Food Engineering Aspects of Baking Sweet Goods

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1 Soft Wheat QualityEdmund J. Tanhehco, Perry K.W. Ng

Contents

1.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................21.2 WheatProduction,Classification,andUsage.................................................2

1.2.1 Texture.................................................................................................31.2.2 Color.....................................................................................................31.2.3 Growth.................................................................................................3

1.3 FlourMilling...................................................................................................31.4 MajorConstituentsofSoftWheatFlour.........................................................5

1.4.1 Proteins................................................................................................51.4.2 Starch...................................................................................................51.4.3 Pentosans..............................................................................................61.4.4 Lipids...................................................................................................7

1.5 QualityEvaluationofWheatGrainandFlour................................................71.5.1 WheatGrain.........................................................................................8

1.5.1.1 TestWeight.............................................................................81.5.1.2 ExperimentalMilling.............................................................81.5.1.3 BreakFlourYield...................................................................81.5.1.4 KernelTexture........................................................................8

1.5.2 WheatFlour.........................................................................................91.5.2.1 Moisture.................................................................................91.5.2.2 Ash....................................................................................... 101.5.2.3 Protein.................................................................................. 101.5.2.4 SproutDamage..................................................................... 101.5.2.5 DamagedStarch................................................................... 111.5.2.6 PolyphenolOxidase.............................................................. 111.5.2.7 AlkalineWaterRetentionCapacityofFlour....................... 111.5.2.8 SolventRetentionCapacityofFlour.................................... 11

1.5.3 DoughRheology................................................................................ 121.5.3.1 Alveograph........................................................................... 131.5.3.2 MixographandFarinograph................................................. 14

1.5.4 ProductsRequiringWeakerProteins................................................. 141.5.4.1 Cookies................................................................................. 141.5.4.2 High-RatioCakes................................................................. 16

1.5.5 ProductsRequiringStrongerProteins............................................... 161.5.5.1 Crackers................................................................................ 161.5.5.2 Noodles................................................................................. 16

1.6 EffectsofFlourComponentsonCookies..................................................... 171.6.1 Proteins.............................................................................................. 17

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Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

� Food Engineering Aspects of Baking Sweet Goods

1.6.2 Starch................................................................................................. 181.6.3 Pentosans............................................................................................ 191.6.4 Lipids................................................................................................. 19

1.7 EffectsofFlourComponentsonCakes........................................................201.7.1 FlourParticleSize..............................................................................201.7.2 Proteins..............................................................................................201.7.3 Lipids................................................................................................. 21

1.8 FlourChlorination......................................................................................... 211.8.1 Starch.................................................................................................221.8.2 Lipids.................................................................................................221.8.3 Proteins..............................................................................................231.8.4 AlternativestoChlorination..............................................................24

1.9 Conclusion.....................................................................................................24References................................................................................................................24

�.� IntroduCtIon

Thecategoryofsweetgoodsmadefromwheatflourencompassesawidevarietyofproductswithdifferentappearances,textures,flavors,nutritionalvalues,andshelflives.Theseincludedifferenttypesofcakes,cookies,doughnuts,pastries,andmanymoreitems.Thequalityofthesegoodsbeginswiththatofthesoftwheatflourusedtoproduce them.Flourquality is, in turn,affectedby thewheatgenotype,grow-ing environment, and processing. The genotype and growing environment deter-minetheamountandcharacteristicsofthewheatcomponents,includingproteins,carbohydrates, and lipids. To produce high-quality flour, wheat must be properlymilled;postmillingprocessingsuchaschlorinationisalsosometimesutilizedforitsbenefits.Qualitytestingassuresthataflourmeetsanynecessarystandardsandgivesvaluable information to thoseseekingto improve it.These tests include thedeterminationofproximatecompositionalongwithvariouschemical,rheological,andbakingtests.Thefollowingsectionsofthischapterdescribethemillingofsoftwheatintoflour,compositionofflour,qualitytesting,andhowflourpropertiesrelatetothequalityofproductssuchascookiesandcakes.

�.� WheatProduCtIon,ClassIfICatIon,andusage

Wheat isoneof themajorcropsgrown in theworld,withover620millionmet-rictons(MMT)producedworldwidein2005(USDAForeignAgricultureService2007).U.S.andCanadianwheatproductionaccountedforover57and26MMT,respectively.Commonwheat,Triticumaestivum,isusedforawiderangeofprod-uctsincludingbreads,cakes,cookies,crackers,noodles,breakfastcereals,andmuchmore.Whendescribingwheatvarieties,classificationcanbebasedontexture,color,andgrowthhabit.

1.2.1 TexTure

Wheatiscategorizedashardorsoftbasedonkerneltexture,oneofthemajordeter-minantsofenduse.Comparedtowheatwithasoftertexture,hardwheatrequires

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Soft Wheat Quality �

moreenergytobemilledintoflourandproducesacoarserflour,andalsoonewithmore starch damage. Conversely, wheat kernels with softer texture produce finerflourwithlessstarchdamage,bothimportantattributesofhigh-qualitysoftwheatflour.Themajority ofwheat grownworldwide is hard. In theUnitedStates, softwheataccountsforabout25%ofwheatproduction.

1.2.2 Color

Wheatcanalsobeclassifiedasredorwhitedependingonthecolorofthebrancover-ingthewheatkernel.Themajordifferencebetweenthetwo,otherthanappearance,isthegreatersusceptibilityofwhitewheattosproutingunderfavorable(moistandwarm)conditions.Thismakes theuseofwhitewheatundesirableforsomefood-processingapplicationssuchasthickening.However,thereareadvantagestowhitewheat,suchasthebranbeinglessbitterinflavor.Millingyields(orextractionrates)canalsobehigherinsomecasesbecausethebranofwhitewheatdoesnotdarkenflourasmuchasredwheatbran(LinandVocke2004).

1.2.3 GrowTh

Wheatplantedinthespringandharvestedinlatesummerinthesameyearisreferredtoasspringwheat.Winterwheatisusuallyplantedinlatesummerorearlyfallandharvested the followingsummer.Soft redwinterwheataccounts for themajorityof soft wheat planted in the United States. Major soft wheat producing areas liearoundtheMississippiRiver,Ohio,andsomeareasontheeastcoast(USDAEco-nomicResearchService2006).StatesthatgrowsoftwhitewheatincludethoseinthePacificNorthwest(Washington,Oregon,andIdaho),alongwithMichiganandNewYork.TheprovincesofOntarioandAlberta,Canada,accountformuchoftheCanadiansoftwheatproduction.

Hardwheatsaregenerallybredtohavehigherproteincontentthansoftwheats,althoughproteincontentandhardnessarenotnecessarilylinked.Thisreflectsthedifferentend-userequirementsofhard(>11%protein)andsoftwheatflours(8to10%protein).Themainuseofhardwheatfloursisinbread,wherestrongandhighlevelsofproteinareneeded.Softwheatfloursontheotherhandareusedinproductswhereweakerprotein (i.e.,weakerdough strengthandweakerviscoelasticproperties) isdesired,includingproductssuchascakesandcookies.However,softwheatfloursarealsousedforawiderangeofgoods,somerequiringhigherlevelsofproteins,althoughnotnecessarily“strong”proteins.Crackersandnoodlesfallintothiscategory.

�.� flourMIllIng

Themajorcomponentsofthewheatkernelaretheoutercoveringofbran,theembryoorgerm,andtheendosperm.Thegoalofflourmillingistoseparatethesethreeascleanlyaspossible,alongwithreducingtheendospermintoflourparticles.Higherextractionratesofflour,whileeconomicallydesirable,mayresultinflourwithexces-sivebrancontamination(andtherebyhigherashcontent)aswellasincreasedstarchdamage.Therefore,aproperbalanceneedstobeachieved,dependingonthedesiredenduseoftheflour.

