Food as Medicine in Islam

7/30/2019 Food as Medicine in Islam

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Art of Living Life Style Food

Food as Medicine in Muslim Civilization

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By Nil Sari

Table of contents

1. Introduction2. Elements (unsur) and their Qualities3. Humours (khilt) and Their Qualities4. Temperaments5. How Humours Influence Nutrition6. Classification of Foods According to the Theory of Elements7. How Foods and Medicaments Exert an Effect on the Health8. Classification of Foods According to Digestion9. Foods with Curative Properties (Gid-yi dev)10. Examples of Treatment with Foods: Birds and Fish Used in Treatment11. A Balanced Diet for Preserving Health12. Food Combinations to Avoid Harm13. Dietary Rules according to Temperament14. Adjusting Diet According to the Season15. Meal Times and Amounts16. Importance Attached to Food Preparation and to the Cook17. Prescriptions for Foods and Beverages Written by Physicians for AilingMembers of the Palace Household18. From Today's Perspective19. Sources

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1. Introduction

Large image

Figure 1: A banquet given by thecommander-in-chief Lala Mustafa

Pahsa to the janissaries in Izmit, 5 April1578. Topkapi Palace Museum Library,

MS H1365, fol. 34b.

Food and diet were central to Ottomanclinical and preventive medicine.Ottoman medical manuscripts begin byspecifying "six rules that should befollowed for a healthy life," and one of

these rules was eating a balanced diet.In both Ottoman cuisine and Ottomanmedicine great importance was attached to the type and characteristicsof foods and beverages, and which of these should be consumed whenand how by people of different constitutions. Ottoman medicine wasbased on Islamic medicine, itself rooted in the teachings of Hippocratesand Galen, and for medical preparations and foods drew principally onworks by the Islamic physicians Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn al-Baytar.

The main reason why food and beverages were of such importance inmedicine is that they not only provide nutrition but also preserve healthand possess curative properties. Consequently healthy dietary practiceemerged as a distinct field of medical knowledge. The subjects of
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nutrition, diet and digestion with respect to leading a healthy life and thetreatment of disease are discussed at length in Ottoman period medicalmanuscripts. Vegetables, fruits, animal foods and minerals such as saltare dealt with not only in medical and pharmaceutical works, but even inworks on chemistry. Although carbohydrates, proteins and vitamins wereas yet unknown, the importance of good food and a balanced diet forhealthy living was recognised.

The principles of healthy and balanced nutrition in Ottoman medicine arebased on the theories of "elements" and "humours". Even today we can

observe relics of this theory, which remained current until the beginningof the twentieth century. To clearly explain the importance of nutrition inOttoman medicine, it is necessary to take a brief look at the theory ofelements and humours; in other words, the philosophy of medicine atthat period. I will endeavour to explain this theory as simply as possible,although it consists of definitions and interpretations that cover a widefield, are very complex, and sometimes difficult to comprehend. Despitesome variations in opinion regarding the details of this theory amongOttoman physicians, the basic framework of the philosophy of medicinecorresponded to the outline I will give below.

All of the information in this text is based on manuscripts and printedOttoman sources, without any interpretation of my own. It should not beforgotten that evaluating the medical concepts of the Ottoman period inthe light of today's medical knowledge would lead to distortion ofOttoman medical philosophy as a whole, and so should only be done withthe greatest caution and based on firm evidence. Since explanation ofthe information in the text in accordance with today's knowledge of themetabolism and endocrinology is a separate subject of research, thesewill not be taken into account here.

2. Elements (unsur) and their Qualities

Large image

Figure 2: An Ottoman Bazar scene.Topkapi Palace Museum Library, MS

H1365, fol. 93a.

According to the philosophy of theperiod, the universe is made up of fourmain elements: fire, air, water andearth. These are the basic substances

that make up all inanimate and animateobjects. The four elements are not material but express characteristics ofmass and energy. These elements have hot, cold, moist or dry qualities,described as their "state" (keyfiyet). These qualities are inherent anddescribed as "nature" (tabat). For example, the nature of a human beingis defined as hot blooded and that of grass as cold. Earth has a cold anddry nature; water, cold and moist; air, hot and moist; fire, hot and dry.Not only human beings but all animate and inanimate entities are underthe influence of one or a combination of the above-mentioned fourqualities. The essential substance of any object is characterised by thesequalities, each being hot, cold, moist or dry. Each object has a hotter,colder, drier or moister nature in comparison to others. Organs also havethese characteristics. For example, the heart has the tendency to be hotand moist; the liver hot and dry; the brain moist and cold; the spleen dry

and cold. These natural qualities are also present to a greater or lesserextent in every food or medicament. For example, a food or medicamentmight be hot in the first, second, third or fourth degrees, and hence theheating effect of that food or medicament varies according to the degreeit possesses that characteristic. The combination of qualities in a food ormedicament determines the balance in the body of the person whoconsumes it.

3. Humours (khilt) and Their Qualities

The human body contains four fluids or humours; that is, blood, plegm,yellow bile and black bile. We cannot define the four humours in theliteral sense of the words used to express them. Humours are the fluids
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first generated by the process of digestion. Blood has a hot and moistnature (sanguine); phlegm is cold and moist (phlegmatic); yellow bile ishot and dry (choleric); black bile is cold and dry (melancholic). A goodand healthy humour or combination of humours can be digested andassimilated into the tissues. These are restorative, beneficial humours.Humours with the appropriate qualities taken in moderate amountsnourish the body. Each of the four humours also has sub-categories.

Balance between the humours indicates health. When the quality oramount of the humours deviate from the normal, however, the humoral

balance is disturbed and this causes disease. The humours that havecaused the disease need to be expelled from the body by means ofmedicaments. The humoral balance may be distorted by external factors,especially diet, resulting in disease. Abnormal humours that cannot bedigested or transformed into a proper form are expelled from the body.When necessary one should help the expulsion process by means of dietor medicaments.

4. Temperaments

The ways in which the opposing qualities of the four elements combineand interact are called "temperaments". If the opposing characteristicsare present in equal amounts there will be a balance. But if one or more

of the hot, cold, moist or dry qualities are dominant the balance isdisturbed. When this occurs the person's temperament is distorted, andtheir equilibrium (itidl) is upset. We can talk about the proper ratio ofcharacteristics for each individual person rather than an idealcombination identical for all. It is rare for a person to have atemperament in perfect equilibrium. For example, if fire is the dominantelement in a particular person, his temperament is hot; but if water isdominant, the temperament of that person is cold. There are four suchsimple temperaments. There are also four composite temperaments. Forexample, if hot and moist qualities are both dominant in a person, thatperson has a sanguine temperament. If hot and dry qualities aredominant they produce a choleric temperament; if cold and dry qualitiesdominate they produce a melancholic temperament; and if cold andmoist qualities dominate they produce a phlegmatic temperament. These

temperaments may be present in a stronger or weaker form, and thiscauses differences amongst individuals. In addition, temperament variesaccording to the geographic location, season, age and gender.Temperament should always be taken into consideration both in medicaltreatment and diet. Each person should eat in accordance with their owntemperament. Although some people may have a strong constitution andbe able to eat and digest unwholesome food, this should not bedepended upon, because the bad humours, which cannot be digested,accumulate gradually, damaging the person's health. Humans learn intime which foods are harmful for them. Sometimes a harmless food thata person has eaten previously might cause harm the next time, and suchfoods should be avoided.

