“feel”top-down.7

This is strikingly true for fear—sociopaths seem to have no apprehensionwhateveraboutthepunishmenttheircrimeswillbring.Onetheory:theysufferaparticular lack in cognitive control for impulse, what amounts to an attentiondeficitthatleavesthemfocusingonthethrillathandandblindsthemtothecon-sequencesofwhattheydo.8

EMOTIONALEMPATHY:IFEELYOURPAIN

“This machine can save lives,” an ad trumpets. It features a hospital settingwhereawheeledplatformholdsavideomonitorandkeyboard,withashelfforbloodpressurecuffsandthelike.

I encountered that very “lifesaving” apparatus when I had a visit with aphysician theotherday.As I sat on an exam table tohavemybloodpressureread,theplatformwastuckedawaytomyrightandbehindme.Thenursestoodbymyside, facing thatvideomonitor—notme.As she tookmy readings, shereadmechanicallythroughalistofhealthstatusquestionsfromthescreen,typ-inginmyanswers.

Oureyesnevermet,saveforamomentasshelefttheroomandsaid(ratherironically,considering),“Nicetoseeyou.”

Itwouldhavebeennicetoseeher,ifwehadhadtheopportunity.Thatlackofeyecontactmakesanencounteranonymous,drainingitofemotionalconnec-tion.ThepaucityofwarmthmeantI(orshe)mayaswellhavebeenacyborg.

I’mnotalone.Studies inmedical schools find that ifadoctor looksyou intheeye,nodsasshelistens,touchesyougentlyifyouareinpain,andasks,forexample,ifyou’rewarmenoughontheexamtable,shegetshighpatientratings.Ifshemainlylooksatherclipboardorcomputerscreen,theratingsarelow.9

Whilethenursemayhavehadsomecognitiveempathyforme,therewaslit-tle chance forher to tune in tomy feelings.Emotional empathy, sensingwhatotherpeoplefeelandcaringaboutthem,hasancientrootsinevolution;wesharethiscircuitrywithothermammals,who likeusneedakeenattention toan in-fant’s signal of distress. Emotional empathy operates bottom-up:much of theneuralwiringfordirectlysensingthefeelingsofothersliesbeneaththecortexinancientpartsofthebrainthat“thinkfast,”butnotdeeply.10Thesecircuitstuneusinbyarousinginourownbodytheemotionalstatepickedupintheotherper-son.

Takelisteningtoagrippingstory.Brainstudiesshowthatwhenpeoplelistento someone telling such a story, the brains of the listeners become intimately

coupledwith thatof the storyteller.The listener’sbrainpatterns echo thoseofthe storyteller with precision, though lagging by a second or two. The moreoverlapinneuralcouplingofthetwobrains,thebetterthelistener’sunderstand-ing of the story.11And the brains of thosewith the very best understanding—whoarefullyfocusedandcomprehendmost—dosomethingsurprising:certainpatternsoftheirbrains’activitiesanticipatethatofthestorytellerbyasecondortwo.

Theingredientsofrapportbeginwithtotalsharedfocusbetweentwopeople,whichleadstoanunconsciousphysicalsynchrony,whichinturngeneratesgoodfeeling. Such a shared focus with the teacher puts a child’s brain in the bestmodeforlearning.Anyteacherwhohasstruggledtogetaclasstopayattentionknows that once everyone quiets down and focuses, the students can start tocomprehendthatlessoninhistoryormath.

Thecircuitsforemotionalempathybegintooperateinearlyinfancy,givingaprimaltasteofresonancebetweenourselvesandsomeoneelse.Inthebrain’sde-velopment,wearewiredtofeelanother’sjoyorpainbeforewecanthinkaboutit.Themirrorneuronsystem,apartofthewiringforthisresonance(butbynomeanstheonlywiring),kicksinasearlyassixmonths.12

Empathydependsonamuscleofattention:totuneintoothers’feelingsre-quireswepickupthefacial,vocal,andothersignalsoftheiremotion.Theante-riorcingulate,apartoftheattentionnetwork,tunesustosomeoneelse’sdistressbytappingourownamygdala,whichresonateswiththatdistress.Inthissense,emotional empathy is “embodied”—we actually feel in our physiologywhat’sgoingoninthebodyoftheotherperson.

Whenvolunteershadtheirbrainsimagedwhiletheywatchedanotherpersongetapainfulshock, theirownpaincircuitrylitupinwhatamounts toaneuralsimulationoftheotherperson’ssuffering.13

TaniaSingerhasfoundthatweempathizewithothers’painviaouranteriorinsula—thesameareathatweusetosensehowourownpainfeels.Sowefirst

senseanother’semotionswithinourselves,asourbrainappliestotheotherper-son’sfeelingstheidenticalsystemusedtoreadourownfeelingstates.14Empa-thybuildsonourcapacityforsensingvisceralfeelingswithinourownbody.

Sodoessynchrony,thatnonverbalmeshingofhowwemoveandwhatwedothatsignalsaninteractioninrapport.Youseeitinjazzmusicians,whoneverre-hearseexactlywhat theydo,but just seem toknowwhen to takecenter stage,whentofadeintothebackground.Whenjazzartistswerecomparedwithclassi-cal musicians in brain function, they showed more neural indicators of self-awareness.15Asonejazzartistput it,“Injazzyouhavetotuneintohowyourbodyisfeelingsoyouknowwhentoriff.”

Thebrain’sverydesignseems to integrate self-awarenesswithempathybypackingthewaywepickupinformationaboutourselvesandaboutotherswithinthesamefar-flungneuralnetworks.Onecleverpart:asourmirrorneuronsandother social circuitry re-create inourbrainandbodywhat’sgoingonwith theotherperson,ourinsulasummatesallthat.Empathyentailsanactofself-aware-ness:wereadotherpeoplebytuningintoourselves.

Take, for instance, von Economo neurons, or VENs. These unique braincells,remember,arecrucialforself-awareness.Buttheyaresituatedinareasthatactivate inmomentsofanger,grief, love,andlust—aswellas tendermomentslikewhenamotherhearsherbabycryingoratthesoundofthevoiceofalovedone.Whenthesecircuitstaganeventassalient,theydirectourfocusthere.

These spindly cells allow a super-quick connection between the prefrontalcortex and the insula—areas active during both introspection and empathy.Thesecircuitsmonitorourinterpersonalworldforwhatmatterstous,doingsosuper-quickly,helpingusreacton thefly.Thebrain’sbasiccircuitryforatten-tioninterweaveswiththatforsocialsensitivityandforunderstandingotherpeo-ple’sexperiencesandhowtheyseethings—inshort,forempathy.16Thissocialsuperhighway in the brain lets us know—and so reflect on andmanage—ourownemotions,andthoseofothers.

EMPATHICCONCERN:I’MHEREFORYOU

Awomanstaggeredintohersurgeon’swaitingroom,bloodseepingfromeveryvisibleorifice.Instantlythedoctorandherstaffsprangintoactiontohandletheemergency, rushing the woman into a treatment room to stanch her bleeding,calling an ambulance, and canceling all the appointments of other patients fortheremainderoftheday.

The patients who had been waiting to see their doctor understood that, ofcourse,thiswoman’sdireneedtrumpedtheirown.All,thatis,saveonewomanwhowas indignantbecauseherappointmenthadbeencanceled.Outraged, sheshoutedatthereceptionist,“Itookthedayoffwork!Howdareyoucancelme!”

The surgeonwho tellsme the story says such indifference to sufferingandtheneedsofothershasbecomemoreprevalent inherpractice.Itwaseventhetopicofameetingforallsurgeonsinherstate.

The biblical parable of theGoodSamaritan tells of amanwho stopped tohelpa strangerwhohadbeenbeatenand robbedandwas lying inpainby thesideoftheroad.Twoothershadseentheinjuredmanand,fearingdanger,hadcrossedtotheothersideoftheroadandpassedhimby.

MartinLutherKingJr.observedthatthosewhofailedtooffertheiraidaskedthemselvesthequestion:“IfIstoptohelpthisman,whatwillhappentome?”

ButtheGoodSamaritanreversedthequestion:“IfIdonotstoptohelpthismanwhatwillhappentohim?”

Compassionbuildsonempathy,whichinturnrequiresafocusonothers.Ifself-absorbed,wesimplydonotnoticeotherpeople;wecanwalkbyutterlyin-different to their predicament.But oncewenotice themwecan tune in, sensetheirfeelingsandneeds,andactonourconcern.

Empathicconcern,whichiswhatyouwantinyourphysician,boss,orspouse(nottomentionyourself),hassubstratesintheneuralarchitectureforparenting.Inmammals,thiscircuitrycompelsattentionandconcerntowardbabiesandthe

young,whocan’tsurvivewithouttheirparents.17Watchwherepeople’seyesgowhensomeonebringsanadorablebabyintoaroom,andyouseethemammalianbraincenterforcaringleapintoaction.

Empathic concern first emerges early in infancy:when one baby hears an-othercryshe,too,startscrying.Thisresponseistriggeredbytheamygdala,thebrain’sradarfordanger(aswellasasiteforprimalemotionsbothnegativeandpositive).Oneneuraltheoryholdsthattheamygdaladrivesbottom-upcircuitsinthebrainofthebabywhohearsthecryingtofeelthesamesadnessandupset.Si-multaneouslytop-downcircuitsreleaseoxytocin,thechemicalforcaring,whichstirsarudimentarysenseofconcernandgoodwillinthesecondbaby.18

Empathicconcern,then,isadouble-edgedfeeling.Ontheonehandthereisimplicitdiscomfortfromthedirectexperienceinonepersonofthedistressoftheothercombinedwith thesameconcernaparent feels towardherchild.Butwealsoaddtoourcaringinstinctasocialequationthatweighshowmuchwevaluetheotherperson’swell-being.

Getting thisbottom-up/top-downmix righthasgreat implications.Those inwhomthestirringofsympatheticfeelingsbecomestoostrongcansuffer them-selves—inthehelpingprofessionsthiscansometimesleadtoemotionalexhaus-tionandcompassionfatigue.Andthosewhoprotectthemselvesagainstsympa-thetic distress by deadening feeling can lose touch with empathy. The neuralroad toempathicconcern takes top-downmanagementofpersonaldistressbutwithoutnumbingustothepainofothers.

Whilevolunteerslistenedtotalesofpeoplesubjectedtophysicalpain,brainscansrevealedthattheirownbraincentersforexperiencingsuchpainlitupin-stantly. But if the story was about psychological suffering, it took relativelylonger to activate the higher brain centers involved in empathic concern andcompassion.Astheresearchteamputit,ittakestimetotell“thepsychologicalandmoraldimensionsofasituation.”

Moral sentimentsderive fromempathy, andmoral reflections take thinking

and focus.Onecostof the frenetic streamofdistractionswe face today, somefear,isanerosionofempathyandcompassion.19Themoredistractedweare,thelesswecanexhibitattunementandcaring.

Perceivingpaininothersreflexivelydrawsourattention—theexpressionofpain is a crucial biological signal to evoke help.Even rhesusmonkeys do notpullachaintogetabananaifthatalsogivesashocktoanotherrhesusmonkey(suggesting,perhaps,onerootofcivility).

But there are exceptions. For one, pain empathy ends if we don’t like thepeople in pain—for instance, ifwe think they have been unfair—or ifwe seethem as part of a groupwe dislike.20 Then pain empathy can easily be trans-formedintoitsopposite,feelingsof“schadenfreude.”21

Whenresourcesarescarcetheneedtocompeteforthemcansometimessup-press empathic concern, and competition is part of life in almost any socialgroup,whetherforfood,mates,orpower—oranappointmentwithadoctor.

Another exception is understandable: our brains resonate lesswith anotherperson’spainwhenthepainhasagoodreason—say,gettingahelpfulmedicaltreatment. Finally, where we focus matters: our emotional empathy growsstrongerifweattendtotheintensityofthepain,andlessensaswelookaway.

Such constraints aside, one of the subtle forms of caring occurs when wesimply use our reassuring, loving presence to help calm someone. The merepresence of a lovedone, studies show, has an analgesic property, quieting thecentersthatregisterpain.Remarkably,themoreempathicthepersonwhoispre-sentwithsomeoneinpain,thegreaterthecalmingeffect.22

THEEMPATHYBALANCE

“Youknow,whenyoudiscovera lumpinyourbreast,youkindoffeel—well,kind of . . . ,” the patient says, herwords tapering off. She looks down, tearsforminginhereyes.

“Whendidyouactuallydiscoverthelump?”herdoctoraskssoftly.Thepatientreplies,absently,“Idon’tknow.It’sbeenawhile.”Thedoctorresponds,“Thatsoundsfrightening.”Thepatientanswers,“Well,yeah,sortof.”“Sortoffrightening?”thedoctorasks.“Yeah,”saysthepatient,“andIguessI’mfeelinglikemylifeisover.”“Isee.Worriedandsad,too.”“That’sit,Doctor.”Contrastthatexchangewithonewhererightafterthepatientgetstearytalk-

ing about the lump in her breast, the doctor starts running briskly through achecklistofimpersonal,detailedclinicalquestions—withnotsomuchasanodtowardhertearyfeelings.

Thepatient in thatsecondencounterwillbe likely to leavefeelingunheardanduncaredabout.Butafterthatfirst,moreempathicinteraction,thepatient—despitehavinghadthesameamountofdistress—wouldfeelbetter:understoodandcaredfor.

Thosetwoscenarioswereusedtoillustratethiscrucialdifferenceinanarticleforphysiciansonhowtobuildempathywiththeirpatients.23Thetitleofthearti-clefeaturesanempathy-buildingphrase:“LetmeseeifIhavethisright...”Itargues that taking just a fewmoments to pay attention to how a patient feelsaboutherillnessbuildsemotionalconnection.

Not listeningisat thetopof thelistofcomplaintspatientshaveabout theirphysicians.Fortheirpart,manyphysicianscomplaintheyarenotgiventhetimetheyneedwiththeirpatientsandsothehumansideoftheirinteractiongetsshortshrift.Thebarriertohumancontactrisesasphysicians—mandatedtokeepdigi-talrecords—tapnotesonacomputerkeyboardduringpatientinterviews,andsoendupcommuningwiththeirlaptopratherthanwiththepatient.

Yetpersonalmomentswithpatients,manyphysicianssay,arethemostsatis-fyingpartoftheirday.Suchrapportbetweendoctorandpatientgreatlyincreases

diagnosticaccuracyandhowthepatientscomplywiththeirdoctor’sinstructions,andenhancespatients’satisfactionandloyalty.

“Empathy,theabilitytoconnectwithpatients—inadeepsense,tolisten,topayattention—liesattheheartofmedicalpractice,”thearticletellsitsmedicalaudience.Orientingtothepatient’semotionsbuildsrapport.Tuningoutfeelingsandfocusingonlyonclinicaldetailsbuildsawall.

PhysicianswhoaresuedformalpracticeintheUnitedStatesgenerallymakenomoremedical errors than thosewho arenot sued.Themaindifference, re-searchshows,oftencomesdowntothetenorofthedoctor-patientrelationship.Thosewho are sued, it turns out, have fewer signs of emotional rapport: theyhaveshortervisitswithpatients,failtoaskaboutthepatients’concernsormakesure their questions are answered, and havemore emotional distance—there’slittleornolaughter,forexample.24

But attention topatients’distressmayposeaparticular challenge tophysi-ciansgivingexcellent technicalcare—saywhenitdemandskeenconcentrationonperformingamedicalprocedureperfectlydespitethepatient’sagony.

The same network that activates when we see someone in pain also fireswhenweseeanythingaversive:That’sscary—Ishouldgetoutofhereisthepri-malthought.Ordinarily,whenpeopleseesomeoneelsebeingprickedwithapin,theirbrainemitsasignalindicatingthattheirownpaincentersareechoingthatdistress.

Physiciansdonot.Theirbrainsareunique inblockingevensuchautomaticresponses tosomeoneelse’spainanddiscomfort,according to findings fromastudyledbyJeanDecety,professorofpsychologyandpsychiatryattheUniver-sityofChicago.25Thisattentionalanestheticseemstodeploythetemporal-pari-etal junction(orTPJ)andregionsof theprefrontalcortex,acircuit thatboostsconcentration by tuning out emotions. The TPJ protects focus by walling offemotionsalongwithotherdistractions,andhelpskeepadistancebetweenone-selfandothers.

This same neuronal network kicks into action in any of uswhenwe see aproblemandlookforasolution.Soifyou’retalkingwithsomeonewhoisupset,thissystemhelpsyouunderstandtheperson’sperspectiveintellectuallybyshift-ingfromheart-to-heartemotionalrapporttothehead-to-heartconnectionofcog-nitiveempathy.

TheTPJmaneuverinsulatesthebrainfromexperiencingthewashofemotion—it’s thebrainbasis for the stereotypeof someonewith cool rationality amidemotionalturmoil.Ashift intotheTPJmodecreatesaboundarysoyou’reim-mune to emotional contagion, freeing your brain from being affected by theotherperson’semotionswhileyou’refocusing.

Sometimes that’s a crucial advantage: you can stay calm and concentratedwhenthosearoundyouarefallingapart.Sometimesit’snot: italsomeansyoumaytuneoutofemotionalcuesandsolosethethreadofempathy.

Thisdampingdownofemotionalentrainmenthasobviousbenefitsforsome-onewho has to keep focused amid flinch-inducing procedures: injections intoeyeballs,suturingbloodywounds,scalpelsrendingopenflesh.

“IwasontheteamofthefirstdoctorstorespondtotheearthquakeinHaiti—weweretherewithinthefirstfewdays,”Dr.MarkHymantellsme.“WhenwegottotheonehospitalinPort-au-Prince,whichmiraculouslywaslargelyintact,therewasnofood,nowater,nopower,almostnosupplies,andjustoneortwohospitalstaff.Therewerehundredsofdeadbodiesrottinginthesun,stackedinthehospitalmorgue,andbeingloadedontotruckstogotoamassgrave.Therewereabout fifteenhundredpeople in thecourtyarddesperatelyneedinghelp—legshangingbyathread,bodiescutnearlyinhalf.Itwastraumatic.Yetweim-mediatelygottoworkandfocusedonwhatwecoulddo.”

WhenIspoketoDr.Hyman,hehadjustreturnedfromseveralweeksinIndiaandBhutan,whereheagainvolunteeredhismedicalhelptoneedypatients.“Theact of service gives you the ability to transcend the pain all around you,”Dr.Hymansaid.“InHaiti,itwashyperreal,totallyinthemoment.It’sweirdtosay,

but therewasa levelof equanimityandcalm—evenpeaceandclarity—in themidstofallthatchaos.Everythingelsebutwhatweweredoingfellaway.”

TheTPJresponseseemstobeacquiredratherthaninnate.Medicalstudentslearn this reaction during their socialization into the profession, as they en-counterpatientsunderduress.Thecostofbeing tooempathic ishavingupset-ting,intrusivethoughtsthatcompeteforattentionwithmedicalimperatives.

“If you can’t do anything in a situation like that,” said Dr. Hyman aboutHaiti, “you’re paralyzed. Sometimes the hurt and pain all around you wouldbreak through inmomentsof fatigue,heat exhaustion, andhunger.ButmostlymymindputmeinastatewhereIcouldfunctiondespitethehorror.”

AsWilliamOsler,thefatherofmedicalresidencytraining,wrotein1904,adoctorshouldbesodetachedthat“hisbloodvesselsdon’tconstrictandhisheartrateremainssteadywhenheseesterriblesights.”26Oslerrecommendeddoctorshavetheattitudeofa“detachedconcern.”

Thiscouldmeansimplydampingdownemotionalempathy—butinpracticeitcansometimesleadtoblockadingempathyentirely.Thechallengeforaphysi-cianinadailymedicalpracticeistomaintaincoolfocuswhilestayingopentothe patient’s feelings and experience—and to let her patient know she under-standsandcares.

Medicalcarecanfailwhenpatientsdonotfollowwhattheirphysiciantellsthem; about half of all the medicines doctors prescribe for patients are nevertaken.Thestrongestpredictorofpatients followingsuch instruction iswhetherthey feel their doctor is genuinely concerned about them.27 Within the sameweekrecently,twodeansofmajormedicalschoolsindependentlytoldmetheyfaceadilemmainadmittingstudents:howtospotthosewhowillhaveempathicconcernfortheirpatients.

NoneotherthanJeanDecety,theUniversityofChicagoneurobiologistwholedthestudyofTPJandpatientpain,putitthisway:“IwantmydoctortolookatmeifI’minpain—tobethere,bepresenttome,thepatient.Empathic—but

nottoosensitivetotreatmypainwell.”

BUILDINGEMPATHY

Inonesurvey,abouthalfofyoungphysicianssaytheirempathyforpatientsde-clined over the course of their training (only about a third say it increased).28

Andthat lostartofconnectionpersists intotheircareerformany.ThatgetsusbacktotheTPJ,thecircuitrythatdampensdownadoctor’sphysiologicalreac-tiontoseeingsomeoneinpainandhelpsherkeepcalmandclearwhiletreatingwhat’scausingit.

Thebufferingfromdistressprobablyhelpsmedicalresidentsastheylearntoperformpainfulproceduresonpatients.Butoncelearned,thatdampingdownofbodily resonanceseems tobecomeautomatic, sometimesat thecostofamoregeneralempathy.

Yetcompassionatecareembodiesacorevalueinmedicine;boostingempa-thy isamong themandated learningobjectives formedicalschools.While fewmedicalschoolsspecificallyteachtheartofempathy,nowthatneurosciencere-vealsitsunderlyingcircuitrysomewell-designedcoachingmightjustboostthishumanart.

That’s thehopeofDr.HelenRiessofMassachusettsGeneralHospital, themothershipofHarvardMedicalSchool.Dr.Riess,directoroftheEmpathyandRelationalScienceProgramthere,designedaneducationalprogramtoenhanceempathy formedical residentsand interns that significantly improvedpatients’perceptionoftheirphysicians’empathy.29

Inthestandardmoldofmedicalschool,someofthistrainingwaspurelyaca-demic,reviewingtheneuroscienceofempathyinalanguagedoctorsknowandrespect.30Aseriesofvideosshowed thephysiologicalchanges (as revealedbytheirsweatresponse)indoctorsandtheirpatientsduringdifficultencounters—likewhen a doctorwas arrogant or dismissive—revealing howupset their pa-

tients became. And, as the videos made graphically clear, when the doctorstunedintotheirpatientswithempathy,bothdoctorandpatientbecamemorere-laxedandinsynchbiologically.

Tohelpthephysiciansmonitorthemselves,theylearnedtofocususingdeep,diaphragmaticbreathing,and to“watch the interaction from theceiling” ratherthan being lost in their own thoughts and feelings. “Suspending your own in-volvementtoobservewhat’sgoingongivesyouamindfulawarenessofthein-teraction without being completely reactive,” says Dr. Riess. “You can see ifyourownphysiologyischargeduporbalanced.Youcannoticewhat’stranspir-inginthesituation.”

If thedoctornotices she’s feeling irritated, for instance, that’s a signal thatthepatientmightbebothered,too.“Bybeingmoreself-aware,”Riesspointsout,“youcanseewhat’sbeingprojectedontoyou,andwhatyou’reprojectingontoyourpatients.”

Training in picking up nonverbal cues includes reading patients’ emotionsfromtheirtoneofvoice,theirposture,and,toalargeextent,theirfacialexpres-sion.Using theworkof emotionsexpertPaulEkman,whohas identifiedwithprecisionhowthefacialmusclesmoveduringeverymajoremotion,theprogramteaches doctors how to recognize patients’ fleeting feelings from reading theirfaces.

“Ifyouactinacompassionateandcaringway—whenyoudeliberatelylookthe patient in the eye and notice their emotional expressions, even when youdon’t feel like it at first—you start to feelmore engaged,”Dr.Riess toldme.This “behavioral empathy” may begin with going through the motions but itmakes the interactionmoreconnected.That, sheadds,canhelpcountera resi-dent’semotionalexhaustionintheemergencyroomat2a.m.,whenhehastoseeyetanotherpatientandthinks,Whycouldn’thewaittocomeinuntillaterinthemorning?

Adirectlessoninaspecificskillforbeingempathic—readingemotionsfrom

theface—proved tobeamong themostpotentpartsof theentire training.Themore the doctors in training learned to read subtle emotional expressions, themoretheiractualpatientsreportedfeelingempathiccare.

Dr.Riessexpectedthefinding.“Themoreyoucanpickupthesubtlecuesofemotion,”shetoldme,“themoreempathicunderstandingyouareabletohave.”

There arenodoubtways an empathicphysician can juggleboth the laptopand connecting with patients—for instance if she can manage to type on hercomputerandstilllookupfromtimetotimeandmaintainmeaningfuleyecon-tact.Orshecouldsharethescreenataptmomentswiththepatient:“I’mlookingatyourlabresults—here,letmeshowyou,”andreviewthemtogether.

Still,many physicians are afraid of getting behind schedule and that thesetoucheswill add toomuch time.“Weare trying todispel thatmyth,” saysDr.Reiss.“Empathyactuallysavestimeinthelongrun.”

11

SOCIALSENSITIVITY

YearsagoIoccasionallyusedtheservicesofafreelanceeditor.Buteverytimewe’dgetinacasualconversation,itwouldgoon...andon...andon.I’dsendhimlet’s-wrap-this-upcuesinmypacingandtoneofvoice—whichhe’dignore.I’dsay,“I’vegottorunnow,”andhe’djustkeeptalking.I’dtakemycarkeysout and head for the door—and he’d come along withme to the car withoutmissingabeat.I’dtellhim,“Seeyoulater,”andhe’djustgoonchatting.

I’veknownseveralpeople like thateditor,eachwith thesameblindness tothecuesaconversationwasending.Thatverytendency,infact,isoneofthedi-agnosticindicatorsofsocialdyslexia.Itsopposite,socialintuition,tellsushowaccurateweareatdecodingthestreamofnonverbalmessagespeopleconstantlysend,silentmodifiersofwhattheyaresaying.

Thissteadystreamofnonverbalexchangesrushestoandfromeveryoneweinteractwith,whetherinaroutinehellooratensenegotiation,transmittingmes-sagesreceivedeverybitaspowerfullyaswhateverwemightbesaying.Perhapsmorepowerfully.

Injobinterviews,forexample,iftheapplicantmovesinsynchwiththeinter-viewer(notintentionally—ithastooccurnaturallyasaby-productofbrainsyn-chronization),she’smorelikelytobehired.That’saproblemforthosewhoare

“gesturallydysfunctional,”atermcoinedbyscientiststorefertopeoplewhojustcan’tseemtogetrightthemovementsthatannotatewhatwearesaying.

Queen Elizabeth II’s husband, Prince Philip, well-known for his socialgaffes, describes himself as expert in “dontopedalogy,” the science of puttingyourfootinyourmouth.

Takewhatwas amomentous event inNigeria: the first visit in forty-sevenyearsbyaBritishmonarch.QueenElizabethandherroyalconsort,PrincePhiliphimself, came to open a conference ofCommonwealth nations. The country’spresident,proudlydeckedoutintraditionalNigerianrobes,metthemattheair-port.

“You look,” said Prince Philip to the president with disdain, “like you’rereadyforbed.”

Theprinceoncewrotetoafamilyfriend,“Iknowyouwillneverthinkverymuchofme.IamrudeandunmannerlyandIsaymanythingsoutofturn,whichIrealizeafterwardsmusthavehurtsomeone.ThenIamfilledwithremorseandItrytoputmattersright.”1

Suchlackofpolitessereflectsdeficientself-awareness:Peoplewhoaretunedoutnotonly stumble socially,but are surprisedwhen someone tells them theyhaveactedinappropriately.Whetherit’sbytalkingtooloudlyinarestaurantorinadvertentrudeness,theytendtomakeothersfeeluneasy.

Onebraintestforsocialsensitivity,usedbyRichardDavidson,looksattheneuralzoneforrecognizingandreadingfaces—the“fusiformfacearea”—whilepeopleareshownphotosoffaces.Ifweareaskedtotellwhatemotiontheper-son feels, our fusiform face area lights up in a brain scanner. Thosewho arehighlysociallyintuitiveshow,asyoumightexpect,highlevelsofactivitywhentheydothis.Ontheotherhand,thosewhosefocusjustcannotpickuptheemo-tionalwavelengthshowlowlevels.

Those with autism show little fusiform action, but lots in the amygdala,whichregistersanxiety.2Lookingatfacestendstomakethemanxious,particu-

larlylookingataperson’seyes,arichsourceofemotionaldata.Thecrow’s-feetwrinklesaroundpeople’seyes,forexample,telluswhentheyaregenuinelyfeel-inghappy;smileslackingthosecrinklessignalfakedjoy.Ordinarily,smallchil-dren learnmuch about emotions by looking at the other person’s eyes, whilethosewithautismavoidtheeyesandsofailtogetthoselessons.

But everyone falls somewhereon thisdimension.Amanager at a financialadvisorycompanyhadbeenaccusedofsexualharassmentthreetimesinasmanyyears—and, I’mtold,each time themanagerhadbeenstunnedbecausehehadnoideathathehadbeenactinginappropriately.Suchgaffe-pronepeoplefailtonoticetheimplicitgroundrulesforasituation—anddon’tpickupthesocialsig-nals that theyaremakingotherpeopleuneasy.Their insula isoutof the loop.Thesearethefolkswhoblithelycheckfortextmessageswhilethere’sasolemnmomentofsilenceforacolleaguewhopassedaway.

Remember the woman who knew too much—who could read supersubtlenonverbalmessages, and thenwould blurt out something about them thatwasembarrassing? She tried mindfulness meditation to help her gain more innerawareness.

After a fewmonths of practicingmindfulness, she reported, “I already seeplaceswhereIfeelasifIamabletomakealittlebitofachoiceaboutmyreac-tion to events—placeswhere I can still seewhat people are sayingwith theirbodies,butdon’tneedtoreactrightaway.It’sagoodthing!”

GETTINGTHECONTEXT

Then thereare thesituationswheremostanyonewillbe“off,”at leastat first.Weareinevitablypronetoinadvertentgaffeswhenwetraveltoanewculture,wherewestartoutblindtothefreshsetofgroundrules.IrememberbeinginamonasteryinthehillsofNepal,whenapertEuropeantrekkerwalkedthroughinshortshorts—atransgressionfromtheNepaliperspective,butoneshehadn’ta

clueshewascommitting.Thosewhodobusinesswithdiversesetsofpeopleinaglobaleconomyneed

particularsensitivitytosuchunspokennorms.InJapan,I learnedthehardwaythat themoment of exchanging business cards signals an important ritual.WeAmericansarepronetocasuallypocketingthecardwithoutlooking,whichthereindicatesdisrespect.Iwastoldyoushouldtakethecardcarefully,holditinbothhands,andstudyitforawhilebeforeputtingitawayinaspecialcase(thisad-vicecameabittoolate—Ihadjuststuffedacardintomypocketwithoutgivingitaglance).

The cross-cultural talent for social sensitivity appears related to cognitiveempathy.Executivesgoodatsuchperspective-taking,forexample,dobetteratoverseas assignments, presumably because they can pick up implicit normsquicklyastheylearntheuniquementalmodelsofagivenculture.

Groundrulesforwhat’sappropriatecancreateinvisiblebarrierswhenpeoplefromdifferentculturesworktogether.AnengineerfromAustriawhoworksforaDutchcompanylamented,“DebateishighlyvaluedinDutchculture;yougrowupwithitfromthetimeyou’reinprimaryschool.Theyseeitasnecessary.ButIdon’t like thatkindofdebate; I find it upsetting—it’s too confrontational.Formetheinnerchallengeisnottotakeitpersonally,andtostayconnectedandfeelrespectduringtheconfrontation.”

Culture aside, ground rules shift greatly depending onwhomwe arewith.There are jokes you tell to your best buddies that you should never tell yourboss.

Attentiontocontextletsuspickupsubtlesocialcuesthatcanguidehowwebehave.Thosewhoaretunedinthiswayactwithskillnomatterwhatsituationtheyfindthemselvesin.Theyknownotonlywhattosayanddo,butalso,justasvital,whatnottosayordo.Theyinstinctivelyfollowtheuniversalalgorithmforetiquette,tobehaveinwaysthatputothersatease.Sensitivitytohowpeoplearefeeling in reaction towhatwe do or say lets us navigate hidden socialmine-

fields.Whilewemayhavesomeconscious ideasofsuchnorms(howtodress for

casualFridayatwork;eatonlywithyour righthand inIndia),attention to im-plicitnorms is largely intuitive,abottom-upcapacity.Ourfeltsenseofwhat’ssociallyappropriatecomestousasafeelinginourbody—whenwe’re“off”it’sthephysicalmanifestationofthisdoesn’tfeelright.Wemaybepickingupsub-tlesignalsofembarrassmentordistressfromthepeoplewe’rewith.

Ifwe’reoblivioustothesesensationsofbeingsociallyoff-key(orneverhavetheminthefirstplace)wejustkeepgoing,cluelessastohowfaroffcourseweare.Onebrain test forcontext focusassesses thefunctionof thehippocampus,whichisanexusforcircuitsthatgaugesocialcircumstances.Theanteriorzoneofthehippocampusbacksupagainsttheamygdalaandplaysakeyroleinkeep-ingwhatwedoappropriatetothecontext.Theanteriorhippocampus,inconver-sationwiththeprefrontalarea,squelchesthatimpulsetodosomethinginappro-priate.

Thosemost alert to social situations,RichardDavidson hypothesizes, havestrongeractivityandconnectivityinthesebraincircuitsthandothosewhojustcan’tseemtogetitright.Thehippocampusisatwork,hesays,tomakeyouactdifferentlywhenwithyourfamilyandwhenatwork,anddifferentlyagainintheofficeversuswithyourworkmatesinabar.

Contextawarenessalsohelpsatanother level:mapping thesocialnetworksinagrouporatanewschooloronthejob—askillthatletsusnavigatethosere-lationshipswell.Peoplewhoexcelatorganizational influence, it turnsout,cannotonlysensetheflowofpersonalconnectionsbutalsonamethepeoplewhoseopinionsholdmostsway—andso,whentheyneedto,focusonconvincingthosewhowillinturnpersuadeothers.

Thenthereare thosewhoare just tunedoutofaparticularsocialcontext—likethevideogamechampwhospentsomuchofhislifegluedtohiscomputermonitor that oncewhen he agreed tomeet a journalist at a restaurant hewas

mystifiedastowhytheplaceshouldbesobusyonValentine’sDay.Anextremeofbeing“off”inreadingsocialcontextcanbeseeninpost-trau-

maticstressdisorder,whenapersonreactstoaninnocenteventlikeacarback-firingasthoughitwereadireemergencyanddivesunderatable.Tellingly,thehippocampus shrinks in thosewithPTSDbutgrows larger againas symptomsabate.3

POWER’SINVISIBLEDIVIDE

Miguelwasadaylaborer,oneofcountlessillegalimmigrantsfromMexicowhoscrapebyonthemeagerwagestheycanmakepickingupjobsdaybyday—gar-dening,housepainting,cleaning,anything.

InLosAngeles,day laborerscanbe foundofanearlymorninghuddledoncertain street corners sprinkled throughout the metro area, where locals willcruiseup,stoptheircar,andmakeanofferforwork.OnedayMigueltookagar-deningjobforawomanwho,afterhislongandhardday’swork,refusedtopayhimacent.

Miguelreplayedthatcrushingdisappointmentwhenhetookpartinawork-shop that had him act this drama from his own life. The workshop employsmethodsofthe“theateroftheoppressed,”whichisdesignedtohelparelativelyprivilegedaudienceempathizewith theemotional realityofvictimsofoppres-sion.

AftersomeonelikeMigueldepictsascenario,avolunteerfromtheaudiencesteps up to replay the scene. ForMiguel, awoman repeated his performance,addingwhatshesawasapossiblesolutiontohispredicament.

“She depicted going to the employer and telling her how unfair she wasbeing,reasoningwithher,”BrentBlair,whoproducedtheperformance,toldme.

But for Miguel that was not an option: while that approach might haveworkedforamiddle-classwomanwithcitizenship,itwouldbeimpossibleforan

immigrantworkingasadaylaborer.Miguelwatchedthisreplayofhisownstoryinsilence,standingatthecorner

ofthestage.SaysBlair,“Attheendhecouldn’tturnaroundtotalkitoverwiththerestofus—hewasweeping.

“Miguel saidhedidn’t realizehowoppressedhewasuntil he sawhisownstorytoldbysomeoneelse.”

Thecontrastbetweenhowthatwomanimaginedhissituationandhisrealityhighlighted how it felt to be unseen, unheard, unfelt—a nonperson to be ex-ploited.

Whenthemethodworks,peoplelikeMiguelgainanewperspectiveonthem-selvesbywatchingtheirstoriesasseenthroughanotherperson’seyes.Whenau-diencemembers come up and become actors performing these scenes, ideallytheysharetherealityoftheoppressedperson,“sympathizing”inthetruesenseoftheword:havingthesamepathos,orpain.

“When you communicate an emotional experience, you can understand aproblemthroughtheheartandmind,andfindnewsolutions,”saysBlair,whodi-rects theAppliedTheatreArtsmaster’sprogramat theUniversityofSouthernCalifornia,whichusesthesetechniquestohelppeopleindowntroddencommu-nities.He’sstagedsuch theatricswith rapevictims inRwandaandgangmem-bersinLosAngeles.

Indoingso,Blairhastakenonasubtleforcedividingpeoplealongotherwiseinvisiblesignsofsocialstatusandpowerlessness:thepowerfultendtotuneoutthepowerless.Andthatdeadensempathy.

Blair recounts amoment at a global conferencewhere he ended up seeinghimself through the eyes of someonemore powerful. Hewas listening to theCEO of a giant beverage company—a man notorious for lowering workers’wages—talkingabouthowhiscompanywashelpingchildrenbecomehealthier.

During thequestionperiod following theCEO’s talk,Blair askedan inten-tionallyprovocativequestion:howcanyoutalkabouthealthykidswithoutalso

talkingabouthealthywagesfortheirparents?TheCEO ignoredBlair’squestionandwent righton to thenextone.Blair

suddenlyfeltlikeanonperson.Theabilityofthepowerfultodismissinconvenientpeople(andinconvenient

truths)bypayingnoattentionhasbecomethefocusofsocialpsychologists,whoare finding relationshipsbetweenpowerand thepeoplewepaymostand leastattentionto.4

Understandably,wefocusonthepeoplewevaluemost.Ifyouarepoor,youdependongood relationshipswith friends and familywhomyoumayneed toturntoforhelp—say,whenyouneedsomeonetolookafteryourfour-year-olduntilyougethomefromwork.Thosewithfewresourcesandafragileperchonstability “need to lean on people,” saysDacherKeltner, a psychologist at theUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.

Sothepoorareparticularlyattentivetootherpeopleandtheirneeds.Thewealthy,ontheotherhand,canhirehelp—payforadaycarecenteror

even an aupair.Thismeans,Keltner argues, that richpeople can afford tobelessawareoftheneedsofotherpeople,andsocanbelessattentivetothemandtheirsuffering.

His research has surfaced this disdain in just a five-minute get-acquaintedsession.5Themorewealthy(at leastamongAmericancollegestudents)exhibitfewer signs of engagement likemaking eye contact, nods, and laughing—andmoreofthoseforuninterest,likecheckingthetime,doodling,orfidgeting.Stu-dentsfromwealthyfamiliesseemstandoffish,whilethosefrompoorerrootsap-pearmoreengaged,warm,andexpressive.

AndinaDutchstudy,strangerstoldeachotheraboutdistressingepisodesintheirlives,rangingfromthedeathofalovedoneordivorcetolossofaloveorbetrayal,orchildhoodpainslikebeingbullied.6Againthemorepowerfulpersoninthepairstendedtobemoreindifferent:tofeellessoftheotherperson’spain—tobelessempathic,letalonecompassionate.

Keltner’s group has found similar attention gaps just by comparing high-rankingpeople inanorganizationwith thoseat the lower tierson their skillatreading emotions from facial expression.7 In any interaction the more high-powerpersontendstofocushisorhergazeontheotherpersonlessthanothers,andismorelikelytointerruptandtomonopolizetheconversation—allsignify-ingalackofattention.

In contrast, people of lower social status tend to do better on tests of em-pathic accuracy, such as reading others’ emotions from their faces—even justfrommusclemovementsaroundtheeyes.Byeverymeasuretheyfocusonotherpeoplemorethandopeopleofhigherstatus.

Themappingofattentiononlinesofpowershowsupinasimplemetric:howlongdoes it takepersonA to respond to an email frompersonB?The longersomeone ignores an email before finally responding, the more relative socialpower thatpersonhas.Map these response timesacrossanentireorganizationandyougetaremarkablyaccuratechartoftheactualsocialstanding.Thebossleavesemailsunanswered forhoursordays; those lowerdown respondwithinminutes.

There’sanalgorithmforthis,adataminingmethodcalled“automatedsocialhierarchy detection,” developed atColumbiaUniversity.8When applied to thearchiveofemail trafficatEnronCorporationbefore it folded, themethodcor-rectly identified the roles of top-levelmanagers and their subordinates just byhowlongittookthemtoansweragivenperson’semails.Intelligenceagencieshavebeenapplyingthesamemetrictosuspectedterroristgangs,piecingtogetherthechainofinfluencetospotthecentralfigures.

Powerandstatusarehighlyrelative,varyingfromoneencountertoanother.Tellingly, when students from wealthy families imagined themselves talkingwithsomeoneofstillhigherstatusthanthemselves,theyimprovedontheirabil-itytoreademotionsinfaces.

Whereweseeourselvesonthesocial ladderseemstodeterminehowmuch

attentionwepay:morevigilantwhenwefeelsubordinate,lesssowhensuperior.Thecorollary:Themoreyoucareaboutsomeone,themoreattentionyoupay—andthemoreattentionyoupay, themoreyoucare.Attentioninterweaveswithlove.

PARTIV

THEBIGGERCONTEXT

12

PATTERNS,SYSTEMS,ANDMESSES

While he was visiting a village in India’s Himalayan foothills, a fall downsomestairsleftLarryBrilliantconfinedtobedforweekstohealabackinjury.Towhileawaythehoursinthatisolatedhamlet,heaskedhiswife,Girija,toseeifthelocallibraryhadanybooksonIndiancoins—hehadbeenanavidcoincol-lectorasakid.

That’saroundwhenIfirstmetDr.Larry,ashisfriendscallhim.AnM.D.,hehad joined the World Health Organization initiative to vaccinate the worldagainst smallpox. I remember him telling me at the time how, by immersinghimself in readingabout thecoinsofancient India,hehadstarted tograsp thehistoryofthetradingnetworksinthatpartoftheworld.

Withhisappetiteforcoincollectingrenewed,oncehegotbackonhisfeet,duringhis travels across IndiaDr.Larry started to visit local goldsmiths,whooftensoldgoldandsilvercoinsbyweight.Somewereancient.

These included coins dating from theKushans, a nation that in the secondcenturyC.E.adminsteredfromKabulanempireextendingfromtheAralSeatoBenares.Kushancoinsadoptedaformatborrowedfromaconqueredgroup,theBactrians, descendants of Greek soldiers left behind to man outposts afterAlexandertheGreat’sforayintoAsia.Thosecoinstoldanintriguingstory.

OnonesideofKushancoinswastheimageoftheirkingofagivenperiod;theflipsideportrayedtheimageofagod.KushanswereZoroastrian,followersofaPersianreligionatthetimeamongtheworld’slargest.ButvariousKushancoinsdepictednot just theirPersiandeity,butalsoawidevarietyofdivinities,like Shiva or Buddha, borrowed from Persian, Egyptian, Greek, Hindu, andRomanpantheons—evenfromnationsfardistantfromKushanterritory.

How,inthesecondcentury,couldanempirecenteredinAfghanistanlearnsomuch about religions—andpay tribute to their deities—ranging far beyond itsborders?Theanswerlayintheeconomicsystemsoftheday.TheKushanEm-pireallowed,forthefirsttimeinhistory,aprotectedlinkagebetweenthealreadyvibranttraderoutesoftheIndianOceanandtheSilkRoad.Kushanswereinreg-ular contact with merchants and holy men whose roots stretched from theMediterraneanbasintotheGanges,fromtheArabianPeninsulatothedesertsofnorthwesternChina.

Therewereothersuchrevelations.“I’dfindanabundanceofRomancoinsinthesouthofIndia,andtrytofigureouthowitgotthere,”Dr.Larrytoldme.“ItturnsouttheRomans,whoseempiretouchedtheRedSeainEgypt,camearoundArabiabyboattoGoatotrade.Youcouldreverse-engineerwheretheseancientcoinswereturningupanddeducethetraderoutesoftheperiod.”

AtthetimeDr.LarryhadjustfinishedworkingthroughoutSouthAsiaonthehistorically successfulworldwidesmallpoxeradicationprogramforWHO,andhewasabouttoembarkfortheUniversityofMichigantogetamaster’sdegreein public health. Therewas a surprising resonance between his exploration oftraderoutesandwhathewastolearnatMichigan.