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Aftercleaningthewheatofanydebris,thefirststepinmillingistheadditionofwater,referredtoastempering.Thepurposeoftemperingistotoughenthebran,keepingitinlargerflakes,therebyreducingtheamountofsmallbranparticleslatercontaminating the flour. An additional benefit of tempering is that it softens theendosperm, further reducingbreakageof thebranwhen it is crushed against theendospermduringmilling.Theamountofwateraddedintemperingvariesdepend-ingonthehardnessofthewheatandtheflourmillmachinerybeingused.Softwheatiscommonlytemperedtoaround14to15%moisture;hardwheatrequireshigherlevels.Thetimeneededfortemperingcanrangefromafewhoursupto24h,againdependingonthewheat.DetailedinformationonwheattemperingandpreparationforexperimentalmillingcanbefoundintheAmericanAssociationofCerealChem-istsInternational(AACCI)Method26-10A(AACCInternational2000).

Theproductionofflourisachievedthroughrollermillingwhichinvolvessetsoftwosteelrollsspinninginoppositedirections,betweenwhichthewheatfallstobeground.Theflourmilliscomposedoftwomainsystems:thebreakandthereduction.Thepurposeof thebreaksystemis to ripopen thewheatkernelandseparate the endosperm from the bran as cleanly as possible. This is achievedwithcorrugatedrollsturningwithadifferentialinspeed.Theslowerrollservestoholdthekernelwhilethefasterrollbreaksitopen.Multiplepassesthroughdif-ferentsetsofbreakrollswithdifferentgapsandcorrugationsareusedtoachieveagradualseparationofthebranandendosperm,whilekeepingthebranasintactaspossible.Inadditiontoseparatingthebranandendosperm,someflourisalsoproducedaftereachpassthroughthebreakrollsandissiftedout.Wheatwithasofterkerneltexturefracturesmoreeasilyandproducesmoreflourinthebreaksystemthandoeswheatwithahardertexture(Finney1989).Flourobtainedinthebreaksystemiscalled“breakflour”andhasasmallerparticlesizethantheflourproducedlateronduringmillinginthereductionsystem(i.e.,reductionflour).Theremainingendospermfreedbythebreakrollsrequiresfurthermillingandgoesontothereductionsystem.

Thereductionsystemissimilartothebreaksystemwiththemaindifferencebeingthatthereductionrollsaresmooth.Multiplepassesthroughdifferentreduc-tionrollswithsievinginbetweeneachpassareusedtograduallyreducetheendo-spermtoflourofthedesiredparticlesize.Thisgradualreductionisdonetocontrolthelevelofstarchdamage.Adjustingthepressurebetweentherollsandchangingtheleveloftemperingcanalsohelptocontroltheamountofstarchdamageinthemilledflour.

Furtherdownstreaminthemillingprocess,ashcontentishigherduetoincreasesinfinebrancontamination,andstarchdamageishigherduetothenarrowerreduc-tion roll gaps.Therefore, thedifferent break and reductionflour streamsneed tobe selectively blended together to produce flour with the desired characteristics.Straight-gradefloursareacombinationofalloftheflourstreams.Patentflourscon-sistofhigher-gradestreamswithlessbran(lighterincolor)andconsequentlylessash,andclearflourshavehigherbrancontamination(darkerincolor)andhigherash.Detailedinformationregardingmillingcanbefoundintheliterature(PosnerandHibbs1997).

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�.� MajorConstItuentsofsoftWheatflour

Theconstituentsofwheatflourvaryduetothegenotypeandthegrowingenviron-ment.These, in turn,determine theend-usecharacteristics,withcertainvarietiesofwheatbeingbettersuitedtospecifictypesofproducts.Themostimportantflourconstituentsinrelationtoflourfunctionalityincludetheproteins,starches,pento-sans(thelargestportionofnonstarchpolysaccharides),andlipids.

1.4.1 ProTeins

Osborne(1907)fractionatedwheatproteinsintofourclassesbasedontheirsolubilityindifferentsolvents.Byhisclassification,albuminswereproteinssolubleinwater,andglobulinsweresolubleinsaltsolutions.Prolaminswerefoundtobesolublein70to85%ethanol,andglutelinsweresolubleindiluteacid.Overthedecades,fur-therworkwasdonetofractionatetheproteins,asthereissomeoverlapbetweenthedifferentclassesandbecausestillfurtherfractionationcanbedonewithdifferentsolvents(ChenandBushuk1970;Kreisetal.1985).

Wheatproteinshavetheuniqueabilitytoformaviscoelasticnetworkthatallowsfortheproductionofproductssuchasbread.Theproteinsmainlyresponsiblefortheviscoelasticpropertiesofflourarethegliadins(prolamins)andglutenins(glutelins).Gluteninsarelargepolymericproteinsheldtogetherbydisulfidebonds.Thesepro-teinsgivedoughstrengthandelasticity.Gliadinsaresmallermonomericproteinsthatareresponsiblefordoughextensibility.Togethertheseproteinsformtheglutenpro-teins.Boththequantity(amount)andquality(type)ofproteinareimportanttoflourcharacteristics.Thestrongglutenproteinsfoundinhardwheatflourareabletoformanetworkwithgoodgas-retainingpropertiesvitalforyeast-leavenedproducts.

Softwheatfloursaretypicallylowinproteincontent(8to10%)andtheproteinsareweakinstrength,characteristicsbettersuitedtomakingmoretenderproductssuchascakesandcookies.Most researchhasbeenfocusedonunderstanding themoreobvious roleofproteins inhardwheatproducts,with less focuson the roleofproteinsinsoftwheatproducts.However,studieshaveshownthatinadditiontoquantity,proteincompositionisimportantinsoftwheatproducts,makingitsstudynecessary(FinneyandBains1999;Houetal.1996a,1996b;Huebneretal.1999;Souzaetal.1994).

1.4.2 sTarCh

Ingeneral,wheatflourcontainsover70%starch (SollarsandRubenthaler1971)thatiscomposedofapproximately25%amyloseand75%amylopectin.Amyloseisaprimarilystraight-chainpolymerofα-1,4-linkedD-glucopyranosemolecules.Amylopectin isabranchedpolymerofα-1,4-linkedglucoseconnectedbyα-1,6-linkedbranchpoints.Amyloseandamylopectinareorganizedinstarchgranulesrangingfrom1to45µmindiameter.Wheatstarchgranulescomeintwoforms:ovaltypeAgranulesabout35µmindiameter,androundtypeBgranulesapproxi-mately3µmindiameter(Alexander1995).Oneofthemostimportantpropertiesofstarchisitsabilitytoswellandabsorbwaterwhenitisheatedinexcesswater.Asstarchgranulesswell,theycauseanincreaseintheviscosityofthestarch–water

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slurry,untileventuallythegranulesbreakdown,releasingprimarilyamylose,fol-lowed by amylopectin. Upon cooling, the starch molecules, especially amylose,canreassociate,formingagel.Theprocessesofgranuleswellingandbreakdownarereferredtoasgelatinizationandpasting,respectively,andcanbevisualizedinwheatflourbymeasuringtheviscosityofaflour–waterslurryasitisheatedandcooled(Figure1.1).Thesepropertiesofstarchareimportantinmanyaspectsrelat-ingtoflourqualitybecausetheyinfluencetheinteractionsofstarchandwaterinafoodsystem.

Starchgranulescanbephysicallydamagedduringflourmilling,increasingtheirwater-holdingabilityandsusceptibilitytoattackfromtheenzymeα-amylase.GreerandSteward(1959)foundthat2gofwaterwasabsorbedbyeachgramofdamagedstarch,comparedtoonly0.44gofwaterabsorbedbyeachgramofnativestarch.Softwheatflour, ingeneral, is lower indamaged starch content thanhardwheatflour,duetothesofterkerneltextureandhigherbreakflouryield.Inbreadflour,acontrolledamountofdamagedstarchisneededbecausetheenzymaticbreakdownof starch provides some food for the yeast. However, in soft wheat products, theincreasedwaterabsorptionassociatedwithincreasedlevelsofdamagedstarchcanbedetrimentaltoproductquality.

1.4.3 PenTosans

Pentosansarecarbohydratesofinterestduetotheirabilitytoabsorbtentimestheirownweightinwater(D’AppoloniaandKim1976;Kulp1968).Theyarefoundinthe

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fIgure�.� RapidViscoAnalyzerpastingcurveof3.5gofsoftwheatflourin25mlofwater.(RVU:viscosityinRapidViscounits.)