5. How Humours Influence Nutrition
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Large image

Figure 3: A plant figure. Source:Abdullah b. Ahmad al-Andalusi Ibn

Baytar, Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-agdiya. Sleymaniye Library, AyasofyaCollection, MS 3748.

Humours consist of digested nutrients.The formation of humours through thedigestion of nutrients is called"cooking" (pisme) in Ottomanmedicine. The formation of humours isimportant in demonstrating therelation between food and health.Digestion starts in the mouth andcontinues in the stomach, where thefood is transformed into a fluid called

chime (keyms) resembling thickbarley gruel. The solid particles thathave no nutrient value are expelledfrom the body as excrement. Thewatery part of the chime is absorbedby the stomach and the intestines.Part of the chime is transformed intophlegm before digestion is completed.Chime enters the liver through theportal vein. Here, a second process ofdigestion occurs that is again called"cooking", leading to the formation ofyellow bile (the "foam" of the blood),black bile (the sediments of the blood)

and blood itself. A certain amount ofnatural black bile, which isaccumulated at the mouth of thestomach, arouses the appetite. Black

bile is formed as a result of a cold and dry diet. The blood contains themost valuable parts of the digested nutrients. Blood reaches the heart viathe vena cava, leaving the more watery part of the chime to be disposedof by the kidneys. The third phase of digestion occurs in the bloodvessels and is distributed to other organs via the arteries. With the fourthand final phase of digestion in the organs, digestion is completed.Inefficient digestion results in distorted, diseased yellow bile and blackbile is formed.

It is because humours are formed by digested nutrients that the

characteristics and amount of what a person eats and drinks affects thehealth of a person either favourably or adversely. Preserving the humoralbalance and thus a person's health is possible by means of propernutrition. If possible, the first step in treating an illness is to correct thedistorted humoral balance by means of foods consistent with thepatient's temperament; that is, by means of an appropriate diet. Only ifthis does not work is resort made to medication. The following words bythe Islamic physician Razi's are famous: "If you can cure a person bydiet, do not suggest medication".

6. Classification of Foods According to the Theory of Elements
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Large image

Figure 4: A plant figure. Source: IbnBaytar, Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-

agdiya. Sleymaniye Library, AyasofyaColl., MH 3748.

The foods and beverages that affectthe humoral balance are also classifiedaccording to the theory of elements asbeing hot, cold, dry or moist. Foodsand beverages that are moderate innature generate blood. Becausediseases are also hot, cold, dry ormoist in nature, each disease istreated with foods or medicamentspossessing the opposite qualities. The

medical effects of foods varyaccording to their essential nature:

Cold foods: Foods that are coldcreate phlegm. Cucumber, squash,purslane and lettuce are coldvegetables. They cause weakness(sst).

Hot foods: Foods that are hot bynature create yellow bile. Such foodsmainly consist of spices and similarcondiments added to food. Forexample, ginger, pepper, drycoriander, cumin, cinnamon, onion,garlic and mastic are hot foods.

Dry foods: Dry foods create black bile, a cause of melancholy. They leadto loss of appetite and constipation. Foods such as millet, lentils anddried meat are examples of dry foods.

Moist foods: Moist foods are those without strong salty, sweet, sour orbitter flavours. They have a softening effect. Noodles and spinach cookedwith rice and meat are examples of moist foods.

7. How Foods and Medicaments Exertan Effect on the Health

Large image

Figure 5: A plant figure. Source: IbnBaytar, Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-agdiya. Sleymaniye Library, Ayasofya

Coll., MS 3748.

Foods and medicaments affect humanhealth in diverse ways:

Essential qualities: A food'sessential qualities (coldness, hotness,moistness, dryness) can affect theperson who eats it, and its effect willbe proportional to the degree of thesequalities. Examples of these havebeen given above.

Substance: Foods like meat and

bread are called absolute nutrients(mutlak gid), because they affect thehealth solely by their substances.Various organs of animals whose meatis eaten, and animal products such aseggs, milk, honey and cheese are alsoused in treatment as well as beingconsumed as food. The nutritionalstrength of these foods varies. Forexample, the nutritional strength ofundercooked eggs or meat stock ishigh, whereas that of most vegetablesand rosewater is low; that of apples is
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moderate.

Power (kuvvet, hsse, hsyet): This is the power of a foodstuff ormedicinal substance to produce a particular effect. If a substance takenalone functions as an analgesic, emetic, laxative, diuretic or sedative, itis described as a "medicament with a power unique to itself"; that is, ithas medicinal power. If the effect of such a substance (such as theMediterranean fan palm (Chamaerops humilis) is in harmony with thenature of human beings it is non-poisonous. However, if the effect of asubstance is against human nature, as in the case ofsevkern[1], for

example, it is described as having the "power of poison". Notwithstandingthat substances are effective through their qualities; it is their "powers"that prevail. For example, there is laxative power in the dried juiceobtained from scammony (Convolvulus scammonia) root and turpeth(Ipomoea turpethum) root. To give another example, the poison of theviper snake is hot and scorpion poison is cold, but it is not thesecharacteristics that do the killing; what is fatal is the "power of poison".

Amount: The effect of a substance varies according to the amount thatis taken. Some that do not have any effect the first time they are takenbecome effective when they are taken a second or third time, or whenthe amount is increased. Saffron (Crocus sativus), which is used as astimulant and appetizer, is an example of this. There also are foods thatbecome harmful as the amount is increased. For example, eating toomuch onion causes freckles on the face and vertigo.

8. Classification of Foods According to Digestion

Foods are also classified according to their being easily digested or not.

Gentle (ltif) Foods: Most of the "gentle" foods are digested with verylittle residual humour or other residual substances. The gentle foods alsoassist in expelling food residues. The consumption of gentle foods resultsin boiling and burning of the blood, and the production of additionalyellow bile. Most vegetables (especially radish and mustard), meat stock,egg yolk, liver, mutton and chickpea soup[2], young dove, sparrow,pickles (capers, onion, garlic, radish pickle with vinegar, beetroot pickle

with mustard etc) are gentle nutrients (although eating too much picklecauses aging and weakens the nerves). Because the "digestive power" ofpeople who get little exercise and the elderly is diminished, such peopleshould eat in moderation and choose mainly "gentle" foods. For example,instead of meat, they should eat soup made with meat stock.

Coarse (galz[3]) Foods: Coarse foods increase moistness andphlegm, so that the quantity of phlegm becomes excessive. Coarse foodsalso increase bodily strength and cause plumpness. These foods andbeverages should be consumed when very hungry and in moderateamounts so that they are well digested, because they cause indigestion.If a person suffers from congestion (sudde), such as constipation, as aresult of eating coarse food, they should eat gentle nutrients, which willunblock the congestion. Accordingly, if congestion occurs after eatingcoarse foods such as herse[4], sheep's trotters, unleavened bread orstarch halva[5], one should eat gentle nutrients such as capers[6],onion pickle, garlic pickle, radish with vinegar and beetroot pickle withmustard[7], followed by a drink ofsirkengebin[8], taking care to eat inmoderation.