“Ihadtakencoursesinsystemanalysisandwasstudyingepidemiology.Thisfittedmywayofthinking.Irealizedtrackinganepidemicwasmuchliketrack-ingthespreadofanancientcivilizationliketheKushanswithallthearchaeolog-ical,linguistic,andculturalcluesalongtheway.”

The1918 flupandemic, for instance,killed anestimated50millionpeople

worldwide. “It probably began in Kansas and was first spread by AmericantroopstravelingabroadduringWorldWarI,”Dr.Larrysays.“ThatflumarchedaroundtheworldatthespeedofsteamshipsandtheOrientExpress.Todaypan-demicscanspreadatthespeedofa747.”

Ortakethecaseofpolio,adiseaseknownintheancientworld,butonlyspo-radically. “What made polio become an epidemic was urbanization; in citiespeoplesharedasingle,pollutedwatersystemratherthangettingwaterfromtheirownindividualwells.

“Anepidemicexemplifiessystemdynamics.Themoreyoucanthinksystem-ically,themoreyoucanfollowthepathofcoins,art,religion,ordisease.Under-standinghowcoinstravelalongtraderoutesparallelsanalyzingthespreadofavirus.”

Thatkindofpatterndetectionsignalsthesystemsmindatwork.Thissome-times uncanny ability lets us spot with ease the telling detail in a vast visualarray(think“Where’sWaldo”).Ifyouflashaphotooflotsofdotsandtellpeo-pletoguesshowmanythereare,thebetterestimatorsshouldbebettersystemsthinkers.Thegiftshowsupin thosebestat,say,designingsoftwareorfindinginterventionstosavefailingecosystems.

A“system”boilsdowntoacohesivesetoflawful,regularpatterns.Patternrecognition operates in circuitrywithin the parietal cortex, though the specificsitesofamoreextensive“systemsbrain”—ifany—haveyettobeidentified.Asit stands, there seems tobenodedicatednetworkor circuitry in thebrain thatgivesusanaturalinclinationtowardsystemsunderstanding.

Welearnhowtoreadandnavigatesystemsthroughtheremarkablegenerallearningtalentsoftheneocortex.Suchcorticaltalents—asinmathorengineer-ing—can be duplicated by computers. That sets the systemsmind apart fromself-awarenessandempathy,whichoperateondedicated,largelybottom-up,cir-cuitry.Ittakesabitofefforttolearnaboutsystems,buttonavigatelifesuccess-fullyweneedstrengthsinthisvarietyoffocusaswellasthetwothatcomemore

naturally.

MESSESANDSUPER-WICKEDPROBLEMS

AsystemsperspectivehascarriedovertoDr.Larry’scurrentpostasheadoftheSkollGlobalThreatsFund,whichhasamandatetosafeguardhumanityagainstdangersthatincludeMiddleEastconflicts,nuclearproliferation,pandemics,cli-matechange,andthebattlesthatcanariseoverthescarcityofwater.

“We find the hot spots, the points where trouble might start. Take waterscarcity and the struggle among three nuclear-armed nations—Pakistan, India,andChina.Aboutninety-fivepercentofwaterinPakistanisusedforagriculture,andIndiaisupstreamofmostofitsmainrivers.PakistanisthinkthatIndiama-nipulates floodgates in India andcontrolswhenandhowmuchwaterPakistangets. And upstream from India, Indians believe that China is controlling thewaterflowingoutoftheThirdPole,theiceandsnowoftheHimalayanplateau.”

Butnooneknowshowmuchwaterflowsthroughtheseriversystemsandatwhatseason,orhowmanygatescontrolthatflow,orwhere,orforwhatpurpose.“Thisdata isshroudedasapolitical toolby the threegovernments,”Dr.Larrysays.“Sowesupportthegatheringofthatdatabyatrustedthirdparty,andmak-ingittransparent.Thatwillallowthenextstep:analysisofthekeynodesandthe‘ouch’points.”

A rapid responsewillbeessential forcombatingany futureglobal flupan-demicscausedbymutatingstrainsforwhichnoonehasimmunity.Yetthatre-sponsewillhavenochancetobepretested;thesituationwillbeuniqueinhistory(therewere, for example, no 747s during the last pandemic in 1918); and thestakesaresohighthereisnoroomforerror.Theseareamongthequalificationsthat rank pandemics as a “wicked” problem—not in the sense of “evil,” butrathermeaningextremelyhardtosolve.

Combatingglobalwarming,ontheotherhand,posesa“super-wicked”prob-

lem:thereisnosingleauthorityinchargeofitssolution,timeisrunningout,thepeoplewhoseektosolvetheproblemareamongthose(allofus)whocauseit,andofficialpoliciesdismissitsimportanceforourfuture.1

What’smore,bothpandemicsandglobalwarmingarewhatare technicallycalled“messes,”whereatroublingpredicamentinteractsinasystemofotherin-terrelated problems.2 So, asDr. Larry points out, these are incredibly compli-cateddilemmas,andlotsofthedataweneedtosolvethemaremissing.

Systems are virtually invisible to the naked eye, but theirworkings can berenderedvisiblebygatheringdatafromenoughpointsthattheoutlinesoftheirdynamicscome into focus.Themoredata, theclearer themapbecomes.Entertheeraofbigdata.

Yearsafterhiscoin-collectingdaysinIndia,Dr.Larrybecamethefoundingexecutive director of Google.org, Google’s nonprofit arm. While there hebroughtaboutoneof the firstwidelyhailedapplications forbigdata: flu-spot-ting.AvolunteerGoogleteamofengineers,workingwithepidemiologistsfromtheCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,analyzedanenormousnumberof search queries for words, such as fever or ache, connectedwith flu symp-toms.3

“Weusedtensofthousandsofsimultaneouscomputerstosearcheverykey-strokeonGoogleoverfiveyearstocreateanalgorithmtopredictfluoutbreaks,”Dr.Larryrecalls.Theresultingalgorithmidentifiesfluoutbreakswithinaday,comparedwiththetwoweeksittypicallytakestheCDCtonoticehotspotsforthediseasebasedonreportsfromphysicians.

Big data software analyzes voluminous amounts of information; usingGoogledatatospotfluoutbreakswasoneoftheearlyapplicationsofbigdatatoa mob—what’s become known as “collective intelligence.” Big data lets usknowwherethecollectiveattentionfocuses.

The uses are endless. For instance, analyzingwho connects towhom—viacalls,tweets,texts,andthelike—surfacesthehumannervesystemofanorgani-

zation,mappingconnectivity.Hyperconnectedfolksaretypicallythemostinflu-ential:anorganization’ssocialconnectors,knowledgeholders,orpowerbrokers.

Among the multiplying commercial applications for big data: A mobilephonecompanyusedthemethodologytoanalyzethecalls itscustomersmade.Thisidentified“triballeaders,”individualswhogotandmadethelargestnumberofconnectionstoasmallaffinitygroup.Thecompanyfoundthatifsuchaleaderadoptedanewphoneservicethecompanyoffered,thoseinthetribewerehighlylikelytodoso, too.Ontheotherhand,if theleaderdroppedthephoneserviceforanother,thetribewouldbelikelytofollow.4

“The focus of organizational attention has been on internal information,”ThomasDavenport,whotrackstheusesofbigdata,toldme.“We’vesqueezedaboutasmuchjuicefromthatfruitaswecan.Sowe’veturnedtoexternalinfor-mation—theInternet,customersentiment,supplychainrisk,andthelike.”

Davenport,formerlydirectoroftheAccentureInstituteforStrategicChange,wasonthefacultyatHarvardBusinessSchoolwhenwespoke.Headded,“Whatweneedisanecologicalmodel,whereyousurveytheexternalinformationenvi-ronment—everythinghappeninginacompany’ssurroundthatmightimpactit.”

Theinformationanorganizationgetsfromitscomputersystems,Davenportargues,canbefarlessusefulthanwhatcomesinfromothersourcesintheover-all ecology of information, as processed by people.And a search enginemaygiveyoumassivedata,butnocontextforunderstanding,letalonewisdomaboutthatinformation.Whatmakesdatamoreusefulisthepersoncuratingit.5Ideally,thepersonwhocuratesinformationwillzeroinonwhatmatters,pruneawaytherest, establishacontext forwhat thedatameans, anddoall that inaway thatshowswhyitisvital—andsocapturespeople’sattention.

Thebestcuratorsdon’tjustputthedatainameaningfulcontext—theyknowwhat questions to ask.When I interviewedDavenport, hewaswriting a bookthatencouragesthosewhomanagebigdataprojectstoaskquestionslikethese:Arewedefiningtherightproblem?Dowehavetherightdata?Whataretheas-

sumptionsbehindthealgorithmthedatagetsfedinto?Doesthemodelguidingthoseassumptionsmaponreality?6

AtanMITconferenceonbigdata,onespeakerpointedoutthatthefinancialcrisis of 2008onwardwas a failureof themethod, ashedge funds around theworldcollapsed.Thedilemmaisthatthemathematicalmodelsembodiedinbigdataaresimplifications.Despite thecrispnumbers theyyield, themathbehindthosenumbershingesonmodelsandassumptions,whichcanfoolthosewhousethemintoplacingtoomuchconfidenceintheirresults.

At that sameconference,RachelSchutt, a senior statistician atGoogleRe-search,observed thatdata science requiresmore thanmath skills: it also takespeoplewhohaveawide-rangingcuriosity, andwhose innovation isguidedbytheir own experience—not just data. After all, the best intuition takes hugeamountsofdata,harvestingourentirelifeexperience,andfiltersit throughthehumanbrain.7

13

SYSTEMBLINDNESS

MauPiailugcouldreadthestarsandclouds,theoceanswellsandthebirdsinflight, as though theywere aGPS screen.Mauwould take these readings andmanyothersinthemiddleoftheSouthPacific,withnothingbutskyonthehori-zonforweeksonend,usingonlytheknowledgeoftheseashelearnedfromhiseldersonhisnativeCarolineislandofSatawal.

Mau,born in1932,was the last survivingnativepractitionerof theancientPolynesian art of “wayfinding”: piloting a double-hulled canoe with only theloreinyourhead,traversinghundredsorthousandsofmilesfromoneislandtoanother.Wayfinding embodies systems awareness at its height, reading subtlecueslikethetemperatureorsaltinessofseawater;flotsamandplantdebris; thepatternsofflightofseabirds; thewarmth,speed,anddirectionofwinds;varia-tionsintheswellsofwaves;andtherisingandsettingofthestarsatnight.Allthatgetsmappedagainstamentalmodelofwhereislandsaretobefound,lorelearnedthroughnativestories,chants,anddances.

That allowedMau to pilot a Polynesian-style canoe the 2,361 miles fromHawaii to Tahiti, a 1976 voyage thatmade anthropologists realize ancient is-landerscould traverse theSouthPacific routinely, in two-way traffic fromdis-tantislandtodistantisland.

ButoverthehalfcenturyduringwhichMaupreservedthisrefinedawarenessofnaturalsystems,Polynesianshadturnedtothenavigationalaidsofthemodernworld.Hiswasadyinglore.

Mau’sepiccanoevoyagestirredarevivalinthestudyoftheartofwayfind-ingamongthenativepeoplesoftheSouthPacific,arenewedinterestthatcontin-uestothisday.Fiftyyearsafterhisowninitiationasawayfinder,Mauheldthesame ceremonyonce again for the first time, for a handful of students he hadtrained.

Such lore,handeddownforgenerationsfromelders to theyoung,exempli-fies the localknowledge thatnativepeopleseverywherehave reliedon to sur-viveintheirparticularecologicalniche,lettingthemgetbasicslikefood,safety,clothing,andshelter.

Throughhumanhistory,systemsawareness—detectingandmappingthepat-ternsandorderthatliehiddenwithinthechaosofthenaturalworld—hasbeenpropelled by this urgent survival imperative for native peoples to understandtheirlocalecosystem.Theymustknowwhatplantsaretoxic,whichnourishorheal;wheretogetdrinkingwaterandwheretogatherherbsandfindfood;howtoreadthesignsofseasonalchange.

Here’sthecatch.Wearepreparedbyourbiologytoeatandsleep,mateandnurture,fight-or-flee,andexhibitall theotherbuilt-insurvivalresponsesinthehuman repertoire.But aswe’ve seen, there arenoneural systemsdedicated tounderstandingthelargersystemswithinwhichallthisoccurs.

Systemsare,atfirstglance,invisibletoourbrain—wehavenodirectpercep-tionofanyofthemultitudeofsystemsthatdictatetherealitiesofourlives.Weunderstand them indirectly, through mental models (the meanings of waveswells,constellations,andtheflightofseabirdsareeachsuchmodels)andtakeactionbasedonthosemodels.Themoregroundedindatathosemodelsare,themoreeffectiveourinterventions(forexample,arockettoanasteroid).Thelessgroundedindata,thelesseffectivetheywillbe(mucheducationpolicy).

This lore stems from hard-learned lessons that become distributed knowl-edge,sharedamongapeople,suchasthehealingpropertyofspecificherbs.Andoldergenerationspassonthisaccumulatedloretotheyounger.

OneofMau’sstudents,ElizabethKapu’uwailaniLindsey,aHawaii-bornan-thropologist who specialized in ethnonavigation, has become an explorer andfellowattheNationalGeographicSociety.Hermission:ethnographicrescue,theconservationofvanishingindigenousknowledgeandtraditions.

“Muchofthelossofnativeloreisduetoacculturationandcolonization,andgovernmentsmarginalizingnativewisdom,”shetoldme.“Thisloreispassedonin many ways. Hawaiian dance, for example, was a code of movement andchantsthattoldourgenealogy,astronomy,andnaturallaws,andthebackstoryofourculturalhistory.Thedancer’smovements,thechants,eventhesoundofthepahudrums,heldmeaning.

“Theseweretraditionallysacredpractices,”sheadded.“Thenwhenmission-ariesarrived,theydeemedthesedancesimmoral.Itwasonlyduringourculturalrenaissanceinthe1970sthatancienthula,orhulakahiko,emergedoncemore.Untilthen,modernhulahadbecomeentertainmentfortourists.”

Mau studied for years, with many teachers: his grandfather chose him tobeginstudiesasanavigator-to-bewhenMauwasbutfiveorso.Fromthattimeon,Maujoinedtheoldermenpreparingtheircanoestogofishing;he’dridetheseas, listening to their tales of sailing—and the navigational tips embedded inthem—intothenightastheydrankinthecanoehouse.Allinallhestudiedwithahalfdozenexpertnavigators.

Such native lore represents the root sciences, the needs-to-know that haveovercenturiesgrownintotoday’sburgeoningmultitudeofscientificspecialties.Thisgrowthhasbeenself-organizing,perhapsfulfillinganinnatesurvivaldrivetounderstandtheworldaroundus.

The inventionofculturewasahuge innovation forHomosapiens:creatinglanguageandasharedcognitivewebofunderstandingthattranscendsanyindi-

vidual’s knowledge and life span—and that can be drawn on as needed andpassedontonewgenerations.Culturesdivideupexpertise:therearemidwivesandhealers,warriorsandbuilders,farmersandweavers.Eachofthesedomainsofexpertisecanbeshared,and thosewhohold thedeepest reservoirofunder-standingineacharetheguidesandteachersforothers.

Nativelorehasbeenacrucialpartofoursocialevolution, thewayculturespassdowntheirwisdomthroughtime.Primitivebandsinearlyevolutionwouldhave thrived or died depending on their collective intelligence in reading thelocalecosystem:toanticipatekeymomentsforplanting,harvesting,andthelike—andsothefirstcalendarscameintobeing.

Butasmodernityhasprovidedmachinestotaketheplaceofsuchlore—com-passes, navigational guides, and, eventually, onlinemaps—native people havejoinedeveryoneelseinrelyingonthem,forgettingtheirlocallore,likewayfind-ing.

Andsoithasgonewithalmosteverytraditionalformofexpertiseforattun-ing to nature’s systems. The first contact of a native people with the outsideworldtypicallymarksthestartofagradualforgettingoftheirlore.

WhenIspokewithLindsey,shewaspreparingtoleaveforSoutheastAsiatoseetheMoken,whoareseanomads.Justbeforethe2004tsunamisweptthroughtheislandstheyinhabitedintheIndianOcean,theMoken“realizedthebirdshadstopped singing and the dolphinswere swimming farther out to sea,” she toldme. “So they all climbed in their boats and traveled to deepocean,where thetsunamicrestwasminimalasitpassedthem.NotoneMokenwashurt.”

Otherpeoples—whohad longforgotten to listen to thebirdsandwatch thedolphins, as well as what to make of how those species behaved—perished.LindseyisworriedthattheMokenarebeingforcedtogiveuptheirgypsylifeatseaandsettleonlandinThailandandBurma.Suchecological intelligencecanvanishfromcollectivememorywithinagenerationastheformsforpassingitonvanish.

Lindsey—ananthropologistraisedbynativehealers inHawaii—toldme,“Iwas taught bymy elders thatwhen you go into the forest to pick flowers formakingleisorplantsformedicine,youonlytakeafewblossomsorleavesfromeach limb.Whenyou’re done, the forest should look like youhadnever beenthere.Todaykidsoftengoinwithplasticgarbagebagsandbreakoffbranches.”

Thisobliviousnesstothesystemsaroundushaslongpuzzledme,particularlyas I’ve investigated our collective cluelessness in the face of a threat to ourspecies survival posed by our daily doings.We seem curiously unable to per-ceiveinawaythatleadsustopreventtheadverseconsequencesofhumansys-tems,suchasthoseforindustryorcommerce.

THEILLUSIONOFUNDERSTANDING

Herewasthedilemmaandopportunityforamajornationalretailer:itsmagazinebuyerswerereportingthatcloseto65percentofallthemagazinesprintedintheUnitedStateswerenever sold.This representedanannual costofhundredsofmillionsofdollarstothesystem,butnoonepartyinthesystemcouldchangeitalone. So the retail chain—among the biggest customers formagazines in thecountry—got togetherwith a groupof publishers andmagazine distributors toseewhattheycoulddo.

For themagazine industry, squeezedby thedigitalmedia and falling sales,thematterwasurgent.Foryearsnoonecouldsolvethisproblem;everyonejustshrugged.Nowtheindustrywasreadytotakeahardlook.

“Therewasahugeamountofwaste,whetheryoulookatitfromtheperspec-tiveof sheercost, treescut,or carbonemitted,” JibEllison,CEOofBluSkyeconsulting,toldme.

Ellison,whohelpedconvenethegroup,added,“Wefindthisinmostsupplychains:theywerebuiltinthenineteenthcenturywithaviewtowardwhatcanbesold, notwith sustainability or reducingwaste inmind.When one part of the

chainoptimizesforitself,ittendstosuboptimizethewhole.”One of the biggest dilemmas was that advertisers paid according to how

manymagazinestheiradsappearedin—nothowmanyweresold.Butamaga-zine“incirculation”mightjustsitonashelfforweeksormonths,andthenbepulped.Sopublishershadtogobacktotheiradvertisersandexplainanewbasisforchargingthem.

The retail chain analyzed which were its best-selling magazines in whatstores. It found, forexample, thatRoadstermightsellwell in fivemarketsbutnotatallinanotherfive.Thechainwasabletoadjustwheremagazineswentbywheretheywerewanted.Allinall,thevariousfixesreducedwastebyupto50percent.Thiswasnotonlyanenvironmentalplus;italsoopenedshelfspaceforotherproductswhilesavingbeleagueredpublishersmoney.

Solving suchproblems takes seeing the systems that are inplay. “We lookfor a systemic problem that no one player can solve—not a person, a govern-ment, a company,” Ellison tells me. The first breakthrough in the magazinedilemmawassimplygettingall theseplayers together—andgetting thesystemintotheroom.1

“Systems blindness is themain thingwe struggle with in our work,” saysJohnSterman,whoholds theJayW.ForresterchairatMIT’sSloanSchoolofManagement.Forrester,Sterman’smentor,wasafounderofsystemstheory,andSterman has been the go-to systems expert atMIT for years, directingMIT’sSystemsDynamicsGroup.

His classic textbook on system thinking applied to organizations and othercomplexentitiesmakesthefundamentalpointthatwhatwethinkofas“sideef-fects”aremisnamed.Inasystemtherearenosideeffects—justeffects,antici-patedornot.Whatweseeas“sideeffects”simplyreflectourflawedunderstand-ingof the system. Inacomplex system,heobserves, causeandeffectmaybemoredistantintimeandspacethanwerealize.

Sterman gives the example of debates over “zero-emission” electric cars.2

Theyarenot,infact,“zero-emission”withinasystemsperspective,iftheydrawtheirelectricity fromanenergygridcomposed largelyofpollutingcoalplants.Andeven if thepower isgenerated in, say, solar farms, there’s thecost to theplanet of the emissions of greenhouse gases inmanufacturing the solar panelsandthepoweringoftheirsupplychain.3

Oneoftheworstresultsofsystemblindnessoccurswhenleadersimplementastrategytosolveaproblem—butignorethepertinentsystemdynamics.

“It’sinsidious,”saysSterman.“Yougetshort-termrelief,andthentheprob-lemcomesback,oftenworsethanbefore.”

Traffic jams? The shortsighted solution means building more and widerroads.Thenewcapacitybringsshort-termreliefincongestion.Butbecauseit’snoweasiertogetaround,thoseveryroadsmeanpeople,stores,andworkplacesspreadthroughouttheregion.Trafficoverthelongtermincreasesuntilthejamsanddelaysare justasbadas,orworse than,before—thetraffickeepsgrowinguntilit’ssounpleasanttodrivethatfurthergrowthintripsstops.

“Feedback loops regulate congestion,” says Sterman. “Anytime you havemore capacity for traffic, people takemore car trips,move farther away, buymorecars.Aspeoplespreadout,masstransitlosesviability.You’retrapped.”

We think we are held up because of that traffic jam, but the jam itselfemergesfromthedynamicsofhighwaysystems.Thedisconnectbetweensuchsystemsandhowwerelatetothembeginswithdistortionsinourmentalmodels.Weblamethoseotherdriverscloggingtheroadbutfailtotakeintoaccountthesystemsdynamicsthatputthemthere.

“Muchofthetime,”Stermannotes,“peopleattributewhathappenstothemtoeventscloseintimeandspace,wheninrealityit’stheresultofthedynamicsofthelargersystemwithinwhichtheyareembedded.”

Theproblemgetscompoundedbywhat’scalledthe“illusionofexplanatorydepth,”wherewefeelconfidenceinourunderstandingofacomplexsystem,butinrealityhavejustsuperficialknowledge.Trytoexplainindepthhowanelec-

tricgridoperatesorwhyincreasingatmosphericcarbondioxideupstheenergyinstorms,andtheillusorynatureofoursystemsunderstandingbecomesclearer.4

In addition tomismatches of ourmentalmodels and the systems they pre-sume tomap, there are evenmore profound predicaments: our perceptual andemotional systems are all but blind to them.Thehumanbrainwasmoldedbywhathelpedusandourforerunnerssurviveinthewild,particularlyinthePleis-tocenegeologicalepoch(roughlyfrom2millionyearsagotoabout12,000yearsago,whentherewastheriseofagriculture).

Wearefinelytunedtoarustlingintheleavesthatmaysignalastalkingtiger.Butwehavenoperceptualapparatus thatcansense the thinningof theatmos-phere’s ozone layer, nor the carcinogens in the particulates we breathe on asmoggyday.Bothcaneventuallybefatal,butourbrainhasnodirectradarforthesethreats.

MAKINGTHEINVISIBLEPALPABLE

It’s not just perceptual mistuning. If our emotional circuitry (particularly theamygdala,thetriggerpointforthefight-or-flightresponse)perceivesanimmedi-ate threat it will flood us with hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, whichreadyustohitorrun.Butthisdoesnothappenifwehearofpotentialdangersthatmightemergeinyearsorcenturiestocome;theamygdalahardlyblinks.

The amygdala’s circuitry, concentrated in themiddle of the brain, operatesautomatically,bottom-up.Werelyonittobeonthealertfordangersandtelluswhatweneedtopayurgentattentionto.Butourautomaticcircuitry,usuallysoreliableinguidingourattention,havenoperceptualapparatusoremotionalload-ingforsystemsandtheirdangers.Theydrawablank.

“It’seasiertooverrideanautomatic,bottom-upresponsewithtop-downrea-soningthanitistodealwiththecompleteabsenceofasignal,”ColumbiaUni-versity psychologist Elke Weber observes. “But that’s the situation when it

comestodealingwiththeenvironment.There’snothinghereintheHudsonVal-leyonthislovelysummerdaytotellmetheplanetiswarming.”

“Ideally, some of my attention should go there—it’s a long-term danger,”addsWeber,whosework includesadvising theNationalAcademyofSciencesonenvironmentaldecision-making.5“But there’snobottom-upmessage topayattention to, nothing that says: ‘Danger over here! Do something,’ so this ismuchharder toaddress.Wedon’tnoticewhat’snot there—andneithermentalsystemalertsustothis.It’sthesamewithourhealthorourretirementsavings.Whenwe eat some very rich dessert,we don’t get a signal telling us, ‘If youkeepthisup,you’lldiethreeyearsearlier.’Andwhenyoubuythatspunkysec-ondcar,nothingtellsyou,‘Youwillregretthiswhenyouareoldanddestitute.’”

Dr.Larry,whosemandateincludesfightingglobalwarming,putsitthisway:“I have to persuade you that there’s an odorless, tasteless, invisible gas that’sgatheringintheheavensandcapturingthesun’sheatbecauseofwhatmandoesinusingfossilfuels.It’saheavylift.

“Actually themost comprehensive, complex science shows this,” he adds.“Morethantwothousandscientistsputtogetherwhatmightbethemostelegantcoordination of scientific findings in history—the Intergovernmental Panel onClimateChange.Theydidittoconvincepeoplewhoarenotwiredforthistore-alizethedangers.

“ButunlessyouliveintheMaldivesorBangladesh,itseemsfaraway,”Dr.Larryobserves.“Thedimensionoftimeisahugeproblem—ifthepaceofglobalwarmingwereacceleratedtoafewyearsinsteadofovercenturies,peoplewouldpaymoreattention.Butit’slikethenationaldebt:I’llleaveittomygrandchil-dren—I’msurethey’llthinkofsomesolution.”

AsStermanobserves,“Climatechangewill comeovera long timehorizonthatwecan’t see, so it’shard to convincepeople.Only the leaf-rustlingprob-lemsgetourattention,notthebigonesthatwillkillus.”

At one time, the survival of human groups depended on ecological attune-ment.Todaywehavetheluxuryoflivingwellusingartificialaids.Orseemtohavetheluxury.Forthesameattitudesthathavemadeusreliantontechnologyhavelulledusintoindifferencetothestateofthenaturalworld—atourperil.

So to meet the challenge of impending system collapse we need whatamountstoaprosthesisforthemind.

14

DISTANTTHREATS

AstheIndianyogiNeemKaroliBabaoncetoldme,“Youcanplanforahun-dredyears,butyoudon’tknowwhatwillhappenthenextmoment.”

Ontheotherhand,cyberpunkauthorWilliamGibsonobserves,“Thefutureisalreadyhere.It’sjustnotevenlydistributed.”

Whatwecanknowofthefutureliessomewherebetweenthetwoviews:wehave glimmerings, and yet there’s always the potential of a black-swan eventthatcouldwashitallaway.1

Backin the1980s, inherpropheticworkIn theAgeof theSmartMachine,ShoshonaZuboffsawthattheadventofcomputerswasflatteningthehierarchyinorganizations.Whereonceknowledgewaspower,andsothemostpowerfulhoardedtheirinformation,newtechsystemswereopeningthegatestodataforeveryone.

WhenZuboffwrote,thatfuturewasbynomeansevenlydistributed—theIn-ternetdidnotyetexist,letalonethecloud,YouTube,orAnonymous.Buttoday(and certainly tomorrow) the flowof information ranges evermore freely, notjustwithinanorganization,butglobally.A frustrated fruitvendor setshimselfaflameinamarketplaceinTunisia,sparkingtheArabSpring.

Two classic instances of not knowingwhat will happen the nextmoment:

ThomasRobertMalthus’sprediction in1798 thatpopulationgrowthwould re-ducehumanexistencetoa“perpetualstruggleforroomandfood,”trappedinadownward spiral of squalor and famine; and Paul R. Ehrlich’s 1968 warningaboutthe“populationbomb,”whichwouldproducevastfaminesby1985.

Malthusfailed toforesee theIndustrialRevolution,andthewaysmasspro-duction allowedmore people to live longer. Ehrlich’s calculationsmissed thecomingof the “green revolution,”which accelerated foodproduction aheadofthepopulationcurve.

TheAnthropoceneAge,whichbeganwith the IndustrialRevolution,marksthefirstgeologicepochinwhichtheactivitiesofonespecies—wehumans—in-exorablydegradethehandfulofglobalsystemsthatsupportlifeonearth.

TheAnthropocene representssystems incollision.Humansystemsforcon-struction,energy,transportation,industry,andcommercedailyattacktheopera-tionofnaturalsystemslikethenitrogenandcarboncycles,therichdynamicsofecosystems,theavailabilityofusablewater,andthelike.2What’smore,withinthe last fiftyyears this onslaughthasundergonewhat scientists call the “greatacceleration,”withatmosphericcarbondioxideconcentrations,amongotherin-dicatorsofcomingsystemscrises,increasingatanever-greaterrate.3

The human planetary footprint, Ehrlich saw, is a product of three forces:whateachofusconsumes,howmanyofus thereare,andthemethodswede-ploytogetthestuffweconsume.Usingthosethreemeasures,theUnitedKing-dom’sRoyalSocietytriedtoestimatetheearth’scarryingcapacityforhumanity—themaximumnumberofpeopletheearthcansupportwithoutacollapseinthesystemsthatsupportlife.Theirconclusion:itdepends.

The biggest unknown in the forecast was improvements in technology.China, for instance,worryinglyexpanded itscapacity forgeneratingelectricityfrom coal—andmore recently increased its use of solar andwind energy at arapid rate.Net result: the ratio of CO2 emitted relative to economic output inChinahasplummetedbyaround70percentoverthelast thirtyyears(although

thesenumbershidethecontinuingsteepgrowthincoal-burningpowerplantsin“the world’s factory”).4 In short, technological revolutions may save us fromourselves,lettingususeresourcesinwaysthatprotecttheplanet’svitallife-sup-port systems—ifwe can findmethods that don’t just create new problems orconcealoldones.

Oratleastthat’sthehope.Butnostrongeconomicforcefavorssuchtechnol-ogyrevolutionsinthelongrun.Theshort-termgainsaremadelargelybecausecompaniescansavemoney,notbecauseoftheplanetaryvirtuesofsustainabilityperse.

For example, during the economic crisis that began in 2008, CO2 levelsbeganfallingintheUnitedStatesnotbecauseofgovernmentmandates,butbe-causeofmarketforces—lessdemand,pluscheapernaturalgasforpowerplantsreplacedcoal(thoughthelocalpollutionandhealthproblemscausedbyfrackingforthatgascreatesotherheadaches).

Aswe’veseen,ablindspotinthehumanbrainmaycontributetothismess.Ourbrain’sperceptualapparatushasfine-tuningforarangeofattentionthathaspaid off in human survival.Whilewe are equippedwith razor-sharp focus onsmilesandfrowns,growlsandbabies,aswe’veseen,wehavezeroneuralradarforthethreatstotheglobalsystemsthatsupporthumanlife.Theyaretoomacroor micro for us to notice directly. So when we are faced with news of theseglobalthreats,ourattentioncircuitstendtoshrug.

Worse,our core technologieswere invented inaday longbeforewehadaclueabouttheirthreattotheplanet.Halfofindustry’sCO2emissionsareduetohowwemakesteel,cement,plastic,paper,andenergy.Whilewecanmakesub-stantialreductionsinthoseemissionswithimprovementsinthosemethods,we’dbefarbetteroffreinventingthementirelysotheyhavezeronegativeimpact,orevenreplenishtheplanet.

Whatcouldmakethatreinventionpay?AfactorunnotedbyEhrlichandoth-erswhohavetriedtodiagnosethisdilemma:ecologicaltransparency.

Knowing where to focus in a system makes all the difference. Take thebiggestmess facing our species: our slow-motionmass suicide as human sys-temsdegradetheglobalsystemsthatsupportlifeonthisplanet.Wecanbegintogetamorefine-tunedhandleonthisdegradationbyapplyinglifecycleanalysis(LCA)totheproductsandprocessesthatcauseit.

Overthecourseofitslifecycleasimpleglassjar,forinstance,goesthroughabouttwothousanddiscretesteps.AteachsteptheLCAcancalculateamulti-tudeof impacts, fromemissions into air,water, and soil to impacts onhumanhealthordegradationofanecosystem.Theadditionofcausticsoda to themixfor glass—one of those steps—accounts for 6 percent of the jar’s danger toecosystems,and3percentofitsharmtohealth;20percentofthejar’sroleincli-matewarmingisfromthepowerplantsthatfeedtheglassfactory.Eachofthe659ingredientsusedinglassmakinghasitsownLCAprofile.Andsoon,adin-finitum.

Life cycle analyses can give you a tsunami of information, overwhelmingeven themost ardent ecologists in the businessworld.An information systemdesigned tocacheall that lifecycle informationwouldspewoutabewilderingcloudofmillionsorbillionsofdatapoints.Still,diggingintothatdatacanpin-point,forinstance,exactlywhereinthehistoryofthatobjectchangescanmostreadilyreduceitsecologicalfootprint.5

The need to focus on a less complicated order (whether in organizing ourclosets,developingabusinessstrategy,oranalyzingLCAdata)reflectsafunda-mentaltruth.Welivewithinextremelycomplexsystems,butengagethemlack-ingthecognitivecapacitytounderstandormanagethemcompletely.Ourbrainhassolvedthisproblembyfindingmeanstosortthroughwhat’scomplicatedviasimpledecisionrules.Forinstance,navigatingourliveswithintheintricateso-cialworldofallthepeopleweknowgetssimplerifweusetrustasanorganizingruleofthumb.6

To simplify that LCA tsunami, promising software zeroes in on the four

biggestimpactsfourlevelsdowninaproduct’ssupplychain.7Thisoffersuptheroughly20percentofthecausesthataccountforabout80percentofeffects—theratioknownastheParetoprinciple,thatasmallamountofvariablesaccountforthelargestportionofeffect.

Suchheuristicsdeterminewhether a floodofdataoffersupa “Eureka!”orwesufferfrominformationoverload.Thatdecision(Gotit!versusToomuchin-formation)emanatesfromathinstripinthebrain’sprefrontalarea,thedorsolat-eralcircuits.Thearbiterofthiscognitivetippingpointresidesinthesameneu-ronsthatkeeptheturbulentimpulsesoftheamygdaladampeddown.Whenwehit cognitive overwhelm, the dorsolateral gives up, and our decisions andchoices get worse and worse as our anxiety rises.8 We’ve reached the pivotwheremoredataleadstopoorchoices.

Better:Zeroinonamanageablenumberofmeaningfulpatternswithinadatatorrentandignoretherest.Ourcorticalpatterndetectorseemsdesignedtosim-plify complexity into manageable decision rules. One cognitive capacity thatcontinuestoincreaseastheyearsgoonis“crystallizedintelligence”:recogniz-ingwhatmatters,thesignalwithinthenoise.Somecallitwisdom.

WHAT’SYOURHANDPRINT?

I’mastrappedinthesesystemsasanyone.YetIfindithardtowriteaboutthiswithoutsoundingshrill;our impactsontheplanetare inherentlyguilt-inducinganddepressing.Andthat’smypoint.Focusingonwhat’swrongaboutwhatwedoactivates circuitry fordistressingemotions.Emotions, remember, guideourattention.Andattentionglidesawayfromtheunpleasant.

Iusedtothinkthatcompletetransparencyaboutthenegativeimpactsofwhatwe do and buy—knowing our eco-footprints—would in itself create amarketforcethatwouldencourageusalltovotewithourdollarsbybuyingbetteralter-natives.9Soundedlikeagoodidea—butIneglectedapsychologicalfact.Nega-

tivefocusleadstodiscouragementanddisengagement.Whenourneuralcentersfordistress takeover,our focusshifts to thedistress itself,andhowtoease it.Welongtotuneout.

So instead we need a positive lens. Enter www.handprinter.org, a websitethatencouragesanyonetotaketheleadinenvironmentalimprovements.Hand-printerdrawsonLCAdatatoguideusinassessingourhabits(suchasincook-ing,travel,heating,andcooling)togetabaselineforourcarbonfootprints.Butthat’sjustthebeginning.

ThenHandprintertakesallthehelpfulthingswedo—userenewableenergy,rideabiketowork,turnthethermostatdown—andgivesusaprecisemetricforthegoodwedobylesseningourfootprint.Thesumtotalofallourgoodhabitsyieldsthevalueforourhandprint.Thekeyidea:keepmakingimprovements,sothatourhandprintbecomesbiggerthanourfootprint.Atthatpointwebecomeanetpositivefortheplanet.

Ifyoucangetotherpeopletofollowyourleadandadoptthesamechanges,yourhandprintgrowsaccordingly.Handprinterisanaturalforsocialmedia;it’salreadyanapponFacebook.Families,stores,teams,andclubs,eventownsandcompanies,canincreasetheirhandprinttogether.

So can schools. That’s one venue where Gregory Norris, who developedHandprinter,seesspecialpromise.NorrisisanindustrialecologistwhostudiedwithJohnStermanwhileatMIT,andthentaughtlifecycleanalysisthere.Nowhe’sworkingwithanelementaryschoolinYork,Maine,tohelpitgrowitshand-print.

NorrisgottheheadofsustainabilityatOwens-Corning,thegiantglassprod-uctscorporation,todonatethreehundredfiberglassblanketsforwaterheaterstotheschool. InMaine, thoseblanketscan reducecarbonemissionsbya signifi-cant amount—and save households around seventy dollars a year in utilitybills.10Housesthatgettheblanketswillsharepartoftheirfuelsavingswiththeschool,which can use that cash tomake improvements at the school and still

haveplentyleftovertobuywaterblanketstogiveawaytotwootherschools.11

Thosetwoschoolswillrepeattheprocess,eachgivingblanketstotwootherschools,inanever-expandingsequence.Themathofsuchageometricprogres-sionaugursarippleeffectthroughouttheregionand,potentially,farbeyond.

In the first round, every participating school gets credited in its handprintwitha reductionof some130 tonsofCO2 emissionsperyear, foranexpectedblanketlifeofatleasttenyears.ButHandprinteralsogivesitsuccessivecreditsfor every other school in the chain; in just six rounds that should include 128schools, a carbon reduction of around 16,000 tons of CO2. Assuming new“rounds”everythreemonths,thatwouldbe60,000tonsbythestartofthethirdyear,and1millionbythefourth.

“TheLCAcalculationforonehouse’sheaterwrapstartsoffnegative,whenyouassessthewrap’ssupplychainandlifecycle,”saysNorris.“Butonceyougetintotheimpactsofitsuse,atacertainpointitbecomesprogressivelyposi-tiveforgreenhousegases”asahomedrawslesspowerfromcoal-burningpowerplantsoruseslessfueloil.12

Handprintsputthenegatives(ourfootprint)inthebackgroundandpositivesin the foreground.Whenwe aremotivated by positive emotions, whatwe dofeelsmoremeaningfulandtheurgetoactlastslonger.Itallstayslongerinatten-tion.Incontrast,fearofglobalwarming’simpactsmaygetourattentionquickly,butoncewedoonethingandfeelalittlebetter,wethinkwe’redone.

“Twentyyearsagofewpeoplepaidattentiontohowtheiractivitiesmatteredforcarbonemissions,”Columbia’sElkeWeberobserves.“Therewasnowaytomeasureit.Nowthecarbonfootprintgivesusametricforwhatwedo,makingthesedecisionseasier:youcandiagnosewhereyoustand.Whatwemeasurewepaymoreattentiontoandhavegoalsaround.

“Butafootprintisanegativemetric,andnegativeemotionsarepoormotiva-tors.Forexample,youcangetwomen’sattentionaboutgettingbreastexamsbyscaring themaboutwhatmight happen if theydon’t get examined.This tactic

capturesattentionintheshortterm,butbecausefearisanegativefeeling,peoplewilltakejustenoughactiontochangetheirmoodforthebetter—thenignoreit.

“Forlong-termchangeyouneedsustainedaction,”Weberadded.“Apositivemessagesays,‘Herearebetteractionstotakeandwiththismetricyoucanseethegoodyou’redoing—asyoukeepgoing,youcancontinuallyfeelbetterabouthowyouaredoing.’That’sthebeautyofhandprints.”

SYSTEMSLITERACY

RaidonBungelingBay,anearlyvideogame,puttheplayerinahelicopterthatwasattackingamilitaryenemy.Youcouldbombfactories,roads,docks,tanks,planes,andships.

Or,ifyouunderstoodthatthegamewasmappingtheenemy’ssupplychain,youcouldwinwithasmarterstrategy:bombinghissupplyboatsfirst.

“Butmost people just flew around and blew up everything as fast as theycould,”saysthegame’sdesigner,WillWright,betterknownasthebrainbehindSimCity and its successive universes of multiplayer simulations.13 One ofWright’s early inspirations in designing these virtual worlds was the work ofMIT’sJayForrester (JohnSterman’smentoranda founderofmodernsystemstheory),whointhe1950swasamongthefirsttotrytosimulatealivingsystemonacomputer.

While there are reasonable concerns about the social impacts of games onkids,alittle-recognizedbenefitofgamesisacquiringtheknackforlearningthegroundrulesofanunknownreality.Gamesteachkidshowtoexperimentwithcomplex systems.Winning demands acquiring an intuitive sense of the algo-rithms built into the game and figuring out how to navigate through them, asWrightpointsout.14

“Trial and error, reverse-engineering stuff in yourmind—all thewayskidsinteractwithgames—that’sthekindofthinkingschoolsshouldbeteaching.As

theworldbecomesmorecomplex,”Wrightadds,“gamesarebetteratpreparingyou.”

“Kidsarenaturalsystemsthinkers,”saysPeterSenge,whobroughtsystemsthinkingtoorganizationallearning,andhasmorerecentlybeenteachingthisper-spectiveinschools.“You’llgetthreesix-year-oldslookingatwhytheyhavesomany fights on the playground, and they’ll realize they have a feedback loopwherecallingnames leads tohurt feelings,which leads tocallingnames,withmorehurtfeelings—anditallbuildstoafight.”

Why not embed this understanding in the general education our culturepassesontoourchildren,likeMau’stutorialincelestialnavigation?Callitsys-temsliteracy.

GregoryNorrishasbecomepartoftheCenterforHealthandtheGlobalEn-vironmentattheHarvardSchoolofPublicHealth,wherehelongtaughtacourseinLCA.HeandIdidsomebrainstormingaboutwhatacurriculumforkids insystemsandLCAmightlooklike.

Takethoseparticulatesthatareemittedlessbypowerplantsifhomesuseawaterheaterblanket.Therearetwomainkinds,bothdamagingtothelungs:tinyparticlesthatgointothelungs’deepestrecesses,andsomethatstartasthegasesnitrous oxide or sulfur dioxide and transform into particles that do the samedamage.

These particles are an enormous problem in public health, particularly inurban areas like Los Angeles, Beijing, Mexico City, and New Delhi, wherehighlypolluteddaysarefrequent.TheWorldHealthOrganizationestimatesthatoutdoorairpollutioncausesabout3.2milliondeathsyearlyworldwide.15

Givensuchdata,ahealthormathclasscouldcalculateforasmoggydayinacity the resulting “disability adjusted life years” (or DALY; one DALY unitequalsthelossofayearofgoodhealth)—computingthedaysofhealthylifelostduetoparticulateemissions.Thiscanbecalculatedforevenatinyamountofex-posureandtranslatedintoitsroleinincreaseddiseaserates.

Different topics would analyze these systems in their own way. Biologywouldexplore, forexample, themechanisms involvedwhenparticulates in thelungsleadtoasthma,cardiovasculardisease,oremphysema.Achemistryclasscouldfocusontheconversionofthegasesnitrousoxideandsulfurdioxideintothoseparticles.Socialpolicy,civics,orenvironmentalstudiescoulddiscusstheissues of how today’s systemsof energy, transportation, and construction rou-tinelyposesuchthreatstothepublic’shealth—andhowthesesystemscouldbechangedtolowerthosehealthrisks.

Embedding this learning in school lesson plans erects the conceptual scaf-foldingforsystemsthinkingthatcanbeelaboratedonmoreexplicitlyaschildrenathighergradesengagethespecificsingreaterdetail.16

“Ittakesapanoramicattentiontoappreciatesystem-levelinteractions,”saysRichardDavidson.“Youneedtobeattentionallyflexible,soyoucanexpandandcontractyourfocus,likeazoomlens,toseeelementsbigandsmall.”Whynotteachchildrenthesebasicskillsinreadingsystems?

Education upgrades mental models. Helping students master the cognitivemapsfor,say, industrialecologyaspartof theiroveralleducationmeans theseinsightswillbecomepartoftheirdecisionrulesinadulthood.