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cellwallsofwheatendospermandbranandarecomposedmainlyofarabinoxylan,apolymerwithaβ-(1-4)-linkedD-xylopyranosebackboneandbranchesofL-arabino-furanoseresidues(Cole1967;Gruppenetal.1992;Perlin1951a,1951b;Wangetal.2006).Pentosansexistasbothwater-insolubleandwater-solubleforms,dependingonthedegreeofbranchingofthearabinosesidechains.Ahigherdegreeofarabi-nosesubstitutionisassociatedwithhigherwatersolubility(Hoseney1984;MedcalfandGilles1968;Wangetal.2006).Wangetal.(2006)measuredthetotalpentosancontentinsixvarietiesofhardspringwheatandfoundittorangefrom5.45to7.32%ofthewholegrainandfrom1.88to2.04%ofthestraight-gradefloursproducedfromthisgrain.Theratioofwater-solubletowater-insolublepentosansinthisflourwas0.36:0.37.Pentosancontentwasalsofoundtobehigherinthelower-gradestreamsofflour,animportantfacttoconsiderwhenblendingmillingstreams.Finnieetal.(2006)specificallymeasured thearabinoxylancontent insoftwhitewinterwheatflourandfoundvariationamongcultivarstobegreatestinthewater-solublefraction,rangingfrom3.23to5.74mgxyloseequivalentspergramsample.Water-insolublearabinoxylanrangedfromabout7to10andtotalarabinoxylanfromabout11to13.5mgxyloseequivalentspergramsampleofsoftwhitewinterwheatflour.

1.4.4 liPids

Flourlipidsareimportantforqualityattributesofsoftwheatproductssuchascookiespreadandcakevolume.Wholegrainwheatcontainsapproximately2 to4%andtheendospermabout1 to2%crudefat (Morrison1978a). Inflour, lipidsexistaseithernonstarchlipidsorstarchlipidsthatareheldinamylose-inclusioncomplexesin starch granules (Acker and Becker 1971). Starch lipids are deemed to be lessfunctionally important than nonstarch lipids due to their protected environment.Supporting evidence of this is that chlorination of flour (see Section 1.8) affectsnonstarchlipidsbutnotstarchlipids(Morrison1978b).Thenonstarchlipidscanbecharacterizedastwotypes:freelipidsextractablewithpetroleumordiethylether,andboundlipidsextractablewithcoldpolarsolventmixtures(Morrison1978a).Thefreelipidscanbefurtherfractionatedintononpolarlipids(triglycerides,diglycer-ides,monoglycerides,fattyacids,sterols,andhydrocarbons)andpolarlipids(gly-colipids and phospholipids). The bound polar lipids consist of phospholipids andglycolipids(Pomeranz1988).

�.� QualItyevaluatIonofWheatgraInandflour

Characterizationofwheatgrainandwheatflourisnecessaryforbothcommercialandresearchpurposes.Potentialbuyersneedtoknowifwhattheywillbegettingwillmeettheirneeds,andresearchersusethesemethodstobetterunderstandhowflouraffectsend-usequality.

Qualitytestsonwheatgrainincludedeterminingthetestweight,millingyield,andkernelhardness.Flouristypicallytestedforproximatecompositionalongwithvariouschemical,rheological,andbakingtests.

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1.5.1 wheaTGrain

�.�.�.� testWeight

Testweight isameasureof theweightofgrainperunitvolumeinkilogramsperhectoliter(kg/hl)orpoundsperbushel(lb/bu)(AACCIMethod55-10).Highertestweightsaregenerallycorrelatedwithgreatermillingflouryield;lowertestweightsresultingfromshriveledandlesssoundkernelsresultinlowerflouryields(Gainesetal.1997).

�.�.�.� experimentalMilling

Flouryieldisdependentontheamountofendosperminthekernelandhowwellit can be separated from the bran. As mentioned previously, flour yield must bebalancedwithflourqualitycharacteristicssuchasstarchdamageandashcontent.Themillingcharacteristicsofsmallquantitiesofwheat(<1kg)canbeevaluatedbylaboratoryscaleexperimentalmilling.AACCIMethods26-30A,26-31,and26-32describeprocedures formilling softwheatflourwith aBühlerMLU-202 experi-mentalmill(BühlerInc.,Uzwil,Switzerland).Thismillproducesthreebreakandthreereductionflourstreams.TheBrabenderQuadrumatJr.experimentalmill(C.W.BrabenderInstruments,Inc.,SouthHackensack,NJ)issuitedforsmallersamplesthantheBühlerMLU-202andproducesflourandbranafterpassingwheatthroughafixed setof threebreaks (AACCIMethod26-50).TheUSDA-ARSSoftWheatQualityLaboratoryinWooster,OH,hasalsodevelopedandmodifiedexperimentalmillingmethods tobetter evaluate themillingqualityof softwheat (Finney andAndrews1986;Gaines et al. 2000;Yamazaki andAndrews1982). In addition tovaluableinformationregardingmillingquality,theflourproducedbythesemillsisimportantforuseinflourqualityevaluation.

�.�.�.� Breakflouryield

Thebreakflouryield,expressedasapercent, is theweightof theflourproducedbythebreakrollsrelativetotheweightofallproductsobtainedfromthecombinedbreakand reduction rolls (all streamsofflour,bran, andgerm). It is anexcellentindicatorofwheathardness,becausesofterwheatproducesmorebreakflour.Forsoftwheatproducts,higherbreakflouryieldsareparticularlyimportantbecauseofthedesireforflourwithfinerparticlesizeandlowerstarchdamage.TypicalbreakflouryieldsfromaBühlerexperimentalmillusedintheMichiganStateUniversityWheatQualityTestingProgram(millingsoftwhitewinterwheat)arearound30%ofthetotalproductsrecoveredfrommilling(Figure1.2;Ngetal.2007),withharderwheatsgivingalowerpercentageofbreakflour,typicallylessthan25%.

�.�.�.� Kerneltexture

Inadditiontocomparingbreakflouryieldsfrommilling,standardizedmethodsexisttomeasurekernelhardness.Particlesizeindex(AACCIMethod55-30)ismeasuredbyusingastandardizedgrindertomillgrainintomealfollowedbyweighingwhatmealpassesthroughaU.S.No.75sieve.Asofterwheatpassesmoreofthemeal

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throughthesieve.Anear-infrared(NIR)instrumentcanalsobecalibratedtomea-surehardnessofasampleofgroundwheat(AACCIMethod39-70A).

AmoreconvenientandincreasinglyutilizedwayofmeasuringkernelhardnessiswiththeSingleKernelCharacterizationSystem(SKCS;PertenInstruments,Huddinge,Sweden).Hardnessismeasuredbyassigningahardnessindexvaluetothesamplebasedontheforceneededtocrushtheindividualkernels(AACCIMethod55-31;Martinetal.1993).TherehasbeensomelimitedinformationreportedontheuseoftheSKCSforassessingsoftwheats.Gainesetal.(1996a)reportedarelationshipbetweenSKCShard-nessvaluesandsoftnessequivalent(whichisameasureofbreakflouryieldusedbytheUSDA-ARSSoftWheatQualityLaboratoryinWooster,OH)foragroupofsoftwheatcultivars.However,Hazenetal.(1997)didnotfindasignificantrelationshipbetweenSKCShardnessvaluesandsoftnessequivalentfortheirgroupoftestedsoftwheatcul-tivars.ThiscouldbeduetothefactthattheSKCSwasdevelopedinitiallyforahard-wheat-growingregionandperhapsthesensitivityofthemeasuredvaluesrequiressomeadjustmentforverysoftwheatcultivars.Nevertheless,itappearsthattheSKCScanstillbeusedwithsoftwheatsforevaluationofhardness,inrelativeterms.

1.5.2 wheaTFlour

�.�.�.� Moisture

The moisture content of flour is most easily determined from the difference inweightofasamplebeforeandafterdryinginanairoven(AACCIMethods44-15A

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�0 Food Engineering Aspects of Baking Sweet Goods

and44-16).MoisturecontentcanalsobedeterminedwithaproperlycalibratedNIRspectrophotometerorwithmoisture-measuringinstrumentsmadebyvariousmanu-facturers.Resultsofflouranalysisareusuallyadjustedto14%moisturebasisasawayofexpressingresultsonaconstantsolidsbasisbetweensamplesthatmayhavedifferentmoisturecontents.