Foods such as pure wheat bread, ripe fruits that have been hung onstrings for a few days and fully ripe figs give strength and plumpen thebody. When excessive fullness is felt it is necessary to "cleanse" thebody, that is, to empty the digestion system. Vomiting is a simple way ofcleansing the body. Alternatively the patient may eat less then usual fora few days, or drink a light laxative in moderate amounts. The following
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short receipt is for a medication used for the purpose of cleansing:

"11 dirhems[9]of mastic[10]; one small peeled turpeth root;1dirhem of ginger pounded, sieved and warmed with almond oil; and1dank[11]of sugar are taken and pounded together, sieved and eatenbefore going to bed at night. Drink warm water, either plain or mixedwith rosewater, and go to bed. A good result will be easily obtained bythe morning. For some people 2 dirhems of mastic with 2 dirhems ofsugar is sufficient."

9. Foods with Curative Properties (Gid-yi dev)

Large image

Figure 6: A painting of two seacreatures: stingray and cuttlefish. Source:

Ibn Baytar, Cmiu mufredat al-adviyawa'l-agdiya. Sleymaniye Library,

Ayasofya Coll., MS 3748.

Substances that are used solely asfoods are called gid-imutlak(absolute foods) and these arenon-poisonous nourishing nutrientssuch as meat and bread, which haveno medicinal effect. Those that areclassified as medicaments only anddescribed as semm (poison) arecalled dev'-i mutlak(absolutemedicaments).

Foods consumed for the protection ofhealth or treatment of disease arecalled dev-yi gidor gid-yidev(foods with curative properties).Some substances used both asmedicament (dev) and as a food orbeverage (gid) may be calleddev-igid-i z hassa or gid-yi dev-i zhassa (foods with particular curativepower). This category consists offoods with a curative effect orsubstances that are employedprimarily for curative purposes butalso used as food. For a substance to

be classified as a gid-yi devit mustbe effective both in its quality and inits substance. Such substances arenon-poisonous (n-zehr).

Foods such as kesk-i c, a type of blancmange made with barley flourand ewe's milk; and scariole[12]that possess both medicinal andnutritive characteristics, provide relief by their cold quality (brdet) onone hand and serve as foods on the other. Physicians prescribe suchfoods and beverages to their patients.

Vegetables and fruits are curative foods. For example, figs, fully ripegrapes and dates are more curative in their nature and so should beeaten sparingly. Those who wish to protect their health should avoid adiet consisting solely of fruit and vegetables because these are foods withcurative properties.

10. Examples of Treatment with Foods: Birds and Fish Used in Treatment
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Large image

Figure 7: Makers of the sweet (halva)

"ma'muniyya" for the adynamia(Surnme-i Hmayun, year 1582).

Topkapi Palace Museum Library, MSH1344.). Source: Turkish Medical

History through Miniature PicturesExhibition, published by Nil Sari-lker

Erke, Istanbul: ISHIM, 2002.

The seventeenth century Turkishwriter Evliya elebi relates that themeat of various birds was given topatients as dietary food at the FatihSultan Mehmet Han Mental Hospitaland at the Bayezid Hospital in Edirne:" various delicious dishes areprepared for the patients twice a day.The endowment deed for thefoundation includes the instruction, if

partridges and pheasants are notavailable, nightingales, sparrows andpigeons should be cooked and givento the patients'"

Birds were used as invalid food andfor the treatment of diseases. Themeat or fat was applied externally tocure wounds and taken internally forthe treatment of diseases of themuscles and nervous system and forenhancing virility. Each species of birdwas thought to have an effect of itsown. For example, duck meat was

said to cure hoarseness of the voice,eliminate flatulence, increase virility,and fatten and strengthen the body;while benefits such as relieving deeppain are ascribed to the fat. It is alsostated that duck fat cleanses andbeautifies the skin. Birds were

sometimes cooked with spices and medicinal herbs. For example, goosewas cooked with vinegar and spices; biryn[13]was cooked with oliveoil and then stuffed with onions and a couple of garlic cloves added; oralternatively cooked like isfidbc[14], with the addition of chickpeas,white whorehound[15]and cinnamon. The addition of carrots andrue[16]was considered very beneficial.

Stock made from young chicken, hen or rooster is both nutritious in itssubstance and a medicament, while the brain, testicles and excrementare medicaments. It is said that the best roosters are those that have notyet started crowing and the best hens those that have not yet laid eggs.We find diverse recipes for cooking chicken to obtain the required effects.For example, if a chicken is stuffed with misk apples[17]or quince andthen roasted, it is very nutritious. Drinking stock prepared by cooking arooster with ample water and adding polyploidy[18]is a laxative. Recipesare given for dishes to treat certain diseases. For example, for thetreatment of lumbago the following dish is prescribed: "Take a roosterand add 20 dirhems of pounded safflower[19]seed, 15 dirhems ofpolypody, a pinch each of dill[20], fennel seed[21], cumin andcarnation, and some chickpeas. Make the dish slightly more salty thanusual. When well cooked strain and drink the juice as soup. Cooked garlicis a cure for flatulence."

Various fish species, including the goby, turbot, eel, carp, sea bass, pike,red mullet, plaice, bluefish, bream, picarel, grey mullet, sole, two-bandedbream, bonito, mackerel and trout, and also the dolphin, are describedas curative by medical authors. The benefit of feeding patients with redmullet, goby and scorpion fish is particularly emphasised. There isextensive information in medical books about which fish are best, wherethey are caught, how to cook them, and with which foods they shouldand should not be eaten.

Since fish are cold by nature they calm the hot humours and thereby
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have a beneficial effect in cases of diseases of a hot nature. For example,they are good for a dry cough, jaundice, debility, dysentery andfissurations. Fish eggs improve virility and are good for coughs anddysentery. Medications prepared with fish are used in the treatment ofvarious diseases such as chronic furuncles, warts, poisonous stings suchas scorpion stings, bites by rabid dogs, swellings in the anus, high fever,malaria, deafness, hard lumps on the uvula, psoriasis and jaundice.Medical writers explain which cooking and preparation methods are to beused for the treatment of which diseases. In other words, fish recipes areused for healthy nutrition and for protection from and treatment of

disease. Here are some examples of medications containing fish and fishdishes taken from medical manuscripts:

Fish poultice: This medicament is made with scorched fish and appliedto swellings in the anus. It is also applied to bites from rabid dogs orstings by poisonous animals such as scorpions.

Scorched fish head: The head of a salted fish is scorched and the ashessprinkled on furuncles and warts.

Burnt fishbone: The ashes of burnt fishbone are beneficial for psoriasis.


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[6] Gemmae capparidis. Buds of the Capparis spinos plant used to makeickles. They are congestive and strengthening.