For consumers, this would affect thinking about what brands to buy andwhich to avoid; for decision-makers at work it would come up in everythingfromwheretoinvesttomanufacturingprocessesandmaterialsourcing,tobusi-ness strategy and risk avoidance.Most especially thisway of thinking shouldlead some amongour younger generations to become avid about research anddevelopment,particularlyalongthelinesofbio-mimicry—doingthingsthewaynaturedoesthem.

Virtually all of today’s industrial platforms, chemicals, and manufacturingprocessesweredevelopedinanearliererawhennoonekneworcaredabouten-vironmentalimpacts.NowthatwehavetheLCAlenswithsystemsthinking,weneedtorethinkthemall—ahugeentrepreneurialopportunityforthefuture.

Ataclosed-doormeetingofseveraldozenheadsofsustainability,Iwasen-couragedtohear themtickoff listsof improvements theircompanyhadmade,ranging from energy-saving solar-powered factories to sourcing sustainablygrownrawmaterials.ButIwasequallydepressedtohearachorusofcomplaintsboilingdowntothis:“Butourcustomersdon’tcare.”

Thiseducationinitiativeshouldhelpsolvethatprobleminthelongrun.Theyoung inhabitaworldofsocialmedia,where the forcesemergingfromdigitalhyperconnectionscanswaymarketsandminds.IfamethodlikeHandprintsgoesviral,itcouldhelpcreatethenow-missingeconomicforcethatmakesitimpera-tiveforcompaniestochangehowtheydobusiness.

Themore well-informedminds the better.Whenwe confront an immensesystem,attentionneedstobewidelydistributed.Onesetofeyescanseeonlysofar; a swarm grasps muchmore. The most robust entity takes in the greatestamountofrelevantinformation,understandsitmostdeeply,andrespondsmostnimbly.We,collectively,canbecomethatentity.

Addsystemsliteracytothelongandgrowinglistofwhatpeoplearoundtheworld are already doing to avoid a planetarymeltdown. Themore, the better:theremay be no single fulcrum for change, but rathermanywidely dispersedones.That’s the argumentmade byPaulHawken in his bookBlessedUnrest.Whenthe2009Copenhagenclimatemeeting(likealltheothers)failedtocomeup with an agreement, Hawken said it was “irrelevant because I don’t thinkthat’swherechangecomesfrom.”

Hawken’s perspective: “Imagine 50,000 people inCopenhagen exchangingantennae and notes and cards and contacts and ideas and so forth and thenspreadingbackallovertheworldto192countries.Energyandclimateisasys-tem;thisisasystemicproblem.Thatmeanseverythingwe’redoingispartofthehealing of the system and that there is no Archimedean point in the systemwherewe’reeitherfailingor,ifwepullharder,we’regoingtosucceed.”17

PARTV

SMARTPRACTICE

15

THEMYTHOF10,000HOURS

TheIditarodmaybetheworld’smostgruelingrace:sleddogscompeteoveragauntletofmorethanelevenhundredmilesofArcticice,runningformorethanaweek.Typically the dogs andmusher go all day and rest at night, or go allnightwithrestduringtheday.

SusanButcher reinvented the Iditarodby running and resting alternately infour-to-six-hourchunksthroughoutthenightanddayinsteadoftwelvehoursonand twelve off. Itwas a risky innovation—for one, it gave her less chance tosleep(whileherdogssleptshewouldhavetoprepareforthenextleg).Butsheand her sled dogs had practiced that way, and from the first time she tried,Butcherjustknewinherhearttheall-outregimencouldwork.

Butcher went on to win the Iditarod four times. She died from leukemia(whichhadclaimedherbrotherinherchildhood)adecadeafterherracingdays.Inherhonor, the stateofAlaskaproclaimed the firstdayof the Iditarod tobeSusanButcherDay.

Butcher, a veterinary technician, was a leader in humane treatment of herdogs,makingyear-round care and training the standard formush teams ratherthan an exception. She was attuned to the biological limits of what her dogscouldwithstand.Poortreatmentofdogshasbeenthemaincriticismoftherace.

Butchertrainedherdogsmuchasamarathonerpreparesforarace,realizingthat rest is as important as running. “ForSusan,dogcarewas thenumber-onepriority,”herhusband,DavidMonson,toldme.“Sheregardedherdogsasyear-round professional athletes, giving them the highest-quality veterinary care,training,andnutrition.”

Then there was her personal preparation. “Most people can’t imagine thecomplexity of going on a thousand-mile expedition in the ice and snow thatmight last for up to fourteendays,”Monson toldme. “The temperature variesfromfortyabovetosixtybelow;you’reatthemercyofblizzards.You’vegottobringrepairkits,andfoodandmedicineforyourselfandyourdogs,andmaketherightstrategicdecisions.It’slikepreparingforanexpeditionupEverest.

“Forinstance,thereareninetyorahundredmilesbetweencheckpointswhereyou’vecachedfoodandsuppliesforthenextsegment,andyouneedapoundofdogfoodforeachdogeveryday.Butifthenextareamighthaveablizzard,youneedtotakeextrafoodandshelterforthedogs.Andthataddsweight.”

Butcherhadtomakesuchlife-and-deathdecisions—plusstayvigilantandat-tentive—while getting just one or two hours of sleep a day. While the dogsrestedasmuchastheyran,duringtheirbreaksshewouldbebusycaringforandfeedingthedogsandherself,andmakinganyneededrepairs.“Keepingyourat-tentionupduringahighlyexhaustingandstressful timemeansyouhave tobemethodical andwell practiced, soyoumake the rightdecisionsunderduress,”Monsonsays.

Shespenthoursandhoursfine-tuninghermushingskills,studyingthesub-tletiesofsnowandice,andbondingwithherdogs.Butitwasherself-disciplinethatwasmostprominentinhertrainingregimen.

“She was really able to focus,” said Joe Runyan, another Iditarod winner.“Andthat’swhatmadeherreallygoodatthesport.”

The“10,000-hour rule”—that this levelofpracticeholds thesecret togreatsuccessinanyfield—hasbecomesacrosanctgospel,echoedonwebsitesandre-

citedaslitanyinhigh-performanceworkshops.1Theproblem:it’sonlyhalftrue.Ifyouareadufferatgolf,say,andmakethesamemistakeseverytimeyou

tryacertainswingorputt,10,000hoursofpracticingthaterrorwillnotimproveyourgame.You’llstillbeaduffer,albeitanolderone.

NolessanexpertthanAndersEricsson,theFloridaStateUniversitypsychol-ogistwhoseresearchonexpertisespawnedthe10,000-hourruleofthumb,toldme, “Youdon’tgetbenefits frommechanical repetition,butbyadjustingyourexecutionoverandovertogetclosertoyourgoal.”2

“Youhavetotweakthesystembypushing,”headds,“allowingformoreer-rorsatfirstasyouincreaseyourlimits.”

Apartfromsportslikebasketballorfootballthatfavorphysicaltraitssuchasheightandbodysize,saysEricsson,almostanyonecanachievethehighestlev-elsofperformancewithsmartpractice.

IditarodmushersatfirstdismissedSusanButcher’schancesofeverwinningtherace.“Inthosedays,”DavidMonsonrecalls,“theIditarodwasconsideredaman’s cowboy-type sport—rough-and-tumble. You did it because you weretough. Other racers said Susan could never win—she babies her dogs. Thenwhenshewonyearafteryear,peoplerealizedherdogswerebettersuitedthanothersfortherigorsoftherace.Thatfundamentallychangedhowfolksprepareforandrunintheracenow.”

Ericssonarguesthatthesecretofwinningis“deliberatepractice,”whereanexpert coach (essentially what Susan Butcher was for her dogs) takes youthroughwell-designed trainingovermonthsoryears, andyougive ityour fullconcentration.

Hoursandhoursofpracticearenecessaryforgreatperformance,butnotsuf-ficient.Howexpertsinanydomainpayattentionwhilepracticingmakesacru-cialdifference.Forinstance,inhismuch-citedstudyofviolinists—theonethatshowedthetoptierhadpracticedmorethan10,000hours—Ericssonfoundtheexpertsdidsowith fullconcentrationon improvingaparticularaspectof their

performancethatamasterteacheridentified.3

Smartpracticealwaysincludesafeedbackloopthatletsyourecognizeerrorsand correct them—which is why dancers use mirrors. Ideally that feedbackcomesfromsomeonewithanexperteye—andsoeveryworld-classsportscham-pionhasacoach.Ifyoupracticewithoutsuchfeedback,youdon’tgettothetopranks.

Thefeedbackmattersandtheconcentrationdoes,too—notjustthehours.Learninghowtoimproveanyskillrequirestop-downfocus.Neuroplasticity,

thestrengtheningofoldbraincircuitsandbuildingofnewonesforaskillwearepracticing,requiresourpayingattention:Whenpracticeoccurswhilewearefo-cusingelsewhere,thebraindoesnotrewiretherelevantcircuitryforthatparticu-larroutine.

Daydreamingdefeatspractice;thoseofuswhobrowseTVwhileworkingoutwillnever reach the top ranks.Paying fullattentionseems toboost themind’sprocessingspeed,strengthensynapticconnections,andexpandorcreateneuralnetworksforwhatwearepracticing.

Atleastatfirst.Butasyoumasterhowtoexecutethenewroutine,repeatedpractice transferscontrolof thatskill fromthe top-downsystemfor intentionalfocustobottom-upcircuitsthateventuallymakeitsexecutioneffortless.Atthatpointyoudon’tneedtothinkaboutit—youcandotheroutinewellenoughonautomatic.4

And this iswhereamateursandexpertspartways.Amateursarecontentatsome point to let their efforts become bottom-up operations.After about fiftyhours of training—whether in skiing or driving—people get to that “good-enough”performancelevel,wheretheycangothroughthemotionsmoreorlesseffortlessly.Theynolongerfeeltheneedforconcentratedpractice,butarecon-tenttocoastonwhatthey’velearned.Nomatterhowmuchmoretheypracticeinthisbottom-upmode,theirimprovementwillbenegligible.

Theexperts,incontrast,keeppayingattentiontop-down,intentionallycoun-

teracting the brain’s urge to automatize routines.They concentrate actively onthosemovestheyhaveyettoperfect,oncorrectingwhat’snotworkingintheirgame,andonrefiningtheirmentalmodelsofhowtoplaythegame,orfocusingon the particulars of feedback from a seasoned coach. Those at the top neverstoplearning:ifatanypointtheystartcoastingandstopsuchsmartpractice,toomuchoftheirgamebecomesbottom-upandtheirskillsplateau.

“Theexpertperformer,”saysEricsson,“activelycounteractssuchtendenciestoward automaticity by deliberately constructing and seeking out training inwhichthesetgoalexceedstheircurrentlevelofperformance.”Moreover,“Themore time expert performers are able to invest in deliberate practicewith fullconcentration,thefurtherdevelopedandrefinedtheirperformance.”5

SusanButcherwastrainingherselfandhersleddogstooperateasahigh-per-formingunit.Throughouttheyearsheandherdogswouldgothroughatwenty-four-hour cycleof runningand restingperiods, then take twodaysoff—ratherthan risk her dogs slowing down from being over-raced at the then-standardtwelvehours.BythetimetheygottotheIditarod,sheandherdogswereatpeakconditioning.

Focusedattention,likeastrainedmuscle,getsfatigued.Ericssonfindsworld-classcompetitors—whetherweightlifters,pianists,oradogsledteam—tendtolimitarduouspracticetoaboutfourhoursaday.Restandrestoringphysicalandmentalenergygetbuiltintotheirtrainingregimen.Theyseektopushthemselvesandtheirbodiestothemax,butnotsomuchthattheirfocusgetsdiminishedinthepracticesession.Optimalpracticemaintainsoptimalconcentration.

ATTENTIONCHUNKS

WhentheDalaiLamaspeakstolargeaudiencesonhisworldtours,oftenathissidewillbeThuptenJinpa,hismainEnglish-language interpreter.Jinpa listenswith rapt attentionwhileHisHoliness speaks inTibetan;heonlyoccasionally

jots a quick note. Thenwhen there’s a pause, Jinpa repeats what was said inEnglish,inhiselegantOxbridgeaccent.6

Those times that I’ve lectured abroad with the help of an interpreter, I’vebeentoldtospeakonlyafewsentencesbeforepausingfortheinterpretertore-peatmywordsinthelocallanguage.Otherwisethere’stoomuchtoremember.

ButIhappenedtobepresentwhenthisTibetanduowasinfrontofacrowdof thousands, and theDalaiLamaseemed tobe speaking in longerand longerchunksbeforepausingforthetranslationtoEnglish.AtleastoncehewentoninTibetanforafullfifteenminutesbeforepausing.Itseemedanimpossiblylongpassageforanyinterpretertotrack.

After theDalaiLamafinished,Jinpawassilentforseveralmoments,as theaudiencestirredwithpalpableconsternationatthememorychallengehefaced.

ThenJinpastartedhistranslation,andhe,too,wentonforfifteenminutes—withouthesitationorevenapause.Itwasabreathtakingperformance,onethatmovedtheaudiencetoapplaud.

What’sthesecret?WhenIaskedJinpa,heattributedhismemorystrengthstotraininghegotasayoungmonkinaTibetanBuddhistmonasteryinthesouthofIndia,wherehewasrequiredtomemorizelongtexts.“Itstartswhenyou’rejusteightornine,”hetoldme.“WetackletextsinclassicalTibetan,whichwedon’tyet understand—itwouldbe likememorizingLatin for aEuropeanmonk.Wememorize by the sound. Some of the texts are liturgical chants—you’ll seemonksrecitethosechantscompletelyfrommemory.”

Someof the textsyoungmonksmemorizeareup to thirtypages long,withhundredsofpagesofcommentary.“We’dstartwithtwentylineswe’dmemorizein the morning, then repeat several times during the day with the text as aprompt.Thenatnightwe’drecite the lines in thedark,completelyfrommem-ory.Thenextdaywe’daddanothertwentylines,andreciteallforty—untilwecouldrecitetheentiretext.”

SmartpracticemavenAndersEricssonhastaughtasimilartalenttoAmeri-

cancollegestudents,whobydintofsheerpersistencelearnedtorepeatbackcor-rectlyupto102randomdigits(thatlevelofdigitrecalltookfourhundredhoursof focused practice). As Ericsson found, a keen attention lets learners findsmarterwaystoperform—whetheratthekeyboardorinthemazeofthemind.

“When it comes to this application of attention,” Jinpa confided, “it takessomedoggedness.Youneedpersistenceeventhoughitmaybeboring.”

Such remarkable memorization seems to expand the capacity of workingmemory,whereforafewsecondswestorewhateverwearepayingattentiontoaswepass iton to long-termmemory.But that seeming increase isnota truestretching ofwhatwe can hold in attention at any onemoment. The secret ischunking—aformofsmartpractice.

“WhileHisHoliness speaks,” Jinpa toldme, “Iknow thegistofwhathe’ssaying,andmostofthetimeIknowtheparticulartexthe’stalkingabout.Imakea shorthand note for the key points, though I rarely consult the notes when Ispeak.”Thatshorthandindicateschunking.

AsHerbertSimon,thelateNobellaureateandprofessorofcomputerscienceatCarnegieMellonUniversity, toldmesomeyearsago,“Everyexperthasac-quiredsomethinglikethismemoryability”withinherspecialty.“Memoryislikean index;expertshaveapproximately50,000chunksof familiarunitsof infor-mationtheyrecognize.Foraphysician,manyofthosechunksaresymptoms.”7

INTHEMENTALGYM

Think of attention as a mental muscle that we can strengthen by a workout.Memorizationworks thatmuscle, asdoes concentration.Themental analogofliftingafreeweightoverandoverisnoticingwhenourmindwandersandbring-ingitbacktotarget.

That happens to be the essence of one-pointed focus inmeditation,which,seen through the lens of cognitive neuroscience, typically involves attention

training.You’retoldtokeepyourfocusononething,suchasamantraoryourbreath.Tryitforawhileandinevitablyyourmindwandersoff.

So theuniversal instructionsare these:whenyourmindwanders—andyounoticethatithaswandered—bringitbacktoyourpointoffocusandsustainyourattentionthere.Andwhenyourmindwandersoffagain,dothesame.Andagain.Andagain.Andagain.

Neuroscientists at Emory University used functional magnetic resonanceimaging (fMRI) to study the brains of meditators going through this simplemovementofmind.8Therearefourstepsinthiscognitivecycle:themindwan-ders,younoticeit’swandering,youshiftyourattentiontoyourbreath,andyoukeepitthere.

Duringmindwanderingthebrainactivatestheusualmedialcircuitry.Atthemomentyounoticeyourmindhaswandered,anotherattentionnetwork,thisonefor salience, perksup.Andasyou shift focusback toyourbreath andkeep itthere,prefrontalcognitivecontrolcircuitstakeover.

Asinanyworkout,themorerepsthestrongerthemusclebecomes.More-ex-periencedmeditators,onestudyfound,wereabletodeactivatetheirmedialstripmore rapidly after noticing mind wandering; as their thoughts become less“sticky” with practice, it becomes easier to drop thoughts and return to thebreath.Therewasmoreneuralconnectivitybetweentheregionformindwander-ingandthosethatdisengageattention.9Theincreasedconnectivityinthebrainsofthelong-termmeditators,thisstudysuggests,areanalogoustothosecompeti-tiveweightlifterswiththeperfectpecs.

Musclebuildersknowyouwon’tgetasix-packbellybyliftingfreeweights—you need to do a particular set of crunches thatwork the relevantmuscles.Specificmusclesrespondtoparticulartrainingregimens.Soit iswithattentiontraining.Concentrationononepointof focus is thebasicattentionbuilder,butthatstrengthcanbeappliedinmanydifferentways.

Inthementalgym,as inanyfitness training, thespecificsofpracticemake

allthedifference.

ACCENTUATETHEPOSITIVE

LarryDavid,creatorofthehitsitcomsSeinfeldandCurbYourEnthusiasm,hailsfromBrooklynbuthas livedmostofhis life inLosAngeles.Onararestay inManhattan tofilmepisodesforCurb—inwhichheplayshimself—DavidwenttoseeaballgameatYankeeStadium.

Duringalull inthegame,camerassenthisimageuptogiganticJumbotronscreens.Theentirestadiumoffansstoodtocheerhim.

ButasDavidwasleavinglaterthatnight,intheparkinglotsomeoneleanedoutofapassingcarandyelled“Larry,yousuck!”

Onthewayhome,LarryDavidobsessedabout thatoneencounter:“Who’sthatguy?Whatwas that?Whowoulddo that?Whywouldyousaysomethinglikethat?”

Itwas as though those fifty thousand adoring fans didn’t exist—therewasjustthatoneguy.10

Negativity focuses us on a narrow range—what’s upsetting us.11 A rule ofthumbincognitivetherapyholdsthatfocusingonthenegativesinexperienceof-fers a recipe fordepression.Cogitive therapy treatmentsmightwell encouragesomeone likeLarryDavid tobring tomindhis good feelingswhen the crowdwentcrazyforhim,andholdhisfocusthere.

Positiveemotionswidenourspanofattention;we’refreetotakeitallin.In-deed, in the grip of positivity, our perceptions shift. As psychologist BarbaraFredrickson,whostudiespositivefeelingsandtheireffects,putsit,whenwe’refeelinggoodourawarenessexpandsfromourusualself-centeredfocuson“me”toamoreinclusiveandwarmfocuson“we.”12

Focusingonthenegativesorpositivesoffersusabitofleverageindetermin-inghowourbrainoperates.Whenwe’reinanupbeat,energizedmood,Richard

Davidsonhasfound,ourbrain’sleftprefrontalarealightsup.Theleftareaalsoharbors circuitry that reminds us how great we’ll feel when we finally reachsomelong-soughtgoal—thecircuitrythathelpskeepagraduatestudentsloggingawayatadauntingdissertation.

Attheneurallevel,positivityreflectshowlongwecansustainthisoutlook.Onetechnicalmeasure,forinstance,assesseshowlongpeopleholdasmileafterseeingsomeonehelpapersonindistressorafterwatchinganexuberanttoddlerprancingabout.

Thissunnyoutlookshowsupinattitudes:forexample,thatmovingtoanewcityormeetingnewpeople isanadventureopeningupexcitingpossibilities—wonderfulplaces todiscover,newfriends—rather thanascarystep.When lifebringsasurprisingpositivemoment,suchasawarmconversation,thepleasantmoodlastsandlasts.

Asyoumightexpect,peoplewhoexperiencelifeinthislightfocusonthesil-ver lining, not just the clouds. The opposite, cynicism, breeds pessimism: notjustafocusonthecloud,buttheconvictionthatthereareevendarkeroneslurk-ing behind. It all depends onwhere you focus: the onemean fan, or the fiftythousandcheeringones.

Inpartpositivityreflects thebrain’srewardcircuitryinaction.Whenwe’rehappy,thenucleusaccumbens,aregionwithintheventralstriatuminthemiddleof the brain, activates. This circuitry seems vital formotivation and having asensethatwhatyou’redoingisrewarding.Richindopamine,thesecircuitsareadriverofpositivefeeling,strivingtowardourgoals,anddesire.

Thiscombineswith thebrain’sownopiates,which includeendorphins (therunner’s-highneurotransmitters).Thedopaminemay fuelourdriveandpersis-tence,whiletheopiatestagthatwithafeelingofpleasure.

Thesecircuits remainactivewhilewestaypositive. Ina tellingstudycom-paringpeoplewithdepressionandhealthyvolunteers,Davidsonfoundthatafterseeingahappyscenethosewithdepressioncouldnotmaintaintheresultingpos-

itivefeelings—theirrewardcircuitryshutoffmuchsooner.13Ourexecutiveareacan trigger this circuit,making us better able to sustain positive feeling, as inkeepinggoingdespitesetbacks,orjustgrindingawaytowardagoalthatmakesussmilewhenwepicturewhatreachingitwillbelike.Andpositivity, in turn,hasgreatpayoffs forperformance, energizingus sowecan focusbetter, thinkmoreflexibly,andpersevere.

Here’s a question: If everything worked out perfectly in your life, whatwouldyoubedoingintenyears?

Thatqueryinvitesustodreamalittle, toconsiderwhatreallymatterstousandhowthatmightguideourlives.

“Talking about your positive goals and dreams activates brain centers thatopenyouuptonewpossibilities.Butifyouchangetheconversationtowhatyoushoulddotofixyourself,itclosesyoudown,”saysRichardBoyatzis,apsychol-ogistattheWeatherheadSchoolofManagementatCaseWesternReserveUni-versity(andafriendandcolleaguesincewemetingraduateschool).

Toexplorethesecontrastingeffectsinpersonalcoaching,Boyatzisandcol-leaguesscannedthebrainsofcollegestudentsbeinginterviewed.14Forsome,theinterview focusedonpositives like that question aboutwhat they’d love to bedoing in tenyears, andwhat theyhoped togain from their collegeyears.Thebrain scans revealed that during the positively focused interviews there wasgreater activity in the brain’s reward circuitry and areas for good feeling andhappymemories. Think of this as a neural signature of the openness we feelwhenweareinspiredbyavision.

For others the interview focus was more negative: how demanding theyfoundtheirscheduleandtheirassignments,difficultiesmakingfriends,andfearsabouttheirperformance.Asthestudentswrestledwiththemorenegativeques-tionstheirbrainactivatedareasthatgenerateanxiety,mentalconflict,sadness.

Afocusonourstrengths,Boyatzisargues,urgesus towardadesiredfutureandstimulatesopennesstonewideas,people,andplans.Incontrast,spotlighting

ourweaknesseselicitsadefensivesenseofobligationandguilt,closingusdown.Thepositivelenskeepsthejoyinpracticeandlearning—thereasoneventhe

mostseasonedathletesandperformersstillenjoyrehearsingtheirmoves.“Youneedthenegativefocustosurvive,butapositiveonetothrive,”saysBoyatzis.“Youneedboth,butintherightratio.”

Thatratiowoulddowelltoflipfarmoretothepositivethanthenegative,inlightofwhat’sknownasthe“Losadaeffect,”afterMarcialLosada,anorganiza-tional psychologist who studied emotions in high-performing business teams.Analyzinghundredsof teams,Losadadetermined that themosteffectivehadapositive/negative ratio of at least 2.9 good feelings to every negativemoment(there’sanupper limit topositivity:aboveaLosadaratioofabout11:1, teamsapparentlybecome toogiddy tobeeffective).15Thesameratio rangeholds forpeoplewhoflourishinlife,accordingtoresearchbyBarbaraFredrickson,whoisapsychologistattheUniversityofNorthCarolina(andaformerresearchassoci-ateofLosada).16

Boyatzismakesthecasethatthispositivitybiasappliesaswelltocoaching—whetherbyateacher,aparent,aboss,oranexecutivecoach.

A conversation that startswith a person’s dreams and hopes can lead to alearningpathyieldingthatvision.Thisconversationmightextractsomeconcretegoals from the general vision, then look at what it would take to accomplishthosegoals—andwhat capacitieswemightwant toworkon improving to getthere.

That contrasts with a more common approach that focuses on a person’sweaknesses—whetherbadgradesormissingquarterly targets—andwhat todoto remedy them. This conversation focuses us onwhat’s wrongwith us—ourfailingsandwhatwehavetodoto“fix”ourselves—andallthefeelingsofguilt,fear,andthelikethatgoalong.Oneoftheworstversionsofthisapproachoc-curswhenparentspunishachildforbadgradesuntilheimproves.Theanxietyassociated with being punished actually hampers the child’s prefrontal cortex

whilehe is trying toconcentrateand learn,creating further impediment to im-provement.

In thecourseshe teachesatCase forMBAstudents andmid-career execu-tives,Boyatzishasbeenapplyingdreams-firstcoaching formanyyears.Tobesure,dreamsalonearenotenough:youhavetopracticeanynewneededabilitiesat every naturally occurring opportunity. In a given day thatmightmean any-thingfromzerotoadozenchancestopracticetheroutineyou’retryingtomasteronthewaytoyourdream.Thosemomentsaddup.

Onemanager, an executiveMBA student, wanted to build better relation-ships.“Hehadanengineeringbackground,”Boyatzistoldme.“Givehimataskandallhesawwasthetask,notthepeopleheworkedwithtogetitdone.”

Sohislearningplanbecame:“Spendtimethinkingabouthowtheotherper-son feels.” To get regular, low-risk opportunities for this practice outside hisworkandthehabitshehadthere,hehelpedcoachhisson’ssoccerteamandtriedtofocusontheplayers’feelingswhilehecoached.

Anotherexecutivetookuptutoringforthesamelearningagenda,volunteer-inginahighschoolinapoorneighborhood.Heusedthisopportunity,saysBoy-atzis,“tohelphimself learntobemoreattunedand‘gentle’whenhelpingoth-ers”—anewhabithebroughtintohisworkplace.Heenjoyedtutoringsomuchhesignedonforseveralmorerounds.

Togetdataonhowwellthisworks,Boyatzisdoessystematicratingsofthosegoing through the course. Coworkers or others who know them well anony-mouslyratethestudentsondozensofspecificbehaviorsthatdisplayoneoran-otheroftheemotionalintelligencecompetenciestypicalofhigh-performers(forexample:“Understandsothersbylisteningattentively”).Thenhetracksthestu-dentsdownyears laterandhas themratedagainby thosewhonowworkwiththem.

“Bynowwe’vedonetwenty-sixseparatelongitudinalstudies, trackingpeo-pledownwherever theyworknow,”Boyatzis tellsme. “We’ve found that the

improvementsstudentsmakeintheirfirstroundholdupaslongassevenyearslater.”

Whetherwe’retryingtohoneaskillinsportsormusic,enhanceourmemorypower,orlistenbetter,thecoreelementsofsmartpracticearethesame:ideally,apotentcombinationofjoy,smarttactics,andfullfocus.

Aswe’veexploredthethreevarietiesoffocus,we’vealsoheardaboutwaystoenhanceeach.Smartpracticegetstoamorefundamentallevel,cultivatingthebasicsofattentionuponwhichthetriplefocusbuilds.

16

BRAINSONGAMES

DanielCates, aworld champion, began his dedicated training routine at agesix.Thatwaswhen he first discovered his natural affinity for the video gameCommand&Conquer,which in thosedayscamefree,bundledwithMicrosoftWindows.From thenonCatesdisdainedplayingwithotherkids,preferring tospendhourscommandingandconqueringinthebasementofhisfamily’ssubur-banhome.1

Atthemath-and-sciencehighschoolheattended,Cateswouldcutclassandfindhiswayto thecomputerroomtoplay thepuzzlegameMinesweeper.Thegame requires locating mines hidden in an opaque grid and flagging them—withoutexposingoneandgettingblownup.Althoughhewasjustso-sowhenhestartedplayingthegame,endlesshoursofpracticemadeCatesabletoclearallthemineswithinninetyseconds—afeatthatseemedimpossibletohimwhenhestarted learning thegame (andutterly inconceivable tomewhen I just tried toplaythegameonline;giveitagoandyou’llsee).

At sixteen, he discoveredhismétier: online poker. In just eighteenmonthsCateswentfromlosingfive-dollargamesinlive-actionkitchenpokertowinningupto$500,000onlinepokerpurses(andjustintime—withinafewyearsonlinepokerbecamethetargetoflawsagainstit,atleastintheUnitedStates).Bythe

timehewas twenty,Cateshadwon$5.5millionat thegame,$1millionmorethanthesecond-highestplayer’sreportedearningsthatyear.2

Catesearnedthatremarkablesumby“grinding”(asingrindingaway),play-ingnotjustgameaftergame,butmultiplesimultaneousgames,withallcomers,includingthemostexpert.Onlinepokerletsyouplayasmanyopponentsasyoucanhandlesimultaneously,withinstantwin-losefeedback,whichfast-tracksthelearningcurve.Ateenagerwhocanplayadozenonlinehandsatatimeaccruesasmuchcumulativepractice at thegame’s subtleties in a fewshortyears as alifetimegamblerinhisfiftieswhoplaysonlythetablesinVegas.

Cates’s gift for poker very likely built on the cognitive scaffolding startedbackwhen he dived intoCommand&Control as a first grader.Winning thatbattlegamerequiresspeedycognitiveprocessingoffactorslikehowyourtroopscanbedeployedagainstyouropponent’s,vigilanceinpickingupcuesofwhenyourenemyhasjustbeguntoweaken,andmercilesslyattacking.JustbeforehisswitchtopokerCateswasaworldchampionatCommand&Control;theatten-tion skills andkiller instinct thatmadehima champ transferred readily to thecardgame.

ButinhistwentiesCateswokeuptothebarrennessofhissocialworldandnonexistent romantic life.Hebegan a search for a lifestyle thatwould let himenjoyhiswinnings.Whatwouldthatmean?

“Exercise.Girls,”asheputit.Beingworldclassintheonlinezoneofferslittlehelponsinglesnightatthe

localbar.Videogame strengths like rampant aggressionat anopponent’s firstsignofweaknesstransferpoorlytothedatingscene.

LastIheard,CateswasreadingmybookSocialIntelligence.Iwishhimwell.The book argues that interactions like those during online poker lack a vitallearningloopfortheinterpersonalcircuitsofthebrainthathelpusconnectand,say,makeagoodimpressiononafirstmeeting.

“Neurons that fire together wire together,” as psychologist Donald Hebb

neatlyputitbackinthe1940s.Thebrainisplastic,constantlyresculptingitscir-cuitryaswegothroughourday.Whateverwearedoing,aswedoitourbrainstrengthenssomecircuitsandnotothers.

Inface-to-face interactionsoursocialcircuitrypicksupamultitudeofcuesand signals that helpus connectwell, andwire together theneurons involved.Butduring thousandsofhours spentonline, thewiringof thesocialbraingetsvirtuallynoexercise.

BOOSTSTOBRAINPOWERORDAMAGETOTHEMIND?

“The majority of our socialization is flowing through machines,” says MarcSmith,afounderoftheSocialMediaResearchFoundation,“andthatopensupgreatopportunitiesandmanyconcerns.”3While“majority”seemsanoverstate-ment, debates rage about both the opportunity and the concerns, with videogamesanepicenterofdebate.

Arunningstreamofstudiesproclaimontheonehandthatsuchgamesdam-agethemind,orontheotherthat theyboostbrainpower.Arethosewhoarguethegamesgivekidsasinistertraininginaggressionright?Or,asotherspropose,dothegamestrainvitalattentionskills?Orboth?

To help settle the matter, the prestigious journal Nature convened half adozenexpertstosortoutthebenefitsfromtheharms.4Turnsoutit’sliketheef-fects of food—it all depends: some are nutritious; toomuch of others can betoxic. For video games the answers hinge on the specifics of which gamestrengthenswhatbraincircuitryinagivenway.

Take, for instance, those hyperactive auto races and rapid-fire battles. Thedataonsuchactiongamesshowsenhancementsinvisualattention,speedofpro-cessinginformation,objecttracking,andswitchingfromonementaltasktoan-other.Manysuchgamesevenseemtoofferasilent tutorial instatistical infer-ence—that is, sensing the odds that you can beat the enemies given your re-

sourcesandtheirnumbers.Andmoregenerally,variousgameshavebeenfoundtoimprovevisualacuity

and spatial perception, attention switching, decision-making, and the ability totrackobjects(thoughmanyofthosestudiesdonotletusknowifpeopledrawntothegamesarealreadyabitbetteratsuchmentalskills,orwhetherthegamesimprovedthem).

Games that offer increasingly harder cognitive challenges—more accurateandchallenging judgments and reactions at higher speeds, fully focused atten-tion,increasingspansofworkingmemory—drivepositivebrainchanges.

“Whenyouconstantlyneedtoscanthescreentodetectlittledifferences(be-causetheymaysignalanenemy)andthenorientattentiontothatarea,yoube-comebetteratthoseattentionalskills,”saysDouglasGentile,acognitivescien-tistattheMediaResearchLabatIowaStateUniversity.5

But,headds, theseskillsdonotnecessarily transferwell to lifeoutside thevideoscreen.Thoughtheymighthavegreatvalueforspecificjobs,suchasairtrafficcontrollers,theyarenohelpwhenitcomestoignoringthefidgetykidsit-tingnexttoyousoyoucanfocusonyourreading.Fast-pacedgames,someex-pertsargue,mightacclimatesomechildrentoastimulationratequiteunlikethatintheclassroom,aformulaforevenmorethanusualschoolboredom.

Although video gamesmay strengthen attention skills like rapidly filteringoutvisualdistractions,theydolittletoampupamorecrucialskillforlearning,sustaining focusonagraduallyevolvingbodyof information—suchaspayingattention inclassandunderstandingwhatyou’re reading, andhow it ties in towhatyoulearnedlastweekoryear.

There’s a negative correlation between the hours a kid spends gaming andhowwellhedoesinschool,verylikelyindirectratiototimestolenfromstudies.When3,034Singaporeanchildrenandadolescentswerefollowedfortwoyears,thosewhobecameextremegamersshowedincreasesinanxiety,depression,andsocialphobia,andadrop ingrades.But if theystopped theirgaminghabit,all

thoseproblemsdecreased.6

Thenthere’sthedownsideofplayingcountlesshoursofgamesthatfine-tunethebrainforarapid,violentresponse.7Somedangershere,theexpertpanelsays,have been exaggerated in the popular press: violent gamesmay increase low-level aggression, but such games in themselves are not going to turn a well-raisedkid intoaviolentone.Yetwhenthegamesareplayedbychildrenwho,forexample,havebeenthevictimofphysicalabuseathome(andsoaremoreprone toviolence themselves), theremightbe adangerous synergism—thoughnoonecanasyetpredictwithanycertaintyinwhichchildthistoxicchemistrywilloccur.

Still,hoursspentbattlinghordesintentonkillingyouunderstandablyencour-age “hostile attribution bias,” the instant assumption that the kidwhobumpedyouinthehallwayhasagrudge.Justastroubling,violentgamersshowlessenedconcernwhenwitnessingpeoplebeingmean,asinbullying.

Given that the paranoid vigilance such games encourage can occasionallymixtragicallywiththeagitationandconfusionofthementallydisturbed,dowewanttobefeedingouryoungfromthismentalmenu?

Therecentgenerationsraisedongamesandotherwisegluedtovideoscreens,oneneuroscientisttoldme,amounttoanunprecedentedexperiment:“amassivedifferenceinhowtheirbrainsareplasticallyengagedinlife”comparedwithpre-viousgenerations.The long-termquestion iswhat suchgameswill do to theirneuralwiring, and so to the social fabric—and how thismight either developnewstrengthsorwarphealthydevelopment.

Ontheupside,thedemandthataplayerkeepfocuseddespitesnazzydistract-ing lures enhances executive function,whether for sheer concentrationnoworresistingimpulselater.Ifyouaddtothegame’smixaneedtocooperateandco-ordinatewithotherplayers,you’vegotarehearsalofsomevaluablesocialskills.

Kidswhoplaygamesthatrequirecooperationshowmorehelpfulnessinthecourseofaday.Perhapsthosepurelyviolent,me-against-allgamescouldbere-

designedsothatawinningstrategydemandedcomingtotheaidofthoseintrou-bleandfindinghelpersandallies—notjustahostilescan.

SMARTGAMES

ThepopularappAngryBirdsluresmillionsofpeopleintocumulativebillionsofhoursofconcentratedfinger-flicking.Ifneuronsthatfiretogetherwiretogether,youhavetowonderjustwhatmentalskills,ifany,aregettingfine-tunedwhenyourkids(oryou)spendallthattimelostinAngryBirds.

The brain learns and remembers bestwhen focus is greatest.Video gamesfocusattentionandgetustorepeatmovesoverandover,andsoarepowerfultu-torials.Thatpresentsanopportunityfortrainingthebrain.

MichaelPosner’sgroupattheUniversityofOregongavechildrenfourtosixyearsoldfivedaysofattentiontraining, insessionslastinguptofortyminuteseach.Partof the time theywereplayingagamewhere theyuseda joystick tocontrolacatonascreenthatwastryingtocatchsmallmovingobjects.

Although these three-plus hours of practice seem fairly short to track achangeintheneuralnetworksforattention,brainwavedatasuggestedashiftintheactivityofthecircuitryforexecutiveattention,towardlevelsseeninadults.8

The conclusion: target kids with the poorest attention for such training—those with autism, attention deficit, and other learning problems—since theystandtobenefitthemost.Andbeyondremediallessons,Posner’sgroupproposesthat attention training should be part of the education of every child, giving aboostinlearningacrosstheboard.

Those who, like Posner, see such potential brain training benefits proposethatspeciallydesignedgamescouldimproveeverythingfromvisualtrackingin“lazy eye” (known technically as amblyopia) to the hand-eye coordination ofsurgeons.Adeficiency in thealertingnetwork, researchsuggests,underliesat-tention deficit disorder; problems in orienting are seen in the fixations of

autism.9

In theNetherlands, eleven-year-oldswithADHD played a computer gamedemandingheightenedattention:theyhadtobevigilantforenemybotspoppingup,forinstance,andstayalerttowhentheirownavatar’senergywasgettingtoolow.10After just eightone-hour sessions theywerebetterable to focusdespitedistractions(andnotjustwhileplayingthegame).

At their best, “video games are controlled training regimens delivered inhighlymotivating”waysthatresultin“enduringphysicalandfunctionalneuro-logicalremodeling,”saysMichaelMerzenich,aneuroscientistattheUniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco,whohasledthedesignofgamesmeanttoretrainthebrainsof older peoplewithneurological deficits likememory loss andde-mentia.11

Ben Shapiro, who was in charge of worldwide drug discovery—includingneuroscience—atMerckResearchLaboratories,hasjoinedtheboardofacom-panydesigninggamesthatincreaseconcentrationandminimizedistractions.Heseesadvantagesinusingsmartpracticeratherthanmedicationforsuchpurposes.“Games like this could slow the loss of key cognitive functions with aging,”Shapirotellsme.

He adds, “If youwant tomake people’smental lives better,work directlywithmentaltargets,ratherthanmolecularones—drugsareashotgunapproach,sincenatureusesthesamemoleculesformanydifferentpurposes.”

Dr.Merzenichputslittlestockintheratherrandom—anddecidedlymixed—benefitsofoff-the-shelfgames,preferringtotailoronesthattargetaspecificsetof cognitive skills. A new generation of brain training apps, Douglas Gentileproposes,wouldapplysmartpracticetechniquesfamiliartosuperbteachers:

•clearobjectivesatprogressivelymoredifficultlevels•adaptingtothepaceofthespecificlearner• immediatefeedbackandgraduatedpracticechallenges to thepointof

mastery•practicingthesameskillsindifferentcontexts,encouragingskilltrans-

ference

Onedayinthefuture,somepredict,braintraininggameswillbeastandardpartofschooling,withthebestonesgatheringdataabouttheplayersastheysi-multaneously fine-tune themselves into the exact game needed—an empathiccognitive tutor. In the meantime, experts ruefully admit, the money spent onsucheducationappspalescomparedwithbudgetsofgamingcorporations—andsoatpresenteventhebestbraintrainingtoolsaresadechoesofthepizzazzofaGrandTheftAuto.Buttherearesignsthatmaybechanging.

Ijustwatchedmyfourgrandchildren,onebyone,playthebetaversionofagame for the iPad called Tenacity. The game offers you a leisurely journeythroughanyofahalfdozenscenes, fromabarrendesert toa fantasystaircasespiralingheavenward.

Thechallenge:Everytimeyouexhale,youtaptheiPadscreenwithonefin-ger.Andforeveryfifthexhalationyoutapwithtwofingers—atleastatthebe-ginninglevel.

At the time, the grandchildren ranged in age from six, eight, and a newlymintedtwelvetoanabout-to-befourteen.Theyofferwhatamountstoanaturalexperimentinbrainmaturationandattention.

Thesix-year-oldgoes first.Hepicks thedesert scene,whichputshimonaslowamblealongapaththroughsanddunes,palms,andmud-daubeddomiciles.The first try he had to be reminded ofwhat to do; by the third he had gottenprettygoodatcoordinatinghistapswithhisbreath—thoughhestillsometimesforgotthedoubletaps.

Even so, he was delighted to see a field of roses slowly emerge from thedesertsandeverytimehegotitright.

Astaircasespiralingthroughtheskywasthechoiceofoureight-year-old.As

thestaircaseunwound itselfupward, therewereoccasionaldistractions:aheli-copterfliesintoview,doesaflip,andfliesoff;lateraplane,aflockofbirds—andatthehighestaltitude,varioussatellites.Shestaysintentonhertappingforthefulltenminutes,despitehavingabitofafeverthatday.

Thenextgrandchild,justturnedtwelve,picksastaircaseinspace,wherethedistractionsincludeplanets,asteroidshowers,andmeteorites.Whileheryoungertwo siblings had helped get their taps right by controlling their breathing andcountingaloud,shejustbreathesnaturally.

And the last, soon to be fourteen, picks the desert scene and executes thewholeroutineeffortlessly.Attheend,shetellsme,“Ifeelcalmandrelaxed—Ilikethisgame.”

Indeed,allofthemhadimmediatelybecomeenrapt,attuningtotheirbreath-ingandtherhythmoftheirfingertaps.“Ifeltreallyfocused,”thetwelve-year-oldreported.“Iwanttodoitagain.”

That’sexactlywhat thegamedesignershoped for.Tenacity,Davidson tellsme,wasdevelopedbyanaward-winninggamedesigngroupattheUniversityofWisconsin, with his input. “We took what we were learning about focus andcalminginourcontemplativeneurosciencestudies,andputitintoagamesokidscouldgetthebenefits.”

Tenacity strengthens selective attention, “the building block for all otherkindsoflearning,”headded.“Theself-regulationofattentionletsyoufocusonexplicitgoalsandresistdistraction,”akeytosuccessinanydomain.

“Ifwecancreateagamekidswanttoplay,itwillbeanefficientwaytotrainattention,givenhowmuchtimekidsspendplayingandhownaturallyitcomesto them,” saysDavidson,who heads theUniversity’s Center for InvestigatingHealthyMinds.“They’lllovedoingthehomework.”

StanfordUniversityhasaCalmingTechnologyLab,whichfocusesongad-gets that embedmindful, quieting focus.With one such calmer, “breathware,”youwearabelt thatdetectsyourbreathrate.Shouldachock-full inboxtrigger

what thedevelopercalls“emailapnea,”an iPhoneappguidesyou through fo-cusingexercisesthatcalmyourbreath—andmind.

Stanford’s Institute of Design offers a graduate course called “DesigningCalm.”Asoneoftheteachers,GusTai,says,‘AlotofSiliconValleytechisori-entedtowarddistracting.Butwithcalmingtech,we’reaskinghowwecanbringmorebalancetotheworld.”12

17

BREATHINGBUDDIES

DrivetothedeadendatthefarthestreachofastreetontheeastsideofNewYorkCity’sSpanishHarlemandyoufindanelementaryschool,P.S.112,snug-gledbetweentheFDRDrive,aCatholicchurch,aparkinglotforbig-boxstores,andthemassiveRobertF.Wagnerlow-incomehousingcompound.

Thekindergartners throughsecondgraderswhoattendP.S.112come fromhardscrabblehomes,manyinthoselow-incomeapartments.Whenaseven-year-old there mentioned in class that he knew someone who had been shot, theteacher asked how many other children knew a shooting victim. Every handwentup.