�.�.�.� ash

Ashormineralcontentofflourisoftenmeasuredasanindicatorofthequalityofmilling.As it ishigher in thebran than theendosperm,ashcontent indicates thedegreeofbrancontaminationinflour.However, itshouldbenotedthat theendo-spermashcontentvariesamongwheatgenotypes;therefore,ashlevelsmaynotcom-pletelycorrelatewiththedegreeofbrancontamination(Greffeuilleetal.2005).Ashcontentisalsoofinterestbecauseitiscorrelatedwithflourcolor(KimandFlores1999),anattributethataffectsmarketabilityofaflour.Flourashcontentsaretypi-callybelow0.5%andcanbedeterminedbyincineratingafloursampleinamufflefurnace,leavingonlytheash(AACCIMethods08-01and08-02).

�.�.�.� Protein

Proteincontentistypicallydeterminedindirectlythroughmeasuringnitrogencon-tentbymethodssuchasKjeldahl(AACCIMethod46-11A)andcombustion(AACCIMethod46-30).Acorrectionfactoraccountingforaminoacidcompositionandnon-proteinnitrogen(×5.7)isthenappliedtocalculatetheproteincontent.CalibrationofaNIRspectrophotometerusingeitherofthepreviouslymentionedmethodscanalsobedonetoprovidearapidwayofdeterminingproteincontentthatdoesnotrequirechemicalsorreagents(AACCIMethod39-11).

�.�.�.� sproutdamage

Sproutdamage,causedbyincreasedamountsofα-amylaseactivity,isaprobleminproductswhereahighhotpasteviscosityofthewheatflourisneeded,asinsoupthickeners.Highlevelsofα-amylasearefoundingrainthathasbeguntogerminatebecauseofexposuretomoisturebeforeharvest.Thisenzyme,whilenecessaryinagerminatingkernel,reducessoftwheatflourqualitybyhydrolyzingtheα-1,4-linkedglucosemoleculesofstarch.

Theα-amylaseactivity ingrainorflourcanbemeasuredcolorimetricallybyincubatingitwithdyedandcross-linkedamylosetablets(AACCIMethod22-05).Duetotheirease,however,methodsthatmeasuretheeffectsofα-amylaseactivityonheatedflour-waterslurriesaremorecommonlyused.TheFallingNumberSystem(PertenInstruments,Huddinge,Sweden)providesarapidmethodofassessingsproutdamagebymeasuringthetimeittakesforastirrertofallthroughaheatedwheatmealandwaterorflourandwatergel.Higherlevelsofα-amylasedecreasethevis-cosityofthegel,causingthestirrertofallfaster.WheatwithaFallingNumbervaluebelow300issuspectedtohavesomesproutdamage(KaldyandRubenthaler1987).

Instrumentsthatrecordviscositywhileheatingandstirringaflour–waterslurryincludetheAmylograph(C.W.BrabenderInstruments,Inc.,SouthHackensack,NJ)

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Soft Wheat Quality ��

and the Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA; Newport Scientific Pty. Ltd., Warriewood,Australia)(AACCIMethods22-10and76-21,respectively).Higherα-amylaseactiv-ityresults inacurvewithlowerpeakviscosity.Theresultingcurvecanalsogiveinformationaboutstarchpastingcharacteristicsnotrelatedtosprouting.NoodlesareanexamplewheretexturehasbeencorrelatedwithAmylographandRVApastingproperties suchas thepasting temperatureandpeakviscosity (Bateyet al.1997;Morrisetal.1997;Odaetal.1980).

�.�.�.� damagedstarch

The level of damaged starch canbemeasuredby incubating aflour samplewithα-amylase,followedbymeasurementofthereducingsugarsorglucosethatarepro-duced (AACCI Methods 76-30A and 76-31). In soft wheat flour, damaged starchtypicallyisbelow3%.Levelsaslowaspossiblearepreferredduetotheincreasedsusceptibilityofdamagedstarchtotheactionofamylasesduringfoodprocessing.

�.�.�.� Polyphenoloxidase

Polyphenoloxidase (PPO), anenzyme that causes the formationof coloredcom-pounds(melanins)fromphenols(Bettge2004;Fuerstetal.2006),ismostlyremovedwiththebranduringmilling.However,somedoesmakeitswayinwiththeflour,especiallyathigherflourextractionrates.Thisenzymeactivityisespeciallydetri-mentaltothequalityofAsiannoodlesduetoitsdarkeninganddiscoloringeffects(Krugeretal.1992,1994).PPOhasalsobeenreportedtodiscolorbatters,piecrusts,andrefrigerateddoughs(Gajderowicz1979).LevelsofPPOinwheatdifferduetoboth genotype and growth environment (Baik 1994a; Park et al. 1997). AACCIMethod22-85wasdevelopedasarapidandsmall-scaletestforPPOactivitythatcanbeusedbybothbreedersand industry (Bettge2004).ThismethodmeasuresPPOactivitybyincubatingwheatorflourwithasubstrate(L-DOPA)andmonitoringthecolorchangespectrophotometrically.

�.�.�.� alkalineWaterretentionCapacityofflour

Alkalinewaterretentioncapacity(AWRC)isatestdevelopedtosimulatethealka-line conditions of the formula for evaluating sugar-snap cookie-making potentialofawheatflour(FinneyandYamazaki1953).Thetestisdefinedastheamountofalkalinewaterheldbytheflouragainstacentrifugalforce.Flourthatbindsalkalinewaterpoorlyisconsideredtobeofgoodquality(AACCIMethod56-10).Yamazaki(1953)foundanegativerelationshipbetweentheamountofalkalinewaterheldbythe flour and cookie diameter. However, the relationship is not as clear for morerecentlydevelopedsoftwheatvarieties(Finney1994)andfordistinguishingamongflourswithinasoftnessorhardnessclass(KittermanandRubenthaler1971).Breed-ers,though,arestillselectingforlowAWRCintheirsoftwheatlines.

�.�.�.� solventretentionCapacityofflour

Morerecently,amethodformeasuringthesolventretentioncapacity(SRC)ofwheatflourwasestablished topredictcommercialflourproperties (AACCIMethod56-

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�� Food Engineering Aspects of Baking Sweet Goods

11).Thismethodusesfoursolventsindependently—water,50%sucrose,5%sodiumcarbonate,and5%lacticacid—andmeasuresaflour’sabilitytoholdthemaftercen-trifugation.Ingeneral,waterSRCisaffectedbyallflourconstituents,sucroseSRCisassociatedwithpentosancharacteristics,sodiumcarbonateSRCisassociatedwiththelevelofdamagedstarch,andlacticacidSRCisassociatedwithglutenincharac-teristics(Bettgeetal.2002;Gaines2000).

TheuseofdifferentsolventsforSRCallowstheseparationofeffectsofdiffer-entflourcomponents,andthecombinedpatternofthefourSRCprofilesprovidesapracticalflourquality assessment forpredictingbakingperformance (Bettge etal.2002;Guttierietal.2004;SladeandLevine1994).InacollaborativestudybyGaines(2000),lacticacidSRCwasfoundtocorrelatewithMixographnumber(pro-teincontentmultipliedbypeakheightandpeaktime),andsodiumcarbonateSRCwith damaged starch, softness equivalent, AWRC, and sugar-snap cookie spread.SucroseSRCcorrelatedwithdamagedstarch,AWRC,andcookiespread(Table1.1).SRCtestsarecurrentlyusedinanumberofsoftwheatbreedingprograms,includ-ingtheMichiganStateUniversityWheatQualityTestingProgram(Ngetal.2007).VariationsontheSRCmethodsusingsmallerquantitiesofmaterialandwheatmealinsteadofflourhavealsobeendeveloped,allowingforrapidscreeningofearlygen-erationbreederlinesofwheat(Bettgeetal.2002;Guttierietal.2004).