[7] Mustard enhances the appetite. Table mustard is made of seeds ofthe black (Brassica nigra) and white (Sinapis alba) mustard plants.

[8] Oxymel. A drink made of honey and vinegar.

[9] Dirhem: approximately 3.32 grams.

[10] Resin of the mastic tree, Pistacia lentiscus var. latifolius.

[11] Dank: a measurement that varies over place and time, beingequivalent to one sixth or sometimes one quarter of a dirhem.

[12] Prickly lettuce, Lactuca scariola, or possibly chicory Cichorumintybus.

[13] Biryan: meat that is first braised with no or little water and thenroasted. In regional Turkish cuisine this dish is called pren (biryn) andcooked in a pit oven.

[14] Isfidbac: an ancient Arab dish for which meat is first cooked with tailfat, chickpeas, onion, coriander, dill and almond milk, and then eggyolks, cumin and cinnamon are added. This dish is recorded in inOttoman Turkish cuisine in the sixteenth century.

[15] Marrubium vulgare.

[16] Ruta graveolens.

[17] Misk or misket apple: a fragrant variety of apple.

[18] Polypodium vulgare.

[19] Carthamus tinctorius. Medicaments are prepared from the seeds,which have a laxative effect. The flowers are sometimes added to food.

[20]Anethum graveolens. An infusion of the fruits of this plant is usedfor flatulence and to aid digestion. The aromatic leaves are used as aculinary herb.

[21] Fennel is used to relieve gastric complaints and flatulence.

[22] Citrullus colocynthis.

* Professor Nil Sari, Ph. D., from Istanbul University Cerrahpasa Medicine

Faculty, Department of Deontology and History of Medicine, is a worldexpert scholar in the history of medicine, Islamic medicine and cultureand Ottoman science and medicine. Professor Sari is also a key FSTCassociate. This article was first published in "Turk Mutfagi (TurkishCuisine)", edited by Arif Bilgin-Ozge Samanci, Ankara: Kultur ve TurizmBakanligi Yayinlari, 2008. We are grateful to Professor Nil Sari, author ofthe article and, for allowing publication. The article was translated fromTurkish by Mary Isin.

by: FSTC Limited, Thu 08 January, 2009
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Food as Medicine in Muslim Civilization (Continued)

Previous|1|2

Large image

Figure 8: Makers of a sweet called"halva" (Surnme-i Hmayun, year

1582). Topkapi Palace Museum Library,H. 1344.). Source: Turkish Medical

History through Miniature PicturesExhibition, published by Nil Sari-lker

Erke, Istanbul: ISHIM, 2002.

11. A Balanced Diet for PreservingHealth

Balancing the diet forms one of theleading branches of traditionalmedicine, which treats this subjectwithin the framework of the humoral

theory. The concept of balancednutrition to give protection againstdisease and as a method of treatmentis defined by theword mu'tedil(moderate). Medicalbooks discuss how to guard againstpossible harmful effects on thedigestion of eating and drinking freelyby means of eating a food with thequalities of an antidote. For example,the harm done by foods like fruit andvegetables that possess curativeproperties can be avoided byconsuming foods with the opposite

qualities. If vegetables with coldqualities such as cucumber, squash orlettuce are eaten, the balance isredressed by eating some garlic, leek,white whorehound[23]or mint as aprecaution against any possible harmthat might be caused. Eating unripegrapes, sumac, thyme, pepper orginger together with fish, which is acold food; and after the fish eating

sweets such as ginger murabb[24], honey, halva or rose jam, whichare hot, is suggested as a precautionary measure. Drinking lemon andhoney sherbet[25], sour lemon sherbet or sarab-i mselles[26]withfish helps its digestion and prevents adverse effects. If a hot food such as

garlic, white horehound, onion or the like is eaten, its effects are offsetby cucumber, fresh purslane[27], lettuce, squash or sour sherbets.However, eating a diversity of foods with opposing qualities at the samemeal is itself harmful.

If a food has the property of obstructing the channels in the body, foodswith the property of dissolving and expelling food and beverages areadded to the diet. For example, woodcock meat is constipating and toavoid this harmful effect woodcock meat should be eaten with unripegrapes and lemon juice.

If coarse (galz) foods such as keskek, sheep's trotters or starch halva
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are eaten, gentle foods such as pickled capers, pickled onions, pickledgarlic, radish with vinegar, beetroot pickle with mustard or oxymelshould be eaten together with them.

Moist and mildly flavoured foods such as squash and cucumber should beeaten following foods that are salty or have a sharp flavour, such aspickles and spices. Salty foods are harmful for the eyes.

A meal should consist of foods belonging to certain categories followingin a specific order. According to these principles, "delicate, gentle andwatery foods" should be eaten first. So, for example, soup is taken first,followed by tirid[28], meat and other foods. The failure to digest breadis more harmful than it is for meat.

Following physical exertion or hard work the body becomes heated andat such times delicate (nazik) foods such as milk, fresh fish, wildapricots, peaches and melons should be avoided. This is because foodsentering the stomach when it is heated are corrupted, and thesecorrupted foods then disrupt the humours.

12. Food Combinations to Avoid Harm

Certain foods are thought to be harmful if eaten together. Ottoman

medical writers give the following advice on this subject:

Dishes made with yoghurt and unripe grapes should not be eatentogether.

Plums, wild apricots, peaches and sour pomegranates should notbe eaten one after another.

Dishes with vinegar should not be eaten together with dishescontaining unripe grapes, salt fish or dried meat.

Rice should not be eaten with vinegar. Young pigeon should not be eaten with garlic, onion and

mustard. If these three foods are eaten together with youngpigeon they boil the blood, which causes skin problems.

Chicken should not be cooked with yoghurt. Chicken should not be eaten together with fish. Chicken together with sour foods should be eaten in moderation.

These cause abdominal pain when eaten in large quantities. Iced water should not be drunk after fruit. Honey should not be eaten together with the honeycomb. Onion should not be eaten together with garlic. Drinking milk and wine on the same day causes gout. Fresh fish, milk, milk foods, fresh cheese and eggs should not be

eaten together. Among the foods that should not be eaten withfish, eggs come first. It is even claimed that death may resultfrom neglecting this dietary rule.

One should not drink water after eating fish, but patiently put upwith being thirsty.

One should not eat yoghurt with fish. Eating meat, especially the meat of land animals, together with

fish is very harmful and the cause of chronic disease.

13. Dietary Rules according to Temperament
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Large image

Figure 9: Soup cooks. (Album, Topkapi

Palace Museum Library, Ahmed IIICollection, MS 3690). Source: TurkishMedical History through Miniature

Pictures Exhibition, published by NilSari-lker Erke, Istanbul: ISHIM, 2002.

Each individual should eat inaccordance with their owntemperament.

When people have a balancedtemperament and are therefore ingood health their diet should consistof the following: meat, in particularlamb, veal or goat's meat; wheat; anappropriate sweetmeat; a fragrant

and pure beverage. Foods apart fromthese serve to protect the health ortreat diseases. Dishes such as thosemade with vegetables that do notsatisfy the appetite for long should beeaten less often in winter and moreoften in summer.