AsyouenterP.S.112,yousigninatadeskmannedbyapoliceofficer,albeita kindly olderwoman.But if youwalk down the halls as I did onemorning,what’smoststrikingistheatmosphere:lookingintoclassroomsIfoundthechil-dren sitting still, calm and quiet, absorbed in their work or listening to theirteacher.

WhenIdropbyRoom302,thesecond-gradeclassroomofco-teachersEmilyHoaldridgeandNicolleRubin,Iwitnessoneingredientintherecipeforthehal-cyonatmosphere:breathingbuddies.

Thetwenty-twosecondgraderssitdoingtheirmath,threeorfourtoatable,

whenMissEmilystrikesamelodiouschime.Oncue,thekidssilentlygatheronalargerug,sittinginrows,cross-legged,facingthetwoteachers.Onegirlgoesovertotheclassroomdoor,putsaDONOTDISTURBsignontheoutsideknob,and

closesit.Then, still in silence, the teachersholdupPopsiclesticksonebyone,each

with a student’s name—a signal for thepupils to go individuallyover to theircubbiesandbringbacktheirspecial,fist-sizedstuffedanimals:stripedtigers,apinkpig,ayellowpuppy,apurpledonkey.Theboysandgirlsfindaspotonthefloortoliedown,puttheirstuffedanimalbuddyontheirbelly,andwait,handstotheirsides.

They follow the directions of aman’s friendly voice leading them throughsomedeepbellybreathing,astheycounttothemselves,“one,two,three,”whilethey take a long exhalation and inhalation.1Then they squeeze and relax theireyes;stretchtheirmouthwideopen,stickingouttheirtongue;andsqueezetheirhandsintoaball,relaxingeachinturn.Itendswiththevoicesaying,“Nowsitup,andfeelrelaxed,”andastheydo,theyallseemtobejustthat.

Anotherchime,andstillinsilencethekidsoncuetaketheirplacesinacircleon the rug, and report onwhat they experienced: “It feels nice inside.” “I feltverylazybecauseitcalmedmybody.”“Itmademehavehappythoughts.”

Theorderlinessoftheexerciseandthecalmfocusintheclassroommakeithard tobelieveelevenof the twenty-twokids are classifiedashaving“specialneeds”:cognitive impairments likedyslexia, speechdifficultiesorpartialdeaf-ness,attentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder,pointsontheautismspectrum.

“We’vegotmanykidswithproblems,butwhenwedo this, theydon’t actout,” saysMissEmily.But theweek before, a glitch in the school daymeantRoom302skippedthisritual.“Itwasliketheywereadifferentclass,”saysMissEmily.“Theycouldn’tsitstill;theywereallovertheplace.”

“Ourschoolhassomekidswhoarehighlydistractible,”saystheschoolprin-

cipal,EileenReiter.“Thishelpsthemrelaxandfocus.Wealsogivethemregularmovementbreaks—allthesestrategieshelp.”

Forexample,saysReiter,“Insteadofusingtime-outs,weteachkidstotake‘time-ins,’ tomanage their feelings,” part of an emphasis on teaching the stu-dentstoself-regulateratherthanrelyingonpunishmentsandrewards.Andwhenchildrendohaveproblems,sheadds,“We’llaskthemwhattheycoulddodiffer-entlynexttime.”

BreathingbuddiesispartoftheInnerResilienceProgram,alegacyoftheat-tacksontheWorldTradeCenteronSeptember11,2001.Thousandsofchildrenin schools near the twin towers were evacuated as the buildings went up inflames.Many hikedmiles up the emptiedWest Side Highway, their teacherswalkingbackwardtobesurethechildrenwerenotlookingatthehorrificspecterbehind.

Inthemonthsafterward,theRedCrossaskedLindaLantieri—whoseconflictresolution program had already been successful inmany schools—to design aprogram to help the children (and teachers) regain their composure after 9/11.TheInnerResilienceProgram,alongwitharangeofsocialandemotionallearn-ingmethods,“hastransformedtheschool,”Reitersays.“It’saverycalmplace.Andwhenkidsarecalm,theylearnbetter.

“Thebiggestpieceisgettingthekidstoself-regulate,”principalReiteradds.“Becauseweareanearlychildhoodschool,wehelpstudents learnhowtoputtheirproblemsinperspectiveanddevelopstrategiestoresolvethem.Theylearnto size up howbig a problem is, like getting teased or bullied—it’s bigwhensomeone hurts your feelings. Ormiddle-sized, like being frustratedwith yourschoolwork.Theycanmatchtheproblemtoastrategy.”

TheclassroomsinP.S.112allhavea“peacecorner,”aspecialplacewhereany childwho needs to can retreat for time alone to calm down. “Sometimesthey just need a break, a fewmoments alone,”Reiter adds. “But you’ll see achild who is really frustrated or upset go over to the peace corner and apply

somestrategiesthey’velearned.Thebiglessonistotuneinandknowwhattodotocareforyourself.”

Whilefive-toseven-year-oldsgetinstructioninthebreathingbuddiesexer-cise,fromeightanduptheypracticemindfulnessofbreathing,whichhasprovenbenefitsboth for sustainingattention and for the circuitry that calmsusdown.This combination of calm and concentration creates an optimal inner state forfocusandlearning.

Evaluationsofaone-semesterversionoftheprogramfoundthatthechildrenwhoneedgreatesthelp—thoseat“highrisk”forderailinginlife—benefitedthemost:significantboostsinattentionandperceptualsensitivity,anddropsinag-gressiveness,downbeatmoods,andfrustrationwithschool.2What’smore,teach-erswhousedtheprogramincreasedtheirsenseofwell-being,auguringwellforthelearningatmosphereoftheirclassrooms.

THESTOPLIGHT

Inapreschool, songsplayas eight three-year-olds sit at a low table, eachonecoloring in the thickoutlineofaclown.Suddenly themusic stops—andsodothekids.

Thatmoment captures a learning opportunity for any three-year-old’s pre-frontalcortex, thesitewhereexecutivefunctionslikesquelchinganunrulyim-pulsetakeroot.Oneofthoseabilities,cognitivecontrol,holdsakeytoawell-livedlife.

Stoppingoncueistheholygrailofcognitivecontrol.Thebetterchildrenareatstoppingwhenthemusicstops—ormakingtherightmoveandnotthewrongonewhileplayingSimonSays—thestrongertheirprefrontalwiringforcognitivecontrolbecomes.

Here’satestofcognitivecontrol.Quicknow,inwhatdirectionisthemiddlearrowpointingineachrow?

Whenpeople take this test under laboratory conditions there are detectabledifferences(asmeasuredinthousandthsofasecond—notsodetectablebyyouorme)betweentheminthespeedwithwhichtheynamethemiddlearrow’sdi-rection.Thetest,calledthe“Flanker”forthedistractingarrowsthatflankthetar-getone,gaugesachild’ssusceptibility todistractionsdisruptingconcentration.Focusingonthemiddlearrowgoingtotheleftandignoringalltheothersheadedrighttakeslotsofcognitivecontrolforayoungster,especiallyoverthearduouscourseofaseriesofarrayslikethis.

Kidsgonewild—theoneswhomfrustratedteacherskickoutoftheirclass,orwant to—suffer from a deficit in these circuits; theirwhims dictate their acts.Butratherthanpunishingkidsforthis,whynotgivethemlessonsthathelpthemmanagethemselvesbetter?Forinstance,preschoolerswhohadsessionslearningto focus on their breath showedmore accurate and faster performance on theFlanker.3

Perhapsnomentalskill—astheNewZealandstudyfound—mattersasmuchin life success as executive control. Kids who can ignore impulse, filter outwhat’sirrelevant,andstayfocusedonagoalfarebestinlife.There’saneduca-tionappforthat.It’scalled“socialandemotionallearning,”orSEL.

WhensecondandthirdgradersinaSeattleschoolaregettingupset,they’retoldtothinkofatrafficsignal.Redlightmeansstop—calmdown.Takealong,deepbreathandasyoucalmdownabit, tellyourselfwhat theproblemisandhowyoufeel.

Theyellow light reminds them to slowdownand thinkof several possible

waystheymightsolvetheproblem,thenchoosewhichisbest.Thegreenlightsignalsthemtotryoutthatplan,andseehowitworks.

IfirstencounteredstoplightposterswhenIwastouringtheNewHaven,Con-necticut,publicschoolswhilewritinganarticle for theNewYorkTimes—wellbeforeIappreciatedthecrucialattentiontrainingtheposterguideskidsthrough.The stoplight rehearses the shift from bottom-up, amygdala-driven impulse totop-down,prefrontalexecutive-drivenattention.

ThestoplightexercisewasthebrainchildofRogerWeissberg,apsychologistthenatYalewhointhelate1980sdevelopedapioneeringprogramcalled“so-cialdevelopment”forNewHaven’spublicschools.Nowthatsameimagecanbefoundonthewallsofcountlessthousandsofclassroomsworldwide.

And forgood reason.Back then therewasonly spottydata suggesting thatgettingkidstorespondthiswaytotheirangerandanxietyhadpositiveimpact.Butnowthatcasehasbecomeaboutasstrongasanyinsocialscience.

Ameta-analysisofmorethantwohundredschoolswithsocialandemotionallearningprograms likeNewHaven’s socialdevelopmentcurriculumcomparedthemwithsimilarschoolswithoutsuchprograms.4Thefindingsfor thosewiththe programs: classroom disruption and misbehavior down 10 percent, atten-danceandotherpositivebehaviorup10percent—andachievement test scoresboostedby11percent.

In that Seattle school the stoplight exercisewas coupledwith another.Thesecondandthirdgraderswereregularlyshowncardsoffaceswithdifferentex-pressions and theirnames.Thekids talkedaboutwhat it’s like tohaveoneofthosefeelings—tobemadorscaredorhappy.

These“feelingface”cardstoneupaseven-year-old’semotionalself-aware-ness;theyconnectthewordforafeelingwithitsimage,andthenwiththeirownexperience.Thatsimplecognitiveacthasneuralimpact:thebrain’srighthemi-sphererecognizesthefeelingsdepicted,whiletheleftunderstandsthenameandwhatitmeans.

Emotional self-awareness requires putting all that together via cross-talk inthecorpuscallosum,thetissuethatconnectsthebrain’sleftandrightsides.Thestrongertheconnectivityacrossthisneuralbridge,themorefullywecanunder-standouremotions.

Beingable tonameyourfeelingsandput that togetherwithyourmemoriesandassociationsturnsouttobecrucialforself-control.Learningtospeak,devel-opmentalpsychologistshavefound,letschildrencallontheirinnerdon’ttore-placethevoiceoftheirparents’inmanagingunrulyimpulses.

Asaduothestoplightandthefeelingcardsbuildtwosynergisticneuraltoolsfor impulse control. The stoplight strengthens circuitry between the prefrontalcortex—thebrain’sexecutivecenter,justbehindtheforehead—andthemidbrainlimbiccenters,thatcauldronofid-drivenimpulses.Thefeelingfacesencourageconnectivity across the two halves of the brain, boosting the ability to reasonabout feelings. This up-down, left-right linkage knits a child’s brain together,seamlesslyintegratingsystemsthat,iflefttothemselves,createthechaoticuni-verseofathree-year-old.5

In younger children these neural connections are still budding (these braincircuits don’t finally finish maturing until the mid-twenties), which explainskids’zany,sometimesmaddeningantics,wheretheirwhimsdrivetheiractions.Butbetweenagesfiveandeight,children’sbrainshaveagrowthspurt in theirimpulse control circuits.The ability to think about their impulses and just say“no” to themmakes third graders lesswild than those boisterous first gradersdown the hall. The Seattle project’s design took full advantage of this neuralbuildingboom.

Butwhywait until grade school?These inhibitory circuits start to developfrom birth.WalterMischel taught four-year-olds how to resist those lusciousmarshmallowsbyseeingthemdifferently—forexample,focusingontheircolor.AndMischelisthefirsttosaythatevenafour-year-oldwhojustcan’twaitandgrabsthemarshmallowrightoffthebatcanstilllearntodelaygratification—im-

pulsivityisnotnecessarilysomethinghe’sstuckwithforlife.Inadaywhenonlineshoppingandinstantmessagesencouragegratification

now,kidsneedmorehelpwiththatpractice.Onestrongconclusionbythescien-tistswhostudiedtheDunedin,NewZealand,kidswastheneedforinterventionsthat boost self-control, particularly during early childhood and the teen years.The SEL programs fill the bill, covering the years from kindergarten throughhighschool.6

It’sintriguingthatSingaporehasbecomethefirstcountryintheworldtore-quireeveryoneof itsstudentsgo throughanSELprogram.Thetinycity-staterepresentsoneofthegreateconomicsuccessstoriesofthelastfiftyyears,asapaternalisticgovernmentbuiltadiminutivenationintoaneconomicpowerhouse.

Singaporehasnonaturalresources,nogreatarmy,nospecialpoliticalsway.Its secret lies in its people—and the government has intentionally cultivatedthesehumanresourcesasthedriverofitseconomy.SchoolsaretheincubatorforSingapore’s outstandingworkforce.With an eye toward the future, Singaporehas partnered with Roger Weissberg, now president of the Collaborative forAcademic, Social, and Emotional Learning, to design emotional intelligence–basedlessonplansforitsschools.

Andforgoodreason:oneconclusionbyeconomistsinvolvedintheDunedinstudywasthatteachingallkidstheseskillscouldshiftanentirenation’sincomeupafewnotches,withaddedgainsintheirhealthandalowercrimerate.

MINDFULNESS-BASEDEMOTIONALINTELLIGENCE

Theattention training thatkidsget atP.S.112mixeswellwith the restof theInnerResilienceProgram,whichstandsasamodelofbestpracticesinthesocialandemotionallearningmovement.IbecameacofounderoftheCollaborativeforAcademic,Social,andEmotionalLearning—thegroupthathasfacilitatedtheseprograms’ spread to thousandsof schooldistricts throughout theworld—while

writingmybookEmotionalIntelligence.Isawlessonsinemotionalintelligence—thatis,inself-awareness,self-man-

agement, empathy, and social skills—as synergistic with standard academiccourses.NowI’mrealizingthatthebasicsofattentiontrainingareanextstep,alow-techmethod forboostingneural circuitry at theheart of emotional intelli-gence.

“I’vedoneSELforyears,”LindaLantieritellsme.“WhenIaddedthemind-fulnesspiece, I sawadramaticallyquickerembodimentofcalmingabilityandthereadinesstolearn.Ithappensatearlierages,andearlierintheschoolyear.”

ThereseemstobeanaturalsynergybetweenSELandattentiontraininglikemindfulness.WhenIspokewithWeissberg,hetoldmetheorganizationhadjustundertakenareviewoftheimpactsofmindfulnessinSELprograms.

“Cognitive control and executive function seem crucial for self-awarenessandself-management,aswellasacademics,”Weissbergsaid.

Deliberate,top-downattentionholdsakeytoself-management.Thepartsofthebrainforsuchexecutivefunctionmaturerapidlyfromthepreschoolyearstoaboutsecondgrade(andthegrowthoftheseneuralnetworkscontinuesintoearlyadulthood).Thesecircuitsmanageboth“hot”processingofemotionalmomentsand “cool” processing of more neutral information, like academics.7 This cir-cuitryseemssurprisinglyplasticthroughoutchildhood,suggestingthatinterven-tionslikeSELcanenhanceit.

One study taught attention skills to four- and six-year-olds in just five ses-sions of playing games that exercise visual tracking (guessing where a duckswimmingunderwaterwillsurface),spottingatargetcartooncharacterwithinanarrayofdistractions,andinhibitingimpulse(clickingifasheepcomesoutfrombehindabaleofhay,butnotifawolfemerges).8

Thefinding:theneuralscaffoldingforbothemotionalandcognitiveabilitieswasenhanced.Thebrainsoffour-year-oldswhogotthisbrieftrainingresembledthoseofsix-year-olds,andthoseofthetrainedsix-year-oldswerewellontheir

waytoneuralexecutivefunctionseeninadults.Thoughagenecontrolsthematurationofthebrainregionsthathandleexecu-

tiveattention,suchgenesareinturnregulatedbyexperience—andthistrainingseems to have sped their activity. The circuitry that manages all this—whichruns between the anterior cingulate and the prefrontal areas—is active in bothemotional and cognitive varieties of attention regulation: managing emotionalimpulseaswellasaspectsofIQlikenonverbalreasoningandfluidthinking.

Anolderdichotomyinpsychologybetween“cognitive”and“noncognitive”abilitieswouldputacademicskillsinaseparatecategoryfromsocialandemo-tionalones.Butgivenhowtheneuralscaffoldingforexecutivecontrolunderliesbothacademicandsocial/emotionalskills,thatseparationseemsasantiquatedastheCartesiansplitbetweenmindandbody. In thedesignof thebrain theyarehighly interactive, not fully independent. Kids who can’t pay attention can’tlearn;theyalsocan’tmanagethemselveswell.

“When you have elements like regular quiet time,” saysLantieri, “a PeaceCornerwherekidscangoontheirownwhentheyneedtocalmdown,andmind-fulness,yougetmorecalmnessandself-managementontheonehand,anden-hancedfocusandtheabilitytosustainitontheother.Youchangetheirphysiol-ogyandself-awareness.”

By teachingkids the skills thathelp themcalmdownand focus, “we layafoundation of self-awareness and self-management onwhich you can scaffoldtheotherSELskillslikeactivelistening,identifyingfeelings,andsoon.

BackwhenSEL started,Lantieri tellsme, “Wewere expectingkids to usetheirSELskillswhen theywerehijacked,but theycouldn’taccess them.Nowwerealizetheyneedamorebasictoolfirst:cognitivecontrol.That’swhattheygetwithbreathingbuddiesandmindfulness.Oncetheyexperiencehowthiscanhelpthem,theygettheconfidence,‘Icandothis.’

“Somekidsuseitduringtests—theywearaBiodot,”asmallplasticdotthatchangescoloras skin temperature (and soblood flow to that area) shifts.This

“tellsthemwhentheyaregettingtooanxioustothinkwellonthetest.Ifitsaystheyneedto,theyusethemindfulnesstocalmandfocusthemselves,andthengobacktothetestwhentheycanthinkmoreclearly.

“Thekidsunderstandthatwhentheydon’tdowellonatest,it’snotbecausetheyarestupid,butthat‘WhenI’msuper-nervousit’sintherebutIcan’taccessit.ButIknowhowtofocusandcalm—thenI’llgettoit.’TheyhavetheattitudeI’minchargeofmyselfnow—Iknowwhattodothatcanhelp.”

TheInnerResilienceProgramisinschoolsfromYoungstown,Ohio,toAn-chorage,Alaska. “Itworksbest,”Lantieri says, “whencombinedwith anSELprogram—alltheseplacesdothat.”

CUTTINGTHROUGHTHEHODGEPODGE

Thescientificliteratureontheeffectsofmeditationamountstoahodgepodgeofbad,good,andremarkableresultsinamixofquestionablemethodologies,so-sodesigns,andgold-standardstudies.SoIaskedthedeanofcontemplativeneuro-science,Wisconsin’sRichardDavidson,tosortthroughitallandsummarizetheclear benefits for attention ofmindfulness practice.He immediately ticked offtwobigones.

“Mindfulness,” he said, “boosts the classic attentionnetwork in the brain’sfronto-parietalsystemthatworkstogethertoallocateattention.Thesecircuitsarefundamental in the basicmovement of attention: disengaging your focus fromonething,movingittoanother,andstayingwiththatnewobjectofattention.”

Anotherkeyimprovementisinselectiveattention,inhibitingthepullofdis-tractors. This lets us focus on what’s important rather than be distracted bywhat’sgoingonaroundus—youcankeepyour focuson themeaningof thesewords insteadofhavingitpulledawayby,say,checkingthisendnote.9This istheessenceofcognitivecontrol.

Though so far there are just a fewwell-designed studies ofmindfulness in

children,“[i]nadultsthereseemstobestrongdataonmindfulnessandattentionnetworks,” according toMarkGreenberg, professor of human development atPennsylvania State University.10 Greenberg, who himself is leading studies ofmindfulnessinyoungpeople,iscautiousbutoptimistic.11

Oneofthebiggerbenefitsforstudentsisinunderstanding.Wanderingmindspunchholesincomprehension.Theantidoteformindwanderingismeta-aware-ness,attentiontoattentionitself,asintheabilitytonoticethatyouarenotnotic-ingwhatyoushould,andcorrectingyourfocus.Mindfulnessmakesthiscrucialattentionmusclestronger.12

Thentherearethewell-establishedrelaxationeffects,suchasthecalmema-natingfromabreathingbuddiesclassroom.Thisphysiologicalimpactsuggestsadownshift in the set point for arousal in the vagus nerve circuitry, the key tostayingcalmunderstressandrecoveringquicklyfromupsets.Thevagusnervemanagesahostofphysiologicalfunctions,mostnotablyheartrate—andsothequicknessofrecoveryfromstress.13

Highervagaltone,whichcanresultfrommindfulnessandothermeditations,leadstogreaterflexibilityinmanyways.14Peoplearebetterabletomanageboththeirattentionandtheiremotions.Inthesocialrealmtheycanmoreeasilycreatepositiverelationshipsandhaveeffectiveinteractions.

Beyondsuchbenefits,mindfulnessmeditatorsshowsymptomlesseninginaremarkable rangeof physiological disorders, from sheer jitters to hypertensionandchronicpain.“Someofthebiggesteffectsfoundwithmindfulnessarebio-logical,”saysDavidson,adding,“It’ssurprisingforanexercisethattrainsatten-tion.”

JonKabat-Zinn founded theMindfulness-Based StressReduction program,whichtriggeredaworldwidewaveofmindfulnessdeployedinthousandsofhos-pitals and clinics, and in society at large, from prisons to leadership develop-ment.Hetellsme,“Ourpatientstypicallycomeinbecausethey’reoverwhelmedbystressorpain.Butthere’ssomethingaboutpayingattentiontoyourowninner

states, and seeingwhatneeds tochange inyour life.Peopleon theirownstopsmokingorchangethewaytheyeatandstartlosingweight,thoughasaruleweneversayanythingdirectlyaboutthese.”

Almostanyvarietyofmeditation,inessence,retrainsourhabitsofattention—particularly the routine default to awanderingmind.15When three kinds ofmeditation were tested—concentration, generating loving-kindness, and openawareness—eachtechniquequietedtheareasformindwandering.

Sowhilegamingoffersonepromisingvenueforenhancingcognitiveskills,mindfulness and similar attention-training methods present an alternative orcomplement.The twotrainingapproachesmaybemerging,as in thebreathinggameTenacity.WhenIspoketoDavidsonhe toldme,“We’re takingwhatwecanlearnfrommeditationresearchandadaptingitforgames,sothebenefitscanspreadmorewidely.Ourresearchonattentionandcalminginformsthegames’design.”

Still,methods likemindfulnessseemtoofferan“organic”wayto teachfo-cusingskillswithouttherisksthatendlesshoursofgamingposeforde-skillingkidsinthesocialrealm.16Indeed,mindfulnessseemstoprimebraincircuitrythatmakesusengagetheworldmore,notwithdraw.17Whetherawell-designedgamecandothesameforthebrain’ssocialcircuitryremainstobeseen.18

PsychiatristDanielSiegelof theUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,de-scribes the wiring that links attuning to ourselves and attuning to others as a“resonance circuit” that mindfulness practice strengthens.19 A well-connectedlife,Dr.Siegel argues, beginswith the circuitry formindfulness in thebrain’sprefrontalexecutivecenters,whichdodoubleduty: theyarealsoatplaywhenweattuneinrapport.

Mindfulnessstrengthensconnectionsbetweentheprefrontalexecutivezonesandtheamygdala,particularlythecircuitsthatcansay“no”toimpulse—avitalskillfornavigatingthroughlife(aswesawinpart2).20

Enhancedexecutivefunctionwidensthegapbetweenimpulseandaction,in

partbybuildingmeta-awareness, thecapacity toobserveourmentalprocessesratherthanjustbesweptawaybythem.Thiscreatesdecisionpointswedidnothavebefore:wecansquelchtroublesomeimpulsesthatweusuallywouldacton.

MINDFULNESSATWORK

GoogleisacitadelofthehighIQ.Ihadheardthatnoapplicantsgetajobinter-viewthereunlesstheycanshowtestscoresputtingtheminthetop1percentofintellect.SowhenIgaveatalkontheemotionalkindofintelligenceatGooglesomeyearsago,IwassurprisedtofindanoverflowcrowdinoneofthebiggestmeetingroomsattheGoogleplex,withmonitorsbroadcastingmytalktopeoplein overflow rooms. That enthusiasm was later channeled into a mindfulness-based emotional intelligence course atGoogleUniversity called Search InsideYourself.

Tocreatethatcourse,Google’semployeeNo.107,Chade-MengTan,teamedwithmyoldfriendMirabaiBush,founderoftheCenterforContemplativeMindinSociety,todesignanexperiencethatenhancesself-awareness—forexample,byusingabodyscanmeditationtotuneintofeelings.AninnercompasshelpsgreatlyatGoogle,wheremanybusiness innovationshavecomefromthecom-pany’spolicyofgivingitsemployeesonefreedayaweektopursuetheirownpetprojects.ButMeng,ashe’sknownwidely,hasalargervision:tomakethecourseavailablefarbeyondGoogle,particularlytoleaders.21

Thenthere’sthenewlyformedInstituteforMindfulLeadership,whichislo-catedinMinneapolisandwhichhastrainedleadersfromTarget,Cargill,Honey-wellAerospace,andahostofothercompaniesaroundtheworld.Anothermeccahas been Center forMindfulness-Based Stress Reduction at the University ofMassachusettsMedicalSchool,inWorcester;ithasatrainingcenterforexecu-tives.Miraval,aposhresortinArizona,hasofferedanannualCEOmindfulnessretreatforseveralyears,taughtbyJonKabat-Zinn,whoseworkatthecenterhe

foundedunleashedthemindfulnessmovement.Mindfulnessprogramshavebeendeployedbygroupsasdiverseasthechap-

laincyunitoftheU.S.Army,YaleLawSchool,andGeneralMills,wheremorethanthreehundredexecutivesareapplyingmindfulleadershipmethods.

Whatdifferencedoesitmake?AtabiotechfirmwheretheGoogleSearchIn-side Yourself program was delivered, early data suggests mindfulness boostsboth self-awareness andempathy.Thosewho tookpart in the training showedincreasesinspecificmindfulnessskills,includingagreaterabilitytoobserveanddescribetheirownexperience,andtoactwithawareness,saidPhilippeGoldin,apsychologistatStanford,whoassessedtheprogram’seffects.

“The participants said they had become better able to use self-regulationstrategies—likeredirectingtheirattentiontolessupsettingaspectsofloadedsit-uations—in the heat of themomentwhen their attentionwas being hijacked,”Goldinadded.“They’rebuildingthemuscleofattentiondeploymentsotheycanchoosewhataspectofexperiencetoattendto.It’savolitionalredirectionofat-tention.Andthey’remoreabletousetheseattentionskillswhentheyarereallyneeded.

“Wealsofoundaboostinempathicconcernforothers,andbeingabletolis-tenbetter,”Goldinsaid.“Oneisanattitude,theothertheactualskill,themuscle.Thesearevitallyimportantintheworkplace.”

OnedivisionheadatGeneralMillscametothemindfulnesscoursetheretoget a breather from feeling overwhelmed. She brought a taste ofmindfulnessbacktowork,wheresheaskedherdirectreportstotakeareflectivepausebeforeaskinghertoameeting.Theaimofthatpausewastoquestiontheneedforthedivisionheadtospendhertimeatthatmeetinginthefirstplace.

Theresult:Whathadbeenanine-to-fivescheduleofback-to-backmeetingsopenedupintothreehoursdailyforherownpriorities.

These questions are designed to provoke a person to reflect on his or herlevelofmindfulness:22

•Doyouhavetroublerememberingwhatsomeonehasjusttoldyoudur-ingaconversation?

•Havenomemoryofyourmorningcommute?•Nottasteyourfoodwhileeating?•PaymoreattentiontoyouriPodthanthepersonyou’rewith?•Areyouskimmingthisbook?

Themore“yes”answers,thegreaterthelikelihoodyouzoneoutratherthantunein.Mindfulnessgivesusagreaterlevelofchoiceinfocus.

Mindlessness, in the form of mind wandering, may be the single biggestwaster of attention in theworkplace. Focus on our experience in the here andnow—like the task at hand, the conversationwe’re having, or the building ofconsensusinameeting—demandsthatwetunedowntheall-about-myselfmur-mursofmindstuffirrelevanttowhat’sgoingonrightnow.23

Mindfulnessdevelopsourcapacitytoobserveourmoment-to-momentexpe-rience in an impartial, nonreactivemanner.Wepractice letting go of thoughtsaboutanyonethingandopenourfocustowhatevercomestomindinthestreamofawareness,withoutgettinglost ina torrentof thoughtsaboutanyonething.Thistraininggeneralizes,sothatinthosemomentsatworkwhenweneedtopayattentiontothisanddropourstreamofthoughtaboutthat,wecanletgooftheoneandfocusontheother.

Mindfulnesstrainingdecreasesactivityinme-circuitrycenteringontheme-dialprefrontalcortex—andthelessself-talk,themorewecanexperienceinthemoment.24Thelongerpeoplehavebeenmindfulnesspractitioners,themoretheirbraincandecouplethetwokindsofself-awarenessandactivatecircuitsthatfos-terahere-and-nowpresencefor the taskathandfreeof themind’s“me”chat-ter.25

Buildingexecutivecontrolhelpsespecially for thoseofus forwhomeverysetback,hurt,ordisappointmentcreatesendlesscascadesof rumination.Mind-

fulnessletsusbreakthestreamofthoughtsthatmightotherwiseleadtowallow-ing inmisery, by changing our relationship to thought itself. Instead of beingsweptawaybythatstreamwecanpauseandseethatthesearejustthoughts—andchoosewhetherornottoactonthem.

Inshort,mindfulnesspracticestrengthens focus,particularlyexecutivecon-trol, working memory capacity, and the ability to sustain attention. Some ofthese benefits can be seenwith as little as twentyminutes of practice for justfourdays(thoughthelongerthetraining,themoresustainedtheeffects).26

Then there’s multitasking, the bane of efficiency. “Multitasking” reallymeans switchingwhat’s filling the capacity ofworkingmemory—and routinedisruptions from a given focus at work canmeanminutes lost to the originaltask.Itcantaketenorfifteenminutestoregainfullfocus.

Whenhumanresourcesprofessionalsweretrainedinmindfulness,thentestedonasimulationoftheirdailyfrenzy—schedulingmeetingsforconferenceatten-dees,locatingavailablemeetingrooms,proposingameetingagenda,andsoon,whilereceivingrandomphonecalls,texts,andemailstellingthemwhat’spossi-ble—themindfulness training improved their concentration noticeably.What’smore,theystayedontasklongerandmoreefficiently.27

IwasatameetingintheofficeofMoreThanSound(aproductioncompanyrunbyoneofmysons)whenourfocusmeandered:therewereparallelconversa-tionsgoingon,andsomepeoplediscreetlycheckedtheiremail.Thatdisintegra-tionofoursharedfocuswasamomentfamiliarfromhundredsofothermeetings—asignalthatthegroup’sefficiencywastanking.Butsuddenlyoneofthepeo-ple there said, “Time for some mindful moments,” got up, and rang a smallgong.

We all sat there together in silence for a fewminutes until the gong rangagain,andthenresumedourmeeting—butwithrenewedenergy.Aremarkablemomentforme,butnotatMoreThanSound,where,itseems,theteamassem-blesatirregularintervalstosharesomeminutesofmindfulness,signaledbythat

ringinggong.Thegrouppause,theysay,clearstheirheadsandgivesthemanewburstofenergizedfocus.

It’s no surprise this small publisher recognizes the value of mindfulness;whenIdroppedbyithadjustreleasedMindfulnessatWork,anaudioinstructionbyMirabaiBush,thewomanwhointroducedmindfulnesstoGoogle.

SEEINGTHEBIGGERPICTURE

Businessleadersareincreasinglypressuredbytheaccelerationofcomplexityinthesystemstheyneedtonavigate:there’stheglobalizationofmarkets,suppliers,and organizations; the hyperspeed of evolving information technologies; im-pendingecologicaldangers;productscomingtomarketandbecomingobsoletefaster.Itcanmakeyourheadspin.

“Most leaders justdon’tpause,”aseasonedleadershipcoachtellsme.“Butyouneedthetimetoreflect.”

Hisboss, theheadofamega-sizedinvestmentmanagementfirm,putit thisway:“IfIdon’tprotectthatkindoftime,Ireallygetthrownoff.”

FormerMedtronicCEOBillGeorgeagrees. “Today’s leadersarebesieged.They’rescheduledeveryfifteenminutes throughout theday,with thousandsofinterruptionsanddistractions.Youneedtofindsomequiettimeinyourdayjusttoreflect.”

Setting aside some regular reflective time in the daily or weekly schedulemight help us get beyond the firefight-of-the-daymentality, to take stock andlook ahead.Very diverse thinkers, fromCongressmanTimRyan toColumbiaUniversityeconomistJeffreyD.Sachs,arecallingformindfulnessasawaytohelp leaders see the bigger picture.28 They propose we need not just mindfulleaders, but amindful society, onewherewe bring a triple focus: to our ownwell-being, thatofothers,andtheoperationsof thebroadersystemsthatshapeourlives.

Mindfulnessofself,Sachsargues,wouldincludeamoreaccuratereadingofwhatmakes us truly happy. Global economic data shows that once a countryreaches amodest levelof income—enough tomeetbasicneeds—there is zeroconnection between happiness and wealth. Intangibles like warm connectionswithpeopleweloveandmeaningfulactivitiesmakepeoplefarhappierthansay,shoppingorwork.

Butwecanbepoorjudgesofwhatwillmakeusfeelgood.Sachsarguesthatifwearemoremindfulofhowweuseourmoneywewillbelesslikelytofallprey toseductiveads forproducts thatwillnotmakeusanyhappier.Mindful-nesswouldleadustomoremodestmaterialdesiresandtospendmoretimeandenergyfulfillingourdeeper,moresatisfyingneedsformeaningandconnection.

Mindfulnessofothersat thesocietal level,Sachssays,meanspayingatten-tiontothesufferingofthepoorandtothesocialsafetynet,whichisbadlyfray-ing in theUnited States andmany other advanced economies.He argues thatwhilenowthepoorarehelpedjustenoughtobarelysurvive,thatsimplycreatesintergenerationalpoverty.What’sneededisaone-generationboostineducationandhealthforthepoorestchildrensotheycangothroughlifewithhigherlevelsofskillsandsonotneedthesamekindofhelptheirfamiliesdid.

TothatendI’daddprograms,likemindfulness,thatboostthebrain’sexecu-tive control. In Dunedin the kids who happened to improve their self-controlover thecourseofchildhoodderived thesameearningsandhealthbenefits forlifesuccessasthosewhoalwayswereadeptindelayinggratification.Butthoseimpulse control upgrades were due to happenstance, not achieved by plan.Wouldn’titmakesensetoteachtheseskillstoeverychild?

Thenthere’sawarenessofsystemsatthegloballevel,likethehumanimpactontheplanet.Solvingsystems-levelproblemstakessystemsfocus.Mindfulnessofthefuturemeanstakingintoaccountthelong-termconsequencesofourownactionsforourchildren’sgenerationandtheirchildren’s,andbeyond.

PARTVI

THEWELL-FO‐

CUSEDLEADER

18

HOWLEADERSDIRECTATTENTION

Death byPowerPoint” refers to those endless,meandering presentations thatthissoftwaretoolseemstoencourage.Thosepresentationscanbepainfulwhenthey reflect a lackof focused thinking, andapoor senseofwhatmatters.Onesignoftheabilitytopinpointwhat’ssalientishowsomeoneanswersthesimplequestion,What’syourmainpoint?

When a meeting is coming up, I hear, Steve Balmer, CEO at Microsoft(birthplaceofthedreadPowerPoint),banssuchpresentations.Insteadheaskstosee the material beforehand so that when he’s face-to-face he can cut to thechaseandaskthequestionsthatmattermostrightoffthebat,ratherthantakingalong,windingroadtogetthere.Ashesays,“Itgivesusgreaterfocus.”1

Directingattentiontowardwhereitneedstogoisaprimaltaskofleadership.Talenthereliesintheabilitytoshiftattentiontotherightplaceattherighttime,sensingtrendsandemergingrealitiesandseizingopportunities.Butit’snotjustthefocusofasinglestrategicdecision-makerthatmakesorbreaksacompany:it’stheentirearrayofattentionbandwidthanddexterityamongeveryone.2

Sheer numbers of people make an organization’s cumulative attention farmoredistributablethananindividual’s,withadivisionoflaborinwhopaysat-tentiontowhat.Thismultiplefocuspowersanorganization’sattentioncapacity

forreadingandrespondingtocomplexsystems.Attentioninorganizations,aswithindividuals,hasalimitedcapacity.Orga-

nizations,too,havetochoosewheretoallocateattention,focusingonthiswhileignoringthat.Anorganization’scorefunctions—finance,marketing,humanre-sources,andthelike—describehowaparticulargroupfocuses.

Signsofwhatmightbecalledorganizational“attentiondeficitdisorder” in-cludemakingflaweddecisionsbecauseofmissingdata,no timefor reflection,trouble getting attention in the marketplace, and inability to focus when andwhereitmatters.

Takegettingnoticedinthemarketplace,wherecustomers’focusishardcur-rency.Thebar forattractingattention risescontinually;whatwasdazzling lastmonthseemsboringtoday.Whileonestrategyforgrabbingeyeballstweaksourbottom-up systems with surprising, attention-compelling tech effects, there’sbeen a renaissance in an oldermethod: telling a good story.3 Stories domorethangrabourattention:theykeepit.Thisisalessonnotlostinthe“attentionin-dustries”likemedia,TV,film,music,andadvertising—allofwhichplayazero-sumgameforourattention,whereone’svictoryistheother’sloss.

Attention tends to focus onwhat hasmeaning—whatmatters. The story aleader tellscan imbueaparticularfocuswithsuchresonance,andso impliesachoicefortheothersonwheretoputtheirattentionandenergy.4

Leadershipitselfhingesoneffectivelycapturinganddirectingthecollectiveattention.Leadingattentionrequirestheseelements:first,focusingyourownat-tention,thenattractinganddirectingattentionfromothers,andgettingandkeep-ingtheattentionofemployeesandpeers,ofcustomersorclients.

Awell-focusedleadercanbalanceaninnerfocusontheclimateandculturewithan“other focus”on thecompetitive landscape, andanouter focuson thelargerrealitiesthatshapetheenvironmenttheoutfitoperatesin.

Aleader’s fieldofattention—that is, theparticular issuesandgoalsshefo-cuses on—guides the attention of those who follow her, whether or not the

leader explicitly articulates it.Peoplemake their choices aboutwhere to focusbased on their perception of what matters to leaders. This ripple effect givesleadersanextraloadofresponsibility:theyareguidingnotjusttheirownatten-tionbut,toalargeextent,everyoneelse’s.5

Take, as a case inpoint, strategy.Anorganization’s strategy represents thedesiredpatternoforganizationalattention,whateveryunitshouldshareadegreeof focuson, each in itsparticularway.6Agiven strategymakeschoices aboutwhattoignoreandwhatmatters:Marketshareorprofit?Currentcompetitorsorpotentialones?Whichnewtechnologies?Whenleaderschoosestrategy,theyareguidingattention.

WHEREDOESSTRATEGYCOMEFROM?

KobunChino,amasterofkyudo,Zenarchery,wasonceinvitedtodemonstratehisskillsatEsalenInstitute,thefamedadultlearningcenterinBigSur,Califor-nia,justdowntheroadfromtheSanFranciscoZenCenter’sTassajararetreat.

Comesthedayandsomeonesetsupanarcherytargetonagrassyknollatopatall cliff at theedgeof thePacificOcean.Chinopositionshimself agooddis-tance away from the target, places his feet in the traditional archer’s stance,straightenshisback,veryslowlydrawsthebow,waitsawhile,andthenletsthearrowfly.

Thearrowzoomsfaroverthetarget,arcsagainsttheopensky,andfallsintothePacificOceanfarbelow.Everyonewatchingisaghast.

ThenKobunChinoshoutswithglee,“Bull’s-eye!”“Genius,”ArthurSchopenhauerobserved,“hitsthetargetothersdonotsee.”KobunChinowastheZenteacherofAppleComputer’slegendaryCEO,the

lateSteveJobs.AmongunseentargetsJobshitwasthethen-radicalconceptofacomputer that anyone could understand and usewith ease, not just geeks—anideathathadsomehoweludedeverycomputercompanyoftheday.Aftercreat-

ingthefirstAppledesktopheandhisteamtransferredthatuser-friendlyvisiontotheiPod,iPhone,andiPad,eachahandyproductthatwehadn’trealizedweneeded—orimaginedinthefirstplace—untilwesawit.

When Steve Jobs returned to Apple in 1997, after having been ousted in1984,hefoundacompanywithaseaofproducts—computers,peripheralprod-ucts for computers, twelve different types of Macintosh. The company wasfloundering.Hisstrategywassimple:focus.

Instead of dozens of products, Apple would concentrate on just four: onecomputerandonelaptopeachfortwomarkets,consumerandprofessional.Justas in hisZen practice,where recognizing you’ve becomedistracted helps youconcentrate,he saw that “[decidingwhatnot todo is as important asdecidingwhattodo.”7

Jobswasrelentlessinfilteringoutwhatheconsideredirrelevancies,bothper-sonallyandinhisprofessionl life.Butheknewthat inorder tosimplifyeffec-tivelyyouneedtounderstandthecomplexitythatyouarereducing.Asinglede-cisiontosimplify,likeJobs’sdictumthatAppleproductsallowausertodoany-thingin threeclicksor less,demandedadeepunderstandingof thefunctionofthecommandsandbuttonsbeinggivenup,andfindingelegantalternatives.

More than a century beforeApple existed, another radical visionmade theSinger sewingmachine an enormous commercial successworldwide. The dis-ruptiveassumptionwasthathousewivescouldoperateamechanicalcontraption—aradicalthoughtinthenineteenthcentury,longbeforewomenintheUnitedStateswontherighttovote.AndSingermadeiteasyforwomentobuythema-chinesbyextendingthemcredit,anotherinnovativemove.

In1876alone,Singersold262,316machines,anenormousnumberinthosedays. One of its founders built the Dakota, a landmarkManhattan apartmentbuildingwhereluminarieslikeYokoOnoandJohnLennonhavelived.In1908,thebrand-newforty-seven-storycompanyheadquarters,theSingerbuilding,wastheworld’stallest.

Mymother,whowasbornin1910(andpassedawaytwomonthsshortofherhundredthbirthday),ownedaSingerfromher teenyears. Icanrememberasachildgoingwithhertothelocalpatternstore;womenofhereraroutinelymademanyoftheirownandtheirfamily’sclothes.ButbythetimeIarrived—herlate-in-lifethirdchild—sheboughtmyclothes.

Culture shifts like housewives taking to sewing machines—and then laterbuyingtheirfamilyready-madeclothes,whichthenwereincreasinglymadebycheap labor abroad—constantly open possibilities: new groups of customers,waystobuy,evolvingneeds,technologies,distributionchannels,orinformationsystems.Everyadvanceopensdoorstoahostofpotentialwinningstrategies.

AppleandSingerleftfreshfootprintsinthesnowthattheircompetitorsfol-lowedinadesperategameofcatchingup.Todayamini-industryofconsultantsstands ready to guide companies through a standard playbook of strategicchoices.But those off-the-shelf strategies fine-tune an organization’s tactics—theydon’tchangethegame.

Theoriginalmeaningofstrategywasfromthebattlefield;itmeant“theartofthe leader”—back then, generals. Strategy was how you deployed your re-sources; tacticswerehowbattleswere fought.Today, leadersneed togeneratestrategiesthatmakesenseinwhateverlargersystemstheyoperatein—ataskforouterfocus.

A new strategymeans reorienting fromwhat’s now business as usual to afreshfocus.Comingupwitharadicallyinnovativestrategydemandsperceivinganovelposition,oneyourcompetitorsdonotsee.Winningtacticsareavailabletoeveryone,yetareoverlookedbyallbutafew.

Armiesofconsultantsofferelaborateanalytictoolsforfine-tuningastrategy.Buttheystopcoldwhenitcomestoansweringthebigquestion:Wheredoesawinning strategy come from in the first place? A classic article on strategymakes thisoffhandremarkand leaves itat that: to findwinningstrategies“re-quirescreativityandinsight.”8

Thosetwoingredientstakebothinnerandouterfocus.WhenMarcBenioff,founderandfirstCEOofSalesforce,realizedthepotentialforcloudcomputing,he was monitoring the evolution of a system-changing technology—an outerfocus—alongwithhisowngutsenseofhowacompanyofferingsuchserviceswoulddo.Salesforceuses the cloud tohelp companiesmanage their customerrelationships,anditstakedoutanearlypositioninthiscompetitivespace.