1.5.3 douGhrheoloGy

Withregardtowheatflour,rheologyisthemeasureoftheflowanddeformationofdoughs.Thesedoughpropertiescanaffectproductqualitiessuchasgeometry(e.g., cookie spread or cake volume), texture, and handling during processing.Dough rheological instrumentswereoriginallydesigned forusewithmaterialssuchasbreaddoughs,wherestrengthandelasticityarevalued.Softwheatflourproducts, however, generally require doughs that are weaker. Results obtainedfromtheserheologicalinstrumentsshouldnotbeinterpretedusingthesamecri-

taBle�.�CorrelationCoefficientsbetweensolventretentionCapacityandvariousflourQualityParameters

Water �0%sucrose

�%sodiumCarbonate

�%lacticacid

Proteincontent 0.33a 0.39a 0.31a 0.39a

Damagedstarch 0.94a 0.77a 0.95a 0.23

Flouryield 0.51a 0.41a 0.54a –0.06

AWRC 0.97a 0.81a 0.97a 0.33a

SSCdiameter –0.88a –0.76a –0.86a –0.33a

Mixographnumber 0.50a 0.49a 0.43a 0.69a

Notes:AWRC,alkalinewaterretentioncapacity;SSC,sugar-snapcookie.a Significantatthe1%level.

Source:AdaptedfromGaines,C.S.,Cereal Foods World,45,303–306,2000..

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teriaasresultsfromhardwheatflours,astherheologicalpropertiesofsoftandhardwheatfloursarenotsimplyopposites(Hoseneyetal.1988).Dough-formingpropertiesoffloursarecommonlyevaluatedusingtheAlveograph,Mixograph,andtheFarinograph.

�.�.�.� alveograph

The Alveograph (Chopin Technologies, Villeneuve-la-Garenne Cedex, France)measures air pressure inside of a dough bubble as it is inflated until it bursts(AACCIMethod54-30A).Thisbiaxialextensionismeanttosimulatethedefor-mationofadoughduringfermentationandovenspringduringbaking.Itallowsforthemeasurementofthemaximumoverpressure(P),whichrelatestotheresis-tanceofdough todeformation,and theaverage lengthof thecurvebaselineatrupture(L),whichisameasureofdoughextensibility.Thedeformationenergy(W)isameasureoftheenergyneededtoinflatethedoughandisderivedfromthe area under the curve. W is related to the flour strength (Faridi and Rasper1987).Bettgeetal.(1989)investigatedtheabilityoftheAlveographtoevaluatesoftwheatvarietiesforcookiesandfoundthattheparameterbestabletopredictcookie diameter was P in combination with the flour protein content. Nemethetal.(1994)foundthatPandP/Lweresignificantlycorrelatedwithsugar-snapcookiespreadandscore.Yamamotoetal. (1996)foundthatAlveographPwasnegativelycorrelatedandLpositivelycorrelatedwithJapanesespongecakevol-ume(Table1.2).

taBle�.�

CorrelationCoefficientsbetweenrheologicalPropertiesandQualitiesofjapanesespongeCakesandsugar-snapCookiesMadefromsoftWheatflourgrownintheunitedstates

QualityParameter japanesespongeCakevolume sugar-snapCookiediameter

P –0.639a ns

L 0.492b 0.522b

MPT ns 0.577b

MPH –0.692a –0.590b

FWA ns –0.667a

FPT –0.490b ns

Notes: P,Alveograph maximum overpressure; L,Alveograph length; MPT, Mixograph peak time;MPH, Mixograph peak height; FWA, Farinograph water absorption; FPT, Farinograph peaktime;ns,notsignificant.

a Significantatthe1%level.b Significantatthe5%level.

Source:AdaptedfromYamamoto,H.,Worthington,S.T.,Hou,G.,andNg,P.K.W.,Cereal Chemistry,73,215–221,1996.

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�.�.�.� Mixographandfarinograph

TheMixograph(NationalManufacturing,Lincoln,NE)andFarinograph(C.W.Bra-benderInstruments,Inc.,SouthHackensack,NJ)arebothmixersthatrecordchangesindoughpropertiesover time(AACCIMethods54-40Aand54-21, respectively).These instruments are able to give information regarding optimum dough waterabsorption,strength,mixingtime,andtolerancetoovermixing.Themaindifferencebetweenthetwoisinthegeometryofthemixers.TheMixographusesverticallyori-entedpinsthatmoveinaplanetarymotion,andtheFarinographusessigmoid-shapedmixingpaddles.TheMixographwasdevelopedtoprovidethemoreintensivemixingthatNorthAmericanwheatsrequire.ItisthereforemainlyusedthereaswellasinAustralia.TheFarinographiswidelyusedaroundtheworld(Ingelin1997).Hazenetal.(1997)reportedsignificantrelationshipsbetweenwire-cutcookiediametersandMixographpeaktime,andpeakheight.Uriyoetal.(2004)foundsignificantnegativecorrelationsbetweenFarinographwaterabsorptionandcookiediameter,andwithcakevolume, inproductsmade fromsoft redwinterwheat.Cake tendernesswascorrelated with Farinograph departure time and mixing stability. Yamamoto andcoworkers(1996)alsoreportedanegativecorrelationbetweencookiediameterandFarinographwaterabsorptionalongwithanegativecorrelationofcookiediametertoMixographpeakheight(Table1.2);therewasapositivecorrelationbetweencookiediameterandMixographpeaktime.OtherworkershavealsocorrelatedFarinographandMixographmeasurementswithvariouscakeandcookiequalities(FinneyandBains1999;Nemethetal.1994;Uriyoetal.2004).

1.5.4 ProduCTsrequirinGweakerProTeins

Muchresearchinthepasthasbeenfocusedondevelopingproceduresforsoftwheatquality evaluation. However, no test has proven more satisfactory than a bakingtest,whichisanall-inclusivetest.MostU.S.Easternsoftwheatshavebeentestedforcakeandcookie-makingqualities.MostofthesetestshavefollowedstandardAACCImethods.

�.�.�.� Cookies

Thesugar-snapcookiebakingtest(AACCIMethod10-52)wasconsidered“thestan-dard”cookietestformanyyearsandhasbeenusedtoevaluateflourforproductssuchascookies,crackers,cakes,andpies(Gaines2004).Floursthatproducecookieswithlargerspreadandsoftertexturearefavored.Astherearefewersugar-snap-typecookiesonthemarket,thewire-cutcookiebakingtestwasdevelopedwhichutilizesacookieformulationthatmorecloselyreflectsthecommercialwire-cutcookiefor-mulation(AACCIMethod10-54;SladeandLevine1994)(Table1.3).Gainesetal.(1996b)comparedthesugar-snapandwire-cutcookieformulationsandfoundthateventhoughbothtestswerecapableofevaluatingspread,thewire-cutcookiesbet-terreflecteddifferencesincookietexturebasedoninstrumentalhardnessevaluatedusinganInstronuniversaltestingmachine.

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�.�.�.� high-ratioCakes

Thehigh-ratio(moresugarthanflour,wt:wt)cakebakingtest(AACCIMethod10-90)iscommonlyusedtoevaluatesoftwheatfloursforcakeproducts.Theimportantcharacteristicoftheflourusedinthesecakesisthattheymustbeabletocarry1.3to1.4timestheirweightinsugar(seeTable1.4forformula).Toaccomplishthis,cakeflourischlorinatedtomodifytheflourcomponents.Bakedcakesarescoredbasedontheirvolume,contour(symmetry),cellstructure,grain,texture,color,andflavor.

taBle�.�

ComparisonofMicroWire-Cut(aaCCIMethod�0-��)andMicrosugar-snap(aaCCIMethod�0-��)Cookieformulations

formulation

Ingredient Wire-Cut(g) sugar-snap(g)

Sucrose 12.8 24

Brownulatedsugar 4.0 —

Nonfatdrymilk 0.4 1.2

NaCl 0.5 0.18

Sodiumbicarbonate 0.4 0.4

SolutionAa na 0.32

SolutionBb na 0.20

Shortening 16.0 12

High-fructosecornsyrup 0.6 —

Ammoniumcarbonate 0.2 —

Water Variable Variable

Flour 40.0(13%m.b.) 40(14%m.b.)a SolutionA:7.98%sodiumbicarbonateinwater.b SolutionB:10.16%ammoniumchlorideand8.88%NaClinwater.

taBle�.�

high-ratioWhitelayerCakeformulation(aaCCIMethod�0-�0)Ingredient Weights(g) WeightPercent(flourBasis)

Flour(14%m.b.) 200.0 100.0

Sugar 280.0 140.0

Shortening 100.0 50.0

Nonfatdrymilk 24.0 12.0

Driedeggwhites 18.0 9.0

NaCl 6.0 3.0

Bakingpowderandwater Variable Variable

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1.5.5 ProduCTsrequirinGsTronGerProTeins

Crackersandnoodlesareeconomicallysignificantcategoriesofproducts thataremadewithsoftwheatflour,thoughtheyarenotsweetgoods.Crackersreferredtoin the followingsectionareproducedby fermentationwithyeast tomake saltineandsimilarcrackers.FlourqualityfornoodleproductionisespeciallyimportantforexportofwheattocountriesintheFarEast.

