Food

Prairie chicken

Indian turnip

Drying Saskatoon Berries

Saskatoon Berries

The Plains Natives had a wide variety of animals and plants to eat. The women collected berries that were eaten fresh or dried and saved for the winter months. The Saskatoon berry (similar to blueberries) was a favourite for most of the Plains Natives, especially the Natives in Canada where this berry grows abundantly.The Plains Cree and Plains Ojibway Natives fished since they lived near rivers and small lakes. Deer, moose and elk, along with wolves, coyotes, lynx, rabbits, gophers, and prairie chickens were hunted for food. The Natives also ate Bannock which was a type of bread cooked over the fire. The Indian Turnip was a common vegetable that was eaten.

Buffalo food.

Pemmican

By far the most common food eaten by the Plains Natives was the Bison (Buffalo). The Buffalo could be eaten raw (the liver), dried and made into Pemmican and soups, or cooked over an open fire. Cooked was the most common way. Pemmican was a common way to eat buffalo. The buffalo meat was dried and then pounded into thin strips. Hot buffalo fat was added along with some Saskatoon berries for flavour. Pine nuts could also be added. The mixture was poured into a leather bag and left to cool. Pemmican could last up to one year inside the bag without spoiling. It supplied the natives with a quick and high-energy meal. You can find Pemmican in stores today, but it is not the same. It is only dried meat with flavouring added.

Buffalo versatility

buffalo horns

Buffalo feet

buffalo tail

The buffalo was an important source of food, yet the Natives valued this animal because of the vast amount of every-day products that could be made from just one buffalo.

HAIR headdresses, saddle pad filler, pillows, rope, ornaments, halters, medicine balls.

TAILmedicine switch, fly swatter, teepee decorations, whips.

HOOF & FEET glue, rattles, hatchets used for butchering.

HORNScups, fire carriers, powder horn, spoons, ladles, headdresses, signals, toys , wedges to split wood, tips, hide scrapers with a blade inserted into them, parts of bows.MEAT (every part eaten) hump ribs eaten immediately.Liver was eaten immediately by the hunters, sprinkled with gall fluid and considered the trophy of the hunt.

SKIN OF HIND LEGmoccasins or boots RAWHIDE containers, clothing, headdress, food, medicine bags, shields, buckets, moccasin soles, rattles, drums, drumsticks, splints, cinches, ropes, belts, bullets, pouches, saddles, horse masks, lance cases, armbands, quirts, bull boats, knife cases, stirrups, thongs, horse ornaments.Elk, Deer or Antelope hides were preferred for dresses for women as they were lighter than the heavier Buffalo skins.TANNED HIDES Robes, tipi coverings, moccasins, loin clothes, wrappings for the dead, bedding, war deed records, winter counts, tipi flooring, various pouches, disguise for hunting more buffalo.BONES were used for tools, needles, awls (used to puncture the skins for sewing). Shoulder blades made digging hoes. Large leg bones were used as ground pegs. Bones were shaped as tools to flatten porcupine quills used in decoration. Skulls used in religious ceremonies.

Buffalo dung

Buffalo dung

BUFFALO DUNG (poop)Dried, it was collected and used for fuel in fires to cook and provide heat. Finely powdered dung was used as a prevention of diaper rash for babies.STOMACH.Water containers, Cooking, Boiling water, storage.BLADDER tobacco pouches, water containers.INTESTINES Water bags, storage containers, sausage making.BRAINStanning hidesHEART eaten but the outer lining was used as a bagTALLOW (boiled down fat)Healing wounds, weaning children, sealing tobacco into pipes, mixing paints, sealing food into containers, mixed with jerky to make pemmican.GRISTLE Glue, teething babies chewed it SINEW Ropes, cords, binding, small tool handles, attaching arrowheads, bow strings and backing, sewing thread, glue manufacture.

Buffalo huntingBuffalo hunting techniques can be divided into two basic categories; stalking by one or a few individuals and communal hunting by large groups. Stalking required a careful approach from downwind to avoid being scented by the buffalo. One, two or three Natives would slowly and carefully sneak up to where buffalo were feeding. In summer, a wolf skin might be worn as a disguise since the buffalo would allow wolves to approach closely since a few wolves were no risk to the buffalo. In winter, a white blanket hid the hunter as he stalked the herd. When the Natives were close enough, they would use spears or bow and arrows to kill the buffalo.