Thebestleadershavesystemsawareness,helpingthemanswertheconstantquery,Whereshouldweheadandhow?Theself-masteryandsocialskillsbuiltonselfandother focuscombine tobuild theemotional intelligence thatdrivesthehumanengineneededtogetthere.Aleaderneedstocheckapotentialstrate-gic choice against everything she knows. And once the strategic choice getsmade, the leader needs to communicate it with passion and skill, drawing oncognitiveandemotionalempathy.Butthosepersonalskillsalonewillfounderifleaderslackstrategicwisdom.

“Ifyou think inasystemsway,”saysLarryBrilliant,“thatdriveshowyoudealwith values, vision,mission, strategy, goals, tactics, deliverables, evalua-tion,andthefeedbackloopthatrestartsthewholeprocess.”

THETELLINGDETAILONTHEHORIZON

Bythemid-2000s,theBlackBerryhadbecomethedarlingofcorporateIT.Com-panieslovedthatthesystemranonitsownclosednetwork,reliable,fast,andse-cure.TheyhandedBlackBerrysouttoemployeesbythethousands,andthewordcrackberry (for the addiction of users) entered the lexicon.Themaker rose tomarketdominanceonfourkeystrengths:easeoftyping,excellentsecurity,longbatterylife,andwirelessdatacompression.

Fora timetheBlackBerrywasawinningtechnology,changingtherulesofthegamebydisplacingcompetitors(inthiscase,somefunctionsofPCsandlap-tops, and, entirely, that era’smobile phones). But even as BlackBerrys domi-

nated thecorporatemarket andwere fastbecomingaconsumer fad, theworldwaschanging.The iPhoneushered inanepochwheremoreandmoreworkersbought their own brands of smartphones—not necessarily BlackBerrys—andcompaniesadaptedbylettingemployeesbringtheirdevicestothecompanynet-work.SuddenlyBlackBerrys’ lockon thecorporatemarket evaporatedas theyhadtocompetewitheveryoneelse.

Research in Motion (RIM), the Canadian-based maker of the BlackBerry,wasslowtocatchup.WhenRIMintroducedatouchscreen,forexample,itwasnomatch for those longon themarket.BlackBerry’s closednetwork, once anasset,becamealiabilityinaworldwherephonesthemselves—theiPhone,andthosebasedon theAndroidoperating system—hadbecomeplatforms for theirownworldsofapps.

RIMwasrunbyco-CEOswhowerebothengineers,and thebrand’s initialsuccesswasbuiltonsuperiorengineering.Aftertheseco-CEOswereforcedoutby theirboard,RIMannounced itwouldonceagain focusoncompaniesas itsprimemarket,eventhoughmostofitsgrowthhadcomeontheconsumerside.

AsThorstenHeins, thenewCEO,put it,RIMhadmissedmajorparadigmshifts in its ecological niche. It had ignored themove in theUnited States tofourth-generation(4G)wirelessnetworks,failingtobuilddevicesfor4Gevenasitscompetitors seized thatmarket. Itunderestimatedhowpopular the iPhone’stouchscreenwouldbecome,andstucktothekeyboard.

“Ifyouhaveagreat touch interface,peopleareactuallywilling tosacrificebatterylife,”Heinssays.“Wethoughtthatwouldn’thappen.Samethingwithse-curity,”ascompanieschangedtheirstandardstoallowworkerstojoincorporatenetworkswiththeirownsmartphones.9

WhileoncetheBlackBerrybrandhadseemedrevolutionary,now,asonean-alystputit,they“seemedcluelessaboutwhatcustomerswanted.”10

ThoughitcontinuedtoleadinmarketslikeIndonesia,justfiveyearsaftertheBlackBerrydominatedtheAmericanmarketRIMhadlost75percentofitsmar-

ketvalue.AsIwritethis,RIMhasannouncedalast-ditchattempttorecoupmar-ket sharewith a new phone. But RIMmay have entered a chapter in a com-pany’slifethatcouldbefatal—a“valleyofdeath.”

That phrase comes from Andrew Grove, the legendary founding CEO ofIntel,whorecountsanear-deathmoment inhiscompany’shistory. In itsearlyyearsIntelmadesiliconchipsforwhatwasthenthefledglingcomputerindustry.AsGrove tells it, topmanagerswereoblivious tomessagescoming from theirownsales force telling them that customerswere shifting indroves tocheaperchipsbeingmadeinJapan.

IfIntelhadnothappenedtohaveasidebusinessinmicroprocessors—whichbecame the ubiquitous “Intel Inside” in the heyday of laptops—the companywouldhavedied.Butbackthen,Groveadmits, Intelsufferedfroma“strategicdissonance,”inshiftingfrommakingmemorychips—itsfirstbusinesssuccess—todesigningmicroprocessors.

ThenameofGrove’sbook—OnlytheParanoidSurvive—tacitlynodstothenecessityofvigilance,scanningforthetellingdetailonthehorizon.Thisholdstrueinparticularforthetechsector,wheresuper-shortproductcycles(comparedwith,say,refrigerators)makethepaceofinnovationbrutal.

The rapid-fire cycle of product innovations in the tech sector makes it ahandysourceofcasestudies(somewhatakintotherolethatfreneticallyprocre-ating,short-livedfruitfliesplayingenetics).Ingaming,Nintendo’sremotecon-trollerWii grabbed themarket fromSony’s PlayStation 2;Google blew awayYahoo’s supremacyas the favoredportal to theWeb.Microsoft,whichatonepoint had a 42 percentmarket share formobile phone operating systems, sawiPhoneearningsmushroomtodwarfthetotalrevenueofMicrosoft.Innovationsrearrangeoursenseofwhat’spossible.

WhenApplelaunchedtheiPod,ittookMicrosoftfourorfiveyearstoreleaseZune,itsversionofaportabledigitalmediaplayer—andanothersixyearstokillthefailedproduct.11Microsoft’sfixationonitscashcow,theWindowssoftware

family,analystssay,accountsforthecompanyfailingtomatchApple’smarchtomarketsupremacythroughtheiPod,iPhone,andiPad.

As Clay Shirky observes of the failure to disengage focus from comfortzones,“First thepeoplerunning theoldsystemdon’tnotice thechange.Whentheydo,theyassumeit’sminor.Thenit’saniche,thenafad.Andbythetimetheyunderstandthattheworldhasactuallychanged,they’vesquanderedmostofthetimetheyhadtoadapt.”12

THINKDIFFERENT

RIMduringitsdifficultdaysoffersatextbookexampleoforganizationalrigid-ity,whereacompanythatthrivesbybeingthefirsttomarketanewtechnologi-caltwistfallsbehindsuccessivetechwavesbecauseitsfocusfixatesontheoldnewthing,notthenext.Anorganizationthatfocusesinwardlymayexecutesu-perbly.Butifithasnotattunedtothelargerworldinwhichitoperates,thatexe-cutionmayendupintheserviceofafailedstrategy.

Anybusinessschoolcourseonstrategywill tellyouabout twoapproaches:exploitation and exploration. Some people—and some businesses like RIM—succeed througha strategyofexploitation,where they refineand learnhow toimprove an existing capacity, technology,or businessmodel.Others find theirroad tosuccess throughexploration,byexperimentingwith innovativealterna-tivestowhattheydonow.

Companieswithawinningstrategytendtorefinetheircurrentoperationsandofferings,notexploreradicalshiftsinwhattheyoffer.Amentalbalancingact—exploring the newwhile exploitingwhat’sworking—does not comenaturally.But thosecompanies that canbothexploit andexplore—asSamsunghasdonewith smartphones—are “ambidextrous”: they separate each strategy into units,withverydifferentwaysofoperatingandcultures.Atthesametimetheyhaveatight-knitteamofseniorleaderswhokeepaneyeonthebalanceofinner,outer,

andotherfocus.13

What works at the organizational level parallels the individual mind. Themind’sexecutive,thearbiterofwhereourfocusgoes,managesboththeconcen-trationthatexploitationrequiresandtheopenfocusthatexplorationdemands.

Explorationmeanswedisengagefromacurrentfocustosearchfornewpos-sibilities, and allows flexibility, discovery, and innovation. Exploitation takessustainedfocusonwhatyou’realreadydoing,soyoucanrefineefficienciesandimproveperformance.

Thosewhoexploitcanfindasaferpathtoprofits,whilethosewhoexplorecanpotentiallyfindafargreatersuccessinthenextnewthing—thoughtherisksoffailurearegreater,andthehorizonofpaybackisfurtheraway.Exploitationisthetortoise,explorationthehare.

Thetensionbetweenthesetwooperatesineverydecision-maker’smind.Doyoustaywiththebatterytechnologyyourcompanyhasbeengettingbetterandbetter atmaking pay?Or do you pursue, say, R&D on a new energy storagetechnique that couldmake batteries obsolete (or not)? These are the hands-onstrategicdecisionsthatmakeorbreakacompany,asStanford’sstrategytheorymaven,JamesMarch,hasbeenarguingforyears.14

The best decision-makers are ambidextrous in their balance of the two,knowingwhentoswitchfromonetotheother.Theycanleadswitch-hittingor-ganizations,whichare,for instance,goodatseekinggrowthbysimultaneouslyinnovatingandcontainingcosts—twoverydifferentoperations.Kodakwassu-perbatanalogphotographybutstumbledinthenewcompetitiverealityofdigitalcameras.

Danger here abounds during a business downturn,when companies under-standably focuson surviving andmeeting their numbersby cutting costs—butoftenattheexpenseofcaringfortheirpeopleorkeepingupwithhowtheworldhaschanged.Beinginsurvivalmodenarrowsourfocus.

Butprospering isnoguaranteeofambidexterity,either.That switchcanbe

hardest for thosecaught inwhat Intel’sGrovecalls the“success trap.”Heob-servesthateverycompanywillfaceapointwhenitwillhavetochangedramati-cally tosurvive, letaloneraise itsperformance.“Miss themoment,”hewarns,“andyoustarttodecline.”

Fortoolong,Grovesays,Intelstillhaditsbestdevelopmentpeopleworkingonmemorychips—evenasthecompany’ssurvivalhadbeguntodependonmi-croprocessors,whichover thenext decadewere to becomeahugegrowth en-gine.Intelwashavingtroubleunstickingfromexploitationtoexploration.

Apple’s slogan “Think different” dictates a switch to exploration.Movingintonewterritoryratherthanhunkeringdowntoincreaseefficiencyismorethanacontrastinstances—atthelevelofthebrainthetworepresententirelydifferentmentalfunctionsandneuralmechanisms.Attentioncontrolholdsthekeyforde-cision-makersneedingtomaketheswitch.

Brainscansofsixty-threeseasonedbusinessdecision-makersastheypursuedeitherexploitiveorexploratorystrategiesinasimulationgame—orswitchedbe-tween the two—revealed thespecificcircuitryunderlyingeachkindof focus.15

Exploitationwasaccompaniedbyactivityinthebrain’scircuitryforanticipationandforreward—itfeelsgoodtocoastalonginaprofitable,familiarroutine.Butexplorationmobilizedactivityinthebrain’sexecutivecentersandthoseforcon-trolling attention; searching for alternatives to a current strategy, it seems, de-mandsintentionalfocus.

The firstmovement tonew territoryentailsdisengaging frompleasing rou-tineandfightingtheinertiaofruts;thissmallactofattentiondemandswhatneu-roscience calls “cognitive effort.”That effortful dabof executive control freesattentiontoroamwidelyandpursuefreshpaths.

What keeps people frommaking this small neural effort? For one,mentaloverload,stress,andsleepdeprivation(nottomentiondrinking)depletetheex-ecutivecircuitryneededtomakesuchacognitiveswitch,keepingusinourmen-talruts.Andthestressofoverload,sleeplessness,andturningtosubstancesthat

calmyoudownarealltooprevalentamongthoseinhigh-demandjobs.

19

THELEADER’STRIPLEFOCUS

Whenhewas justelevenyearsoldSteveTuttlemanstartedreadingtheWallStreetJournalwithhisgrandfather,ahabitthatsomefourdecadeslaterhasbeengravitatingtowardhistablet.Eachdayhechecksovertwentywebsites,inaddi-tiontonewsandopinionfeedsstrippedbyanRSSreader.Startingthemomenthewakesupand thenahalfdozen timesover thecourseof thedayhechecksbreakingnews,mainlyonsitesoftheNewYorkTimes,theWallStreetJournal,andGoogleNews.Awebapporganizescontentsofthetwenty-sixmagazineshecurrently subscribes to so that he can flag relevant articles to read later. SaysTuttleman,“Ifthepieceisofhighimportance,ortakessomestudy,orneedstobesavedforreference,thenIcomebacktoitwhenIcandevotemyself.”

Thentherearethesector-specificpublications,eachtiedtoaparticularbusi-ness interest.National Restaurant News relates to a chain of Dunkin’ Donutsfranchisesheholdsastakein;Bowler’sJournalkeepshimuptospeedforman-agingEbonite,amanufacturingcompanyheownsthatsellsballsandthelikeforbowlers.TheJournalofPracticalEstatePlanning,alongwithahalfdozensimi-larpublications,helpskeephimabreastofwhatmightberelevanttohisroleasadirectorofHirtleCallaghan,whichmanagesassetsforphilanthropies,universi-ties, and high-net-worth individuals. And Private Equity Investor helps track

conditionsforthebusinessheleadsaspresidentofBlue9Capital.“It’s a big scan, that’s for sure,” Tuttleman tells me. “Sometimes I feel it

takes toomuch time.But I’malwaysmaking connectionswithwhat I read. ItgivesmeafoundationforwhatIdo.”

WhenTuttlemanwas approached in 2004 to invest in a retail chain calledFiveBelow,hesays,“Theysharedprojectionsforamodelstore,andthenum-berswererightforcostsandmargins.”

But Tuttleman went beyond the numbers, visiting one of the chain’s sixstores, where he checked his inner signals against how others were reacting.“Theyofferedanappealingselectionofgoods,onewithapointofview.Theirtarget customers are twelve to fifteen, and in the stores youmostly seemomswiththeirkids.ButmainlyIsawpeoplelikedthestore,andIlikedthestore.”

Over the next several years Tuttleman put more money into Five Below.Whathadbeenasix-storechainin2004hadgrownto250bytheendof2012,andthecompanyhadgonethroughasuccessfulIPO.ThecompanywentpublicinthewakeoftheFacebookIPOdebacle,butitdidwellnonetheless.

“Peoplebringinvestmentopportunities tomeall the time,”saysTuttleman.“They giveme a ‘book’ that details the numbers for a company that’s on themarket.ButI’vegot toweighthat inabroadercontextofwhat’shappeninginsociety,theculture,andtheeconomy.I’malwaysscanningforwhat’shappeninginthebroaderworld;youneedabiggerfieldofview.”

Way back in 1989 Tuttleman bought stock in Starbucks,Microsoft, HomeDepot,andWal-Mart.Hestillownsthesamestocks.Whydidhebuythem?“IboughtwhatIliked,”heexplains.“Igobymygut.”

Whenwemakeadecisionlikethat,subcorticalsystemsoperateoutsidecon-scious awareness, gathering the decision rules that guide us and store our lifewisdom—and deliver their opinion as a felt sense. That subtle stirring—Thisfeelsright—setsourdirectionevenbeforewecanputthatdecisionintowords.

Themostsuccessfulentrepreneursgatherdatathatmightberelevanttoakey

decisionfarmorewidely—andfromalargervarietyofsources—thanmostpeo-plewouldthinkrelevant.Buttheyalsorealizethatwhenfacingamajordecision,gutfeelingsaredata,too.

Thesubcorticalcircuitsthatknowsuchguttruthsbeforewehavewordsfortheminclude theamygdalaand the insula.Ascholarlyreviewofgut intuitionsconcludesthatusingfeelingsasinformationisa“generallysensiblejudgmentalstrategy,” rather than a perennial source of error, as the hyperrational mightargue.1 Tuning in to our feelings as a source of information taps into a vastamountofdecisionrulesthatthemindgathersunconsciously.

Tuttleman’stutorialforhisgutsenseverylikelyhasrootsinthoseearlyyearsgoingovertheWallStreetJournalwithhisgrandfather,whoasaRussianimmi-grant had gotten a job in a grocery store and ended up buying the store, thenbuyingthedistributorwhosuppliedthestore.Sellingthatcompany,hebecameastockmarketinvestor.

Likehisfatherandgrandfatherbeforehim,saysTuttleman,“IalwaysknewIwouldbeaninvestor.OurdinnertableconversationwasalwaysaboutbusinessasIgrewup.I’vebeeninthisbusinessforalmostthirtyyears,andalwayshadaportfolio of companies.Every companyhas its own issues that I’m constantlydealingwith.I’mstillbuildingthatinnerdatabase.”

Thesweetspotforsmartdecisions,then,comesnotjustfrombeingadomainexpert,butalsofromhavinghighself-awareness.Ifyouknowyourselfaswellasyourbusiness,thenyoucanbeshrewderininterpretingthefacts(while,hope-fully,safeguardingagainsttheinnerdistortionsthatcanbluryourlens).2

Otherwisewe’releftwithcoldrationalityasembodied,forinstance,indeci-siontrees(applicationsofwhat’sknownas“expectedutilitytheory”),whereweweightandcomputetheprosandconsofallrelevantfactors.Oneproblem:liferarelyarrangesitselfsoneatly.Another:ourbottom-upmindharborscrucialin-formation that our top-downbrain can’t access directly, let aloneput into thatdecision tree.What looksgoodonpapermaynotbesogreat inactuality: say,

unregulatedmarketsforsubprimederivativesorinvadingIraq.“Themost successful leaders are constantly seeking out new information,”

saysRuthMalloy,globaldirectorofHayGroup’sleadershipandtalentpractice.“Theywanttounderstandtheterritorytheyoperatein.Theyneedtobealerttonewtrends,andtospotemergingpatternsthatmightmattertothem.”

Whenwesayaleaderhas“focus”wetypicallyarereferringtoone-pointed-nessonbusinessresults,oronaparticularstrategy.Butissuchsingle-pointed-nessenough?Whatabouttherestoftherepertoireofattention?

Tuttleman’sbusinesschoicesintegratethenumberswithinputsfromawideouter scan, attuning to his gut reactions, and reading how other people feel.There’sastrongcase that leadersneedthefull rangeof inner,other,andouterfocustoexcel—andthataweaknessinanyoneofthemcanthrowaleaderoffbalance.

LEADERSWHOINSPIRE

Considertwoleaders.Leader#1worksasahigh-levelexecutiveinaconstruc-tionengineeringfirm.DuringArizona’shousingboomin theearly2000s (andwellbeforetheresultingcrash),heswitchedjobsoverandover,eachtimeget-tingahigher-levelposition.Hisagilityinclimbingthecorporateladder,though,wasnotmatchedbyhisabilitiesasaninspiringleader.Whenaskedtocomeupwithavisionstatementforhiscompanytoguideit intothefuture,hefumbledthetask.“Beingbetterthanourcompetition”wasthebesthecoulddo.

Leader#2directedanonprofitcorporationthatofferedhealthandsocialser-vices to Hispanic communities in the Southwest. His vision statement flowedfreely,andfocusedsquarelyongreatergoals:“tocreateagoodenvironmentforthiscommunity,whichhasbeennurturingourcompanyalltheseyears,tomakeitaprofit-sharingendeavor...andtobenefitfromourproducts.”Hisvisionwaspositiveandembracedanexpandedviewofstakeholders.

Inthefollowingweeks,employeeswhoworkeddirectlyforeachleaderwereaskedinconfidencetoevaluatehowinspiringtheyfoundtheirboss.Leader#1hadoneof the lowest ratingsamong the fifty leadersevaluated; leader#2wasamongthehighest.

Moreintriguingly,eachleaderhadbeenassessedonabrainmeasureof“co-herence,” thedegree towhichcircuitswithina region interconnectandcoordi-natetheiractivity.Thespecificregionwasintheprefrontalareaoftherightsideofthebrain,inazoneactiveinintegratingthoughtandemotion,aswellasinun-derstandingthethoughtsandemotionsofothers.Theinspiringleadersshowedahighlevelofcoherenceinthiskeyareaforinnerandotherawareness, thedullleadersverylittle.3

Leaderswhoinspirecanarticulatesharedvaluesthatresonatewithandmoti-vatethegroup.Thesearetheleaderspeoplelovetoworkwith,whosurfacethevision thatmoveseveryone.But to speak from theheart, to theheart,a leadermustfirstknowhervalues.Thattakesself-awareness.

Inspiringleadershipdemandsattuningbothtoaninneremotionalrealityandtothatofthoseweseektoinspire.Theseareelementsofemotionalintelligence,whichI’vehadtorethinkabitinlightofournewunderstandingoffocus.

Attention gets talked about only indirectly in the emotional intelligenceworld:as“self-awareness,”whichisthebasisofself-management;andas“em-pathy,” the foundationfor relationshipeffectiveness.Yetawarenessofourselfandofothers,anditsapplicationinmanagingourinnerworldandourrelation-ships,istheessenceofemotionalintelligence.

Actsofattentionarewoven throughout thevery fabricofemotional intelli-gencebecauseat thelevelofbrainarchitecturethedividinglinebetweenemo-tionandattentionblurs.Theneuralcircuits forattentionand those for feelingsoverlapinmanyways,sharingneuralpathwaysorinteracting.

Becausethebraininterweavesitscircuitsforattentionandforemotionalin-telligence, it turns out that some of this shared neural circuitry also sets these

skillsapartfromthemoreacademicvariety,asmeasuredbyIQ.4Thatmeansaleadercanbeverysmartbutnotnecessarilyhavethefocusingskills thatcomewithemotionalintelligence.

Takeempathy.Thecommoncoldofleadershipispoorlistening.Here’showone CEO candidly assessed his own trouble with this form of empathy: “Mybrainracestoomuch,soevenifI’velistenedtoeverythingsomebodysaid,un-less you show that you’ve digested it, people don’t think they are beingwellheard.Sometimesyoureallydon’thearbecauseyou’reracing.Andso,ifyoure-allywant toget thebestoutofpeople,youhave to reallyhear themand theyhavetofeellikethey’vebeenreallyheard.SoI’vegottolearntoslowdownandimprove in that dimension, both to make me better and to make the peoplearoundmebetter.”5

ALondon-basedexecutivecoach tellsme,“When Igivepeople their feed-back from others, very often it says an executive does not listen attentively.WhenIcoachthemongettingbetteratpayingattentiontopeopleIoftenhearanexecutivesay,Icandothis.”

I point out, “Youcan, but thequestion is howoften youdo this.”Wepaycarefulattention inmoments thatmattermost tous.Butamid thedinanddis-tractionofworklife,poorlisteninghasbecomeepidemic.

Still,attentivelisteningpaysdividends.OneCEOtoldmeaboutatimewhenhiscompanywaslockedinastrugglewithastateagencyoverthepurchaseofalargetractofforestland.Ratherthanjustleavingthemattertolawyers,theCEOmadeanappointmentwiththeheadoftheagency.

At themeeting, the agencyhead launched a tiradeof complaints about theCEO’s company, and how the land needed to be conserved rather than devel-oped.TheCEOsimplylistenedattentivelyforfifteenminutes.Bythen,hesaw,hiscompany’sneedsandthoseoftheagencycouldbemadecompatible.Hepro-posedacompromisewherethecompanywoulddeveloponlyasmallportionofthetract,andputtherestintoaconservationtrustforperpetualprotection.

Themeetingendedwiththetwoshakinghandsonadeal.

BLINDEDBYTHEPRIZE

Shewasapartneratahugelawfirmwhodroveherteamcrazy.Shemicroman-aged, constantly second-guessing them, rewriting reports that didn’t meet herstandardseventhoughtheywereperfectlyfine.Shecouldalwaysfindsomethingtocriticize,butnothingtopraise.Hersteadfast focusonthenegativedemoral-izedherteam—astarmemberquitandotherswerelookingtomovelaterallyinthefirm.

Thosewho, like that toocritical lawyer,have thishigh-achieving,super-fo-cusedstylearecalled“pacesetters,”meaningtheyliketoleadbyexample,set-ting a fast pace they assume otherswill imitate. Pacesetters tend to rely on a“command and coerce” leadership strategywhere they simply give orders andexpectobedience.

Leaderswho display just the pacesetting or command style—or both—butnot any others create a toxic climate, one that dispirits those they lead. Suchleadersmaygetshort-termresults throughpersonalheroics, likegoingoutandgetting adeal themselves, but do so at the expenseofbuilding their organiza-tions.

“LeadershipRunAmok”wasHarvardBusinessReview’s titleforanarticleaboutthedarksideofpacesetting,writtenbyScottSpreierandhiscolleaguesatHayGroup.“They’resofocusedontheprize,”Spreiertoldme,“they’reblindedtotheirimpactonthepeoplearoundthemintheroom.”

Spreier’sarticleofferedupthathard-drivinglawpartnerasaprimeexampleofpacesettingatitsworst.Suchleadersdon’tlisten,letalonemakedecisionsbyconsensus.Theydon’tspendtimegettingtoknowthepeopletheyworkwithdayin and out, but relate to them in their one-dimensional roles. They don’t helppeople developnew strengths or refine their abilities, but simply dismiss their

needtolearnasafailing.Theycomeoffasarrogantandimpatient.Andtheyarespreading.Onetrackingstudyfindsthatthenumberofpeople

inorganizationsofallkindswhoareoverachievershasbeenclimbingsteadilyamong those in leadershippositions since the1990s.6Thatwas aperiodwheneconomicgrowthcreatedanatmospherewhereraise-the-bar-at-any-costheroicswerelionized.Thedownsidesofthisstyle—forexample,lapsesinethics,cuttingcorners,andrunningroughshodoverpeople—weretoooftenwinkedat.

Then came a series of flameouts and burst bubbles, from the collapse ofEnronandthedot-comdebacleon.Thismoresoberbusinessrealityputaspot-lightontheundersideofpacesetters’single-mindedfocusonfiscalresultsattheexpenseofother leadershipbasics.During the financialcrisisof2008andon-ward, “manycompaniespromoted strong, top-down leaders,whoaregood forhandlingemergencies,”GeorgVielmetter,aconsultantinBerlin,toldme.“Butitchangestheheartoftheorganization.Twoyearslaterthosesameleadershavecreatedaclimatewheretrustandloyaltyevaporate.”

The failurehere isnot in reaching thegoal, but in connectingwithpeople.Thejust-get-it-donemoderunsroughshodoverhumanconcerns.

Everyorganizationneedspeoplewithakeenfocusongoalsthatmatter,thetalenttocontinuallylearnhowtodoevenbetter,andtheabilitytotuneoutdis-tractions.Innovation,productivity,andgrowthdependonsuchhigh-performers.

Butonly to apoint.Ambitious revenue targets or growthgoals arenot theonly gauge of an organization’s health—and if they are achieved at a cost tootherbasics,thelong-termdownsides,likelosingstaremployees,canoutweighshort-termsuccessesasthosecostsleadtolaterfailures.

Whenwe’refixatedonagoal,whateverisrelevanttothatpointoffocusgetspriority. Focus is not just selecting the right thing, but also saying no to thewrongones.Butfocusgoestoofarwhenitsaysnototherightthings,too.Sin-gle-pointedfixationonagoalmorphs intooverachievementwhenthecategoryof “distractions” expands to include other people’s valid concerns, their smart

ideas, and their crucial information.Not tomention theirmorale, loyalty, andmotivation.

TherootsofthisresearchgobacktoHarvardprofessorDavidMcClelland’sstudiesofhowahealthydrive toachieve fuels entrepreneurship.But from thestarthenotedsomehigh-achievingleaders“aresofixatedonfindingashortcuttothegoalthattheymaynotbetooparticularaboutthemeanstheyusetoreachit.”7

“Two years ago I got some sobering performance feedback,” confides theCEOofaglobalofficerealestatefirm.“Iwasgreatonbusinessexpertise,butlackingwhen it came to inspirational leadership and empathy. I had thought Iwasfine,soatfirstIdeniedit.ThenIreflectedandrealizedIoftenwasempa-theticbutshutdownthemomentpeoplewerenotdoingtheirjobwell.Igetverycool,evenmean.

“Irealizedmybiggestfearisoffailure.That’swhat’sdrivingme.Sowhensomeoneonmyteamdisappointsme,thatfearkicksin.”

WhenfearhijackshimthatCEOfallsbackonpacesetting.“Ifyoudon’thaveself-awarenesswhenyougethookedbythedrivetoachieveagoal,”saysScottSpreier,whocoachessenior leaders,“that’swhenyouloseempathyandgoonautopilot.”

Theantidote:realizingtheneedtolisten,motivate,influence,cooperate—aninterpersonal skill set that pacesetting leaders are typically not familiar withusing.“At theirworst,pacesetters lackempathy,”GeorgeKohlrieser,a leader-shipmavenatIMD,aSwissbusinessschool,toldme.Kohlrieserteachesleadersfromaroundtheworldtobecome“securebase”leaders,whoseemotionallysup-portiveandempathicstyleencouragesthepeopletheyleadtoworkattheirbest.8

“We’reallpacesettershere,”theCEOofoneoftheworld’slargestfinancialfirmsadmitsabitruefully.Buthavingapackofpacesettersneednotbedamag-ingtomorale:itcanworkifeveryonetherehasbeenselectedforahighleveloftalentanddrivetosucceed—thatis,pacesetting.

Butasonefinancialanalystdescribedabankwhereapacesettingcultureledto brash treatment of its customers, “Iwouldn’t putmymoney there—but I’drecommendbuyingthestock.”

MANAGINGYOURIMPACT

In thespringof2010, in the firstweeksafter thedisastrousBPoil spill in theGulfofMexico,ascountlessseaanimalsandbirdsweredyingandresidentsoftheGulfweredecryingthecatastrophe,BPexecutiveswereatextbookexampleofhownottomanageacrisis.

TheheightoftheirfollycamewhenBPCEOTonyHaywardinfamouslyde-clared,“There’snoonewhowants this thingovermore thanIdo. I’d likemylifeback.”

Ratherthanshowingtheleastconcernforthespill’svictims,heseemedan-noyedbytheinconvenience.HewentontoclaimthedisasterwasnotBP’sfault,blameditssubcontractors,andtooknoresponsibility.9Widelycirculatedphotosshowedhimat thepeakof thecrisisblithelysailingonayacht, takingavaca-tion.

AsaBPmediarelationsexecputit,“TheonlytimeTonyHaywardopenedhismouthwastochangefeet.Hedidn’tunderstandtheanimalthatisthemedia.Hedidn’tunderstandthepublic’sperception.”10

SigneSpencer,coauthorofoneofthefirstbooksonworkplacecompetence,tellsmethereisarecentlyidentifiedcapabilityseeninsomehigh-levelleaders—called“managingyourimpactonothers”—byskillfulleveragingoftheirvisi-bilityandroletohaveapositiveimpact.11

TonyHayward,blindtohisimpactonothers, letalonetopublicperceptionofhiscompany,setoffafirestormofantagonism,includingfront-pagearticlesdemandingtoknowwhyhehadn’tbeenfiredyet,andevenPresidentObamade-claring hewould have fired him.Hayward’s exit fromBPwas announced the

followingmonth.ThedisasterhassincecostBPupto$40billioninliabilities,sawfourexecu-

tives chargedwith negligence, and led to theU.S. government forbiddingBPfurther business—including new oil leases in the Gulf—because of “lack ofbusinessintegrity.”

TonyHaywardoffersatextbookcaseofthecostsofaleaderwithdeficitsinfocus.“Toanticipatehowpeoplewillreact,youhavetoreadpeople’sreactionsto you,” says Spencer. “That takes self-awareness and empathy in a self-rein-forcing cycle.Youbecomemore awareof howyou’re coming across to otherpeople.”

Withhighself-awareness,sheadds,youcanmorereadilydevelopgoodself-management.“Ifyoumanageyourselfbetter,youwillinfluencebetter,”Spencersays.Haywardduring the oil spill crisis seems to have failed in eachof theseareas—andflunkedmanaginghisimpact.

Thistriplefocusdemandsattentionjuggling,andleaderswhofailatthatdosototheirownandtheirorganization’sdetriment.

20

WHATMAKESALEADER?

BackwhenIwashisgraduatestudentatHarvard,DavidMcClellandcreatedaminorstormbypublishingacontroversialarticleinthemainjournalofourpro-fession, the American Psychologist. McClelland reviewed data questioning ahallowedassumption:thatdoingwellinschoolinitselfpredictedcareersuccess.

HerecognizedthestrongevidencethatIQisthebestpredictorofwhatkindofjobanygivenhighschoolstudentcaneventuallyhold;thescoresortspeopleintoworkplacerolesquitewell.Academicabilities(andtheIQtheyroughlyre-flect) signal what level of cognitive complexity someone can handle, and sowhatkindofjob.Youneedtobeapproximatelyastandarddeviationaboveaver-age in intelligence (an IQof115) tobeaprofessionalorhigh-levelexecutive,forinstance.

Butwhat’slittlediscussed(atleastinacademiccircles,whereit’slessappar-ent) is thatonceyouareatworkamongapoolofcolleagueswhoareaboutassmartasyouare,yourcognitiveabilitiesalonedonotmakeyououtstanding—particularlyasaleader.There’saflooreffectforIQwheneveryoneinthegroupisatthesamehighlevel.

McClellandarguedthatonceyouwereinagivenjob,specificcompetencieslikeself-discipline,empathy,andpersuasionwerefarstrongerforcesinsuccess

thanaperson’srankinginacademics.Heproposedthemethodologythathasbe-come competence modeling—now common in world-class organizations—foridentifyingthekeyabilitiesthatmadesomeoneastarperformerinaspecificor-ganization.

Thearticle,“TestingforCompetenceRatherThanIntelligence,”waswellre-ceivedamongthoseinorganizationswhodaytodayactuallyevaluatedon-the-jobperformanceandhadtodecidewhomtopromote,whowasthemosteffec-tiveleader,andwhattalentstogroompromisingpeoplefor.Theyhadhardbusi-nessmetricsforsuccessandfailure,andknewthatpeople’sgradesandthepres-tigeoftheschoolstheywenttohadlittleornothingtodowiththeiractualeffec-tiveness.

Astheformerheadofamajorbanktoldme,“Iwashiringthebestandthebrightest,but Iwas still seeingabell-shapedcurve for successandwonderingwhy.”McClellandhadtheexplanation.

But the article was controversial among many academics, some of whomcouldnotgrasp thatdoingwell in theircourseshad little todowithhow theirstudentswouldperformonceinajob(unlessthatjobwas,say,beingacollegeprofessor).1

Now,decadesafterthatcontroversialarticle,competencemodelstellaclearstory: nonacademic abilities like empathy typically outweigh purely cognitivetalents in the makeup of outstanding leaders.2 In a study done at Hay Group(which has absorbed McBer, the company McClelland himself founded, andwhich calls a research division theMcClelland Institute), leaderswho showedstrengthsineightormoreofthesenoncognitivecompetencieshadcreatedhighlyenergizing,top-performingclimates.3

ButYvonneSell,theHayGroup’sdirectoroftheleadershipandtalentprac-ticeintheUnitedKingdom,whodidthestudy,foundsuchleadersarerare:only18percentofexecutivesattainedthislevel.Three-quartersofleaderswiththreeor fewer strengths inpeople skillscreatednegative climates,wherepeople felt

indifferentordemotivated.Lameleadershipseemsalltooprevalent—morethanhalfofleadersfellwithinthislow-impactcategory.4

Otherstudiespointtothesamehardcaseforsoftskills.WhenAccenturein-terviewedonehundredCEOsabouttheskillstheyneededtorunacompanysuc-cessfully,asetoffourteenabilitiesemerged,fromthinkinggloballyandcreatinganinspiringsharedvisiontoembracingchangeandtechsavvy.5Noonepersoncouldhavethemall.Buttherewasone“meta”abilitythatemerged:self-aware-ness.Chiefexecutivesneedthisabilitytoassesstheirownstrengthsandweak-nesses, and so surround themselveswith a team of peoplewhose strengths inthosecoreabilitiescomplementtheirown.

Andyetself-awarenessrarelyshowsupinthoselistsofcompetenciesthator-ganizations come upwith by analyzing the strengths of their star performers.6

Thissubtlevarietyoffocusmaybetooelusive,thoughabilitiesreflectinghighcognitive control, which builds on this foundation of self-awareness, are fre-quent,andincludepersistence,resilience,andthedrivetoachievegoals.

Empathyinitsmanyforms,fromsimplelisteningtoreadingthepathsofin-fluenceinanorganization,showsupmoreofteninleadershipcompetencestud-ies.Mostofthecompetenciesforhigh-performingleadersfallintoamorevisi-ble category that builds on empathy: relationship strengths like influence andpersuasion,teamworkandcooperation,andthelike.Butthesemostvisiblelead-ershipabilitiesbuildnot justonempathy,but alsoonmanagingourselvesandsensinghowwhatwedoaffectsothers.

The singular focusingability that allows systemsunderstandinggoesundernames that vary from organization to organization and competence model tomodel:big-pictureview,patternrecognition,andsystemsthinkingamongthem.Itincludestheabilitytovisualizethedynamicsofcomplexsystemsandforeseehowadecisionatonepointwill ramify tocreateaneffect at adistantone,orsensehowwhatwedotodaywillmatter infiveweeks,or inmonths,years,ordecades.

Thechallengeforleadersgoesbeyondhavingstrengthsinallthreekindsoffocus.Thekeyisfindingbalance,andusingtherightoneattherighttime.Thewell-focusedleaderbalancesthedatastreamseachoffers,weavingthesestrandsinto seamless action.Putting togetherdataon attentionwith that on emotionalintelligenceandperformance,thistriplefocusemergesasahiddendriverofex-cellence.

FINDINGTHERIGHTBALANCE

Takeanyworkinggroupandaskthemembers,“Whoistheleader?”andthey’llbelikelytonamewhoeverhasthefittingjobtitle.

Nowaskthem,“Whoisthemostinfluentialpersoninyourgroup?”Thean-swertothatidentifiestheinformalleader,andtellsyouhowthatgroupactuallyoperates.

These informal leadersaremoreself-aware than their teammates: they tendtohavethesmallestgapbetweentheirownratingsoftheirabilitiesandthosebyothers.7University ofNewHampshire psychologistVanessaDruskat,whodidthisstudy,says,“Informalleadersoftenemergeinatemporaryway,andswitchinandout.Forourresearchweask,‘Whowouldyousayistheinformalleadermostofthetime?’”

If that informal leaderhasstrengths inempathy inbalancewithotherabili-ties, the research shows, the team’s performance tends to be higher. “If theleader has low empathy,” Druskat toldme, “and a high level of achievementdrive, the leader’sgoal-orientationdragsdownthe teamperformance.But, im-portantly,iftheleaderhashighlevelsofempathyandlowlevelsofself-control,performanceisalsoreduced—toomuchempathygetsinthewayofcallingpeo-pleontheirmisbehaving.”

Abankofficertellsme,“I’minfinancialservices,andIneverusedthewordempathyatwork—untilnow.Thekey is tying it toourstrategy:employeeen-

gagement,goodcustomerexperience.Empathyisawaytodifferentiateusfromourcompetitors.Listeningiskey.”

She’s in good company; I heard the samemessage from the CEOs of theMayoClinicandtheClevelandClinic,twooftheworld’spreeminenthospitals.

AndtheCEOofoneoftheworld’slargestmoneymanagementfirmstellsmethatthemostambitiousofbusinessschoolgradsapplyforjobsathiscompany,motivatedbyvisionsofhugesalaries.But,helamented,hewaslookingforpeo-ple“whocareaboutthewidowsandretiredfiremenwhoselifesavingsweman-age”—in other words, an empathic focus that includes the humanity of thosewhosemoneyisatstake.

Ontheotherhand,asingle-mindedfocusonpeopleisnotenough.Takeanexecutivewhohadstartedoutasaforkliftoperator,workinghiswayuptoheadofmanufacturingforAsiaataglobalmanufacturingcompany.Despitehisloftyrole,chattingwithworkersonthefactoryfloorwaswherehefeltmostcomfort-able.Heknewhe should be doing strategic thinking, but he preferredbeing a“peopleperson.”

“Hedidn’thavetherightbalancebetweenhisotherfocusandouterfocus,”saysSpreier.“Hewasmisfocused,andhewasn’tcomingupwithstrategywell.He didn’t enjoy it—intellectually he knew he should, but emotionally he justwasnotthere.”

Theremaybeaneuralchallengeforgettingtherightbalancebetweenfocus-ing on hitting a target and sensing how others are reacting.My longtime col-leagueRichardBoyatzis tellsmehis research atCaseWesternReserve showsthat theneuralnetwork thatengageswhenwefocusonagoaldiffers fromthecircuitry for social scanning. “They inhibit each other,” says Boyatzis. “Themostsuccessfulleaderscyclebackandforthbetweenthesewithinseconds.”

Ofcoursecompaniesneedleaderswhobeaminongettingbetterresults.Butthoseresultswillbemorerobustinthelongrunwhenleadersdon’tsimplytellpeoplewhattodoorjustdoitthemselves,buthaveanotherfocus:theyaremo-

tivatedtohelpotherpeoplebesuccessful,too.Theyrealize,forinstance,thatifsomeonelacksagivenstrengthtoday,they

canworktodevelopit.Suchleaderstakethetimetomentorandadvise.Inprac-ticaltermsallthismeans:

• Listeningwithin, toarticulateanauthenticvisionofoveralldirectionthatenergizesothersevenasitsetsclearexpectations.

• Coaching,basedon listening towhatpeoplewant fromtheir life,ca-reer, andcurrent job.Payingattention topeople’s feelingsandneeds,andshowingconcern.

•Listeningtoadviceandexpertise;beingcollaborativeandmakingdeci-sionsbyconsensuswhenappropriate.

•Celebratingwins,laughing,knowingthathavingagoodtimetogetherisnotawasteoftimebutawaytobuildemotionalcapital.

These leadership styles, used in tandem or as appropriate to the moment,widenaleader’sfocustodrawoninner,other,andouterinputs.Thatmaximalbandwidth, and thewider understanding and flexibility of response it affords,can pay dividends. Research by the McClelland Institute on these leadershipstylesshowsthatmoreadeptleadersdrawontheseasappropriate—eachrepre-sentsaunique focusandapplication.Thewidera leader’s repertoireof styles,themoreenergizedtheorganization’sclimateandthebettertheresults.8

APERTURE

The head of a health company was assessing a group of forty-plus managerswhomhewasdirectinginanewjob.Inameetingwhereeachstooduptoraiseissues,henoticedcarefullyhowtheothermanagerspaidattentiontothepersonspeaking. Everyonewas riveted on onemanager and really listening, he saw,

whilewhenanotherstooduptospeakpeoples’eyeswentdowntotheirtables—asuresignthathehadlostthem.

Emotionalaperture,theabilitytoperceivesuchsubtlecuesinagroup,oper-atesabit likeacamera.Wecanzoomin tofocusononeperson’s feelings,orzoomouttotakeinthecollective—whetheraclassroomoraworkgroup.

For leaders, apertureensuresamoreaccurate reading, forexample,of sup-portorantagonismforaproposal.Readingitwellcanmeanthedifferencebe-tweenafailedinitiativeandahelpfulmidcoursecorrection.9

Pickingup telltaleemotionalcuessuchas toneofvoice, facialexpressions,andthelikeatagrouplevelcantellyou,forinstance,howmanyinagrouparefeelingfearoranger,howmanyhopeandpositivity—orcontemptandindiffer-ence.Thosecuesgiveaquickerandmoretrueassessmentofthegroup’sfeelingsthan,say,askingwhattheyarefeeling.

At work, collective emotions—sometimes called organizational climate—make a huge difference in, for example, customer service, absenteeism, andgroupperformanceingeneral.

Amorenuancedsenseoftherangeofemotionsinagroup—howmanyfeelfear,hope,and the restof theemotionalgamut—canhelpa leadermakedeci-sionsthattransformfeartohopeorcontempttopositivity.

Onehurdleinsuchawide-apertureview,itturnsout,istheimplicitattitudeatworkthatprofessionalismdemandsweignoreouremotions.SometracethisemotionalblindspottotheworkethicembeddedinthenormsofworkplacesintheWest,whichseesworkasamoralobligationthatdemandssuppressingatten-tiontoourrelationshipsandwhatwefeel.Inthisall-too-commonview,payingattentiontothesehumandimensionsunderminesbusinesseffectiveness.

But organizational research over the last decades provides ample evidencethat this is amisguidedassumption, and that themost adept teammembersorleadersuseawideaperturetogathertheemotionalinformationtheyneedtodealwellwiththeirteammates’oremployees’emotionalneeds.

Whetherwenoticetheemotionalforestorjustzeroinononetreedeterminesour aperture. When people saw cartoons depicting, for example, one personsmilingsurroundedbyothersfrowning,eye-trackingdevicesrevealedthatmostviewersnarrowedtheirattentiontojustthesmilingface,ignoringtheothers.10

Thereseemstobeabias(at leastamongcollegestudents in theWest,whoarethebulkofsubjectsinsuchstudiesinpsychology)toignorethelargercollec-tive.InEastAsiansociety,bycontrast,peoplemorenaturallytakeinbroadpat-ternsinagroup—awideaperturecomeseasily.