People with a hot temperament shouldtake food and beverages that are lightand of a cold quality. In the morningsthese people should eat one or twomorsels of bread soaked in a soursherbet made of pomegranate, sourgrape, sour apple or lemon juice, anddrink a sour sherbet of this kind.Dishes such as sour sherbet, stewwith unripe grapes, stew with plums,stew of lentils with vinegar, or

marrow kalye[29]are proper nutrients for a person with a hotdisposition. Due to its cold quality fish calms hot humours and istherefore beneficial for people with hot temperaments. If a person with ahot temperament eats fish they should drink oxymel or some vinegar. Ifa person whose stomach is very hot eats late it will cause a headache. Aperson who gets "hot" after meals should be careful not to eat fast andshould divide the meal into two small meals.

A person who is phlegmatic, that is, has a moist and cold temperamentshould eat gentle and hot foods; for example, mutton and chickpea soup,young pigeon, sparrow, and hot herbs such as mastic, cinnamon andcumin. Plump people with a moist temperament should eat red meatfried in walnut oil or olive oil, and seasoned with cumin, cinnamon andgarlic. One dirhem of pounded black peppercorns tied in a piece of muslinand cooked with chickpea soup lends strength to the dish. Because fishhave a cold and moist quality and increase phlegm, they are harmful forthose with a cold temperament and those with phlegm in the stomach.An excess of phlegm is harmful for the nerves and brain, causinglumbago, apoplexy and paralysis. To expel this harmful phlegm from thebody, laxative herbs, hot water or honey with vinegar should be taken.

People with a cold and dry melancholic temperament should eat moist

foods and avoid dry foods such as millet, lentils, dried meat and saltyfoods. For example, salt fish seasoned in vinegar, a dry and coldfoodstuff, prevents the building up of yellow bile in the stomach, whichcauses indigestion and an increase of black bile, resulting in furunclesand itching.

People with a choleric temperament and dry nature should eat cold andmoist foods; for example, noodles, spinach cooked with rice and meat.Foods like salt fish, which is hot and dry, should be avoided since thepower of the salt causes an increase in yellow bile.

14. Adjusting Diet According to the Season
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Large image

Figure 10: The Palace head coffee maker(Album, Topkapi Palace Museum

Library, Ahmed III Collection, MS3690). Source:Turkish Medical Historythrough Miniature Pictures Exhibition,

published by Nil Sari-lker Erke,Istanbul: ISHIM, 2002.

Foods are closely related to theseasons, because the seasons affectthe density of the humours.Therefore, diet should also beadjusted according to the season.

The nature of spring is hot and moist.So cold and dry foods should be eatenin ample amounts in the mornings andevenings as these prevent the blood

from being corrupted. Very sweetfoods that have bad effects on theblood should be avoided. Duringspring, foods such as meat andsherbet should be consumed.

The nature of summer is hot and dry.Because yellow bile increases insummer, foods that activate orproduce yellow bile should not beeaten; while foods that cause thebody to become cold and moist shouldbe consumed in ample amounts. Sourfoods and beverages are veryappropriate for summer. Foods thatdecrease yellow bile, such as fruits,the juice of pomegranates, unripegrapes, lemons, roses and apples;cold vegetables like cucumbers,marrow and purslane, and dishes or

soups flavoured with vinegar and other sour ingredients are beneficial.Foods preserved in brine, and those that are salty, spiced or have astrong flavour should be avoided in summer.

In autumn blood decreases and black bile increases. The temperament ofthis season is cold and dry. Therefore during this season one shouldavoid dry and salty food, instead eating foods that are hot and moist.

During winter phlegm increases and therefore one should avoid foodsand beverages that increase this humour. The nature of this season iscold and wet, so it is appropriate to eat hot and dry foods during winter;for example, dishes cooked with garlic, onion or spices such as pepperand ginger; roast meat (kebab) and sweetmeats. Cold yahni[30]shouldbe avoided in the winter. Dishes should be consumed hot in winter, andcold or warm in summer. At the same time foods and beverages shouldnot be either excessively cold or excessively hot.

There is a list of dishes to be eaten according to the season in adocument (D.9599) in the Topkapi Palace archive. In this document thedishes are listed by the season, taking into account the humoral theorythat forms the basis of classical Ottoman medicine. For example, insummer, sour food and beverages, fruits and vegetables predominateand spices are avoided, as prescribed for people with a hot disposition;whereas in winter, coarse foods such as kebabs and sweets, and dishesseasoned with spices are recommended. The dishes consumedthroughout the four seasons, such as pilaf with meat and chicken kebab,are those classified as "moderate", and do not upset the humoralbalance. The document is entitled "an account of foods appropriate forthe four seasons". Below are some examples of daily menusrecommended for the summer months:

Summer Season: Additional light soups should be cooked from thebeginning of summer to the end and hot plants (spices) should beavoided.
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Friday: Fried pilaf with meat[31], sour grape soup, stuffed aubergine,barberry[32]soup, plain chicken soup without rice, chicken kebab.

Saturday: Rice cooked with milk, marrow burani[33]with unripegrapes[34], lemon soup, chicken soup with lemon juice, chicken kebab.

Sunday: Vegetable pilaf, kalye with Swiss chard, stuffed marrow withunripe grapes, chicken soup with sour pomegranate juice, and chickenkebab.

Monday: Pilaf, sumac[35]soup, fried marrow, meat kalye with lemonuice, plain chicken soup, chicken kebab.

Tuesday: Pilaf, marrow cooked with unripe grapes,pide[36]withmarrow filling, rice cooked with sour juice[37], chicken soup, chickenkebab.

Wednesday: Rice cooked with milk, fried aubergine with meat, bozcasoup[38], mint soup, chicken soup with lemon juice and eggs, chickenkebab.

Thursday: Soft boiled rice, fried marrow, tutmac[39]with sour juice,

white soup[40]with sour pomegranate juice, chicken kalye withchickpeas and onion, chicken kebab.

From time to time these seasonal dishes may be replaced by thefollowing dishes:

Noodle soup, umac soup[41], sour almond soup, sour soups, kalye withsour juice, hekim asi[42].

15. Meal Times and Amounts

Large image

Figure 11: A parade of syrup makers.(Surnme-i Hmayun, year 1582).

Topkapi Palace Museum Library, MSH1344.). Source:Turkish Medical History

through Miniature Pictures Exhibition,published by Nil Sari-lker Erke,

Istanbul: ISHIM, 2002.