Communal buffalo huntCommunal hunting was more common and usually had much greater rewards. In this method, often hundreds of buffalo were killed at one time. This system was used when large herds of buffalo were found.The first communal technique was called the Buffalo Pound. A buffalo pound was a corral, usually made within a grove of trees (if you could find some). A circular area was cleared and the trees were piled around the clearing to make a fence. Buffalo were chased and scared into the general area while other hunters closed the area into an even smaller region. Eventually, the buffalo were forced into the corral where they were killed.

Buffalo jumpThe most extreme and dangerous method was the buffalo jump. In this style of hunting, a large herd was directed towards a cliff or steep bank over which the animals were driven to their deaths. This technique could only be used if a suitable ledge or cliff was found on the generally flat prairie. One famous location in Canada is called Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump near Fort Macleod, Alberta. This technique was the most dangerous for two individuals. Two fast running natives would be draped in buffalo skins and placed in front of the running buffalo. These two ran towards the cliff while the poor sighted buffalo followed. The Natives would grab ropes, jump off of the cliff and swing onto a landing below. If they were too slow, the buffalo might catch them and trample them. To fast, and the buffalo might stop before the ledge. Timing was everything.

Below the buffalo jump, people would be waiting. If any buffalo was injured but not dead, the Natives below made sure the buffalo didn’t suffer by killing it quickly. There was plenty of work to do as the Natives had often hundreds of buffalo to carve up for their food as well as preparing the hides for usage. Not all of the buffalo could be used in this method and many were left to rot at the bottom of the jump.

The ChaseThe Spanish brought horses to North America in 1519. Shortly after that, the Plains Natives adopted this animal as their own. It became almost as important to them as the buffalo. The final method of communal buffalo hunting was called The Chase. This is the method most seen in Hollywood movies and written about by historical writers. The chase began with a line of hunters on horse back who approached the herd at a walk until the buffalo began to move away. Then the hunters charged into the herd, selected the fattest animals, and killed them with a spear, arrow or by using a gun. The hunt continued until the horses were exhausted. Accidental wounding and Natives falling off their horses was common, but the chase was regarded as a great sport and a sign of bravery between the hunters.

TransportationOriginally, the Plains Natives travelled everywhere on foot. During the winter, snowshoes made walking on deep snow easier. Like the Inuit, the Plains Natives had dogs. Sleds were pulled by the dogs, which greatly helped transport items in the winter. As well as sleds, Travois were placed on dogs and used for transportation. A travois is a structure made of two poles which crossed at the top and attached to some netting or a wooden frame. A dog could pull only a limited amount.

Horse TransportationThe introduction of the horse to the Plains Natives greatly changed their transportation and how they lived.A horse could carry five times as much as a dog.With a horse travois, they could carry a lot more gear than before. They could carry larger tent poles which could make larger teepees than before. Now, everyone could keep far more possessions since everything was now easier to carry. Food was often brought back to the camp by horse which meant that the Native camps did not need to move as often. The swift horse made hunting easier (as we have seen with buffalo hunting), and travelling further distances was a reality.

Seasonal migrationIn the winter, tribes would settle in wooded valley areas where they were sheltered from the harsh weather. The Plains Natives did not wander without direction, but moved their camps to the same areas each year, where they knew they could find food. The buffalo often migrated in yearly and repeated patterns, so the Natives often returned to the same camp sights year after year. They thought of the seasonal migration pattern as a circle, so the circle became a sacred symbol, signifying life and renewal. In spring, they would follow the buffalo back to the open prairies. The many tribes only came together in the summer when the buffalo herds were mostly in one area, and together, the tribes could perform a buffalo jump.

Every day clothing

Native breastplate

The Plain Indians would wear clothing to meet the purpose of providing warmth, protection and religious ceremony. The women prepared the hides and sewed the clothing or moccasins. The hides were sometimes only tanned on one side and the hair on the other side was left for warmth. Men wore shirts, breechcloths and full-length leggings. Ponchos were worn over shoulders for added warmth. All clothing was hand-made from skins of animals, especially buffalo, antelope and deer hides. Warriors wore breastplates made from shells or bones and shields made from buffalo hides (skin) to protect from spears and arrows. Of course, they liked being pretty too, girls in particular! They would add beads and fringes to their buffalo hide. After the Natives made contact with the Europeans, buffalo hides were often traded for coloured beads, coloured thread and small needles all for the sake of fashion!