Leadership maven Warren Bennis uses the term “first-class noticers” forthose who bring a finely honed attention to every situation, and a constant,sometimesinfectioussenseoffascinationwithwhat’sgoingoninthemoment.Greatlistenersareonevarietyoffirst-classnoticers.

Twoof themainmental ruts that threaten the ability to notice are unques-tionedassumptionsandoverlyrelied-onrulesofthumb.Theseneedtobetestedand refined time and again against changing realities. One way to do this isthroughwhatHarvard psychologist EllenLanger calls environmentalmindful-ness:constantquestioningandlistening;inquiry,probing,andreflecting—gath-eringinsightsandperspectivesfromotherpeople.Thisactiveengagementleadsto smarter questions, better learning, and amore sensitive earlywarning radarforcomingchanges.

THESYSTEMSBRAIN

Consideranexecutiveidentifiedinastudyofthoseingovernmentpostswhosetrackrecordmarkedthemasinnovative,successfulleaders.11

Hisfirst jobforthenavywasinaship’sradioroom.Hesoonmasteredtheradiosystemand,hesaid,“Iknewitbetter thananyoneon theship. Iwas theonetheycametowithproblems.ButIrealizedthatifIwasgoingtobeasuccessIhadtomastertheship.”

Soheappliedhimselftolearninghowthedifferentpartsoftheshipworkedtogether,andhoweachinteractedwiththeradioroom.Laterinhiscareer,whenhegotpromotedtoamuchbiggerjobasacivilianworkingforthenavy,hesaid,“JustasImasteredtheradioroom,andthentheship,IrealizedIhadtomasterhowthenavyworks.”

Whilesomeofushaveaknackforsystems,formanyormostleaders—likethisexecutive—itisanacquiredstrength.Butsystemsawarenessintheabsenceofself-awarenessandempathywillnotbesufficientforoutstandingleadership.Weneedtobalancethetriplefocus,notdependonhavingjustonestrength.

NowconsidertheLarrySummersparadox:henodoubthasageniusIQandbrillianceasasystemsthinker.Hewas,afterall,oneoftheyoungestprofessorstogettenureinHarvard’shistory.ButyearslaterSummerswas,ineffect,firedasHarvardpresidentby its faculty,whowerefedupwithhis insensitiveblun-ders—mostnotablydismissingwomen’scapabilitiesforscience.

ThatpatternseemstofitwhattheUniversityofOxford’sSimonBaron-Co-henhasidentifiedasanextremebrainstyle,onethatexcelsatsystemsanalysisbut flunksempathyand the sensitivity to social context that comesalongwithit.12

Baron-Cohen’s research finds that in a small—but significant—number ofpeople thisstrengthcomescoupledwithablindspotforwhatotherpeoplearefeeling and thinking, and for reading social situations. For that reason, whilepeoplewith superior systems understanding are organizational assets, they arenotnecessarilyeffectiveleadersiftheylacktherequisiteemotionalintelligence.

Anexecutiveatonebankexplainedtomehowthebankhascreatedacareerladder for thosewith this talent set that allows them to progress in status andsalaryonthebasisoftheirsolotalentsasbrilliantsystemsanalystsratherthanbyclimbingtheleadershipranks.Thatwaythebankcankeepthistalentedcrewandhavethemadvanceintheircareer,whilerecruitingleadersfromadifferentpool.Thoseleaderscanthenconsulttheirsystemsexpertiseasneeded.

THEWELL-FOCUSEDTEAM

Ataninternationalorganizationpeoplewerehiredsolelyfortheirtechnicalex-pertise, without regard for their personal or interpersonal abilities—includingteamwork.Perhapspredictably,aone-hundred-memberteamtherehadabreak-down,withlotsoffrictionandconstantmisseddeadlines.

“Theheadof the teamneverhad thechance tostopandreflectwithsome-one,”Iwastoldbytheleadershipcoachwhowasbroughtintohelp.“Hedidn’thaveasinglefriendhecouldtalktoopenly.WhenIgavehimtheopportunityforreflection,westartedwithhisdreams,thenhisproblems.

“When we stepped back to look at his team he realized he’d been seeingeverythingthroughasinglesmalllens—howtheywereconstantlydisappointinghim—but hadn’t been thinking aboutwhy peoplewere behaving theway theywere.Hehadnoperspective-taking;hecouldn’tseethingsfromtheteammem-bers’pointofview.”

Theteamleaderfocusedhisthinkingonwhatwaswrongwiththemembers,theirspecificfailings,andhisindignationthattheyweretorpedoinghisownper-formance.Hefounditeasytoblametheirshortcomings.

But once hewas able to shift his focus to the team’s perspective onwhatwasn’tworking, his diagnosis of the trouble changed.He realized that resent-mentsamongteammemberswererampant.Thetheory-orientedbasicscientistsdisdainedthemorepragmatic,get-it-doneengineers,whointurnputdownwhattheysawashead-in-the-cloudsresearchers.

Another variety of strife was nationalistic. The huge teamwas like a tinyUnited Nations, with members drawn from countries around the world—agoodlynumberofwhichwere inconflictwitheachother—and thoseconflictsmappedontomanyofthetensionsbetweenpeople.

Thegrouprhetoricwas that thesedividesdidn’texist (andsowecan’t talkabout it)—butinfact, theheadof theteamsaw,heneededtoget itoutonthe

table.“Sothat’swherehestartedtoputthingsright,”hiscoachsaid.VanessaDruskatfindsthattop-performingteamsfollownormsthatenhance

thecollectiveself-awareness,suchasbysurfacingsimmeringdisagreementsandsettlingthembeforetheyboilover.

Oneresourcefordealingwiththeteam’semotions:createtimeandspacetotalkaboutwhat’sonpeople’smind.Druskat’sresearch,donewithStevenWolff,findsthatmanyteamsdon’tdothis—it’stheleastfrequentlydemonstratednormofthosetheystudy.“Butifateamdoesthis,”shesays,“there’salargepositivepayoff.

“IwasinNorthCarolinaworkingwithateam,andtheresourceweusedtohelpthemdiscussemotion-ladenissueswasalargeceramicelephant,”Druskattoldme.“Theyallagreedtoanormthatsaid,‘Anyone,anytime,canpickuptheelephantandsay,“Iwant to raiseanelephant,” ’meaningbringupsomethingthat’sbotheringthem.

“Right away,oneguy—and these are all topexecutives—did it.He startedtalkingabouthowswampedhewasandhowtheotherfolksontheteamdidn’trealize it and were making too many demands on his time. He told them,‘You’vegottorealizethisismybusyseason.’Hiscolleaguestoldhimtheyhadnoidea,andhadbeenwonderingwhyhehadbeensounresponsive.Somehadbeentakingitpersonally.Afterthattherewasafloodofothersspeakingup,get-tingthingsofftheirchest,clearingtheair.Inlessthananhouritseemedlikeacompletelydifferentteam.”

“Toharvestthecollectivewisdomofagroup,youneedtwothings:mindfulpresenceandasenseofsafety,”saysStevenWolff,aprincipalatGEIPartners.13

“You need a sharedmentalmodel that this is a safe place—Not, If I say thewrongthingI’llgetanoteinmyfile.Peopleneedtofeelfreetospeakout.

“Beingpresent,”Wolffclarifies,“meansbeingawareofwhat’sgoingonandinquiring into it. I’ve learned to appreciate negative emotions—it’s not that Ienjoythem,butthattheysignalapotofgoldattheendoftherainbowifwecan

staypresenttothem.Whenyoufeelanegativeemotion,stopandaskyourself,‘What’s going on here?’ so you can begin to understand the issue behind thefeelingsandthenmakewhatisgoingonwithinyouvisibletotheteam.Butthatrequiresthegroupbeasafecontainer,soyoucansaywhat’sactuallygoingon.”

Thiscollectiveactofself-awarenessclears theairofemotionalstatic.“Ourresearch,”Wolffadds,“showsthatisonesignofahigh-performingteam.Theymakeiteasytogivetimetobringupandexploreteammembers’negativefeel-ings.”

As with individuals, top teams excel in the triple focus. For a team, self-awarenessmeanstuningintotheneedsofmembers,surfacingissues,andbeingintentional about setting norms that help—like “raising the elephant.” Someteamsmaketimeforadaily“check-in”atthestartofameetingtoaskhoweachpersonisdoing.

Ateam’sempathyappliesnotjusttosensitivityamongmembers,butalsotounderstandingtheviewandfeelingsofotherpeopleandgroups the teamdealswith—group-levelempathy.

The best teams also read the organization’s dynamics effectively; DruskatandWolfffindthatthiskindofsystemawarenessisstronglylinkedtopositiveteamperformance.

Teamfocuscantaketheformofbothwhominthewiderorganizationtohelpandwheretogettheresourcesandattentionteamsneedtoaccomplishtheirowngoals.Oritcanmeanlearningwhattheconcernsareofothersintheorganiza-tionwhocaninfluencetheteam’scapabilities,oraskingwhetherwhattheteamisconsideringfitsthelargerstrategyandgoalsoftheoutfit.

Top teamsalsoperiodically reflecton their functioningasagroup tomakeneeded changes. This exercise in group self-awareness allows frank feedbackfromwithin,which,Druskattellsme,“booststhegroupeffectiveness,especiallyatfirst.”

Theyalsocreateapositiveatmosphere;havingfunisasignofsharedflow.

TimBrown,CEOofIDEO,aninnovationsconsultancy,callsit“seriousplay.”Hesays,“Playequalstrust,aspacewherepeoplecantakerisks.Onlybytakingrisksdowegettothemostvaluablenewideas.”

PARTVII

THEBIGPICTURE

21

LEADINGFORTHELONGFUTURE

Mylateuncle,AlvinWeinberg,wasanuclearphysicistwhooftenactedastheconscienceofthatsector.HewasfiredasdirectorofOakRidgeNationalLabo-ratoryaftertwenty-fiveyearsinthejobbecausehewouldnotstoptalkingaboutthe dangers of reactor safety and nuclear waste. He also, controversially, op-posedusingthetypeofreactorfuelthatproducesmaterialforweapons.1Then,asfounderof theInstituteforEnergyAnalysis,he initiatedoneof thenation’spioneeringR&Dunitsonalternativeenergy—hewasoneofthefirstscientiststowarnaboutthethreatofCO2andglobalwarming.

Alvinonceconfidedtomehisambivalenceaboutfor-profitcompaniesrun-ningnuclearpowerplants;hefearedthattheprofitmotivewouldmeantheycutsafetymeasures—apremonitionofwhatcontributed to theFukushimadisasterinJapan.2

Alvinwas particularly troubled that the nuclear energy industry had neversolved theproblemofwhat todowithradioactivewaste.Heurged it tofindasolution thatwouldpersistas longas thewaste remained radioactive—suchasan institution dedicated to guarding those stockpiles and keeping people safefromthemovercenturiesormillennia.3

Decisionswiththelonghorizoninmindraisequestionslike,Howwillwhat

wedotodaymatterinacentury,orinfivehundredyears?Tothegrandchildrenofourgrandchildren’sgrandchildren?

Inthatfarfuturethespecificsofouractionstodaymaywellfadelikedistantshadowsofforgottenancestors.Whatcouldhavemorelastingconsequencearethe norms we establish, the organizing principles for action that live on longaftertheiroriginatorshavegone.

There are think tanks, as well as corporate and government groups, thatdeeplyponderpossiblefuturescenarios.Considertheseprojectionsfortheworldin2025,madebytheU.S.NationalIntelligenceCouncil:4

• Ecologicalimpactsofhumanactivitywillcreatescarcityofresourceslikefarmablesoil.

•Theeconomicdemandforenergy,food,andwaterwilloutstripreadilyavailablesources—watershortagesloomsoon.

•Thesetrendswillcreateshocksanddisruptionstoourlives,economies,andpoliticalsystems.

Whenthatreportwasdelivered, thefederalgovernment ignoredtheresults.Thereisnoagency,office,orparticulargovernmentpositionchargedwithactingfor the long term. Insteadpoliticians focuson theshort term—what it takes togetreelected,particularly—withvirtuallynoattentionpaidtowhatneedstobedone now to protect future generations. For toomany politicians saving theirjobscommandsmoreoftheirattentionthansavingtheplanetorthepoor.

But it’snot justpoliticians—mostofusprefer immediate solutions.Cogni-tivepsychologistsfindthatpeopletendtofavornowindecisionsofallkinds—asin,I’llhavethepieàlamodenow,andmaybedietlater.

Thispertains,too,toourgoals.“Weattendtothepresent,what’sneededforsuccess now,” says ElkeWeber, the Columbia University cognitive scientist.“Butthisisbadforfarsightedgoals,whicharenotgiventhesamepriorityinthe

mind.Futurefocusbecomesaluxury,waitingforcurrentneedstobetakencareoffirst.”

In 2003, NewYorkmayorMichael Bloomberg decreed that smoking wasbannedinbars.Hisdecisiongothugeopposition—barownerssaiditwouldruintheirbusiness;smokershatedit.Hesaid,Youmightnotlikeit,butyou’llthankmeintwentyyears.

How long does it take before the public reaction becomes positive? ElkeWeberlookedatBloomberg’ssmokingban,amongothersuchdecisions,toan-swer thatquestion:“Wedidcasestudiesofhowlong it tookforachange thatwasinitiallyunpopulartobecomethenew,acceptedstatusquo.Ourdatashowstherangeisninetosixmonths.”

Thatsmokingban?“Evensmokerslikeditafterawhile,”Weberadds.“Theygottoenjoyhangingoutwithothersmokersoutdoors.Andeveryonelikesthatbarsdidn’treekofstalesmoke.”

Anothercasestudy:TheprovincialgovernmentofBritishColumbiaimposedataxoncarbonemissions.Itwasrevenueneutral:thefeescollectedweredistrib-utedamongtheprovince’scitizens.Atfirsttherewastremendousoppositiontothenewtax.Butafterawhilepeoplelikedgettingtheirchecks.Fifteenmonthslaterthetaxwaspopular.5

“Politiciansareinchargeofourwelfare,”saysWeber.“Theyneedtoknowpeoplewillthankthemlaterforaharddecisionnow.It’slikeraisingteenagers—sometimesthanklessintheshortterm,butrewardinginthelong.”

RESHAPINGSYSTEMS

SoonafterHurricaneSandydevastatedlargepartsoftheNewYorkCityarea,Ispoke with Jonathan F. P. Rose, a founder of the green community planningmovement,whowaswritingabookthatlooksatcitiesassystems.6“We’reataninflectionpointaboutthebeliefthatclimatechangeisaseriouslong-termprob-

lemwemustdealwith,”Rosesaid.“Sandy’sworsthitwastheWallStreetarea.Youdon’thearanyclimatewarmingdeniersdowntherethesedays.IntheWallStreetcultureaquarterisalongtimeaway.ButSandymayhavegottenthemtothinkaboutamuchlongertimehorizon.

“Ifwereduceourproductionofheat-trappinggasestoday,itwouldstilltakeat least three hundred years for the climate to begin to cool, perhaps muchlonger,” Rose added. “We have strong cognitive biases toward our presentneeds,andareweakthinkersaboutthelongawayfuture.Butatleastwe’restart-ingtorecognizethedegreetowhichwehaveputhumanandnaturalsystemsatrisk.Whatweneednowisleadership.Greatleadersmusthavetheessentiallongviewthatasystemsunderstandingbrings.”

Takebusiness.Reinventingbusinessfor thelongfuturecouldmeanfindingshared values supported by all stakeholders, from stock owners to employeesand customers to communitieswhere a company operates. Some call it “con-scious capitalism,” orienting a company’s performance around benefiting allsuchstakeholders,notjustaimingforquarterlynumbersthatpleaseshareholders(and studies show that companies like Whole Foods and Zappos with thisbroader view actually do better on financials than their purely profit-orientedcompetitors).7

Ifaleaderistoarticulatesuchsharedvalueseffectively,heorshemustfirstlookwithin to findagenuinelyheartfeltguidingvision.Thealternativecanbeseeninthehollowmissionstatementsespousedbyexecutivesbutbeliedbytheircompany’s(ortheirown)actions.

Even leaders of great companies can suffer a blind spot for the long-termconsequenceif their timeframeis toosmall.Tobetrulygreat, leadersneedtoexpandtheirfocustoafurtherhorizonline,evenbeyonddecades,whiletakingtheirsystemsunderstandingtoamuchfinerfocus.Andtheirleadershipneedstoreshapesystemsthemselves.

ThatbringstomindPaulPolman,CEOofUnilever,whosurprisedmewhen

we were both members of a panel at theWorld Economic Forum in Davos,Switzerland.HetookthatopportunitytoannouncethatUnileverhadadoptedthegoalofcuttingthecompany’senvironmentalfootprintinhalfby2020(thiswasin2010,givingitadecadetogetthere).Thatwaslaudable,butalittleho-hum:manysociallyresponsiblecompaniesannounceglobalwarminggoalslikethat.8

Butthenextthinghesaidreallyshockedme:Unileveriscommittedtosourc-ingitsrawagriculturematerialfromsmallfarms,aimingtolinktohalfamillionsmallholdersglobally.9Thefarmersinvolvedmainlygrowtea,butthesourcinginitiativewillalsoincludecropsforcocoa,palmoil,vanilla,coconutsugar,andavarietyoffruitsandvegetables.ThefarmsinvolvedareinareasrangingfromAfricatoSoutheastAsiaandLatinAmerica,withsomeinIndonesia,China,andIndia.

Unileverhopesnotonly to link thesesmall farmers into theirsupplychain,butalsotoworkwithgroupslikeRainforestAlliancetohelpthemupgradetheirfarmingpracticesandsobecomereliablesourcesinglobalmarkets.10

ForUnilever, this diversification of its sourcing lowers risks in a turbulentworld,wherefoodsecurityhascomeontheradarasafutureissue.Forthefarm-ers,itmeansmoreincomeandamorecertainfuture.

Thisredrawingofthesupplychain,Polmanpointedout,wouldhavearangeofbenefits,fromleavingmoremoneyinlocalfarmcommunitiestobetterhealthandschooling.TheWorldBankpointstosupportingsmallholderfarmingasthemost effectiveway to stimulate economic development and reduce poverty inruralareas.11

“Inemergingmarketsthreeoutoffourlow-incomepeopledependdirectlyorindirectly on agriculture for their livelihoods,” according to Cherie Tan, whoheadsthisUnileverinitiativeonsourcingfromsmallfarms.Eighty-fivepercentofallfarmsworldwideareinthissmallholderclass,“sotherearegreatopportu-nities,”sheadds.

Ifweseeacompanyaslittlemorethanamachineformakingmoney,weig-

noreitswebofconnectionstothepeoplewhoworkthere,thecommunitiesitop-erates in, its customers and clients, and society at large.Leaderswith awiderviewbringintofocustheserelationships,too.

Whilemakingmoneymatters,ofcourse,leaderswiththisenlargedaperturepayattentiontohow theymakemoney,andsomakechoicesdifferently.Theirdecisionsoperateby a logic that doesnot reduce to simpleprofit/loss calcula-tions—itgoesbeyondthelanguageofeconomics.Theybalancefinancialreturnwiththepublicgood.12

In thisviewagooddecisionallows forpresentneedsaswell as thoseofawiderweb of people—including future generations. Such leaders inspire: theyarticulatealargercommonpurposethatgivesmeaningandcoherencetoevery-one’sworkandengagepeopleemotionallythroughvaluesthatmakepeoplefeelgoodabouttheirwork,thatmotivate,andthatkeeppeopleoncourse.

Focusingonsocialneedscanitselffosterinnovation,ifcombinedwithanex-pandedfieldofattentiontowhatpeopleneed.ManagersattheIndiadivisionofaglobal consumergoodscompany sawvillagemenbloodiedbybarbersusingrustyrazors,andsofoundwaystomakenewrazorscheapenoughthatthosevil-lagerscouldaffordthem.13

Suchprojectscreateorganizationalclimateswhereworkhasmeaninganden-gagespeople’spassions.Asforteamsliketheonethatdevelopedthosecheapra-zors, their labor can more likely become “good work”: where people are en-gaged,workwithexcellence,andfindmeaninginwhattheydo.

BIG-PICTURELEADERS

Imagine taking to scalewhat’s beenhappening for years atBen& Jerry’s IceCream.Oneofitspopularflavors,ChocolateFudgeBrownie,callsforbrowniesto be brokenup into the ice cream.Ben& Jerry’s gets its truckloads of thesetasty cakes from theGreystonBakery, located in a poverty-stricken neighbor-

hoodof theBronx.The bakery trains and employs thosewho struggle to findwork, including once-homeless parents who, with their families, now live innearby low-cost housing. The bakery’smotto: “We don’t hire people to bakebrownies.Webakebrowniestohirepeople.”

Suchattitudesrepresent thekindoffreshthinkingintractabledilemmascallfor.Butthere’sahiddeningredientinanytruesolution:enhancingourattentionandunderstanding—inourselves,inothers,inourcommunitiesandsocieties.

Inthesensethatleadersinfluenceorguidepeopletowardasharedgoal,lead-ershipiswidelydistributed.Whetherwithinafamily,onsocialmedia,orinanorganizationorsocietyasawhole,weareallleadersinonewayoranother.

Thegood-enoughleaderoperateswithinthegivensofasystemtobenefitasinglegroup,executingamissionasdirected,takingontheproblemsoftheday.Incontrast,agreatleaderdefinesamission,actsonmanylevels,andtacklesthebiggest problems. Great leaders do not settle for systems as they are, but seewhattheycouldbecome,andsoworktotransformthemforthebetter,tobenefitthewidestcircle.

Then there are those rare soulswho shift beyondmere competence towis-dom, and so operate on behalf of society itself rather than a specific politicalgrouporbusiness.Theyare free to thinkfar, farahead.Theirapertureencom-passes thewelfareofhumanityat large,notasinglegroup; theyseepeopleasWe,notasUsandThem.Andtheyleavealegacyforfuturegenerations—thesearetheleaderswerememberacenturyormorelater.ThinkJeffersonandLin-coln,GandhiandMandela,BuddhaandJesus.

Oneof today’swickedmesses is the paradoxof theAnthropocene: humansystemsaffect theglobal systems that support life inwhat seems tobeheadedforaslow-motionsystemscrash.FindingsolutionsrequiresAnthropocenethink-ing, understanding points of leverage within these systems dynamics so as toresetacourseforabetterfuture.Thislevelofcomplexityaddstolayersofoth-ersfacingleaderstoday,aschallengesescalateintomesses.

For instance, through thehealthandecological impactsofour lifestyle, theworld’srichestpeoplearecreatingdisproportionatepainfortheworld’spoorest.We need to reinvent our economic systems themselves, factoring in humanneeds,notjusteconomicgrowth.

Take thegrowinggapbetweenvery richest andmostpowerful andpoorestworldwide.Whiletherichholdpower,aswe’veseenthisverystatuscanblindthemtothetrueconditionsofthepoor,leavingthemindifferenttotheirsuffer-ing.Who,then,canspeaktruthtopower?

“Civilizations should be judged not by how they treat people closest topower,butratherhowtheytreatthosefurthestfrompower—whetherinrace,re-ligion, gender, wealth, or class—aswell as in time,” says Larry Brilliant. “Agreatcivilizationwouldhavecompassionandloveforthem,too.”

Whiletheperksandpleasuresofarobusteconomyarealluring,therearealsothe “diseases of civilization,” like diabetes and heart disease,which arewors-enedbytherigorsandstressesoftheroutinesthatmakethoselifestylespossible(plus,ofcourse,bythateconomicmarvel, junkfood).Thisproblemintensifiesaswefailinmuchoftheworldtomakemedicalservicesequallyavailabletoall.

Thentherearetheperennialproblemsofinequitiesineducationandaccesstoopportunity;countriesandculturesthatprivilegeoneelitegroupwhilerepress-ingothers;nationsthatarefailinganddevolvingintowarringfiefdoms—andonandon.

Problemsof suchcomplexity andurgency require anapproach toproblem-solvingthatintegratesourself-awarenessandhowweact,andourempathyandcompassion,withanuancedunderstandingofthesystemsatplay.

Tobegintoaddresssuchmesses,weneedleaderswhofocusonseveralsys-tems:geopolitical,economic,andenvironmental, tonamea few.Butsadly fortheworld, somany leaders are preoccupiedwith today’s immediate problemsthattheylackbandwidthforthelong-termchallengeswefaceasaspecies.14

PeterSenge,who teaches at theMITSloanSchoolofManagement, devel-

oped the “learning organization,” which brings a systems understanding intocompanies.15 “Essential tounderstandingsystems isyour timehorizon,”Sengetoldme. “If it’s too short, you’ll ignore essential feedback loops andcomeupwithshort-termfixesthatwon’tworkinthelongrun.Butifthathorizonislongenough,you’llhaveachanceofseeingmoreofthekeysystemsatplay.”

“Thebiggeryourhorizon,”addsSenge,“thebiggerthesystemyoucansee.”But “transforming large-scale systems is hard,” saidRebeccaHenderson at

anMITmeetingonglobal systems.Henderson teachesonethicsand theenvi-ronmentatHarvardBusinessSchoolandusesasystemsframeworktoseeksolu-tions.Forinstance,recycling,shepointsout,represents“changeatthemargins,”whileabandoningfossilfuelsaltogetherwouldrepresentasystemshift.

Henderson,whoteachesasurprisinglypopularcourseatthebusinessschoolon “reimagining capitalism,” favors transparency that would accurately pricesay,CO2 emissions.Thatwouldcausemarkets to favoranymeans that lowersthoseemissions.

At the sameMITmeeting on global systems where Henderson spoke, theDalaiLamasaid,“Weneedtoinfluencedecisionmakerstopayattentiontotheissuesthatmatterforhumanityinthelongrun,”liketheenvironmentalcrisisandtheinequityinincomedistribution—“notjusttheirnationalinterest.”

“Wehave thecapacity to think several centuries into the future,” theDalaiLamasaid,adding,“Startthetaskevenifitwillnotbefulfilledwithinyourlife-time.Thisgenerationhasaresponsibilitytoreshapetheworld.Ifwemakeanef-fort,itmaybepossibletoachieve.Evenifitseemshopelessnow,nevergiveup.Offerapositivevision,withenthusiasmandjoy,andanoptimisticoutlook.”

A triple focusmighthelpusbecome successful, but towardwhat end?Wemustaskourselves:intheserviceofwhatexactlyareweusingwhatevertalentswemayhave?Ifourfocusservesonlyourpersonalends—self-interest,immedi-atereward,andourownsmallgroup—theninthelongrunallofus,asaspecies,aredoomed.

The largest lens for our focus encompasses global systems; considers theneeds of everyone, including the powerless and poor; and peers far ahead intime.Nomatterwhatwearedoingorwhatdecisionwearemaking, theDalaiLamasuggeststheseself-queriesforcheckingourmotivation:

Isitjustforme,orforothers?Forthebenefitofthefew,orthemany?Fornow,orforthefuture?

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thisbookweavestogetherstrandsfromamultitudeofsources,manyofthempeopleI’vespokenwith.Theirinsightsenrichmythinkinghere,andI’venamedthese generous folks throughout. Apart from thosementioned by name in thebook,I’mgratefultothefollowingpeopleforleads,tidbits,stories,emails,ca-sualasides,observations,andmore:

SteveArnold,PolarisVenturePartners;RobBarracano,ChamplainCollege;BradleyConnor,MD,WeillCornellMedicalCenter;TobyCosgrove,ClevelandClinic;HowardExton-Smith,OxfordChangeManagement;LarryFink,Black-Rock;AlanGerson,AGInternationalLaw;RoshiBernieGlassman,ZenPeace-makers; Bill Gross, Idealab; Nancy Henderson, The Academy at Charlemont;Mark Kriger, BI Norwegian Business School; Janice Maturano, Institute forMindfulLeadership;DavidMayberg,BostonUniversity;CharlesMelcher,TheFuture of Storytelling; Walter Robb, Whole Foods Market; Peter Miscovich,JonesLangLaSalle;JohnNoseworthy,MayoClinic;MiguelPestana,Unilever;DanielSiegel,UCLA;JoshSpear,Undercurrent; JeffreyWalker,MDGHealthAlliance;LaurisWoolford,FifthThirdBank;JeffreyYoung,CognitiveTherapy

CenterofNewYork.SpecialappreciationtoTomRoepke,mykindhostatPub-licSchool112,andtoWendyHasenkampatMindandLifeInstituteforherper-ceptive feedback. To those inadvertently omitted from this list, my gratitudenonetheless.

I’mgratefultofellowmembersoftheWorldEconomicForum’sLeadershipCouncil and of the Cambridge Mindful Leadership group for an array ofthoughtful insights.Another sourceofkeypointshasbeenenthusiasticdiscus-sionswiththeConsortiumforResearchonEmotionalIntelligenceinOrganiza-tions(whichIco-direct),aglobalnetworkofacademicresearchersandorganiza-tion-basedpractitioners.

Inaddition,I’mharvestingas-yet-unpublisheddatafromstudiesbymyasso-ciatesattheHayGroup,theglobalconsultancythatpartneredwithmeindevel-oping the Emotional and SocialCompetence Inventory (ESCI), an assessmentforleadershipdevelopment.MajorthankstoYvonneSellatHayGroupLondonforher researchwith this instrument, and toRuthMalloy,HayGroupBoston.AlsotoGarthHaversinSouthAfrica,ScottSpeierinBoston,andGeorgVeil-metterinBerlin.

Asalways,IoweaspecialdebttoRichardDavidson,oldfriendandsourceofup-to-the-minuteneurosciencedata,withthepatiencetoexplainitallandan-swermyendlessquestions.RowanFoster,myassistant,hasbeenastalwart insearchingout sometimesobscure researcharticlesandkeeping this trainon itstrack.

Andmywife,TaraBennett-Goleman,hasbeenanendlesssourceofunder-standingandinsights,inspirationandlove.

RESOURCES

DanielGoleman

Forfurtherinformation:www.DanielGoleman.infoTocontactDanielGoleman:Contact@danielgoleman.infoTwosetsofaudio instructionsaccompanythisbook:“CultivatingFocus:

Techniques for Excellence” and “Focus for Kids: Enhancing Con-centration,Caring,andCalmness.”Seewww.MoreThanSound.net.

Organizations

DanielGolemancodirectstheRutgersUniversity–basedCollaborativeforResearchonEmotional Intelligence inOrganizations,which fostersresearch among academics and organizational practitioners: www.creio.org

DanielGolemanisafoundingboardmemberoftheMindandLifeInsti-tute,whichbeganbyhostingmeetingsbetweentheDalaiLamaandscientistsandnowhasa rangeof initiatives, including fostering re-searchoncontemplativemethods:www.mindandlife.org

DanielGolemanwasacofounderoftheCollaborativeforAcademic,So-cial and Emotional Learning, now at the University of Illinois atChicago,whichhassetbestpracticeguidelinesforsocial/emotionallearninginschoolsandfostersevaluationresearchontheprograms:www.casel.org

InformationonMindfulness

The Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care, and Society,foundedbyJonKabat-ZinnattheUniversityofMassachusettsMed-icalCenter,hasbeenthedrivingforceinthenowwidespreaduseofmindfulness-based stress reduction in health care andmedicine, aswellas inareasasdiverseas theprisonsystemand therapy:www.umassmed.edu/cfm

MindfulnessinEducation;SystemsandEnvironment:thesearebothpro-gramsattheGarrisonInstitute:www.garrisoninstitute.org

SystemsandSustainabilityhasbecomeaprogramatPeterSenge’sSocietyforOrganizationalLearning:www.solonline.org

Ecologicaltransparencywithinasystemsperspective,andviewedthroughthefine-grainlensof lifecycleanalysis,has takenseveraldirectionsatNewEarthFoundation,particularlyEarthster,aplatformforbusi-ness-to-business ecological transparency in supply chains; Hand-printer, a positive way to monitor our environmental impacts; andSocialHotspots,which identifies issues likesocial injusticeorpoorworkertreatmentinsupplychains:www.newearth.info

Mindful Leadership is the focus of Chad-Meng Tan’s spinoff from hisworkatGoogle:Search InsideYourselfLeadership Institute.www.siyli.org

RecommendedBooksandAudio

TeresaAmabileandStevenKramer,TheProgressPrinciple.Boston:Har-vardBusinessReviewPress,2011.

TaraBennett-Goleman,EmotionalAlchemy.NewYork,NY:ThreeRiversPress,2002.

TaraBennett-Goleman,MindWhispering:ANewMap toFreedom fromSelf-DefeatingEmotionalHabits.SanFrancisco:HarperOne,2013.

Mirabhai Bush,Mindfulness at Work I (audiotape). Northampton, MA:MoreThanSoundProductions,2013.

ThomasH.DavenportandJohnC.Beck,TheAttentionEconomy:Under-standingtheNewCurrencyofBusiness.Boston:HarvardBusinessReviewPress,2002.

Richard J. Davidson and Sharon Begley, The Emotional Life of YourBrain:HowItsUniquePatternsAffecttheWayYouThink,Feel,andLive—andHowYouCanChangeThem.NewYork:Plume,2012.

JeanDecetyandWilliamIckes(eds.),TheSocialNeuroscienceofEmpa-thy.Cambridge,MA:TheMITPress2011.

K.AndersEricsson,ed.,TheRoadtoExcellence:TheAcquisitionofEx-pertPerformance in theArtsandSciences,SportsandGames.Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,1996.

EugeneT.Gendlin,Focusing.NewYork:BantamBooks,1982.

BillGeorge,AuthenticLeadership:RediscoveringtheSecretstoCreatingLastingValue.Hoboken,NJ:Jossey-Bass,2004.

Daniel Goleman, Ecological Intelligence. New York: Random House,2009.

Daniel Goleman, Leadership: The Power of Emotional Intelligence.Northampton,MA:MoreThanSoundProductions,2012.

DanielGoleman,Relax(audiotape).Northampton,MA:MoreThanSoundProductions,2012.

DanielGoleman,SocialIntelligence.NewYork:BantamBooks,2006.

JonKabat-Zinn,WhereverYouGo,ThereYouAre.NewYork:Hyperion,2005.

DanielKahneman,Thinking,FastandSlow.NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2013.

LindaLantieri, BuildingEmotional Intelligence:Techniques toCultivateInnerStrengthinChildren.Boulder,CO:SoundsTrue,2008.

MichaelPosner andMaryRothbart,Educating theHumanBrain.Wash-ington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2006.

DanielJ.Siegel,TheMindfulBrain:ReflectionandAttunementintheCul-

tivationofWell-Being.NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,2007.

JohnD.Sterman,BusinessDynamics:SystemsThinkingandModelingforaComplexWorld.NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2000.

Chade-MengTan,SearchInsideYourself.TheUnexpectedPathtoAchiev-ing Success, Happiness (and World Peace). San Francisco: HarperOne,2012.

NOTES

Chapter1:TheSubtleFaculty

1.Forinstance,thebrainstem,justabovethespinalcord,housestheneuralbarometerthatsensesourrelationtotheenvironment,andraisesorlowersourenergyarousalandattentionaccordingtohowvigilantweneedtobe.Buteachaspectofattentionhasitsowndistinctcircuitry.Formoredetailon the basics, seeMichael Posner and Steven Petersen, “The Attention System of the HumanBrain,”AnnualReviewofNeuroscience13(1990):25–42.

2. These systems include, for example, the biological and ecological; economic and social; andchemicalandphysical—bothNewtonianandquantum.

3.M.I.PosnerandM.K.Rothbart,“ResearchonAttentionNetworksasaModelfortheIntegrationofPsychologicalScience,”AnnualReviewofPsychology58(2007):1–27,at6.

4. AnneTreisman,“HowtheDeploymentofAttentionDeterminesWhatWeSee,”VisualSearchandAttention14(2006):4–8.

5. SeeNielsenWire,December 15, 2011, http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/online_mobile/new-mobile-obsession-u-s-teens-triple-data-usage.

6.MarkBauerlein,“WhyGen-YJohnnyCan’tReadNonverbalCues,”WallStreetJournal,August28,2009.

7. Criteria forbeing“addicted”donot specifyanabsolutenumberofhours forgameplaying (orboutsofdrinking,forthatmatter),butratherfocusonhowthehabitcreatesproblemsinotherpartsoflife—atschool,socially,orinthefamily.Abadgaminghabitcancreatepersonalhavoconaparwith drugs or drinking.DaphneBavelier et al., “Brains onVideoGames,”NatureReviewsNeuroscience12(December2011):763–68.

8.WadeRoush,“SocialMachines,”TechnologyReview,August2005.9.HerbertSimon,“DesigningOrganizationsforanInformation-RichWorld,”inDonaldM.Lamber-

ton, ed., The Economics of Communication and Information (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar,

1997),quotedinThomasH.DavenportandJohnC.Back,TheAttentionEconomy(Boston:Har-vardBusinessSchoolPress,2001),p.11.

Chapter2:Basics

1.WilliamJames,PrinciplesofPsychology,1890,citedinJonathanSchooleretal.,“Meta-Aware-ness, Perceptual Decoupling and theWanderingMind,”Trends in Cognitive Science 15, no. 7(July2011):319–26.

2. RonaldE.Smithet al., “MeasurementandCorrelatesofSport-SpecificCognitiveandSomaticTraitAnxiety:TheSportAnxietyScale,”Anxiety,Stress&Coping:AnInternationalJournal2,no.4(1990):263–80.

3.Tryingtofocusononethingandignoreeverythingelserepresentsaconflictofsortsforthebrain.Themediator in suchmental conflicts is theanterior cingulate cortex (ACC),which spots theseproblemsandrecruitsotherpartsofthebraintosolvethem.TohomeinonafocusofattentiontheACCtapstheprefrontalareasforcognitivecontrol;theysquelchthedistractingcircuitsandam-plifythoseforfullfocus.

4.Eachoftheseessentialsreflectsaspectsofattentionthatfigureinourexplorationhere.RichardJ.DavidsonandSharonBegley,TheEmotionalLifeofYourBrain(NewYork:HudsonStreetPress,2012).

5.HeleenA.Slagteretal.,“ThetaPhaseSynchronyandConsciousTargetPerception:ImpactofIn-tensiveMentalTraining,”JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience21,no.8(2009):1536–49.

6.Theprefrontalcortexsustainsourattentionwhileanearbyregion,theparietalcortex,pointsitto-wardaparticular target.Whenourconcentrationblurs, theseregionsgoquietandour focusbe-comesrudderless,flittingfromonethingtoanotheraseachdrawsourattention.

7.InsuchstudiesthebrainsofpeoplewithADHDexhibitfarlessactivityintheprefrontalareaandshowlessphase-lockingsynchrony:A.M.Kellyetal.,“RecentAdvancesinStructuralandFunc-tionalBrainImagingStudiesofAttention-Deficit/HyperactivityDisorder,”BehavioralandBrainFunctions4(2008):8.

8.JonathanSmallwoodetal.,“CountingtheCostofanAbsentMind:MindWanderingasanUnder-recognized Influence onEducational Performance,”PsychonomicBulletin&Review 14, no. 12(2007):230–36.

9.NicholasCarr,TheShallows(NewYork:Norton,2011).10.MartinHeidegger,DiscourseonThinking(NewYork:Harper&Row,1966),p.56.Heideggeris

citedinCarr,TheShallows,inthelatter’swarningon“whattheinternetisdoingtoourbrains”—notmuchgood,inhisview.

11.GeorgeA.Miller,“TheMagicalNumberSeven,PlusorMinusTwo:SomeLimitsonOurCapac-ityforProcessingInformation,”PsychologicalReview63(1956):81–97.

12. StevenJ.LuckandEdwardK.Vogel,“TheCapacityforVisualWorkingMemoryforFeaturesandConjunctions,”Nature390(1997):279–81.

13. ClaraMoskowitz,“Mind’sLimitFound:4ThingsatOnce,”LiveScience,April27,2008,http://www.livescience.com/2493-mind-limit-4.html.

14.DavidGarlanetal.,“TowardDistraction-FreePervasiveComputing,”PervasiveComputing1,no.2(2002):22–31.

15.ClayShirky,HereComesEverybody(NewYork:Penguin,2009).16.Inorganizationalpolitics,weaktiescanbeahiddenstrength.Inmatrixedorganizations,insteadof

workingthroughlinesofcommand,peopleoftenhavetoinfluencesomeoneoverwhomtheyhavenodirectcontrol.Weaktiesamounttosocialcapital,relationshipsyoucandrawonforhelpandadvice.Withoutanynaturallinkstoanothergroupyouneedtoinfluence,chancesareslim.

17.SeeThomasMalone’sinterviewatEdge.org,http://edge.org/conversation/collective-intelligence.18.HowardGardner,WilliamDamon,andMihalyiCsikszentmihalyi,GoodWork:WhenExcellence

andEthicsMeet(NewYork:BasicBooks,2001);MihalyCsikszentmihalyi,GoodBusiness(NewYork:Viking,2003).

19.MihalyCsikszentmihalyiandReedLarson,BeingAdolescent:ConflictandGrowthintheTeenageYears(NewYork:BasicBooks,1984).

20. Theremayevenbeamoderate levelofdefaultnetworkactivationwhileweare in “the zone.”MichaelEstermanetal.,“In theZoneorZoningOut?TrackingBehavioralandNeuralFluctua-tionsDuringSustainedAttention,”CerebralCortex,http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/08/31/cercor.bhs261.full,August31,2012.

Chapter3:AttentionTopandBottom

1. Henri Poincaré, quoted inArthurKoestler,The Act of Creation (London:Hutchinson, 1964),pp.115–16.

2.Somecognitivescientistscallthesesystemsseparate“minds.”I’vereferredtothetop-downsys-temasthe“highroad”andthebottom-upasthe“lowroad”inmybookSocialIntelligence(NewYork:Bantam,2006).DanielKahneman,inhisbookThinkingFastandSlow(NewYork:Farrar,Straus&Giroux, 2012), uses the terms system 1 and system 2,which he calls “expository fic-tions.” I find thesehard tokeepstraight, likeThingOneandThingTwoinTheCat in theHat.Thatsaid,themoreonedelvesintotheneuralwiring,thelesssatisfying“top”and“bottom”be-come.Buttheywilldo.

3.Kahneman,ThinkingFastandSlow,p.31.4.Thehumanspineisanotherofmanyinstanceswhereevolutionhascomeupwithagood-enough,

butnotperfect,design:buildinguponoldersystemsthatsingle-columnstackofbonesworksade-quately—thoughaflexibletripodofthreecolumnswouldhavebeenmuchstronger.Anyonewithaslippeddiskorcervicalarthritiscantestifytotheimperfections.

5.LoloJonesinSeanGregory,“Lolo’sNoChoke,”Time,July30,2012,pp.32–38. 6. SianBeilocketal.,“WhenPayingAttentionBecomesCounter-Productive,”JournalofExperi-

mentalPsychology18,no.1(2002):6–16.7.Effortstorelaxarelikelytogowrong,especiallyinmomentswhenwearestrainingtoperform.

SeeDanielWegner, “IronicEffects ofTrying toRelaxUnderStress,”BehaviourResearchandTherapy35,no.1(1997):11–21.

8. DanielWegner,“HowtoThink,Say,orDoPreciselytheWorstThingforAnyOccasion,”Sci-ence,July3,2009,pp.48–50.

9. ChristianMerz et al., “Stress ImpairsRetrieval of SociallyRelevant Information,”BehavioralNeuroscience124,no.2(2010):288–93.

10.“Unshrinkable,”Harper’sMagazine,December2009,pp.26–27.

11.YukoHakamataetal.,“AttentionBiasModificationTreatment,”BiologicalPsychiatry68,no.11(2010):982–90.

12.Whenpsychologistsgavethesociallyanxiousfolkssessionswheretheirgazewasencouragedtogotoneutralorfriendlyfacesinacrowd,ratherthanfixatingonrejectingones,twothirdshadlosttheir uneasiness.NormanB.Schmidt et al., “AttentionTraining forGeneralizedSocialAnxietyDisorder,”JournalofAbnormalPsychology118,no.1(2009):5–14.

13. RoyY. J.ChuaandXiZou (Canny),“TheDevilWearsPrada?EffectsofExposure toLuxuryGoods on Cognition andDecisionMaking,”Harvard Business SchoolOrganizational BehaviorUnitWorkingPaperNo.10-034,November2,2009,http://ssrn.com/abstract=1498525orhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1498525.

14.GavanJ.Fitzsimmonsetal.,“Non-ConsciousInfluencesonConsumerChoice,”MarketingLetters13,no.3(2002):269–79.

15.PatrikVuilleumierandYang-MingHuang,“EmotionalAttention:UncoveringtheMechanismsofAffectiveBiases in Perception,”CurrentDirections in Psychological Science 18, no. 3 (2009):148–52.

16.ArneOhmanetal.,“EmotionDrivesAttention:DetectingtheSnakeintheGrass,”JournalofEx-perimentalPsychology:General130,no.3(2001):466–78.