There is nothing so harmful asbecoming excessively hungry or

eating to excess. Meals should not beeaten before one is really hungry, nordelayed for long after one is reallyhungry. If the appetite is not fulfilled,the stomach becomes upset and filledwith unwholesome (fsid) humours.When there is true hunger, one shouldnot delay eating. The meal should beeaten with a "loyal appetite" (sdikistih), that is, a real appetite, butone should stop eating before theappetite is entirely satiated. It isbetter to eat quickly and leave thetable rather than sit all through the

repast eating continuously andunnecessarily. Because when a repastis protracted, the food eaten earlier isdigested, but that eaten later is not,giving rise to disorders. One shouldnot eat too soon after a repast, butwait until the previous meal has beendigested, to avoid harmful effects. Ifone is obliged to eat, then one shouldlie down and rest for a while aftereating, and then do slow but plentifulexercises. To help digestion oneshould take some cvris[43]asappropriate to the temperament.
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Over-eating brings about accumulation of blood and satiation. Excessiveconsumption of either food or beverages is very harmful and could evencause death from congestion.

Preferably meals should be arranged as follows: three times every twodays; that is, morning and evening meals on one day and lunch on thesecond day. However, a person who is in the habit of eating twice a daybecomes weak if they start to eat once a day. And if a person in the habitof eating once a day then starts eating twice a day, they become weakand suffer from indigestion and distension of the stomach.

16. Importance Attached to Food Preparation and to the Cook

Information about the preparation of food to be used in protectingagainst and treating diseases is found in books called mfredt(materiamedica) and mrekkebt(compound medicines) consisting of receipts fordrugs and medicaments, as well as in general medical works. The subjectof which cooking methods and ingredients should be used to make a dishhealthier is regarded as an integral part of medical science. This can beillustrated by the following example recommending that fish be cooked invegetable oils of various kinds: "[fish] should be cooked in walnut oil orolive oil, and should be served sprinkled with pepper; or it should becooked in sesame oil, walnut and almond oil. This latter method provides

special protection against the harmful effects of fish". In anotherexample "grilling fish with unripe grape and sumac" is described as "themost appropriate cooking method" and "better" than frying in oil.

It was essential that the person who prepared the food and beverages socrucial to human health be an expert. When the close relationshipbetween food and health in Ottoman medicine is considered theimportant role of the cook in the treatment of patients can beunderstood. For example, the person appointed as tabbah(cook) to ahospital prepared not only food for the patients but also syrups andmedicaments known as matbht[44], always following recipes andformula prescribed by the physician "according to the temperament ofthe patients". The importance given to nutrition in the treatment ofpatients is clearly evident in the endowment deeds of hospitals. For

example, the endowment deed for the Fatih Sultan Mehmed foundation(vakif) specifies that "two fine upstanding cooks" be appointed to preparemeals for the patients in the hospital. These two cooks must "work hardto lighten the wretched wounded hearts of the patients; cook food tonourish the life force of these suffering people whose skins are as sallowas an autumn leaf, who are afflicted by so many troubles, debilitated bydiverse ailments, in need of compassion, in despair of a cure." Theirwages were three ake a day.

Evliya elebi writes that in the Hospital of Bayezid II in Edirne deliciousdishes were distributed from the kitchen to every patient, whether theirillness be mental or physicial, and each dish was prepared in accordancewith their individual needs. In the endowment deed of the hospital it isemphasised that the cooks prepare diet food in accordance with the

instructions of the physicians: "Two capable, clean, honest, uprightmaster cooks shall do their utmost to cook whatever dishes thephysicians may prescribe according to the malady of each patient in themental hospital kitchen; and to carry out all the duties which by customare their responsibility quickly and in a cleanly manner."

At the Sleymaniye Hospital we find that four master cooks are to beemployed; two responsible for beverages and two for food. It is specifiedin the endowment deed that the two "beverage cooks" (tabbh-i ashrba)be people "accomplished and expert, whose skill at cooking syrups hasbeen clearly demonstrated, and who will serve unceasingly with completededication, endeavour and perseverence." Meanwhile the two "foodcooks" (tabbh-i at'ima) must be people "whose understanding and
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knowledge of cooking food is complete in every way" and they areexpected to "prepare diet dishes and other foods in accordance with theinstructions given by the physician to suit the dispositions, temperamentsand maladies of the patients, and make sure that the flavour and otherattributes of the food they cook is as it should be."

The conditions laid down for the two cooks to be appointed to the AtikValide Hospital were as follows: "they shall cook foods appropriate for thepatients such that a clever master physician may place trust andconfidence in them, and they shall be diligent and take great pains that

the food they cook shall arouse the appetite of the patients."

The Halvahane (Halva Kitchen) at Topkapi Palace is of particular note inillustrating the importance attached to the kitchen and the cook withrespect to health. As well as preparing sweet dishes of all kinds for thetable the Halvahane was also a dispensary where medicines in the formof tissanes, preserves, sherbets and macun (a type of electuary, having asoft texture and sweetened with honey or sugar) were prepared. A bookkept by the Halvahane cooks discovered by Nasid Baylav and translatedby him into modern Turkish contains numerous receipts formedicines[45].

Palace physicians used food and beverages to protect the health and

treat the medical disorders of members of the palace household. A reportby the chief physician dated 10 February 1326 (23 February 1911)preserved in a Treasury Register shows clearly how physicians attachedimportance to cooking as an integral part of medical care right up to theend of the Ottoman period:

"Herewith it is strictly commanded that as a medical necessity specialcare shall be given to cooking the chicken and lamb cutlets for the tableof her ladyship the first favourite, that chicken cooked in various waysshall be provided every day, and that similar care shall be taken whencooking cutlets and other dishes for her."

17. Prescriptions for Foods and Beverages Written by Physicians for AilingMembers of the Palace Household

Ottoman physicians prescribed particular foods and beverages as part oftheir treatment. However, I had never seen any surviving medicalprescriptions of this kind written for particular patients until someexamples were discovered in a Treasury register. These prescriptionswritten by the chief physician and other physicians used such phrases as"by medical necessity", "with regard to his/her ailment", "as appropriatefor health", "in accordance with medical requirements" and "as medicalscience requires" to explain the diet specified. These documents showhow seriously the relationship between food and medicine was regardedin Ottoman medical practice. We can assume that similar documents ofan earlier date remain to be discovered. Examples of such prescriptionsin the form of medical reports to the palace authorities given belowreveal that preventive and clinical medicine continued to attachimportance to food and beverages until the early 20th century. Sincetraditional medicine had already been superseded by European medicinein both medical training and practice, it is conceivable that traditionalapproaches to diet had been observed to produce favourable results.Below are some examples from the first page of the register containingdietary prescriptions written for members of the palace household forcurative or preventive purposes:

"This report herewith submitted prescribes as a medical requirement abowl of yogurt per day for her lady chief clerk of the Harem. 2 March ofthe year 327 (15 March 1911). Chief Physician."
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"This report prescribes that Peyvend kalfa of the Harem Laundry Officebe given chicken and soup for five days in accordance with the dictates ofmedical science. 19 March of the year 327 (1 April 1911). Evlamyus."

"This report prescribes that as appropriate for her ailment Bedrsafa kalfashall be given mutton chops and apple compote every day until a secondreport shall be submitted. 27 March of the year 327 (9 April 1911).Nizameddin."

"This report herewith submitted prescribes that for medical reasons themeal on the table of Her Highness the mother of His Highness PrinceNazim shall consist of well cooked cutlets, and sometimes grilledmeatballs and occasionally fried meat, and that sometimes milk puddingand pasta shall be provided. 29 March of the year 327 (11 April 1911).Head-physician."