More clothingMoose hide was used for soft-soled moccasins. Dried grass provided the moccasin with extra insulation. Sinew, or bone awl and a needle were used to sew up moccasins. Women wore dresses and short leggings. Plains women’s snug-fitting leggings reached from the ankles to just below her knees, were made of two pieces of buckskin, and were wider at the top than at the bottom. They laced up with leather ties. The slip was the most common style of dress; it tied up around the neck and under the arms. Two sides were laced together with sinew.

Those of high status would wear a grizzly bear claw necklace. Others would decorate their clothes using feathers.War bonnets or headdresses were worn by honored Plains Native men. In the past they were sometimes worn into battle, but most often worn during ceremonies or special occasions. They are seen as items of great spiritual and magical importance. The eagle is considered by Plains tribes as the greatest and most powerful of all birds, and so the finest war bonnets were made out of its feathers.

The War BonnetThe bonnet had to be earned through brave deeds in battle. Each feather represented one brave deed. The feathers were very hard to get. Some warriors might earn only two or three honour feathers in their whole lifetime. The bonnet was also a mark of highest respect because it could only be earned with the agreement of the leaders of the tribe. A high honor was received by the warrior who was the first to touch an enemy fallen in battle, for this meant the warrior was at the very front of fighting. Feathers were notched and decorated to represent an event and each one told an individual story such as killing, capturing an enemy's weapon and shield, and whether the deed had been done on horseback or on foot.

Religion

The Thunderbird

The Plains Indians believed in many gods. They believed that gods showed themselves as the sun, the moon and the stars. They also believed that all animals were controlled by underwater spirits and the upper world was ruled by the thunderbirds. The two animals they saw as spiritual animals were the eagle and the buffalo. To most tribes, the eagle is referred to as the thunderbird in stories. It was believed that when eagles open and close their eyes, they cause lightning. They also saw the eagle as their god's messenger.

The Sun Dance

The Plains Indians performed many ceremonies. The sun dance was a special religious ceremony. It was aimed at asking the sun (a god) for strength and to help their tribe prosper. Each tribe had its own version of the Sun Dance but most of the ceremonies had great similarities. The Sun Dance usually took place in summer and lasted for 4 days. The performer would have their face painted and others would blow through the eagle bone and play the drums to call on the Thunderbird (the god). For all 4 days (except the last day), none of the Natives performing the Sun Dance would take any food or water.

Sun DanceDay One – on the first day of the sun dance ceremony, a tree had to be selected. The Natives preferred the cottonwood tree which they thought was sacred. Some tribes created the sun dance circle around the tree where it grew while other native groups cut the tree down and brought it to an already established sun dance circle. The tree was secured into the ground.Day Two – The entire second day was spent dancing and praying in the sun dance circle. The dancers would become very hot and thirsty since they could not take any water and also very tired since they could not take any food.

Sun DanceDay Three – On the third day of the ceremony, the piercing took place.The medicine men would go to each person and cut their chest to put a peg through the skin. The peg is then attached to a rope which is connected to the sacred tree. The men would then dance, moving back and forth against the rope until they yanked the peg out. Another variation of this ceremony was to hang by the nipple until the peg broke through the skin. Whatever the variation, the Plains Indians believed that the more pain the person could stand, the more likely that the spirits would cause their tribe to prosper.

The end of the ceremonyDay four – the final day of the sun dance ceremony was a big feast for everyone, both those who were involved in the ceremony and those who were watching. The wounds of the sun dance participants were treated, including stitching the skin that had ripped.For the participants, this meal may be the best ever since they had not eaten for four days.

The end of the sun danceThe traditional sun dance ceremony continues today, but it is much different. The body piercing part of the ceremony was outlawed by the Canadian government in 1895. The government felt this act was too severe and savage, especially since many white Europeans were moving into the area and would definitely not understand what was going on.Unlike the potlatch ceremony practiced by the Haida, which was completely banned by the Canadian government, the sun dance ceremony was allowed to continue exactly as it was except for the body piercing. The Plains Natives continued to practice the ceremony, and it is still practiced today.