17. ElizabethBlagroveandDerrickWatson,“VisualMarkingandFacialAffect:CananEmotionalFaceBeIgnored?”Emotion10,no.2(2010):147–68.

18.A.J.Schackmanetal.,“ReducedCapacitytoSustainPositiveEmotioninMajorDepressionRe-flectsDiminishedMaintenanceofFronto-StriatalBrainActivation,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences106(2009):22445–50.

19.EllenLanger,Mindfulness(Reading,MA:Addison-Wesley,1989).

Chapter4:TheValueofaMindAdrift

1.EricKlinger,“DaydreamingandFantasizing:ThoughtFlowandMotivation,”inK.D.Markmanet al., eds.,Handbook of Imagination and Mental Stimulation (New York: Psychology Press,2009),pp.225–40.

2. KalinaChristoff, “UndirectedThought:NeuralDeterminants andCorrelates,”Brain Research1428(January2012):51–59.

3.Ibid.,p.57.4.KalinaChristoffetal.,“ExperienceSamplingDuringfMRIRevealsDefaultNetworkandExecu-

tiveSystemContributionstoMindWandering,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences106,no.21 (May26,2009):8719–24.Thekeyexecutiveareasare theanteriorcingulatecortexanddorsolateralprefrontalcortex.Defaultareasare themedialprefrontalcortexand relatedcir-cuits.

5.J.WileyandA.F.Jarosz,“WorkingMemoryCapacity,AttentionalFocus,andProblemSolving,”CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience21(August2012):258–62.

6. JonathanSchooleretal.,“Meta-Awareness,PerceptualDecoupling,and theWanderingMind,”TrendsinCognitiveScience15,no.7(July2011):319–26.

7.QuotedinStevenJohnson,WhereGoodIdeasComeFrom(NewYork:Riverhead,2010).8.HollyWhiteandPritiSingh,“CreativeStyleandAchievementinAdultswithADHD,”Personal-

ityandIndividualDifferences50,no.5(2011):673–77.9.KirstenWeir,“PayAttentiontoMe,”MonitoronPsychology,March2012,pp.70–72.10.ShelleyCarsonetal.,“DecreasedLatentInhibitionIsAssociatedwithIncreasedCreativeAchieve-

ment inHigh-Functioning Individuals,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology 85, no. 3(September2003):499–506.

11.SiyuanLiuetal.,“NeuralCorrelatesofLyricalImprovisation:AnfMRIStudyofFreestyleRap,”ScientificReports2,no.834(November2012).

12.TheEinsteinquotewascitedbyRobertL.OldershawinacommentpostedtoNatureonMay21,2012.

13.JaimeLutz,“PeterSchweitzer,CodeBreaker,Photographer;LovedMusic;at80,”BostonGlobe,November17,2011,p.B14.

14. Morethantwelvethousanddailydiaryentriesfromthe238knowledgeworkerswereused.SeeTeresaAmabileandStevenKramer,“ThePowerofSmallWins,”HarvardBusinessReview,May2011,pp.72–80.

Chapter5:FindingBalance

1.ThatquestionhasbeenaskedofthousandsofpeoplebyaniPhoneappthatringsthematrandommomentsthroughtheday.Almosthalfthetimepeople’smindshadwanderedawayfromtheactiv-itytheywereengagedin.HarvardpsychologistsMatthewKillingsworthandDanielGilbert,whodevelopedtheapp,analyzedthereportsfrom2,250Americanmenandwomentoseehowoftentheirmindswereelsewhere,andwhat theirmoodswere.SeeMatthewKillingsworthandDanielGilbert,“AWanderingMindIsanUnhappyMind,”Science,November12,2010,p.932.

2.Seeingthemedialprefrontalcortexasthesiteof“me”oversimplifiesabit,thoughmanycognitiveneuroscientistsfindthisconvenient.Amorecomplexversionof“me,”theself,isseenasanemer-gentphenomenonbasedontheactivityofmanyneuralcircuits,theprefrontalmedialamongthem.See, e.g., J. Smallwood and J.W. Schooler, “The RestlessMind,”Psychological Bulletin 132(2006):946–58.

3. NormanA.S.Farb et al., “Attending to thePresent:MindfulnessMeditationRevealsDistinctNeuralModesofSelf-Reference,”SocialCognitiveandAffectiveNeuroscience2(2007):313–22.

4.Orsowehumansprojectontoanimals.5.E.D.Reichleetal.,“EyeMovementsDuringMindlessReading,”PsychologicalScience21(July

2010):1300–1310.6.J.Smallwoodetal.,“GoingAWOLintheBrain—MindWanderingReducesCorticalAnalysisof

theTaskEnvironment,”JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience20,no.3(March2008):458–69;J.W.Y.Kametal.,“SlowFluctuationsinAttentionalControlofSensoryCortex,”JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience23(2011):460–70.

7.CedricGalera,“MindWanderingandDriving:ResponsibilityCase-ControlStudy,”BritishMed-icalJournal,publishedonlineDecember13,2012,doi:10.1136/bmj.e8105.

8.Whichmeansthatthesebraincircuitsarenotalwaysworkinginopposition.9.K.D.Gerlachetal.,“SolvingFutureProblems:DefaultNetworkandExecutiveActivityAssoci-

atedwithGoal-DirectedMentalSimulations,”Neuroimage55(2011):1816–24.10.Conversely,thelesswenoticeourmindhaswandered,thestrongertheactivityintheunderlying

neuralzones,andthegreatertheirdisruptiveforceonthetaskathand.Atleasttwoprefrontalbrainregionsinvolvedinthatmeanderareamongtheveryonesthatalsocannoticewehavegoneofftrack:thedorsolateralprefrontalcortexanddorsalanteriorcingulate.

11.Christoffetal.,“ExperienceSamplingDuringfMRIRevealsDefaultNetworkandExecutiveSys-temContributionstoMindWandering.”Atechnicalnote:thisstudyusedaten-secondwindowintheprobeformindwandering;tensecondsisalongtimeinthemind’sactivity.Sotheconclusionthatbothexecutiveandmedialcircuitsareinvolvedisopentoobjections.Moreover,theauthorsnote,thisconclusionisbasedonreverseinference,theassumptionthatifabrainregionactivatesduringamental task, it isaneuralbasisfor that task.Forhighercognitiveabilitiesthismaynotholdup,sincethesameregioncanbeactivatedbymultipleandverydifferentmentalprocesses.Iftrue,thisfindingchallengestheassumptionthattheexecutiveanddefaultnetworksalwaysoperateinoppositiontoeachother—thatis,ifoneisactivetheotherisquiet.Thismay,indeed,bethecaseinveryspecificmentaloperations,likeintensefocusonataskathand.Butinmuchofmentallifeitmayhelptomixheightenedfocuswithadaydreamyopenness.Itcertainlyhelpspassthetimeona long drive. See alsoM.D. Fox et al., “TheHumanBrain Is IntrinsicallyOrganized intoDy-namic,Anticorrelated FunctionalNetworks,”Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences102(July5,2005):9673–78.

12. Catherine Fassbender, “A Lack of Default Network Suppression Is Linked to Increased Dis-tractibilityinADHD,”BrainResearch1273(2009):114–28.

13. The test for open awareness is called the “attentional blink.”SeeH.A.Slagter et al., “MentalTrainingAffectsDistributionofLimitedBrainResources,”PLoSBiology5(2007):e138.

14.WilliamFalk,writingintheTheWeek,August10,2012,p.3.15.StephenKaplan,“Meditation,Restoration,andtheManagementofMentalFatigue,”Environment

andBehavior33,no.4(July2001):480–505,http://eab.sagepub.com/content/33/4/480.16.MarcBerman,JonJonides,andStephenKaplan,“TheCognitiveBenefitsofInteractingwithNa-

ture,”PsychologicalScience19,no.12(2008):1207–12.17.Ibid.18. GaryFelsten,“WheretoTakeaStudyBreakontheCollegeCampus:AnAttentionRestoration

TheoryPerspective,”JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology29,no.1(March2009):160–67.

Chapter6:TheInnerRudder

1.Atechniquecalled“focusing”guidespeopleinhowtotapintothisvastout-of-awarenessbody-of-lifewisdom, by sensing subtle internal shifts in feelings. See EugeneGendlin,Focusing (NewYork:Bantam,1981).

2.JohnAllman,“ThevonEconomoNeuronsintheFrontoinsularandAnteriorCingulateCortex,”AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences1225(2011):59–71.

3. LevGrossman andHarryMcCracken, “The Inventor of the Future,”Time,October 17, 2011,p.44.

4.A.D.Craig,“HowDoYouFeel?Interoception:TheSenseofthePhysiologicalConditionoftheBody,”NatureReviewsNeuroscience3(2002):655–66.

5.ArthurD.Craig,“HowDoYouFeel—Now?TheAnteriorInsulaandHumanAwareness,”NatureReviewsNeuroscience10,no.1(January2009):59–70.

6.G.Birdetal.,“EmpathicBrainResponsesinInsulaAreModulatedbyLevelsofAlexithymiabutNotAutism,”Brain133(2010):1515–25.

7.Somaticmarkers:thiscircuitryincludestherightsomatosensoryinsularcortexandtheamygdala,amongothers.AntonioDamasio,TheFeelingofWhatHappens(NewYork:Harcourt,1999).

8.Farbetal.,“AttendingtothePresent.”

Chapter7:SeeingOurselvesasOthersSeeUs

1. SeeFabioSala,“ExecutiveBlindspots:DiscrepanciesBetweenSelf-OtherRatings,”JournalofConsultingPsychology:ResearchandPractice54,no.4(2003):222–29.

2.BillGeorgeandDougBaker,TrueNorthGroups(SanFrancisco:Berrett-Koehler,2011),p.28.3.NaliniAmbadyetal.,“Surgeon’sToneofVoice:ACluetoMalpracticeHistory,”Surgery132,

no.1(2002):5–9.4.MichaelJ.NewcombeandNealM.Ashkanasy,“TheRoleofAffectiveCongruenceinPerceptions

ofLeaders:AnExperimentalStudy,”LeadershipQuarterly13,no.5(2002):601–604.5.Kahneman,ThinkingFastandSlow,p.216.6.JohnU.Ogbu,MinorityEducationandCaste:TheAmericanSysteminCross-CulturalPerspec-

tive(NewYork:Academic,1978).

Chapter8:ARecipeforSelf-Control

1.M.K.Rothbartetal.,“Self-RegulationandEmotioninInfancy,”inNancyEisenbergandR.A.Fabes,eds.,EmotionandItsRegulationinEarlyDevelopment:NewDirectionsforChildDevelop-mentNo.55(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,1992),pp.7–23.

2.Manyscientificdisciplinesseeself-controlascriticaltowell-being.Behavioralgeneticistslookathowmuchoftheseabilitiesisduetoourgenes,howmuchtothefamilyenvironmentwegrowupin.Developmentalpsychologistsmonitorhowchildrenmasterself-controlastheymature,gettingprogressively better at the delay of gratification, managing impulse, emotional self-regulation,planning,andconscientiousness.Healthspecialistsseea linkbetweenself-controland lifespan,whilesociologistsfocusonlowself-controlasapredictorofjoblessnessandcrime.Psychiatristslookatchildhooddiagnoseslikeattentiondeficitsandhyperactivitywhilepeopleareyoung,andlater in life psychiatric disorders, smoking, unsafe sex, and drunk driving. Finally, economistsspeculatethatself-controlmightbeakeybothtofinancialwell-beingandtoreducingcrime.

3.PosnerandRothbart,“ResearchonAttentionNetworksasaModelfortheIntegrationofPsycho-logicalScience.”Thenetworkforthealertingsystemweavestogetherthethalamusandtherightfrontalandparietalcortexandismodulatedbyacetylcholine.Orientingweavestogetherstructuresinthesuperiorparietal,temporalparietaljunction,frontaleyefields,andsuperiorcolliculus,andismodulatedbynorepinephrine.Executive attention involves the anterior cingulate, lateral ventralprefrontal,andbasalgangliaareas,andismodulatedbydopamine.

4.Selectiveattentionseemstohavesomeheritability,thoughthereislittletononeforalerting,wherewemaintainastateofreadinessforwhatevercomesnext.SeeJ.Fanetal.,“AssessingtheHeri-tabilityofAttentionalNetworks,”BMCNeuroscience2(2001):14.

5.LawrenceJ.Schweinhartetal.,LifetimeEffects:TheHigh/ScopePerryPreschoolStudyThrough

Age40(Ypsilanti,MI:High/ScopePress,2005).6.J.J.Heckman,“SkillFormationandtheEconomicsofInvestinginDisadvantagedChildren,”Sci-

ence312(2006):1900–1902.7.TerrieE.Moffittetal.,“AGradientofChildhoodSelf-ControlPredictsHealth,WealthandPublic

Safety,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences108,no.7(February15,2011):2693–98,http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1010076108.

8.Theywereassessedvariouslybytheirteachers,theirparents,trainedobservers,andthemselves,atages3,5,7,9,and11.

9. June Tangney et al., “High Self-Control Predicts Good Adjustment, Less Pathology, BetterGrades,andInterpersonalSuccess,”JournalofPersonality72,no.2(2004):271–323.

10.TomHertz,“UnderstandingMobilityinAmerica,”CenterforAmericanProgress,2006.11.ThankstoSamAnderson,whosearticle“InDefenseofDistraction”gavemethisidea.NewYork,

May17,2009,http:/nymag.com/news/features/56793/index7.html.12. JeanneNakamura,“OptimalExperienceand theUsesofTalent,” inMihalyiand IsabellaCsik-

szentmihalyi,eds.,OptimalExperience(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988).13.DavidsonandBegley,TheEmotionalLifeofYourBrain.14. AdeleDiamond et al., “Preschool Program ImprovesCognitiveControl,”Science 318 (2007):

1387–88.15.AngelaDuckworthandMartinE.P.Seligman,“Self-DisciplineOutdoesIQinPredictingAcade-

micPerformanceofAdolescents,”PsychologicalScience16,no.12(2005):939–44.16. B.J.Caseyetal.,“BehavioralandNeuralCorrelatesofDelayofGratification40YearsLater,”

ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences108,no.36(September6,2011):14998–15003,http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1108561108.

17. JeanneMcCafferyetal., “LessActivation in theLeftDorsolateralPrefrontalCortex in theRe-analysisoftheResponsetoaMealinObeseThaninLeanWomenandItsAssociationwithSuc-cessfulWeightLoss,”AmericanJournalofClinicalNutrition90,no.4(October2009):928–34.

18.WalterMischel,quotedinJonahLehrer,“Don’t!”NewYorker,May18,2009.19.ThetaleistoldinBuddhaghosa,ThePathtoPurification,trans.BhikkuNanomoli(Boulder,CO:

Shambhala,1979),I,p.55.

Chapter9:TheWomanWhoKnewTooMuch

1.JustineCasselletal.,“Speech-GestureMismatches:EvidenceforOneUnderlyingRepresentationofLinguisticandNonlinguisticInformation,”Pragmatics&Cognition7,no.1(1999):1–34.

2.FacialexpressionsduringmaritalconflictthathavebeencodedusingtheSpecificAffectCodingSystem (SPAFF) accurately predict the number ofmonths ofmarital separationwithin the nextfouryears.Inparticular,thefleetingfacialexpressionofcontemptseemstobehighlypredictive.JohnGottmanetal.,“FacialExpressionsDuringMaritalConflict,”JournalofFamilyConflict1,no.1(2001):37–57.

3. F.RamseyerandW.Tschacher,“NonverbalSynchronyinPsychotherapy:RelationshipQualityandOutcomeAreReflectedbyCoordinatedBody-Movement.”JournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychology79(2011):284–95.

4.JustineCasselletal.,“BEAT:TheBehaviorExpressionAnimationToolkit,”ProceedingsofSIG-

GRAPH’01,August12–17,2001,LosAngeles,pp.477–86.

Chapter10:TheEmpathyTriad

1.Eachofthethreekindsofempathyhasitsownneuralbuildingblocksandcourseofdevelopment.Empathyinallitsfacesdrawsonahugearrayofbrainstructures.ForoneanalysisseeJeanDe-cety,“TheNeurodevelopmentofEmpathy,”DevelopmentalNeuroscience32(2010):257–67.

2.Fordetailsofthecircuitryforeachkindofempathy,seeEzequielGleichgerrchtandJeanDecety,“TheCostsofEmpathyAmongHealthProfessionals,”inJeanDecety,ed.,Empathy:FromBenchtoBedside(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,2012).

3. AlanMulally,CEOFordMotorCompany, quoted inAdamBryant,TheCornerOffice (NewYork:TimesBooks,2011),p.14.

4.JohnSeabrook,“SufferingSouls,”NewYorker,November10,2008.5.“Empathiccruelty”occurswhenoneperson’sbrainmirrorsthedistressofanotherbutalsotakes

pleasureinthesuffering.D.deQuervainetal.,“TheNeuralBasisofAltruisticPunishment,”Sci-ence305(2004):1254–58.

6.CleckleyquotedinSeabrook,“SufferingSouls.” 7. On the dissociation between emotional and cognitive processing in sociopaths, see, e.g.,Kent

Kiehletal.,“LimbicAbnormalitiesinAffectiveProcessingbyCriminalPsychopathsasRevealedby Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging,” Biological Psychiatry 50 (2001): 677–84; NielsBribaumeretal.,“DeficientFearConditioning inPsychopathy,”ArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry62(2005):799–805.

8.JosephNewmanetal.,“DelayofGratificationinPsychopathicandNonpsychopathicOffenders,”JournalofAbnormalPsychology101,no.4(1992):630–36.

9. See,e.g.,LorenDyck,“ResonanceandDissonanceinProfessionalHelpingRelationshipsattheDyadicLevel”(Ph.D.diss.,DepartmentofOrganizationalBehavior,CaseWesternReserveUni-versity,May2010).

10. Emotional empathy neuralwiring includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and or-bitofrontal cortex. SeeDecety, “TheNeurodevelopment of Empathy,” for neural details on thisandotherformsofempathy.

11. Greg J. Stephens et al., “Speaker-ListenerNeural CouplingUnderlies Successful Communica-tion,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences107,no.32(2010):14425–30.

12.Circuitsinthesocialbrainreadtheotherperson’semotions,intentions,andactionsandsimultane-ouslyactivateinourownbrainthosesamebrainregions,givingusaninnersenseofwhat’sgoingonintheotherperson.Alongwithmirrorneurons,circuitryliketheventromedialprefrontalcortexis key. See Jean Decety, “ToWhat Extent Is the Experience of EmpathyMediated by SharedNeural Circuits?”Emotion Review 2, no. 3 (2010): 204–207. In studies of hundreds of peoplewatchingclipsofthoseinpain,Decetyfindsnogenderdifferenceinhowtheirbrainsrespond—but a big difference in their social response:women rate themselves asmore empathic than domen.

13.P.L.Jacksonetal.,“ToWhatExtentDoWeSharethePainofOthers?InsightfromtheNeuralBasesofPainEmpathy,”Pain125(2006):5–9.

14.Singerfindsthattheinsularecordspain,suffering,andnegativeaffect,whileanothercircuitinthe

orbitofrontalcortexrespondstopleasantsensations,likeasofttouchfromsomeone.TaniaSingeretal.,“ACommonRoleofInsulainFeelings,EmpathyandUncertainty,”TrendsinCognitiveSci-ences13,no.8(2009):334–40;C.LammandT.Singer,“TheRoleofAnteriorInsularCortexinSocialEmotions,”BrainStructure&Function241,nos.5–6(2010):579–91.

15.C.J.Limbetal.,“NeuralSubstratesofSpontaneousMusicalPerformance:AnfMRIStudyofJazzImprovisation,”PLoSONE3,no.2(2008).

16.JeanDecetyandClausLamm,“TheRoleoftheRightTemporoparietalJunctioninSocialInterac-tion:HowLow-LevelComputationalProcessesContributetoMeta-Cognition,”Neuroscientist13,no.6(2007):580–93.

17.JeanDecety,presentationtotheConsortiumforResearchonEmotionalIntelligenceinOrganiza-tions,Cambridge,MA:May6,2011.

18.ShareeLightandCarolynZahn-Waxler,“TheNatureandFormsofEmpathyintheFirstYearsofLife,”inDecety,ed.,Empathy:FromBenchtoBedside.

19.See,e.g.,Carr,TheShallows.20.C.DanielBatsonetal.,“AnAdditionalAntecedenttoEmpathicConcern:ValuingtheWelfareof

thePersoninNeed,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology93,no.1(2007):65–74.Also,GritHeinetal.,“NeuralResponsestoIngroupandOutgroupMembers’SufferingPredictIndivid-ualDifferencesinCostlyHelping,”Neuron68,no.1(2010):149–60.

21. Subjectswitnessingeitherpeoplewhohavepreviouslybehavedunfairly ineconomicgamesoroutgroupmemberssufferingpaindidnotshowthehabitualempathicresponseintheanteriorin-sulacortexandanteriorcingulatecortexbutinsteadshowedincreasedactivationinthenucleusac-cumbens, an area associatedwith rewardprocessing.TaniaSinger et al., “EmpathicNeuralRe-sponsesAreModulatedbythePerceivedFairnessofOthers,”Nature439(2006):466–69.

22.ChiaraSamboetal.,“KnowingYouCare:EffectsofPerceivedEmpathyandAttachmentStyleonPainPerception,”Pain151,no.3(2010):687–93.

23.JohnCouhelanetal.,“‘LetMeSeeIfIHaveThisRight...’:WordsThatBuildEmpathy,”An-nalsofInternalMedicine135,no.3(2001):221–27.

24.See,e.g.,W.Levinsonetal.,“Physician-PatientCommunication:TheRelationshipwithMalprac-ticeClaimsAmongPrimaryCarePhysiciansandSurgeons,”JournaloftheAmericanMedicalAs-sociation277(1997):553–69.

25. JeanDecetyetal.,“PhysiciansDown-RegulateTheirPain-EmpathyResponse:AnERPStudy,”Neuroimage50,no.4(2010):1676–82.

26.WilliamOslerquotedinDecety,ed.,Empathy:FromBenchtoBedside,p.230.27.JodiHalpern,“ClinicalEmpathyinMedicalCare,”ibid.28.M.Hojatetal.,“TheDevilIsintheThirdYear:ALongitudinalStudyofErosionofEmpathyin

MedicalSchool,”AcademicMedicine84,no.9(2009):1182–91.29.HelenRiessetal.,“EmpathyTrainingforResidentPhysicians:ARandomizedControlledTrialof

aNeuroscience-InformedCurriculum,”JournalofGeneral InternalMedicine27,no.10 (2012):1280–86.

30. HelenRiess, “Empathy inMedicine:ANeurobiological Perspective,” Journal of the AmericanMedicalAssociation304,no.14(2010):1604–1605.

Chapter11:SocialSensitivity

1.PrincePhilipquotedinFerdinandMount,“TheLongRoadtoWindsor,”WallStreetJournal,No-vember14,2011,p.A15.

2. KimDaltonetal.,“GazeFixationandtheNeuralCircuitryofFaceProcessinginAutism,”Na-tureNeuroscience 8 (2005): 519–26.RichardDavidsonhasproposed that for thosewith autism,failuretounderstandwhatisappropriateinasocialsituationstemsfromadeficitinacquiringso-cialintuition.

3.Thisisstillunderdebate,withsomestudiesshowingthiseffect,othersnot.4.See,e.g.,MichaelW.Krausetal.,“SocialClassRank,ThreatVigilance,andHostileReactivity,”

PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin37,no.10(2011):1376–88.5.MichaelKrausandDacherKeltner,“SignsofSocioeconomicStatus,”PsychologicalScience20,

no.1(2009):99–106.6.GerbenA.vanKleefetal.,“Power,Distress,andCompassion,”PsychologicalScience19,no.12

(2008):1315–22.7.MichaelKraus,StephaneCote,andDacherKeltner,“SocialClass,Contextualism,andEmpathic

Accuracy,”PsychologicalScience21,no.11(2010):1716–23. 8. RyanRoweetal., “AutomatedSocialHierarchyDetectionThroughEmailNetworkAnalysis,”

Proceedingsofthe9thWebKDDand1stSNA-KDD2007WorkshoponWebMiningandSocialNetworkAnalysis,2007,109–117.

Chapter12:Patterns,Systems,andMesses

1. K. Levin et al., “Playing It Forward: Path Dependency, Progressive Incrementalism, and the‘SuperWicked’ProblemofGlobalClimateChange,”IOPConferenceSeries:EarthandEnviron-mentalScience50,no.6(2009).

2.RussellAckoff,“TheArtandScienceofMessManagement,”Interfaces,February1981,pp.20–26.

3.JeremyGinsbergetal.,“DetectingInfluenzaEpidemicsUsingSearchEngineQueryData,”Nature457(2009):1012–14.

4.SoIwastoldbyThomasDavenport,HarvardBusinessSchool.5.Butbringingpeopleintotheinformationequationcanalsocomplicatethings:there’sjealousyover

whocontrolsdata, infighting,andorganizationalpolitics thatcanprevent informationsharingorleadtohoardingandtosimplyignoringdata.

6.ThomasDavenport’sbookinprogress,tentativelycalled“KeepingUpwiththeQuants,”wasre-portedinSteveLohr,“Sure,BigDataIsGreat:butSoIsIntuition,”NewYorkTimes,December30,2012,Business,p.3.

7.AsreportedbyLohr,“Sure,BigDataIsGreat.”

Chapter13:SystemBlindness

1.Ofcourse,the“system”thatgotintotheroomwasjustapartialsliceoflarger,interlockingsys-tems,suchastheinformationdispersalsystem,whichisinthemidstofshiftingfromprinttodigi-talformats.

2.JohnD.Sterman,BusinessDynamics:SystemsThinkingandModelingforaComplexWorld(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2000).

3. SeemybookEcological Intelligence (NewYork:Broadway,2009) formoredetailsonsupplychains,emissions,and the trueenvironmentalcostof thingsman-made.OrseeAnnieLeonard’stwenty-minutevideo,“TheStoryofStuff,”http://www.storyofstuff.org.

4.OriginallyproposedbyYalepsychologistFrankKeil’sgroup,theillusionhasbeenextendedfrompurelymechanicalornaturalsystemstosocial,economic,andpoliticalones.See,e.g.,AdamL.Alteretal.,“MissingtheTreesfor theForest:AConstrualLevelAccountof theIllusionofEx-planatoryDepth,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology99,no.3(2010):436–51.Thatil-lusionmaybeatplayinthisbook,whenithastodowiththebroadstrokeswithwhichIpaintawidevarietyofcognitive,emotional, social, andneural systems.This risk is inherent in sciencejournalism.That’swhythisbookhaslotsofendnotes,forthosewhowanttopursuethesethreadsofunderstanding.Congratulationsforreadingthisone.

5.See,e.g.,ElkeWeber,“Experience-BasedandDescription-BasedPerceptionsofLongtermRisk:WhyGlobalWarmingDoesNotScareUs(Yet),”ClimaticChange77(2006):103–20.

Chapter14:DistantThreats

1.NassimNicholasTaleb,TheBlackSwan:TheImpactoftheHighlyImprobable(NewYork:Ran-domHouse,2010).

2.JohanRockstrometal.,“ASafeOperatingSpaceforHumanity,”Nature461(2009):472–75.3.WillSteffenetal.,“TheAnthropocene:AreHumansNowOverwhelmingtheGreatForcesofNa-

ture?”Ambio:AJournaloftheHumanEnvironment36,no.8(2007):614–21. 4. China’scarboneconomy,basedonWorldBank figures, as reported inFredPearce, “Over the

Top,”NewScientist,June16,2012,pp.38–43.Ontheotherhand,see“ChinaPlansAsia’sBiggestCoal-Fired Power Plant,” at http://phys.org/news/2011-12-china-asia-biggest-coal-fired-power.html.

5.WhenaglobalconsumergoodscompanyusedLCAtoanalyzeitsCO2footprint,itturnedoutthebiggestfactorwaswhencustomersheatedwatertousewarm-waterdetergents(convenientlydis-placingresponsibilitytotheconsumer—youwonderwhatthesecondthroughtenthfactorswere).

6. TheGerman social theoristNiklasLuhmann argues that everymajor human systemorganizesaroundasingleprinciple.Fortheeconomy,it’smoney;forpolitics,power;forthesocialworld,love.And so themost elegant decisions in these realms becomemanageably binary:money/nomoney;power/nopower;love/nolove.Perhapsitisnocoincidencethatourbrainappliesaprimaleither/ordecisionruleineverymomentofperception;themicro-instantwenoticesomething,theemotionalcenterssummateourrelevantexperienceandtagit“like”or“don’tlike.”NiklasLuh-mann’swork in theoriginalGermanon sociological systems theoryhasnot yet been translatedintoEnglish,thoughithasbeenhighlyinfluentialthroughoutEasternEurope.Ihavereadonlysec-ondhandaccountsandbeenbriefedonthekeypointsbyGeorgVielmetter,whosedissertationwasbasedinpartonLuhmann’stheories.

7.Streamlinedversionsoflifecycleanalysissoftwarearebeingdesignedthatcandothis. 8. JackD.Shepardet al., “ChronicallyElevatedCorticosterone in theAmygdala IncreasesCorti-

cotropinReleasingFactormRNAintheDorsolateralBedNucleusofStriaTerminalisFollowing

Duress,”BehavioralBrainResearch17,no.1(2006):193–96.9.ThatwasthepremiseofmybookEcologicalIntelligence:TheHiddenImpactsofWhatWeBuy

(NewYork:RandomHouse,2009).10.U.S.DepartmentofEnergydatashowsthatwaterheatingaccountsfor18–20percentofresidential

energyusenationally.InNewEngland,annualwaterheatingcostsforafamilyoffourrangefrom$500towellabove$800,dependingonthefuelused.DatafromtheResidentialEnergyConsump-tionSurveyalsoshowsthatonly12percentofU.S.homeshaveaninsulatingblanketinstalledontheirwaterheatertank,despitethefactthatsuchablanket,whichcostsonlyabout$20,cansave$70peryearinenergyconsumptionandwilllastforthelifeofyourwaterheater(whichisthirteenyears,onaverage).Thesimpleactofinstallingwaterheaterblanketsandadjustingtemperaturesto120 degreesFahrenheit could cut totalU.S. household energy consumption by approximately 2percent,alongwithprovidingmajorbenefitsfortheclimate,biodiversity,andhumanhealth—andtheeconomy.

11.Thechildrenintheschoolwillgivetheblanketsawaytohouseholdsthroughoutthecommunity,andmakeadeal:housesthatgettheblanketswillgivethefirstninemonthsofsavingsbacktotheschool, then justkeep themoneyafter that. Inall, that should raisearound$15,000.Theschoolwillkeep$5,000tohelpdothingslikemakeneededplaygroundimprovements.Itwillusethere-maining$10,000tobuywaterblanketstogiveawaytotwootherschoolstodothesame.

12. Thespecificsdifferforeachofthemanypollutingemissions—forsomethepaybackpointisinmonths;forothers,years.Forinstance,therearetwomajorclassesofparticulateemissions,bothofwhichpenetratedeeplyintoourlungs.Theirreductionratesvary,buthandprintsroll thetotalconsequenceforhealthandbiodiversitylossofalltypesofpollutioninasinglescore.

13.WillWright,quotedinChrisBaker,“TheCreator,”Wired,August2012,p.68.14.CeliaPearce,“Sims,Battlebots,CellularAutomota,GodandGo,”GameStudies,July2002,p.1.15.Outdoorairpollutioncontributedto1.2millionprematuredeathsinChina;theglobaltotalwas3.2

million.See“GlobalBurdenofDiseaseStudy2010,”TheLancet,December13,2013.16.MybookEcoliterate,cowrittenwithLisaBennettandZenobiaBarlowoftheCenterforEcoliter-

acy,makes theargument for engaging students’ emotions inenvironmental education, though itdoesnotincludethekindofcurriculumdescribedhere.

17.PaulHawken,“Reflection,”GarrisonInstituteNewsletter,Spring2012,p.9.

Chapter15:TheMythof10,000Hours

1.Thebiggestboosttothefameofthe10,000-hourrulewasfromMalcolmGladwell’snearlyper-petualbestseller,Outliers.I, too,hadasmallhandinitspopularity:in1994IwroteintheNewYorkTimesabouttheresearchthiscomesfrom—theworkofAndersEricsson,acognitivescientistatFloridaStateUniversity.Hisresearchfound,forexample, that topviolinists inthebestmusicacademieshadalreadypracticedtheirinstrumentsfor10,000hours,whilethosewhohaddonejust7,500 hours tended to be, literally, second fiddles. Daniel Goleman, “Peak Performance:WhyRecordsFall,”NewYorkTimes,October11,1994,p.C1.

2.IinterviewedAndersEricssonforthat1994NewYorkTimesarticle. 3. Anders Ericsson et al., “TheRole ofDeliberate Practice in theAcquisition of Expert Perfor-

mance,”PsychologicalReview47(1993):273–305.TakeItzhakPerlman,whocametotheJuil-

liardSchool—thathyperselectiveperformingartsconservancy—asaprodigyatthirteen,andstud-iedforeightyearswithDorothyDeLay,hisviolininstructorthere.Sheexpectedgreatdiscipline;herstudentspracticedfivehoursaday,andDeLaygavethemconstantfeedbackandencourage-ment.ForPerlman,thatamountedtoatleast12,000hoursofsmartpracticebythetimehelefttheschool.Butonceyouarelaunched,isthatlevelofpracticeenoughtoletyoucoastonyourown?Lifetimecoachesarecommonplaceamongprofessionalperformers:singersroutinelyrelyonvoicecoaches, just as elite athletes do on their coaches.No one reachesworld-class levelswithout amaster teacher.EvenPerlman still has a coach:hiswife,Toby,herself a concert-levelviolinist,whomhemetwhileatJuilliard.FormorethanfortyyearsPerlmanhasvaluedhertoughcritiquesasan“extraear.”

4.And,remember,oncearoutinebecomesautomatic,tryingtothinkabouthowyouareexecutingitcaninterferewiththatexecution:top-downtakesoverfrombottom-up,butnoteffectively.

5.K.AndersEricsson,“DevelopmentofElitePerformanceandDeliberatePractice,”inJ.L.StarkesandK.AndersEriccson,eds.,ExpertPerformanceinSports:AdvancesinResearchonSportEx-pertise(Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics,2003).

6.AlthoughhestudiedandtaughtatCambridgeUniversity,ThuptenJinpatellsmehisaccentactu-allycomesfromhavinglearnedspokenEnglishinhisyouthbylisteningtotheBBCWorldradiobroadcaststoIndia.

7. I interviewedHerbertSimon for theNewYorkTimes.SeeGoleman,“PeakPerformance:WhyRecordsFall.”

8.WendyHasenkampetal.,“MindWanderingandAttentionDuringFocusedAttention,”NeuroIm-age59,no.1(2012):750–60.

9.Restingstateconnectivityinexperiencedmeditatorswasincreasedbetweenthemedialregionandparietal regions thatare involved indisengagingofattention.This suggests that the regions thatcontroldisengagementhavemoreaccesstothemPFCregionsthatmayunderlieself-relatedmind-wandering, suggesting a neuroplastic effect as practicemade this connectivity stronger.WendyHasenkampandLawrenceBarsalou,“EffectsofMeditationExperienceonFunctionalConnectiv-ityofDistributedBrainNetworks,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience6,no.38(2012):1–14.

10. LarryDavid’s reactions to theYankee Stadium crowdwere reported in “TheNeurotic Zen ofLarryDavid,”RollingStone,August4,2011,p.81.

11.TaylorSchmitzetal.,“OpposingInfluenceofAffectiveStateValenceonVisualCorticalDecod-ing,”JournalofNeuroscience29,no.22(2009):7199–7207.

12.BarbaraFredrickson,Love2.0(NewYork:HudsonStreetPress,2013).13.DavidsonandBegley,TheEmotionalLifeofYourBrain.14.AnthonyJacketal.,“VisioningintheBrain:AnfMRIStudyofInspirationalCoachingandMen-

toring,”submittedforpublication,2013.15.M.LosadaandE.Heaphy,“TheRoleofPositivityandConnectivityinthePerformanceofBusi-

nessTeams:ANonlinearDynamicsModel,”AmericanBehavioralScientist47,no.6(2004):740–65.

16.B.L.FredricksonandM.Losada,“PositiveAffectandtheComplexDynamicsofHumanFlour-ishing,”AmericanPsychologist60,no.7(2005):678–86.

Chapter16:BrainsonGames

1.ThetaleofDanielCateswastoldbyJayKaspianKangin“TheGambler,”NewYorkTimesMaga-zine,March27,2011,pp.48–51.

2.Poker,ofcourse,isnotjustaskill;arunofbadhandscanputeventhebestplayeratadisadvan-tage.Butaslightadvantageinskill,ifpursuedoverthousandsofgames,paysoff.Onetraitofon-linepokerwinnersis,understandably,akindoffearlessabandonaboutrisk-taking,anessentialat-titudewhenyoucanlosehundredsofthousandsofdollarsintheblinkofaneye.

3.MarcSmithwasquotedintheBostonGlobe,July28,2012,p.A6.4. DaphneBavelieretal.,“BrainsonVideoGames,”NatureReviewsNeuroscience12(December

2011):763–68.5.Gentile,quotedibid.6.Ibid.7.Enhancedaggressionwasthefindingfromthemostcomprehensivemeta-analysistodate,based

on136separatestudiesofatotalof30,296gamersorcontrols.CraigA.Anderson,“AnUpdateontheEffectsofPlayingViolentVideoGames,”JournalofAdolescence27(2004):113–22.Butseealso John L. Sherry, “ViolentVideoGames andAggression:WhyCan’tWe Find Effects?” inRaymond Preiss et al., eds.,Mass Media Effects Research: Advances Through Meta-Analysis(Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum,2007),pp.245–62.

8.Thekeypart:theanteriorcingulategyrus.SeeM.R.Ruedaetal.,“Training,Maturation,andGe-neticInfluencesontheDevelopmentofExecutiveAttention,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcad-emyofSciences102,no.41(2005):1029–40.

9.There’sanotherbraincorrelateofADD:underactivityintheprefrontalareasthatmanageatten-tion,executivefunctioning,andself-control.M.K.RothbartandM.I.Posner,“Temperament,At-tention,andDevelopmentalPsychopathology,”inD.CicchettiandD.J.Cohen,eds.,HandbookofDevelopmentalPsychopathology(NewYork:Wiley,2006),pp.167–88.

10.O.Tuchaetal.,“TrainingofAttentionFunctionsinChildrenwithAttentionDeficitHyperactivityDisorder,”AttentionDeficitandHyperactivityDisorders,May20,2011.

11.MerzenichinBavelieretal.,“BrainsonVideoGames.”12. Gus Tai, quoted in Jessica C.Kraft, “DigitalOverload? There’s anApp for That,”New York

Times,Sunday,July22,2012,EducationSupplement,p.12.

Chapter17:BreathingBuddies

1.Thevoicetheylistentoismyown,onaCDInarratedforLindaLantieri,BuildingEmotionalIn-telligence(Boulder,CO:SoundsTrue,2008).ThescriptIreadwaswrittenbyLinda,basedonherworkwithchildrenintheNewYorkpublicschoolsandelsewhere.

2.LindaLantierietal.,“BuildingInnerResilienceinStudentsandTeachers,”inGretchenReevyandErica Frydenberg, eds., Personality, Stress and Coping: Implications for Education (Charlotte,NC:InformationAge,2011),pp.267–92.

3.SoRichardDavidsontoldme,referringtoastudystillinprogressattheCenterforInvestigatingHealthyMinds.

4.JosephA.Durlaketal.,“TheImpactofEnhancingStudents’Social/EmotionalLearning:AMeta-

AnalysisofSchool-BasedUniversalInterventions,”ChildDevelopment82,no.1(2011):405–32.5.NathanielR.Riggsetal.,“TheMediationalRoleofNeurocognitionintheBehavioralOutcomesof

a Social-Emotional Prevention Program in Elementary School Students: Effects of the PATHSCurriculum,”PreventionScience7,no.1(March2006):91–102.

6.Ofcourseforsomekidswillpowercomesnaturallywithordinarypractice,whetherit’sviastudy-ingfornextweek’stestorsavinguptobuyaniPod.

7.PhilipDavidZelazoandStephanieM.Carlson,“HotandCoolExecutiveFunctioninChildhoodandAdolescence:DevelopmentandPlasticity,”ChildDevelopmentPerspectives6,no.4(2012):354–60.

8.Ruedaetal.,“Training,Maturation,andGeneticInfluencesontheDevelopmentofExecutiveAt-tention.”

9.Unlessthatimpoftheperverse,impulsepriming,enticedyoutoreadthisendnote.10.MarkGreenberg,inanemail.11.Asofthiswritingthereislittledirectresearchontheeffectsofmindfulnessonchildren’satten-

tionskills,althoughseveralstudiesareinthepipeline.Forinstance,inonepilotstudywiththirtypreschoolerswhogotmindfulnessplus“kindnesstraining,”RichardDavidson’sgroupfoundim-provementsinattentionandinkindnessitself.Atthiswriting,thestudyisbeingreplicatedwithasampleoftwohundredpreschoolers;seehttp://www.investigatinghealthyminds.org/cihmProjects.html#prek.

12.Smallwoodetal.,“CountingtheCostofanAbsentMind.”13.StephenW.Porges,ThePolyvagalTheory(NewYork:Norton,2011).14.IfirstheardthisdatapresentedbyBarbaraFredricksonataconferencefortheinaugurationofthe

CenterforHealthyMindsattheUniversityofWisconsin,onMay16,2010.Shereportedthere-sultsinherbookLove2.0,citedabove.

15.JudsonBreweretal.,“MeditationExperienceIsAssociatedwithDifferencesinDefaultModeNet-workActivityandConnectivity,”Proceedingsof theNationalAcademyofSciences108,no.50(2011):20254–59.Thedefaultmodedecreases inactivitywhenweengage inanyfocused task;the fact that itwas lessactiveduringmeditation is tobeexpected.Thefinding thatexperiencedmeditatorsarebetteratthismentaltaskthannaivecontrolssuggestsatrainingeffect.

16.Foranotheranalogueofanonorganicapproachwithunintendedconsequences,considertheGreenRevolutioninagriculture.Inthe1960stheintroductionofcheapchemicalfertilizersinplaceslikeIndiadisprovedthedirepredictionsatthetimethattheworldwouldsoonrunoutoffood.Butthistechnological fix for famine prevention had an unanticipated downside: rivers, lakes, and hugepatchesofoceanwherefertilizerconcentratedbeganto“die.”Thenitrogen-boostedplantgrowthhadafatalimpactintheworld’swaters.

17.RichardJ.Davidsonetal.,“AlterationsinBrainandImmuneFunctionProducedbyMindfulnessMeditation,”PsychosomaticMedicine65(2003):564–70.

18.Mindfulness(whichtakesshort,regularsessionstolearn,nothoursandhoursdaily)avoidsadan-gerinherentingaming,whichcandepriveyoungpeopleofhugehunksoftimewhentheycouldbewithotherpeople—talking,playing,goofingoff.Thoseare life’s learning labs,where thesocialandemotionalcircuitrygrows.

19.DanielSiegel,TheMindfulBrain(NewYork:Norton,2007).

20.Ontheotherhand,mindfulnessdoesnotremedyeveryneed.Thoseofuswhoaretunedoutofourownfeelings—orwhodonotregisterpainanddistressinothers—mightalsobenefitfromlearningtopayattentioninadifferentway.Herepurposelyfocusingonourowndistressandthepainofothersmightmeanworkingatgettingmoredeeplyintoouremotionsandsustainingthosefeelingsinourawareness.Anapproachlikegestalttherapy,combinedwithmindfulnessofourownsensa-tions,mightstrengthenthecircuitrythatresonateswiththeinsula.

21.Seehttp://www.siyli.org.22.I’veparaphrasedthesequestions,fromGillCrossland-Thackray,“MindfulnessatWork:WhatAre

theBenefits?”GuardianCareers,December21,2012,http://careers.guardian.co.uk/careers-blog/mindfulness-at-work-benefits.

23. Typicallythisme-focusedmodeofmindcomesandgoesalldaylong(andallnight,too—sleepstudiesfindthatifyouwakepeopleatanytimeofnightandaskwhattheywerejustthinking,theyalwayshaveafreshthoughttoreport).

24. NormanFarbetal.,“Attending to thePresent:MindfulnessMeditationRevealsDistinctNeuralModesofSelf-Reference,”SocialCognitiveAffectiveNeuroscience2,no.4(2007):313–22.Seealso Aviva Berkovich-Ohana et al., “Mindfulness-Induced Changes in GammaBandActivity,”ClinicalNeurophysiology123,no.4(April2012):700–10.

25.Here’sthetechnicallanguagefromFarbetal.,“AttendingtothePresent”:“Intrainedparticipants,EFresultedinmoremarkedandpervasivereductionsinthemPFC,andincreasedengagementofarightlateralisednetwork,comprisingthelateralPFCandviscerosomaticareassuchastheinsula,secondarysomatosensorycortexandinferiorparietallobule.Functionalconnectivityanalysesfur-therdemonstratedastrongcouplingbetweentherightinsulaandthemPFCinnovicesthatwasun-coupledinthemindfulnessgroup.”