"This report herewith submitted prescribes that Nevin kalfa of the HaremTreasury Office be given noodle soup made with chicken stock, mallowand okra every morning and evening for a week. 11 April of the year 327(24 April 1911). Nazif."

"This report has herewith been written concerning the illness of NevinKalfa of the Harem Treasury Office, prescribing that boiled chicken and

two cutlets be added to her meals on alternate days for the period of aweek. 14 April of the year 327 (27 Nisan 1911). Nazif"

"This report prescribes that with respect to the illness of the honorableNevin of the Harem Treasury Office she shall be served as formerly withchicken and cutlets on alternate days, together with artichokes cookedwith minced meat in meat stock, marrow kalye and stuffed marrow to beserved in turn, instead of soup and okra and milk pudding. 20 April 327(3 May 1911). Nazif."

"This report prescribes that on medical grounds the honorable chief clarkshall be given four fresh eggs every day for a month. 2 May 1327 (15May 1911). Ahmed"

"This report herewith prescribes that as a medical requirement BesimAga, gentleman-in-waiting, shall be given soup, cutlets, marrow and okrafor three days on account of his illness. 21 June 327 (4 July 1911)."

18. From Today's Perspective

Physicians writing in the Ottoman period used to compile informationtaken from various medical books, sometimes adding their ownexperiences to those recorded by earlier physicians. This meant thatwhile the effects of a particular substance were repeated in manysources, sometimes quite different effects were attributed to the samesubstance. It is difficult to determine whether such information was newknowledge first recorded by the writer. However, the use of food inpreventive and clinical medicine is a common approach to all theseworks. Similarly use of the humoral theory to determine thetemperament of patients, their ailments and appropriate medication, andin explaining diagnosis and treatment was also common to all physicians.

As can be seen, most of the methods of treatment by means of foodsand beverages that I have illustrated here with examples from Ottomanperiod medical books differ considerably from recipes to which we areaccustomed today. Nevertheless there are some similarities between thisinformation and modern culinary practices in Turkey today. For example,fish is still cooked with sour ingredients like unripe grapes, vinegar orlemon; we still eat a sweet course after fish, usually halva; and we stillavoid eating yogurt with fish. Such customs, whose origin we rarely stop
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to consider, are relics of traditional medicine that survive in our gustatorytastes.

19. Sources

Manuscripts

Emir elebi (Seyyid Mehmed et-Tabb es-Sehr bi-Emirelebi):Anmzaj al- Tibb (1625). Istanbul University Cerrahpasa

Faculty of Medicine Medical History Museum, no. 96. Ibn Baytar (Ebu Mehmed Abdullah b. Ahmed Ziyaeddin): Kitab

Al-Jmi' al-Mufradt alAdwiya wa al-Agdiye. Trans. Abdurrahmanb. Yusuf: Tarjamat al-Mufradt. Sleymaniye Library, Kili AliPasa, no. 716/4.

Ibn Baytar (Ebu Mehmed Abdullah b. Ahmed Ziyaeddin): KitabAl-Jmi' al-Mufradt alAdwiya wa al-Agdiye. Trans. HezarfenHseyin Efendi: Tarjamat al-Mufradt(17th century),Sleymaniye Library, Lala Ismail, no. 389/9, Hamidiye, no. 1016and Ayasofya 3745.

Ibn Sina (Ebu Ali el-Hseyin b. Abdullah): al-Qnn f Al-tibb.Trans. Mustafa b. Ahmed b. Hseyin el-Tokad: Tabhz al-Mathn(18th century), Sleymaniye Library, Hamidiye, no. 1015.

Ibn-i Serif: Ydigr f al-Tibb (15th century), Istanbul UniversityCerrahpasa Medical History Museum Library, no. 155 and 311.

Isa Efendi b. Ali el-Sakiz: Mufradat Isa Efendi f Al-Tibb (17thcentury), Sleymaniye Library, Hekimoglu no. 567 and YeniCamii no. 1174; Istanbul University Cerrahpasa Faculty ofMedicine Medical History Museum Library, no. 580.

Kitb min al-Tibb f al-Ahkm al-Kulliyt wa al-Adviyt al-Mufradt.Sleymaniye Library, Ayasofya no. 3748.

Mehmed M'min et-Tankabuni (1669): Tuhfat al-Mumnn. Trans.Ahmed Sn b. Hseyin b. Hasan: Gunyat al-Muhassiln fTarjamat Tuhfat al-Mumnn (1733). Sleymaniye Library, Fatih,no. 3589; Istanbul University Cerrahpasa Faculty of MedicineMedical History Museum Library, no. 359, 562.

Nida: Manf' Al-ns. Istanbul University Cerrahpasa Faculty ofMedicine Medical History Museum Library no. 52 and 65.

Siyah (el-Karaman min Beled-i Larend Dervis Siyahi): LugatMushkilt-i Ajz (17th century), Istanbul University CerrahpasaFaculty of Medicine Medical History Museum Library no. 19/2 and413.

Sur: Ta'dil al-Amzija. Istanbul University Cerrahpasa Faculty ofMedicine Medical History Museum Library no., 279.

Tabiatnma (Translated from Persian, 14th century): In this workthe relation between nutrition and health is examined under theheadings, Bread, Water, Meat, Vegetables, Spices, Sweets andFruits. The facsimile edition published by Prof. Dr. Ismail HikmetErtaylan has been used.

An old medical book on cooking in the Millet Library (Ali EmiriLibrary) Mteferrik No. 143 is a valuable source for our food

history. It contains many recipes for meat and vegetable dishes,sweet dishes and sherbets, and specifies their effects on health. Zeynel Abidin b.Halil: Shifa al-Fuad, Istanbul University

Cerrahpasa Faculty of Medicine Medical History and DeontologyScience Branch Library, no. 35.

Archive Documents

Prime Minister Ottoman Archive,: Hatt-i Humayun Defteri, nr.30686.

"Fusl-i erbaya mnsib gidlarin beyn edildigi defter":Topkapi Palace Archive No. D. 9599. The document lists dishes tobe served during the four seasons of the year to the employees
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of the palace. The archivists date the document to the sixteenthcentury.

Printed Works

Adivar, A. Adnan: Osmanli Trklerinde Ilim. Remzi, Istanbul1970.

Barkan, .L.: "Sehirlerin Tesekkl ve Inkisafi Tarihi BakimindanOsmanli Imparatorlugunda Imaret Sitelerinin Kurulus ve Isleyis

Tarzina Ait Arastirmalar." Istanbul niversitesi Iktisat FakltesiMecmuasi, October 1962- February 1963, No. 1-2. pp. 239-296. Barkan, .L.: "Fatih Cami ve Imareti Tesislerinin 1489-1490

Yillarina Ait Muhasebe Bilanolari" Istanbul niversitesi IktisatFakltesi Mecmuasi, October 1962- February 1963, No. I-2, pp.297-341.