�.�.�.� Crackers

Crackersrequirestrongerglutenthanothersoftwheatproductsandareoftenmadefromblendsofbothhardandsoftwheatflours.Thisstrongerglutenisnecessarytogivestructuretocrackersastheyarefermentedandsheeted.Thereisstillnooffi-cial testmethod for evaluatingflours for cracker-bakingpotential, although therearepublishedproceduresusingatwo-stagespongeanddoughapproachtomakingcrackers(DoescherandHoseney1985;PizzinattoandHoseney1980).Thisinvolvesfermentationofasponge(containingyeast,water,and60to70%oftheflour)for16to18hfollowedbyadditionoftheremainingingredientsandfermentationofthedoughforanother6h(CreightonandHoseney1990;DoescherandHoseney1985;RanhotraandGelroth1988).However,durationofthesetestprocedureslimitsthenumberofsamplesthatcanbeevaluatedbyanoperatorinagiventime.Leeetal.(2002)developedapracticalone-stageprocedurethatenablesanoperatortoevalu-ate15samples,ascomparedtoabout6sampleswiththetwo-stageprocedures,ina48-hperiod.Althoughthetwotypesofproceduresyieldedslightlydifferentbakingresults,thetrendswerethesameforadiversegroupoffloursamplesexamined(Leeetal.2002).Strongerdoughsmadecrackersthatwerethicker,larger,andinhardertexturethancrackersmadefromweakerdoughs.

�.�.�.� noodles

Asiannoodlesareanotherproduct,oftenmadefromblendsofhardandsoftwheatflours,whichrequirestrongergluten.TherearetwobasickindsofAsiannoodles:whitesalted(Udon)andalkalinenoodles(Bettge2004).Udonnoodlesareusuallymadefromflourwith8to10%proteincontentandalkalinenoodles10.5to12%pro-tein(Junetal.1998).ThetextureofAsiannoodlesisrelatedtoflourproteincontentandstarchcharacteristics.TheproteincontentofflourwaspositivelycorrelatedwithnoodlechewinessinastudybyBaiketal.(1994b).Starchpastingpropertieshavebeenshowntoaffecttheoveralltextureofnoodles,includingsoftnessandelasticity(Bateyetal.,1997;Koniketal.1992).Anotherimportantnoodlequalitydetermi-nant,especiallywiththehigherpHofalkalinenoodles,isdiscolorationfromPPOactivity.TheWesternWheatQualityLaboratoryoftheUSDA-ARS(Pullman,WA)hasdevelopedmethodsfortestingalkalineandsaltedAsiannoodles.Noodlesareproducedonalaboratory-scalemachineandareevaluatedbasedoncolor,texture,andyield.

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�.� effeCtsofflourCoMPonentsonCooKIes

Flourproteins,starches,pentosans,andlipidsallaffectthesizeorspreadofcookiesaswellastheirtextureandappearance.Withthewidevarietyofcookiesproduced,thesecomponentsneedtobetakenintoaccountwhenselectingflour.

1.6.1 ProTeins

Softwheatflourwithlowproteincontentistypicallyusedintheproductionofcook-iesbecauseofthedeleteriouseffectsonqualityassociatedwiththehigherproteincontentinhardwheats.Sugar-snapcookiesmadefromhardwheatflourareusuallythicker,harderintexture,andhaveasmallerdiameter(MillerandHoseney1997).Sugar-snapcookiediameterperunitofflourproteinwasnegativelycorrelatedwithprotein content in a studybyYamamoto et al. (1996) (Figure1.3).Using awire-cutcookieformulation,Gainesetal.(1996b)foundanegativecorrelationbetweenproteincontentandcookiediameterandapositivecorrelationwithcookieheight(Table1.5). Harder texture was also positively correlated with increased proteincontentinthisstudy.Higherflourproteincontenthasbeencorrelatedwithreducedcookiespreadinotherstudiesaswell(Gaines1985;KaldyandRubenthaler1987).However,somestudieshavefoundapoorcorrelationbetweencookiequalityandproteincontent(Abboudetal.1985a;Yamazaki1954).

Cookie spread is a functionof the spread rate and the set time (Abboud et al.1985b;MillerandHoseney1997).Ascookiedoughisheated,thedecreaseinviscosity

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

1.0

0.96.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0

Protein (%)

Cook

ie D

iam

eter

(cm

) / F

lour

Pro

tein

fIgure�.� Relationship between protein content and sugar-snap cookie diameter perunitflourproteinincookiesmadefrom17softwheatcultivarsgrownintheUnitedStates.(AdaptedfromYamamoto,H.,Worthington,S.T.,Hou,G.,andNg,P.K.W.,Cereal Chemis-try,73,215–221,1996.)

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allowsforthecookietospreaduntilitrisesinviscosityandsets.Althoughglutenisnotdevelopedduringmixing(MillerandHoseney1997),itsglasstransitiontemperatureplaysanimportantpartincookiesettime.Whentheglutenreachesitsglasstransitiontemperature,theviscosityofthedoughincreasesandspreadingstops(Doescheretal.1987;Milleretal.1996).MillerandHoseney(1997)examinedthesettimeofdiffer-enthardandsoftwheatfloursandfoundthatwithinagroupofhardorsoftwheats,proteincontentaffectedthesettime.However,thedifferencesinproteincontentalonewerenotenoughtofullyexplainthedifferencesbetweenthehardandsoftwheatflourgroups.Workhasalsobeendonetoidentifyspecificcomponentsofflourproteinsthatmay affect cookiequality.Huebner et al. (1999) fractionatedgliadins andgluteninsubunitsusingsize-exclusionhigh-performanceliquidchromatography(HPLC).Theyfoundthatflourswithgluteninsubunits5+10madebetter-qualitycookies.Souzaetal.(1994)foundthatthegluteninstrengthscore,developedbyPayneetal.(1987)toevalu-atebreadflours,wasnegativelycorrelatedwithcookiediameter.Houetal.(1996b)separatedthehigh(Asubunits)andlow(BandCsubunits)molecularweightgluteninsubunitsandfoundthattheratioofthequantitiesoftheBtoCsubunitswasrelatedtosugar-snapcookiediameterinflourfromsoftwhitewinterwheat.

1.6.2 sTarCh

Therateofspreadinghasbeenfoundtobefasterincookiesmadefromsoftwheatflourcomparedtocookiesmadefromhardwheatflour(Abboudetal.1985b;Milleretal.1996;MillerandHoseney1997).Afasterspreadrateallowsthecookietospreadtoalargerdiameterbeforesettingoccurs.MillerandHoseney(1997)measuredthespreadrateofcookiesmadefromsoftwheatflourtobe7.8mm/mincomparedto4.6mm/minincookiesmadewithhardwheatflour.Thehardwheatflourswerefoundtocontainhigherlevelsofsolublestarchthanthesoftwheatflours.Removalofthesolublestarchfromhardwheatfloursresulted indecreaseddoughviscositiesandincreasedcookiespreadrates.However,althoughtheamountofsolublestarchcouldexplain thedifferencebetween thehardandsoftwheatflourgroups, it couldnotfullyexplainthedifferenceinspreadrateswithinthegroups.Higherlevelsofdam-agedstarchinmilledhardwheatwerealsoattributedtobeingpartofthedifferenceinspreadratebetweenhardandsoftwheatfloursbyMillerandHoseney(1997).

taBle�.�

CorrelationCoefficientsbetweenflourProteinContentandWire-CutCookieQualityCharacteristics

Parameter CorrelationCoefficient

Diameter –0.57a

Height 0.64a

Hardness 0.79a

a Significantatthe5%level.