26. Feidel Zeidan et al., “MindfulnessMeditation Improves Cognition: Evidence of BriefMentalTraining,”ConsciousnessandCognition19,no.2(June2010)597–605.

27.DavidM.Levyetal.,“InitialResultsfromaStudyoftheEffectsofMeditationonMultitaskingPerformance,”ProceedingsofCHI’11ExtendedAbstractsonHumanFactorsinComputingSys-tems,2011,pp.2011–16.

28.SeeTimRyan,AMindfulNation(Carlsbad,CA:HayHouse,2012),andJeffreySachs,ThePriceofCivilization(NewYork:RandomHouse,2011).

Chapter18:HowLeadersDirectAttention

1. AdamBryant interviewed Steve Balmer in “Meetings, Version 2.0, atMicrosoft,”New YorkTimes,May16,2009.

2.DavenportandBack,TheAttentionEconomy.3.See,e.g.,thesummitontheFutureofStory-Telling:http://futureofstorytelling.org.4.SeeHowardGardnerwithEmmaLaskin,LeadingMinds:AnAnatomyofLeadership(NewYork:

BasicBooks,1995).5.DavenportandBack,TheAttentionEconomy,citedatafromasmallcompanyshowingaveryhigh

(thoughlessstrong)correlationbetweenwhatleadersfocusedonandthefocusofemployees.Foramultinational,therewasstillahigh(thoughlessstrong)correlationbetweenthetwo.

6. WilliamOcasiooftheKelloggSchoolofManagement,whoarguesforviewingcorporationsin

termsoftheflowofattention,definesbusinessstrategyasorganizingpatternsofattentioninadis-tinctfocusoftimeandeffortbythecompanyonaparticularsetofissues,problems,opportunities,andthreats.WilliamOcasio,“TowardsanAttention-BasedViewoftheFirm,”StrategicManage-mentJournal18,S1(1997):188.

7. Steve Jobsquoted inWalter Isaacson, “TheRealLeadershipLessonsofSteve Jobs,”HarvardBusinessReview,April 2012, pp. 93–102.As Jobswasdyingof liver cancer hewasvisited byLarryPage,theGooglecofounderwhowasabouttotakethereinsasCEOthere.Jobs’sadvicetoPage:insteadofbeingalloverthemap,focusonahandfulofproducts.

8. Michael Porter, “What Is Strategy?”Harvard Business Review, November–December, 1996,pp.61–78.

9.IanMarlow,“LunchwithRIMCEOThorstenHeins:TimeforaBite,andLittleElse,”GlobeandMail,August24,2012.

10.JamesSurowiecki,“BlackBerrySeason,”NewYorker,February13and20,2012,p.36.11.Apple’sfirstiPodwasreleasedin2001,theZunein2006.MicrosoftkilledtheZunein2012,fold-

ingthesoftwareintoitsXbox.12. Clay Shirky, “Napster, Udacity, and the Academy,” November 12, 2012, www.shirky.com/

weblog.13.CharlesO’ReillyIIIandMichaelTushman,“TheAmbidextrousOrganization,”HarvardBusiness

Review,April2004,pp.74–81.14.JamesMarch,“ExploitationandExplorationinOrganizationalLearning,”OrganizationalScience

2,no.1(1991):71–87.15.DaniellaLaureiro-Martinezetal.,“AnAmbidextrousMind,”workingpaper,CenterforResearch

inOrganizationandManagement,Milan,Italy,February2012.Exploitationstrategiesareassoci-atedwithactivityinthebrain’sdopaminenetworksandtheventromedialprefrontalareas;explo-rationwithareasforexecutivefunctionandattentioncontrol.

Chapter19:TheLeader’sTripleFocus

1. RainerGreifenederetal.,“WhenDoPeopleRelyonAffectiveandCognitiveFeelingsinJudg-ment?AReview,”PersonalityandSocialPsychologyReview15,no.2(2011):107–41.

2. GirdGigerenzer et al.,SimpleHeuristicsThatMakeUsSmart (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1999).

3.DavidA.Waldman,“LeadershipandNeuroscience:CanWeRevolutionizetheWayThatInspira-tionalLeadersAre Identified andDeveloped?”AcademyofManagementPerspectives 25, no. 1(2011):60–74.

4.Amongbrainareascrucialforemotionalintelligencethatalsoplaykeyrolesinvarietiesofatten-tion: the anterior cingulate gyrus, the temporoparietal junction, the orbitofrontal cortex, and theventromedialarea.Forbrainareas incommonforattentionandemotional intelligence,see,e.g.,PosnerandRothbart,“ResearchonAttentionNetworksasaModelfortheIntegrationofPsycho-logicalScience”;R.Bar-Onetal.,“ExploringtheNeurologicalSubstrateofEmotionalandSocialIntelligence,”Brain126(2003):1790–1800.Thestorywillnodoubtbecomemorecomplex,andthe attention-emotional intelligence links even stronger, asmore such research is done using awidervarietyofEImeasuresandneurosciencemethods.

5.SteveBalmer,CEOofMicrosoft,inBryant,“Meetings,Version2.0.”6.ScottW.Spreier,MaryH.Fontaine,andRuthL.Malloy,“LeadershipRunAmok:TheDestructive

PotentialofOverachievers,”HarvardBusinessReview,June2006,pp.72–82.7.McClellandwasquotedibid.8.GeorgeKohlrieseretal.,CaretoDare(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2012).9.EstimatesputtheliabilitiestoBPfromtheDeepwaterHorizonspillatcloseto$40billion;fourBP

executivesfacecriminalchargesfornegligence.10.ElizabethShogren,“BP:ATextbookExampleofHowNottoHandlePR,”NPR,April21,2011.11.LyleSpencerandSigneSpencer,CompetenceatWork(NewYork:Wiley,1993).SigneSpenceris

globalpracticeleaderforCapabilityAssessmentatHayGroup.

Chapter20:WhatMakesaLeader?

1. Another reason thedebatecontinues:competencemodelsare typicallyproprietary information,commissionedbyanorganization togaincompetitiveadvantage,andsoarenot typicallysharedpublicly,letalonepublishedinpeer-reviewedjournals—andsomanyacademicpsychologistsdis-miss the evidence (though many models have been published in peer-reviewed journals, too).Meanwhile other psychologists—mostly industrial/organizational specialists—continue creatingcompetence models, which are used extensively throughout the organizational world. This be-speaksawiderriftbetweenacademicsandpractitioners,onethatgoesfarbeyondthisparticulardebate.

2.GeraldMount,“TheRoleofEmotionalIntelligenceinDevelopingInternationalBusinessCapabil-ity:EIProvidesTraction,”inVanessaDruskatetal.,eds.,LinkingEmotionalIntelligenceandPer-formanceatWork(Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum,2005).Thereareveryfewpublishedstudieslikethisanalyzingcompetencemodels,inpartbecausethemodelsareoftenproprietary.

3.Thiswasbasedonasampleof404leaderswhohaddataonEIcompetencies,leadershipstyles,andorganizationalclimate,analyzedbyYvonneSell,HayGroup,London.

4.Tellingly,theseleadersoverlyreliedonanarrowrangeofleadershipstyles—typicallypacesettingand command-and-control. Leadership styles display underlying EI leadership competencies;stylesdriveclimate,andclimateaccountsforabout30percentofbusinessperformance,accordingtodataanalyzedatHayGroup.

5.AlastairRobertsonandCathyWail,“TheLeaderWithin,”Outlook2(1999):19–23.6.SoI’mtoldbyCaryChernissoftheRutgersConsortiumforResearchonEmotionalIntelligencein

Organizations,whohassurveyedmanycompetencemodels. 7. VanessaDruskatandStevenWolff,withtheircolleagueDr.JoanManuelBatista-Foguetofthe

ESADE Business School in Barcelona, used this method. Vanessa Druskat, Joan M. Batista-Foguet, andStevenWolff, “The Influence ofTeamLeaderCompetencies on theEmergence ofEmotionallyCompetentTeamNorms,”paperpresentedat theAnnualAcademyofManagementConference,SanAntonio,TX,August2011.

8.Themetric:aleader’sstylesaccountsfor50–70percentoftheclimate.Andclimate,inturn,drivesabout30percentofbusinessresultsduetothatleader.Themorestrengthsleadershaveintheun-derlying emotional intelligence competencies, themore styles in their repertoire. (The problem:fewerthan10percentofleadersarethiseffective.Mostleadershaveonlyonedominantstyle.Ex-

hibitingthreeormoreishigh—andrare.)Forthoseleadershighinself-awareness,followersratedtheclimatepositive92percentofthetime,whileforthoselowtheratingwaspositivejust22per-centofthetime.

9.JeffreySanchez-BurksandQuyNguyenHuy,“EmotionalApertureandStrategicChange:TheAc-curateRecognitionofCollectiveEmotions,”OrganizationScience20,no.1(2009):pp.22–34.

10. T.Masudaetal.,“PlacingtheFace inContext:CulturalDifferences in thePerceptionofFacialEmotion,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology94(2008):365–81.

11.PartnershipforPublicService,“CriticalSkillsandMissionCriticalOccupations,Leadership,In-novation,”researchreport,2011,http://ourpublicservice.org/OPS/publications/viewcontentdetails.php?id=158.

12.SimonBaron-Cohen,TheEssentialDifference:Men,Women,andtheExtremeMaleBrain(Lon-don:AllenLane,2003).

13.SeeVanessaUrchDruskatandStevenB.Wolff,“BuildingtheEmotionalIntelligenceofGroups,”HarvardBusinessReview,March2001,pp.80–90.

Chapter21:LeadingfortheLongFuture

1.AlvinWeinbergfavoredthorium-basedreactors,becausetheyareimmunetoFukushima-typeac-cidents;thespentfuelhasafarshorterhalf-lifethanuraniumand,unlikeuranium,cannotbecomeusedinnuclearweapons.Thereisamovementtoresurrectthoriumreactorsandreplaceuranium-basedones.Seehttp://www.the-weinberg-foundation.org/.

2.Idon’tknowifAlvinevertookthatviewasapublicstand.Asforme,I’dratherseeourenergyneedsmetbynonnuclear,noncoal,andnonpetroleum-basedsystemsoneday.

3.AlvinWeinberg,“SocialInstitutionsandNuclearEnergy,”Science,July7,1972,p.33.4.NationalIntelligenceCouncil,“GlobalTrends2025:ATransformedWorld,”November2008.5.Boththesecouldbecasestudies(butarenot)outofRonaldHeifetzandMartyLinksy,Leadership

ontheLine(Boston:HarvardBusinessReviewPress,2002).Heifetz’stheoryofadaptiveleader-shipurges leaders to takeunpopular stances like thesewhen they are for the public good—andsuggestssavvywaystohandletheinevitableresistance.

6.JonathanRose,TheWell-TemperedCity,shouldbepublishedin2014.7.JimCollinsmakesasimilarargumentinhisclassicworkGoodtoGreat(NewYork:HarperBusi-

ness, 2001). What Collins calls “Level Five” leaders take the long view, creating sustainablechange.They seekprosperityoverdecades, not just for thequarterly return; they involvemanystakeholders—not just stockholders—and create pride and loyalty in employees. They inspirecommitment with a compelling vision and the corporate equivalent of immense focus andwillpower,whileremaininghumblethemselves.Thesearetheleaders,Collinsargues,ofcompa-niesthatarenotjustgood,butgreat.

8.AnAccenturesurveyof750globalCEOsfoundthatmorethan90percentendorsesustainabilityasacompanygoal.Seehttp://www.accenture.com/us-en/Pages/insight-un-global-compact-reports.aspx.

9. Unileverdoesnotbuydirectlyfromthefarmers,butratherbuysthroughsuppliers,andwillex-panditswebofsupplierstoincludethosewithstrongnetworksofsmallfarms.

10.Whilethiswillmeanbetterprofits,exactlywhatthesemightbewillvaryfromcroptocropand

seasontoseason.11.WorldBank,“TheFutureofSmallFarms:SynthesisReport,”WorldDevelopmentReport2008,

http://wdronline.worldbank.org/worldbank/a/nonwdrdetail/87.12.JohnMackey,co-CEOofWholeFoodsMarket,hasbeenthefront-and-centerspokesmanforthis

view,whichheseesaspartof“consciouscapitalism.”Mackey,forexample,getsasalaryonly14timesgreaterthanthatofthelowest-paidWholeFoodsworkers; thefishsoldtherearecarefullychosen so they do not deplete ocean biodiversity—among a long list of other tenets. See JohnMackeyandRajSisodia,ConsciousCapitalism(Boston:HarvardBusinessReviewPress,2013).Theviewhascaughtthezeitgeist.See,e.g.,RosabethMossKanter,“HowGreatCompaniesThinkDifferently,”HarvardBusinessReview,November2011,pp.66–78.

13. Thefive-rupeeblade isn’t the leastexpensive inIndia,but it’sata levelmostcanafford.EllenByron,“Gillette’sLatestInnovationinRazors:The11-CentBlade,”WallStreetJournal,October1,2010.

14.Joblevelsseemtolinkroughlytotimehorizons,thelateconsultantElliottJacquesargued.Jobslikesalesclerkorpoliceofficer,heproposed,encouragethinkinginatimehorizonofonedaytothreemonths;foremenandsmall-businessownerstendtothinkintermsofthreemonthstoayear.TheCEOsofsmallercompaniesanddivisionheadsoflargeronesmightthinkasfarastenyearsahead. And CEOs of global companies should think decades ahead. See Art Kleiner, “ElliottJacquesLevelswithYou,”Strategy+Business,FirstQuarter,2001.

15.PeterSenge’sbest-knownbookisTheFifthDiscipline:TheArtandPracticeoftheLearningOr-ganization(NewYork:DoubledayBusiness,1990).

INDEX

Thepaginationofthiselectroniceditiondoesnotmatchtheeditionfromwhichitwascreated.Tolocateaspecificpassage,pleaseusethesearchfeatureofyoure-bookreader.

Aaron,Hank,94–95Aberman,Rick,30academicachievementattentiontrainingand,194–95self-controland,81videogamingand,180Seealsoeducation

ACC(anteriorcingulatecortex),267n3Accenture,235ADD(attentiondeficitdisorder)attentiontraining,182creativethinkingand,42–43mindwandering,42–43,53organizational,210phase-lockingsynchronyissues,16prescriptiondrugtreatment,9self-controland,87–88

addiction,7ADHD(attentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder),182adolescents

cognitivecontrol,87–88perspectivetaking,100technologyuse,5–7Seealsochildren

adrenaline,144advertisingpresentations,7aggression,180airpollution,154–55.Seealsocarbonemissionsalertingsystem,182,275n3–4alexithymia,65,100AllThingsD(igital)conference,8amateurs,164–65AmericanPsychologist,233–34amygdalaautismand,117emotionalhijacks,34–36empathy,104,106fight-or-flightresponse,34,143–44gutfeelings,223selectiveattentiontocalm,76top-downattentioncontrol,38

AngryBirds,181angryfaces,34–35animalresearch,63–64animation,96–97anteriorcingulate,104,195anteriorcingulatecortex(ACC),267n3anteriorcingulategyrus,290n4AnthropoceneAge,147,256anxietyathleticperformanceand,14autismand,117–18chronicissues,15insocialsettings,32–33insociopaths,101duringtesttaking,196videogamesand,180

aperture,239–41AppleiPhone,215,216,217iPod,217productstrategy,212“Thinkdifferent”campaign,220

arrowtest,189–90athletes,28–30,94–95

attentionactiveengagementof,37–38chunks,166–68declineof,5–9definitionof,4excellenceand,2–3flowstates,21–23restorationof,56–58strengthening,168–69technologyand,5–6,18–21atworkplace,21–23“zoningout,”16–18Seealsospecifictypesofattention

attentiondeficitdisorder(ADD)attentiontraining,182creativethinkingand,42–43mindwandering,42–43,53organizational,210phase-lockingsynchronyissues,16prescriptiondrugtreatment,9self-controland,87–88

attentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder(ADHD),182attentiontraininggames,181–82schoolcurriculum,155,194–96Seealsomeditation

Auden,W.H.,69autism,117–18,182automatedsocialhierarchydetection,124–25automaticity,28–29.Seealsobottom-upbrainsystem

Baba,NeemKaroli,146backgroundnoise,13Balmer,Steve,209Baron-Cohen,Simon,241–42Benioff,Marc,41,214Ben&Jerry’sIceCream,255Bennis,Warren,240Berger,John,1–2“better-than-average”effect,74bigdata,133–35Biodot,196BlackBerry,215–16black-swanevents,146Blair,Brent,122–23

BlessedUnrest(Hawken),157blindspotsemotionsinworkplace,239–40groupthink,72inhumanbrain,148long-termconsequences,252–53systemsanalysis,242

Bloomberg,Michael,251Blue9Capital,222bodylanguage.Seenonverbalcommunicationbodyscanmeditation,200bottom-upbrainsystemattentionrestorationand,55–58characteristicsof,24–29downsideof,36–38emotionalhijacks,34–36empathy,98,103,106,107errorsand,29–31futurethreats,144gutfeelings,66nonverbalcommunication,96–97practiceand,164–65skewtoward,31–33socialnorms,120tug-of-warwithtop-downsystem,84

Boyatzis,Richard,172–75,237–38BPoilspill,230–31brainimagingstudiesbusinessdecisionmaking,220empathy,104meditation,168mindfulness,49mindwandering,39–40,52pain,107positiveemotions,172socialsensitivity,117weightloss,88

brainstem,266n1brainsystemsandprocessesbusinessdecision-makerspursuingexploitiveorexploratorystrategies,220calmingability,36,111,113,197–98coherence,225creativity,24–25,41–44empathy,103–5flowstates,22–23

mindfulness,49,168–69,197,199mindwandering,39–40,42–44,48phase-lockingsynchrony,16physicians,110–12positiveemotions,170,171selectiveattention,15self-awareness,62–66self-control,77systemsawareness,131–32,137technology’simpactonchildren,6videogamingand,178–81Seealsobottom-upbrainsystem;top-downbrainsystem

braintraininggames,181–85,198–99Branson,Richard,42breathing,114,184–85Brilliant,Larryglobalwarming,144–45systemsperspective,129–34,214–15valueofcivilizations,256

BritishColumbia,carbonemissionstax,251Brown,Tim,245Burns,Robert,69Bush,GeorgeW.,72Bush,Mirabai,200,204businessdownturns,219Butcher,Susan,161–62,163,165

calmingabilitybrainprocesses,36,111,113,197–98distractionsand,76empathyand,108schoolbreathingbuddiesprogram,186–89socialandemotionallearning,190–91,194–96technologyfor,183–85,198–99

carbonemissionsChina,147–48handprintvs.footprintmeasure,150–53taxeson,251

caring,98,105–8CarnegieMellonUniversity,20,95Carr,Nicholas,17–18Cassell,Justine,95–97,99Cates,Daniel,176–77CBM(cognitivebiasmodification),32–33CenterforMindfulness-BasedStressReduction,200

CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,42change,timeneededforpublicacceptance,251chiefexecutiveofficers(CEOs)empathy-goalorientationbalance,237listening,226–27skills,235Seealsoleadersandleadership

childrenbraintraininggames,181–85breathingbuddiesprogram,186–89eco-handprint,151–52empathy,99–100self-control,76–83,81,83,86socialandemotionallearning,190–93systemsliteracy,153–57Seealsoinfants;teens

China,carbonemissions,147–48choice,intentional,26chunkingstrategy,166–68CirqueduSoleil,67Cleckley,HerveyM.,101climate,254–55climatechangebeliefin,144–45,252ChineseCO2emissions,147–48eco-handprintvs.footprint,150–53systemsliteracyand,157Unilever’seffortstocombat,253as“wicked”problem,133

CO2emissionsChina,147–48handprintvs.footprintmeasure,150–53taxeson,251

coaching,172–74,238coal,147–48cognitivebias,252cognitivebiasmodification(CBM),32–33cognitivecontrolcreativityand,40errors,31importanceof,190,194,196selectiveattention,197sociopaths,102testsof,189–91workperformanceand,235

Seealsoself-controlcognitiveeffort,220cognitiveempathy,98.Seealsoempathycognitiveexhaustion,56cognitiveoverloadbrainprocesses,150organizationalstrategyand,220self-controland,31,88technologyuse,55–56

cognitivereappraisal,89cognitivetherapy,170CollaborativeforAcademic,Social,andEmotionalLearning,194collectiveintelligence,21,134collegeathletes,14Collins,Jim,293n7ColumbiaUniversity,automatedsocialhierarchydetection,124–25commandandcoerceleadershipstrategy,227–30compassion,106competencemodeling,234comprehension,3,16–18computers,20,146.Seealsotechnologyconcern,empathic,98,105–8consciouscapitalism,252contextawareness,118–21control,cognitivecreativityand,40errors,31importanceof,190,194,196selectiveattention,197sociopaths,102testsof,189–91workperformanceand,235Seealsoself-control

conversationspowerand,124socialcues,116technologyimpact,5–6

CookieMonster,82–83cortisol,144creativitybrainprocesses,24–25,41–44environmentalinfluences,45–46mindwanderingand,40–41

criminalconvictions,80crisismanagement,230–31

Csikszentmihalyi,Mihaly,21–22culturaldifferences,118–19culture,inventionof,139curators,ofdata,135

DalaiLama,166,258Damasio,Antonio,66Damon,William,21–22datacollection,fordecisionmaking,221–24Davenport,Thomas,134–35David,Larry,169–70Davidson,Richardextremesports,49–50mindfulness,197,198openattention,55phase-lockingsynchrony,15–16positivity,170,171readingcurriculum,155self-awareness,86socialsensitivitytests,117,120Tenacitygame,184–85

daydreamingadvantagesanddisadvantagesof,39,40–41brainprocesses,39–40,42–44,48creativityand,42–44frequencyof,39,47moodand,47practiceand,164research,39strategiestocombat,48–50,52–53,168–69,197topicsof,47–48inworkplace,202

Decety,Jean,110,113decisionmaking,221–24decisiontrees,224“deepreading,”17–18delayedgratificationgradepointaverageand,81“marshmallowtest,”78–79,83,87Seealsoself-control

depression,171,180discrimination,73–74distantthreats,predictionof,146–57difficultiesin,146–49lifecycleanalysis,149–50,151,152,154–55

positiveemotions,150–53systemsliteracy,153–57

distractionscostsof,8–9emotional,14–15,48empathyand,107intentional,89Internet,17–18“marshmallowtest”strategy,79asparentingstrategy,76sensory,14

diversity,75dopamine,171drivingability,74Druskat,Vanessa,236,243–45Dunedin,NewZealand,study,79–81,87,193Dunkin’Donuts,221

Ebonite,221Economo,Constantinvon,64educationbraintraininggames,181–85breathingbuddiesprogram,186–89eco-handprint,151–52self-controlimportance,81,83,86socialandemotionallearning,190–93systemsliteracy,153–57Web-basedformats,18Seealsoacademicachievement

ego,88Ehrlich,PaulR.,147Einstein,Albert,45Ekman,Paul,114elephants,self-awarenessresearch,63–64ElizabethII,117Ellison,Jib,141email,124–25emotionalaperture,239–41emotionaldistractions,14–15,48emotionalempathy,98,102–5emotionalhijacks,34–36,54,88emotionalintelligenceleaders,225–26,236schoolcurriculum,193,194–96typesof,3

workplace,174,199–200emotionalself-awareness,191–92emotions,negativeattentionand,150–51,169–70Losadaeffect,172–73motivationand,153teams,244–45

emotions,positive,170–75emotions,readingof,3,101empathicconcern,98,105–8empathiccruelty,277n5empathy,98–115definitionsof,98developmentof,99–100,113–15emotional,98,102–5empathicconcern,98,105–8healthcareproviders,102–3,105–6,108–15importanceof,3inleadership,226,231,235,236–38mindfulnessand,200onlinechallenges,98–99pacesetters’lackof,230powerand,121–25sociopaths,100–102surgeons,71

encryption,45–46Energy,U.S.Departmentof,282n10EnronCorporation,124–25environmentforcreativethinking,45–46geneticeffects,78

environmentalissues,154–55.Seealsoglobalwarmingenvironmentalmindfulness,240–41epidemiology,130–31epigenetics,78Ericsson,Anders,163–64,165,167errors,29–31ethnographicrescue,138etiquette,120evolutionbottom-upvs.top-downbrainsystems,26–27emotionalempathy,103fight-or-flightresponse,34,143–44

executivefunctionbrainprocesses,40,89

childdevelopmentstages,76–77importancetolifeoutcomes,86,194“marshmallowtest,”79trainingprograms,86,195

exercise,47expertperformers,165–66exploitationvs.explorationstrategy,218–20extremesports,49–50eyegazefluctuation,51

“facetime”powerand,124socialcues,116technologyimpact,5–6

facialexpressionsanger,34autisticpeople’sanxietyover,117smiling,240sociallyanxiouspeople’sfixationonthreateningfaces,32–33socialstatusdifferencesinreadingemotionsfrom,124

failure,fearof,230Falk,William,55–56,58fear,102,230feedback,75,164“feelingface”cards,191–92fight-or-flightresponse,34,143–44financialadvisers,73,74financialcrisisof2008,228–29FiveBelow,222Flankertest,189–90flowstates,21–23flupandemics,131,132–33,134focusingtechnique,273n1footprints,eco-,150–53Forrester,JayW.,141,153–54Frankfurter,Felix,75Fredrickson,Barbara,170,173freeassociation,44freetime,45–46Freud,Sigmund,88fusiform,117–18futurethreats,predictionof,146–57difficultiesin,146–49lifecycleanalysis,149–50,151,152,154–55positiveemotions,150–53

systemsliteracy,153–57futuretimehorizon,fordecisionmaking,249–58humanwelfarefocus,255–58importanceof,249–51leadershiprole,251–55

gamingaddictionto,7forbraintraining,181–85,198–99harmfulvs.beneficialeffectsof,178–81readingabilityimpact,7socialimpact,176–78virtualworld,153–54

gammaspikes,44Gardner,Howard,21–22Gauss,Carl,24GeneralMills,201genetics,77–78,195Gentile,Douglas,179,183George,Bill,70,204gestures,95–97Gibson,William,146Gilbert,Daniel,271n1Gladwell,Malcolm,283n1globalwarmingbeliefin,144–45,252ChineseCO2emissions,147–48eco-handprintvs.footprint,150–53systemsliteracyand,157Unilever’seffortstocombat,253as“wicked”problem,133

goal-orientedleaders,227–30,236goalsetting,250–51Goffman,Erving,8Goldin,Philippe,201GoodSamaritanparable,106Googleflupandemictracking,133–34productinnovation,217SearchInsideYourselfprogram,199–200

gradepointaverage,81Greenberg,Mark,197greencommunityplanning,251–52GreystonBakery,255groupthink,72–75

Grove,Andrew,216–17,219–20gutfeelings,66,223

Haitiearthquake,111–12Halberda,Justin,19Handprinter.org,150–53happiness,21,205HarvardBusinessReview,228HarvardBusinessSchool,46,257–58Hawken,Paul,157HayGroup,224,228,234Hayward,Tony,231HeadStart,78healthcareprovidersempathy,102–3,105–6,108–15malpractice,71,110toneofvoice,71

healthoutcomes,self-controland,80–81heartbeat,65Hebb,Donald,178Heidegger,Martin,18Heifetz,Ronald,293n5Heins,Thorsten,216Henderson,Rebecca,257–58HereComesEverybody(Shirky),20heritability,77–78,195highroadbrainsystem,268n2.Seealsotop-downbrainsystemhippocampus,120,121HirtleCallaghan,221Hoaldridge,Emily,186–87hostileattributionbias,180hula,138humanresourceprofessionals,203HurricaneSandy,251–52Huxley,Aldous,50Hyman,Mark,111–12

id,88IDEO,245Iditarod,161–62,163,165illusionofexplanatorydepth,143IMD,230impactonothers,230–32impulsivity,25,87incomeinequality,256–57

India,monks’self-controlstrategies,87,89IndustrialRevolution,147infantsempathy,99–100,103,106self-control,76–77

influence,236informalleaders,236informationgathering,221–24informationoverloadbrainprocesses,150organizationalstrategyand,220self-controland,31,88technologyuse,55–56

innerfocus,4InnerResilienceProgram,188,194,196innerrudder.Seeself-awarenessinnovation.Seecreativityinspiringleadership,224–27InstituteforMindfulLeadership,200insula,65,104,117Intel,216–17,219–20intelligence,collective,21,134intelligence,emotionalleaders,225–26,236schoolcurriculum,193,194–96typesof,3workplace,174,199–200

intelligencequotient(IQ)adultfinancialsuccessand,81brainprocesses,195leadershipand,233–34

intentionaldistractions,89IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,145internationalbusiness,119Internetaddictionto,7distractionsof,17–18empathyand,98–99

IntheAgeoftheSmartMachine(Zuboff),146intuitionbottom-upbrainsystem,25decisionmaking,223Einsteinon,45social,116,117

investors,decisionmaking,221–24

iPhone,215,216,217iPod,217IQ(intelligencequotient)adultfinancialsuccessand,81brainprocesses,195leadershipand,233–34

IraqWar,72Island(Huxley),50

James,William,14,47,48Japan,businesscardritual,119jazz,104Jinpa,Thupten,166–67jobinterviews,116Jobs,Steve,64–65,212Jones,Lolo,29

Kabat-Zinn,Jon,198,200Kahneman,Daniel,26,73,74Kaplan,Stephen,56–57Keil,Frank,281n4Keltner,Dacher,123–24Killingsworth,Matthew,271n1King,MartinLuther,Jr.,106KobunChino,211–12Kodak,219Kohlrieser,George,230Kushans,129–31

Langer,Ellen,37,240–41Lantieri,Linda,188,194,195–96lateralprefrontalcortex,48LCA(lifecycleanalysis)benefitsof,149–50Handprinter.org,151,152schoolcurriculum,154–55

leadersandleadership,207–45commandandcoercestyle,227–30competencies,233–36decisionmaking,221–24emotionalaperture,239–41goalorientation–empathybalance,236–38impactonothers,230–32inspirational,224–27mindfulness,204–5

styleof,238systemsawareness,235–36,241–42teameffectiveness,242–45

“LeadershipRunAmok”(Spreier),228learning,3,179–80.Seealsoeducationlearningorganization,257Levine,Michael,82lifecycleanalysis(LCA)benefitsof,149–50Handprinter.org,151,152schoolcurriculum,154–55

Lindsey,ElizabethKapu’uwailani,138–40listeningbrainprocesses,103empathyand,237healthcareproviders,109leaders,226–27,230,238mindfulnesstrainingand,201

long-termtimehorizon,fordecisionmaking,249–58humanwelfarefocus,255–58importanceof,249–51leadershiprole,251–55

Losadaeffect,172–73love,125lowroadbrainsystem,268–69n2.Seealsobottom-upbrainsystemLucas,George,62luck,73,74Luhmann,Niklas,281–82n6

Machiavellianpersonalities,101Mackey,John,293n12Madoff,Bernie,101magazineindustry,140–41Malloy,Ruth,224malpractice,71,110Malthus,ThomasRobert,146–47March,James,219marketingresearch,33,134marketingstrategies,210marriage,96“marshmallowtest,”78–79,83,87TheMaskofSanity(Cleckley),101MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT)bigdataconference,135collectiveintelligenceresearch,21

globalsystems,257–58MediaLab,96systemsanalysis,141–42,153–54,257

math,83,85MauPiailug,136–38McClelland,David,229,233–34McClellandInstitute,238“me,”mindwanderingcenteredon,48medialprefrontalcortex,40,48,202medicalcareprovidersempathy,102–3,105–6,108–15malpractice,71,110toneofvoice,71

meditationbenefitsof,198bodyscans,200brainprocessesduring,168children,190environmentfor,58mindwanderingduring,52,168–69Seealsomindfulness

memoryattentionand,3strategiestoimprove,19,166–68Seealsoworkingmemory

mentalmodels,137Merzenich,Michael,182,183meta-awareness,197,199meta-cognition,74–75,77meta-emotion,77Microsoft,209,217Miller,George,19mindfulnessbenefitsof,196–99,202–3brainprocessesduring,49,168–69,197,199breathingbuddiesprograminNYCpublicschools,186–89environmental,240–41leaders,204–5raisineatingpractice,49self-assessmentoflevel,201–2forself-awareness,118insocialandemotionallearningprograms,194–96atsocietallevel,205–6workplaceprograms,199–204

mindwandering

advantagesanddisadvantagesof,39,40–41brainprocesses,39–40,42–44,48creativityand,42–44frequencyof,39,47moodand,47practiceand,164research,39strategiestocombat,48–50,52–53,168–69,197topicsof,47–48inworkplace,202

Miraval,200Mischel,Waltercognitivecontrolstrategies,83,89,193“marshmallowtest,”78–79,83,87

missionstatements,252mistakes,29–31MIT.SeeMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT)mobilephones,134,217.SeealsotechnologyMoken,139–40Monson,David,162,163moodbrainprocesses,170–71dailyfluctuations,22gloomyweatherand,31mathstudents,85duringmindwandering,47

moralreflections,107MoreThanSound,203–4motivationattentionand,2flowstateand,22positivityas,171self-assessmentfordecisionmaking,258

motorcortex,30multitaskingattentionswitchingduring,19–20bottom-upbrainsystem,26efficiencyand,203

muscle,attentionas,4,168–69MuseumofModernArt(MoMA),53–54music,13

NationalAcademyofSciences,144NationalIntelligenceCouncil,250nativelore,136–39

nature,56,57Nature,178negativeemotionsattentionand,150–51,169–70Losadaeffect,172–73motivationand,153teams,244–45

neocortex,25,63,131–32neuralnetworksemotions,34–36mindwandering,51–52positivity,170self-awareness,64

neuroplasticity,164NewHavenpublicschools,191NewYorkCitypublicschools,186–89Nintendo,217nonverbalcommunicationabilitytoread,6,93–97,114socialsensitivityissues,116–17

norms,team,243–44Norris,Gregory,151–52,154novelusesexperiment,43nuclearenergy,249nucleusaccumbens,171,278n21nurses.Seehealthcareproviders

Obama,Barack,231obesity,31,88obsessive-compulsivedisorder,15Ocasio,William,289n6Ogbu,John,73oilspill,BP,230–31OnlytheParanoidSurvive(Grove),217openawarenesscreativityrole,42–44difficultieswith,54–55self-awarenessand,85–86testof,273n13

orbitofrontalcortex,290n4organizationalattention,209–20adaptationtomarketchanges,215–17exploitationandexplorationstrategy,218–20leaders’roleindirecting,209–11strategyorigins,211–15

organizationalclimate,254–55orientingfocus,42Osler,William,112otherfocus,4outerfocus,4Outliers(Gladwell),283n1overachievers,227–30overload,cognitivebrainprocesses,150organizationalstrategyand,220self-controland,31,88technologyuse,55–56

oxytocin,106

pacesetters,227–30painattentionand,35empathyforothersin,104,107–8,110,112–13,124mindfulnessmeditationfortreatmentof,198

pandemics,131,132–33,134parasympatheticnervoussystem,30parenting,106Paretoprinciple,150parietalcortex,267n6particulates,154–55Pasteur,Louis,42patterns,131Penzias,Arno,44perfection,67Perlman,Itzhak,283–84n3perspective-taking,99–100phase-lockingstate,16Philip,DukeofEdinburgh,117physiciansempathy,102–3,105–6,108–15malpractice,71,110toneofvoice,71

play,245Poe,EdgarAllan,30Poincaré,Henri,24poker,online,176–77polio,131politicians,251pollution,154–55Polman,Paul,253

poorpeople,121–25,256populationgrowth,146–47positiveemotions,170–75Posner,Michael,181–82post-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD),121power,69,121–25PowerPoint,209practice,159–206athletes,28–29chunking,166–68asmusclebuilding,168–69“perfectpractice,”67positivityemphasis,169–7510,000-hourrule,161–66

prefrontalcortexchildren,89,189,192delayofgratification,87empathy,105errorsand,30lateralzone,48medialzone,40,48,202phase-lockingstate,16physicians,110punishmentand,173roleof,267n6

prescriptiondrugs,9psychotherapy,96PTSD(post-traumaticstressdisorder),121publichealth,154–55

quarterbacks,28–29

rap,43rapport,103readingattentiontraining,155mindwanderingduring,16–18,51technologyimpact,6–7

readingothers,91–125empathy,3,71,98–115nonverbalcommunication,93–97socialsensitivity,93–94,116–25

reflexiveattention,26,35Reiter,Eileen,187–89relaxation,197–98.Seealsomeditation

ResearchinMotion(RIM),215–16,218resilience,36rest,56–58rewardcircuitryemotionalhijacks,88empathy,278n21exploitationstrategyand,220gamingand,7positivityand,171ventralstriatum,87

Riess,Helen,113–15RIM(ResearchinMotion),215–16,218risk-takingbehavior,49–50Rose,JonathanF.P.,251–52rotehabit,26,28RoyalSociety,147Rubin,Nicolle,186–87Runyan,Joe,162Ryan,Tim,204

Sachs,JeffreyD.,204–5Salesforce,41,214Santayana,George,70scaffolding,155,177schadenfreude,108schoolsbraintraininggames,181–85breathingbuddiesprogram,186–89eco-handprint,151–52self-controlimportance,81,83,86socialandemotionallearning,190–93systemsliteracy,153–57Web-basedformats,18Seealsoacademicachievement

Schopenhauer,Arthur,212Schutt,Rachel,135Schwartz,Tony,9Schweitzer,Peter,45–46searchengines,135Seattlepublicschools,190–92secrecy,75segregation,73SEL(socialandemotionallearning),190–96selectiveattentionbenefitsof,15–16

creativityand,42definitionof,13–14developmentof,185,197emotionalregulation,15,48,76heritability,275n4mindfulnessand,197self-awarenessand,85–86

self-awareness,59–89animalresearch,63–64bodysignals,64–67brainsystemsandprocesses,62–66decisionmakingand,223deficiencyin,117definitionof,62–63emotional,191–92empathyand,104–5gapbetweenhowyouseeyourselfandhowothersrateyou,68–71groupthinkand,72–75importanceof,3ofleaders,225–26,231–32,235mindfulnessand,200powerand,69teams,243–45Seealsoself-control

self-control,76–89childdevelopmentstages,76–78Dunedin,NewZealand,study,79–81,87lifeoutcomesand,78–81“marshmallowtest,”78–79,83,87selectiveattention-openattentionconflict,84–86SesameStreetsegment,82–83strategiestoboost,86–89,189–93

self-managementexecutivefunctionand,77,194self-awarenessand,3,226,232socialandemotionallearningprograms,194,196

Sell,Yvonne,234–35Senge,Peter,154,257sensorydistractions,14September11,2001,188serendipity,41–44SesameStreet,82–83seven,asmagicalnumberforworkingmemory,19sexinadvertising,35

focusduring,47,57performanceissues,30

Shapiro,Ben,182–83Shirky,Clay,18–19,20,217shoplifters,1–2shortterm,decisionmakingfor,250–51sideeffects,142Siegel,Daniel,199SimCity,153Simon,Herbert,9,168Singapore,socialandemotionallearningprograms,193Singer,Tania,100,104SingerSewingCo.,212–13situational-independentthought,50skill,73,74SkollGlobalThreatsFund,132sleepdeprivation,2,220smiling,240Smith,Marc,178smokingbans,251snakes,34socialandemotionallearning(SEL),190–96socialanxiety,32–33socialcapital,20–21socialclass,121–25socialcues,116,119–20socialdyslexia,116socialintuition,116socialmedia,20–21.Seealsotechnologysocialnetworks,120–21,123socialsensitivitycontextawareness,118–21lackof,116–18peoplewithheightened,93–94powerand,121–25

sociopaths,100–102somaticmarker,66somatosensorycortex,65Sony,217Spencer,Signe,231–32spiders,34spine,269n4Spreier,Scott,228,230,237StanfordUniversityCalmingTechnologyLab,185

“marshmallowtest,”78–79,87StarWars,62Sterman,John,141–43,145,151,154stoplightexercise,190–91strategy,organizational,211–15strengths,focusingon,172–73stresscognitiveeffortand,220dailyexperiences,22healthconsequences,23managementof,197–98memoryloss,31

subconsciouschoicesinattention,34marketingmessages,33

subprimemortgagecrisis,72Summers,Larry,241supplychains,141surgeons,71,105–6.SeealsohealthcareprovidersSurgery,71sustainability,156sympathy,98synchrony,104,116systemsanalysis,129–35brainprocesses,131–32,137definitionof,131exampleof,129–31for“super-wicked”problemsolving,132–35

systemsawarenessbenefitsof,3–4definitionof,137ofleaders,214–15,235–36,241–42wayfindingas,136

systemsblindness,136–45systemsliteracy,153–57

Tai,Gus,185Tan,Chade-Meng,200Tan,Cherie,254taxes,carbonemissions,251teams,performanceof,242–45technologyattentionand,5–6,18–21bigdata,133–35forcalming,183–85,198–99

cognitiveoverloadfrom,55–56fornaturalresourcemanagement,147–48organizationalhierarchyimpact,146productinnovation,215–17

teenscognitivecontrol,87–88perspectivetaking,100technologyuse,5–7Seealsochildren

temporal-parietaljunction(TPJ),110–12,290n4Tenacity,183–85,198–9910,000-hourpracticerule,161–66terrorism,125“TestingforCompetenceRatherThanIntelligence”(McClelland),234texting,5“theateroftheoppressed,”121–22theoryofmind,100“Thinkdifferent”campaign,220ThinkingFastandSlow(Kahneman),74360-degreeevaluation,68,69Tibetanmonks,166–67timehorizon,fordecisionmaking,249–58humanwelfarefocus,255–58importanceof,249–51leadershiprole,251–55

top-downbrainsystemattentionrestorationtherapy,56–57characteristicsof,24–29emotions,34,37–38empathy,98,106,107nonverbalcommunication,96,97practice,164,165self-management,194tug-of-warwithbottom-upsystem,84

TPJ(temporal-parietaljunction),110–12,290n4trafficjams,142–43training,attentiongames,181–82schoolcurriculum,155,194–96Seealsomeditation

transparency,75Treisman,Anne,4“TrueNorthGroups,”70Truglio,Rosemarie,83Tuttleman,Steve,221–24

unconsciousmindcreativity,44marketing,33nonverbalcommunication,96rapport,103

Unilever,253–54U.S.DepartmentofEnergy,282n10U.S.NationalIntelligenceCouncil,250

vagusnerve,197–98VENs(vonEconomoneurons),64,105ventralstriatum,87ventromedialprefrontalarea,66,277n12,290n4videogamesaddictionto,7forbraintraining,181–85,198–99harmfulvs.beneficialeffectsof,178–81readingabilityimpact,7socialimpact,176–78virtualworld,153–54

Vielmetter,Georg,229vigilance,2violentvideogames,180violinists,164virtualworld,153–54voice,surgeon’stoneof,71voluntaryattention,26

wanderingmind.Seemindwanderingwater,57waterheaters,282n10wayfinding,136–38weaknesses,focusingon,173weakties,21wealthypeopleself-control,80–81socialsensitivity,121–25

Weber,Elke,144,153,250–51Wegner,Daniel,30–31Weinberg,Alvin,249Weissberg,Roger,191,193,194WholeFoods,252,293n12willpowerchilddevelopment,77

importanceof,88“marshmallowtest,”78–81top-downbrainsystem,26

Wilson,Robert,44wisdom,255–56Wolff,Steven,243–45workethic,240workingmemorycapacityof,19,21,85,167multitaskingand,203

workplacejobinterviews,116mindfulnessat,199–204organizationalclimate,254–55productivity,21–23Seealsoorganizationalattention

WorldEconomicForum,253WorldHealthOrganization,155WorldWarII,2worry,48Wright,Will,153–54

Yahoo,217Yoda,4

Zappos,252zero-emissionelectriccars,142“zoningout,”16–18Zuboff,Shoshona,146

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

DANIELGOLEMAN,aformersciencejournalistfortheNewYorkTimes,istheau-thor of thirteenbooks and lectures frequently to professional groups andbusi-ness audiences and on college campuses. He cofounded the Collaborative forAcademic,SocialandEmotionalLearningattheYaleUniversityChildStudiesCenter(nowattheUniversityofIllinoisatChicago).HelivesinMassachusetts.

Visit www.AuthorTracker.com for exclusive information on your favoriteHarperCollinsauthors.

ALSOBYDANIELGOLEMAN

Leadership:ThePowerofEmotionalIntelligence

TheBrainandEmotionalIntelligence

Ecoliterate

EcologicalIntelligence

SocialIntelligence

PrimalLeadership

DestructiveEmotions

WorkingwithEmotionalIntelligence

HealingEmotions

EmotionalIntelligence

TheCreativeSpirit

VitalLies,SimpleTruths

TheMeditativeMind

CREDITS

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FOOTNOTES

*Answers:1.phase-locking;2.sensoryandemotional;3.howwelltheathletescanconcentrateandignoredistractions.