Barkan, .L.: "Saray Mutfaginin 894-895 (1489-1490) Yilina AitMuhasebe Bilanosu". Istanbul niversitesi Iktisat FakltesiMecmuasi, October 1962- February 1963, pp. 380-398.

Barkan, .L.: "Istanbul Saraylarina Ait MuhasebeDefterleri",Belgeler, Trk Tarih Kurumu, No. 13, vol. IX. Ankara,1979.

Browne, E.G.: Arabian Medicine. Cambridge University Press,London, 1962.

Dramur, Rengin: "Helvahane'de Macun Imal Iin KullanilanEczanin Temini". Tip Dnyasi, v. 59, No. 3, May-June 1986, pp.44-60.

Gruner, O. C.: The Canon of Medicine of Avicenna Incorporating aTranslation of the First Book. Augustus M. Kelley, New York,1970.

Halici, Feyzi:Ali Esref Dede'nin Yemek Risalesi. Atatrk Kltr Dilve Tarih Yksek Kurumu, Atatrk Kltr Merkezi, Ankara, 1992.

Ibrahim Hakki, Erzurum Hasankaleli: Marifetname. vol.3, 2nd ed.Put into modern Turkish by Turgut Ulusoy, Ahmed Said, Istanbul,1975.

Kagiti, M.A.: Besin Kilavuzu. Istanbul, 1949. Khya, E. (tr): Ibn-i Sina El-Knn fi't-Tibb. Book 1. Atatrk

Kltr Merkezi Baskanligi, Ankara, 1995. Khya, E. (tr.): El-Knn fi't-Tibb Ibn-i Sina. Book 2. AtatrkKltr Merkezi Baskanligi, Ankara, 2003.

Ktkoglu, S. M.: "1009 (1600) Tarihli Narh Defterlerine GreIstanbul'da esitli Esya ve Hizmet Fiyatlari." Tarih EnstitsDergisi, No. 9, Istanbul 1978.

Mehmet Kmil: Melce-i Tabbhn. sir Ef. Matbaasi, 1275/1859. Osman Hayri Mrsid b. Halil Tarsus: Kenz's-Sihhat'l-Ebdaniye

Eser-i Mrsid-i Osmaniye. Matbaa-i Osmaniye, Istanbul,1298/1881.

zden, M.A.: "Ibn Sina Tibbina Bir Bakis" Byk Trk Filozof veTib stadi Ibni Sina Sahsiyeti ve Eserleri Hakkinda Tetkikler."Trk Tarih Kurumu, Series: VII, No. 1, Istanbul, 1937.

Philosophy of Medicine and Science. Problems and Perspectives.Compiled by Department of Philosophy of Medicine and Science.Institute of History of Medicine and Medical Research, New Delhi1962.

Sari, Nil: "Osmanli Palace'nda Yemeklerin Mevsimlere GreDzenlenmesi ve Devrin Tababetiyle Iliskisi". Offprint from TrkMutfagi Sempozyumu Bildirileri 31 Ekim-1 Kasim 1981, Ankara,1982, pp. 245-257.

Sari, Nil: "Osmanlilarda Yeme Adetlerinin Klasik Devir Tip Anlayisiile Iliskisi". Catering Gourmet, Rnesans, Istanbul, 1987, pp. 22-30.

Sari, Nil: "Trk Tip Tarihinde Yemek ile Tip Arasindaki Iliskiye Aitrnekler (The Relation Between Food and Medicine in TurkishMedical History)". 2nd International Food Congress Turkey (3-10


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September 1988), Konya Kltr ve Turizm Vakfi, Ankara, 1989,pp. 392-402.

Sari, Nil, M. Bedizel Zlfikar (Aydin): "Beslenme ile SaglikArasinda Kurulan Iliski ve Tabiatnme". Bursa Tip Tarihi GnleriSempozyumu (14-15 Mayis 1992) Konferans ve Bildiri zetleri,Trk Tip Tarihi Kurumu ve Uludag ni. Tip Fakltesi Tip Tarihi veDeontoloji Anabilim Dali, Istanbul, 1992, pp. 26.

Sari N, B. Zlfikar: "Islam Tibbindan Osmanli Tibbina KuslarlaTedavi". IV. Milletlerarasi Yemek Kongresi (3-6 Eyll l992, Konya)Bildirileri. Konya Kltr ve Turizm Vakfi, 1993, pp. 259-27l.

Sari N, M. B. Aydin: "Osmanli Tip Yazmalarinda Balik Pisirme veMeal Tarifleri. V. Milletlerarasi Yemek Kongresi (1-3 Eyll l994,

Ankara) Bildirileri, Atatrk Kltr Merkezi Baskanligi, 1994, pp.250-256.

Sari N, B. Aydin: "Tip Yazmalarinda Balikla Tedavi". Tarih veMedeniyet1995, No. 22, pp. 57-60.

Sari N: "Osmanli Darssifalarina Tayin Edilecek GrevlilerdeAranan Nitelikler." Yeni Tip Tarihi Arastirmalari, No. 1, Istanbul,1995, pp. 11-54.

Sari N, B. Aydin: "Kuslarla Tedavi". Tarih ve Medeniyet, 1996,No. 23, pp. 64-68.

Sari N, R. Tug: "Enderun-i Hmayun Kilr-i Hassa BaskullukusuDervis Mehmed'in (1764/5-1840) Dhn Terkiplerine Ait

Risalesi".IV.Trk Eczacilik Tarihi Toplantisi (4-5 Haziran l998)

Bildirileri. Ed: E. Dlen. Marmara niversitesi Eczacilik Fakltesi,2000, pp. 238-297.

Shah, H. M.: The General Principles of Avicenna's Canon ofMedicine. Naveed Clinic, Karachi 1966.

Terzioglu, Arslan: Helvahane Defteri ve Topkapi Sarayi'ndaEczacilik (Eine Bisher Unbekannte Arzneien Im Topkapi-Schloss inIstanbul Und Ihre Bedeutung Fur Die Geschichte Der Pharmazie),Arkeoloji ve Sanat, Istanbul, 1992.

Theories and Philosophies of Medicine. Compiled by Philosophy ofMedicine and Science, Institute of History of Medicine andMedical Research, Tughlaqabad, New Delhi, 1973 No. 62.

Ycel, Hasan Ali: Bir Trk Hekimi ve Tibba Dair Manzum Bir Eser.Devlet Basimevi, Istanbul 1937.

Ullmann, M.: Islamic Surverys II Islamic Medicine. EdinburghUniversity Press, Edinburgh, 1978. nver, A. S.: Tarihte 50 Trk Yemegi. Istanbul niversitesi Tip

Tarihi Enstits, No. 39. Istanbul, 1948. nver, A. S.: Fatih Devri Yemekleri. Istanbul niversitesi Tip

Tarihi Enstits, No. 42, Istanbul 1952. (In this workthe Lgate-i Et'ime/Tercme-i Kenz'l Istiha by Ahmet Cavid,Topkapi Palace Library Hazine No. 1186, written at the end of theeighteenth century is studied in the light of nver's earlierwork, Fatih Devri Yemekleri.)

nver, A. S. (tr

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