Source:AdaptedfromGaines,C.S.,Kassuba,A.,andFinney,P.L.,Cereal Foods World,41,155–160,1996.

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During baking, minimal gelatinization of starch occurs due to the low watercontentofcookiedough,asshownbydifferentialscanningcalorimetry(AbboudandHoseney1984).However,damagedstarch,withitsgreaterwater-holdingcapability,isknowntonegativelyaffectcookiediameter.DonelsonandGaines(1998)increasedthedamagedstarchcontentofhardandsoftwheatfloursusedtomakesugar-snapcookiesthroughtheadditionofball-milledandpregelatinizedstarch.Forbothhardandsoftwheatflours,theadditionofdamagedstarchledtoanincreaseinalkalinewaterretentioncapacityandadecreaseincookiediameter.Theyalsomadecook-ieswith100%oftheflourreplacedbycombinationsofprimeanddamagedstarch.Thesoftwheatstarchproducedcookieswithlargerdiametersthanthehardwheatstarchatallofthedifferentlevelsofstarchdamagestudied.Additionally,thehardwheatstarchdoughshadgreaterstiffnessthanthosemadefromsoftwheatstarch.Theauthorsconcludedthatthereisafundamentaldifferencebetweenhardandsoftwheatstarchesthatleadstotheirdifferentperformancesincookiebaking.

1.6.3 PenTosans

With their ability to absorb large amounts of water, pentosans also affect cookiequality.Yamazaki(1955)foundthattheadditionofpurifiedstarchtailingsfractions,rich inpentosans, increased thehydration abilityof softwheatflour and reducedcookie spread.BettgeandMorris (2000)measured total,water-soluble,andgrainmembranepentosansin13softwheatfloursamples.Theamountoftotalpentosanshadthelargestnegativecorrelationwithsugar-snapcookiespreadfollowedbythewater-solubleandgrainmembranepentosans.Thegrainmembranepentosanswerealsohighlypositivelycorrelatedwithalkalinewaterretentioncapacity.Abboudetal.(1985a),ontheotherhand,reportedapoorcorrelationbetweenpentosancontentandcookiediameter.Sucrosesolventretentioncapacity,whichisassociatedwithpento-sans,wasnegativelycorrelatedwithsugar-snapcookiespreadbyGaines(2004),eventhoughintheirstudy,alkalinewaterretentioncapacitywasnot.Usingsucrosesol-ventretentioncapacityalongwithflourproteincontentandmillingsoftness,Gaines(2004)wasalsoabletogeneratearegressionequationtopredictcookiediameter.

1.6.4 liPids

Studiesinvolvingtheremovalandreconstitutionofflourlipidshaveshownthattheyareimportanttocookiespread,topgrain(an“islanding”patternformedonthesur-faceofsugar-snapcookies),andstructure.Coleetal.(1960)bakedcookieswithflourthathadbeenextractedwithwater-saturatedbutanolandfoundthatthecookieshaddecreaseddiameters.Whenthelipidswerereplaced,thecookiespreadwasreturnedtonormal.Kisselletal.(1971)extractedfreelipidsfromsoftwheatflourandfrac-tionatedthemintopolarandnonpolarfractions.Theywerethenreintroducedintotheflourandbakedintosugar-snapcookies.Toachievenormalcookiespreadandtop grain, both the polar and nonpolar fractions were needed. Interchanging thelipidsbetweendifferentvarietiesofwheatflourdidnotaffecttheresults,indicatingthatthepresenceofthemixedlipidsismoreimportantthanthesource.FractionationstudiesbyClementsandDonelson(1981),on theotherhand,determined that thepolarlipids(digalactosyldiglycerideandphosphytidylcholinealongwithglycolip-

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ids)weremoreimportanttosugar-snapcookiespreadthanthenonpolarlipids.Theinternalstructureofcookiesmadefromdefattedflour isalsonegativelyaffected;thesecookieshavelargercellsasopposedtothefinerandmoreuniformcellstruc-turefoundingood-qualitycookies(Clements1980).

�.� effeCtsofflourCoMPonentsonCaKes

Cakebattersareaeratedemulsionsoffatinwaterthatexpandduringbakingandsetintoasoft,porousgel(Mizukoshietal.1980;Shelkeetal.1990).Duringtheinitialphaseofbaking,thereisadropinbatterviscosityasshorteningmeltsandsugarsbecomedissolved.Thisisfollowedbyarapidriseinviscositywhenstarchbecomesgelatinized,absorbingfreewaterandsettingthecake(Howardetal.1968;Shelkeetal.1990).Flourproteinsandlipidsalongwiththeflourparticlesizealsoaffectcakequality.

1.7.1 FlourParTiClesize

Whenmeasuredbylaserdiffraction,softwheatflourhasbeenfoundtohaveamuchhigher percentage of particles below41µm in size than that of hardwheat flour(Hareland 1994). The particle sizes of various soft wheat flours have been nega-tivelycorrelatedtocakevolume(Yamamotoetal.1996;YamazakiandDonelson1972).Inadditiontovarietaldifferencesinparticlesizeproducedbynormalmill-ing,researchhasshownthatfurtherreductionofparticlesizethroughpostmillingprocessing(pin-millingandair-classification)canimprovethevolumeandqualityofcakes(Chaudharyetal.1981;GainesandDonelson1985a;Milleretal.1967).Althoughreducingparticlesizeisbeneficial,itisimportanttolimitstarchdamage,asdamagelevelsgreaterthan5%havebeennegativelycorrelatedwithcakequality(Milleretal.1967).

1.7.2 ProTeins

Higherproteincontentinflourisgenerallyassociatedwithpoorerqualityforcakebaking.AccordingtoKaldyandRubenthaler(1987),flourhighinproteinorwithstrongglutenresultsincakeswithlowervolumeandcoarsertextureduetoproteindisruptionofthefoamstructureincakebatter.IntheirstudyofCanadiansoftwhitewinterandspringwheats,theyfoundasignificantnegativecorrelationbetweenflourproteincontent,Japanesespongecakevolume,andoverallcakescore.Yamamotoetal. (1996)alsofoundanegativecorrelationbetweenflourproteinandJapanesesponge cake volume per unit protein (Figure1.4). Gaines and Donelson (1985b)found that thevolumeand tendernessofwhite layer cakeswerenot significantlyaffectedbyproteincontent,although thoseofangel foodcakeswere.However,adifferenceofover2%proteinwasneededtoseeaneffectintheangelfoodcakes.Althoughanexcessofproteinmayharmcakequality,solubleproteins(bothfromtheflourandfromothercakeingredients)arestillneededforthermalstabilityofthe cake foamstructure (Howardet al. 1968).Protein composition in addition tocontentwasshowntobeimportanttoJapanesespongecakevolumeinworkbyHouetal.(1996b).Thepresenceofhigh-molecular-weightglutenin(HMW-GS)subunit

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1insoftwheatflourresultedinlargercakevolume,whilethepresenceofHMW-GSsubunit2*resultedinsmallervolume.

1.7.3 liPids

Lipidsmakeuponlyasmallfractionofflour;however,theyareimportanttocakevolumeandtexture.SpiesandKirleis(1978)foundthatextractionoffreeflourlipidsreducedvolumeandcausedpoorertextureincakesmadewithamodifiedwhitelayercakeformula.Reintroductionofthelipidsrestoredmostofthecakequalities.Inter-changingthelipidsbetweendifferentvarietiesofwheatdidnotaffect theresults,indicating that the presence of lipids is more important than the source. Takeda(1994) extracted free lipids fromflour, resulting in reduced sponge cakevolume.Thefreelipidswerealsofractionatedintopolarandnonpolarfractions.Reintroduc-tionofthepolarlipids(monogalactosylanddigalactosyldiglycerides)returnedthecakevolumetoitsnormalsize,whilethenonpolarfractionshadonlyminoreffects.SimilarresultswerereportedbySeguchiandMatsuki(1977a).

�.� flourChlorInatIon

Toproducegood-qualityhigh-ratiocakes,chlorinationofflourisnecessary.Cakesmadefromnonchlorinatedflourhavepoorvolume,contour,crumbgrain,andtex-ture(Donelsonetal.2000;Montzheimer1931;Smith1932).Chlorinetreatmentalsoimprovesmouthfeelofcakes,makingcakesdrierandlessstickyorgummy(Kis-

7.06.5 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

Protein (%)

Cak

e Vo

lum

e (c

c) /

Flou

r Pro

tein

fIgure�.� RelationshipbetweenproteincontentandJapanesespongecakevolumeperunitflourprotein incakesmade from17softwheatcultivarsgrown in theUnitedStates.(AdaptedfromYamamoto,H.,Worthington,S.T.,Hou,G.,andNg,P.K.W.,Cereal Chemis-try,73,215–221,1996.)

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sellandYamazaki1979;SeguchiandMatsuki1977b).ChlorinationisusuallydonewithchlorinegasandcanbemonitoredbyadropinpHofflour.FlouristypicallychlorinatedtoapHrangeofabout4.5to5.2(Goughetal.1978).Starch,lipids,andproteinsareallaffectedbyflourchlorination.

1.8.1 sTarCh

Fractionation,interchange,andreconstitutionstudiesofnonchlorinatedandchlori-natedflourshaveconfirmedthattheeffectsofchlorinationonstarchareimportantto cake quality. Cakes made from chlorinated flour with the starch interchangedwiththatfromnonchlorinatedflourhadsmallervolumesandpoorercakequalities(JohnsonandHoseney1979a;Sollars1958).Theoppositewastruewhenexchang-ingchlorinatedstarchintononchlorinatedflour.GainesandDonelson(1982)usedamodifiedViscographtoexaminetheviscosityofcakebattersmadewithchlorinatedandnonchlorinatedfloursduringheating.Theapparentviscosityofheatedbattersincreasedfasterinbattersmadefromchlorinatedflourcomparedtononchlorinatedflour.Chlorinatedflourbattersalsoshowedgreaterexpansionduringbaking.Theseresultswere inagreementwith results fromKulpetal. (1972).Accelerated thick-ening of batters allows for improved setting and retention of larger cake volume(Donelsonetal.2000).

Donelson(1990)fractionatedchlorinatedandnonchlorinatedfloursandfoundthatthechlorinatedstarchfractionhadincreasedalkalinewaterretentioncapacity.Theseresultswererelatedtodecreasedsugar-snapcookiespreadinhisexperiment.Inadditiontobindingmorewater,chlorinatedstarchbindsmoreoilasaresultofincreasedstarchgranulehydrophobicity(Seguchi1984).Theoxidativedepolymer-izationofstarchthatoccursduringchlorinationhasbeeninvestigatedasoneofthereasons for these changes in starch properties (Huang et al. 1982; Johnson et al.1980).Varriano-Marston (1985)hypothesized that theoxidativedepolymerizationincreased thecapillarysizeofstarchgranules, leading to the increasedabilityofchlorinatedstarchtobindwaterandoil.

1.8.2 liPids

Variousstudieshavedeterminedthattheeffectofchlorinationonlipidsisimportanttocakequality.Kisselletal.(1979)chlorinatedflourstopH5.2,4.8,and4.0andthenextractedthefreelipidswithhexane.Whitelayercakevolumewasreducedincakesbakedwithoutlipids;however,thenormalvolumewasrestoreduponreadditionoftheextractedlipids.FlourchlorinatedtopH4.8performedthebest.Byinterchang-inglipidsfromachlorinatedflourintoanonchlorinatedone,Donelsonetal.(1984)wereabletoincreasehigh-ratiocakevolumetothatofthechlorinatedflour.Incon-trast,Johnsonetal.(1979),afterconductingalipidinterchangestudy,cametotheconclusionthatalthoughthepresenceoflipidsisimportant,theeffectofchlorinationonthemisnotimportanttocakequalityincakesbakedusingKissell’sleancakeformulation(Kissell,1959).InthestudyofJohnsonetal.(1979),cakesbakedfrombothchlorinatedandnonchlorinatedflourswiththeirlipidsextractedhadpoorgrain.Byaddingeitherofthelipidfractionsbacktothechlorinatedflour,theywereabletorestorethebakingproperties.

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1.8.3 ProTeins

ThefractionationandinterchangestudiesofSollars(1958)foundthatchlorinationofgluten and starchwasof almost equal importance for theproductionofwhitelayercakes.Chlorinationofglutenhadaneffectonyellowlayercakesaswell,buttoalesserextent.Tsenetal.(1971)reportedthatchlorinationofflourincreasestheextractabilityofproteinsbywaterandaceticacid,andthat this increasedproteinsolubilitymaybepartoftheimprovingeffectsofchlorinetreatmentonflour.Thechanges inprotein extractabilitywere attributed to the actionsof chlorinebreak-inghydrogenbonds,cleavingpeptidebonds,degradingaminoacids,andoxidizingsulfhydrylbonds.

Theeffectofchlorinationonincreasingthehydrophobicityofproteinsinfloursmayalsobeimportant.Seguchi(1985)foundthatchangesinthehydrophobicityofstarchgranuleswereduetoconformationalchangesinsurfaceproteinsofthestarchgranules,andlater,thatchlorinationalsoresultedinanincreaseintheamountofproteinextracted(Seguchi1990).Sinhaetal.(1997)extractedgliadinsfromflourchlorinatedtopH4.8and4.3;gliadinproteinhydrophobicity,asmeasuredbyfluo-rescence spectroscopy, increased with chlorination (Figure1.5). Reversed-phaseHPLCresultssuggestedthattheincreasesinhydrophobicitywereduetoconforma-tionalchangesintheproteins(Sinhaetal.1997).

12

10

8

6

4

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0

NonchlorinatedpH 4.8pH 4.3

Caldwell Dynasty Frankenmuth Lewjain

Hyd

roph

obic

ity In

dex

x10

fIgure�.� Relative hydrophobicities of gliadins extracted from chlorinated and non-chlorinatedsoftwheatflours,measuredbyfluorescencespectroscopy.(AdaptedfromSinha,N.K.,Yamamoto,H.,andNg,P.K.W.,Food Chemistry,59,387–393,1997.)

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1.8.4 alTernaTivesToChlorinaTion

Overtheyears,alternativestochlorinationhavebeenexploredasconcernfor thesafetyofchemicallyprocessedfoodshasgrown.RussoandDoe(1970)improvedcakevolumebyheatingnonchlorinatedflour;however, thisalsoresultedincakeswithpoortexture.Theadditionofingredientssuchasstarch,eggalbumin,xanthangum,L-cysteine,andhydrogenperoxideplusperoxidasehavealsobeentestedfortheirabilitiestocompensateforalackofchlorination(JohnsonandHoseney1979b;RussoandDoe1970;Thomassonetal.1995).Intheircakeformulation,Donelsonetal.(2000)replacednonchlorinatedflourwitheithercommercialhardwheatstarchoralaboratory-producedsoftwheatstarchatalevelequaltotheareaunderanRVApastingcurvemade fromchlorinatedflour.Thiswasdone to tryandachieve theviscosity-modifyingpropertiesnormallyassociatedwithchlorination.Eggalbumin,soy lecithin, andxanthangumwerealsoadded to their cake formula to improvetextureandcontour.Theresultsafterbakingvarioustypesofcakeswereequaltoorbetterthanthosemadewithchlorinatedflours.Mostimportantly,thecakeshadcrumbswithgoodtextureratherthanthegummytexturesofcakesmadewithnon-chlorinatedflour.Theozonetreatmentofflourhasalsorecentlybeeninvestigatedwithpromisingresults(ChittrakornandMacRitchie2006).

�.� ConClusIon

Thedifferentcomponentsofsoftwheatflourcollectivelyplayaroleinitsquality.Softerkerneltextureandlowerproteincontentaretypicallyfavoredforsoftwheatproducts.Starchesandlipidsserveimportantfunctionsinbakedproductssuchascakesandcookies.Understandingwheatflourcompositionandhowqualityismea-suredprovidesagoodbaseforfurtherresearchandstudyofsweetgoods.

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Food Engineering Aspects of Baking Sweet Goods

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