FOOD SUPERSTITION, FEEDING PRACTICES AND NUTRITIONAL ANTHROPOMETRY … Vol11 No1 Jun Chap… ·...

JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind

FOOD SUPERSTITION, FEEDING PRACTICES AND NUTRITIONAL ANTHROPOMETRY OF

PREGNANT WOMEN

A.N. Maduforo and O.I.C. Nwosu

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics

Medical Service Subsector, PHCN Staff Clinic, Maitama, Abuja, Nigeria

C.I. Ndiokwelu

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu

and

P.N. Obiakor-Okeke

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Imo State University Owerri Imo State, Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The survey assessed the food superstition, feeding practices and nutritional anthropometry of pregnant women

attending ante-natal clinic in university of Nigeria teaching hospital Ituku/Ozalla, Enugu state, Nigeria. This survey

was embarked upon to identify the superstitions held on food during pregnancy among pregnant women attending

ante-natal clinic in university of Nigeria teaching hospital Ituku/Ozalla, Enugu state, to determine their acceptance

of these superstitions and to assess their feeding practices and nutritional anthropometry. Structured and validated

questionnaires were used to obtain information on the socio-economic characteristics, food superstitions and

feeding practices of the subjects. Anthropometric indices of the subjects were also assessed using weighing scale,

height measuring rod and tape. The data was analyzed using the SPSS version17 to determine the means with their

standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages as well as drew charts. The result of the survey shows that the

mean weight and height of the subjects were 77.47 ± 12.23kg and 1.66 ± 0.06m respectively. Their mean wrist

circumference was 16.17 ± 0.99cm. Also, the mean frame size and mean expected weight were 10.30 ± 0.60 and

66.97 ± 7.91 respectively. Food superstitions were held on foods like fufu, beans, snail, cocoa drink, okro, dika nut,

etc. Conclusively, this research has revealed that 29% acknowledged that there is still an existence of food

superstition among pregnant women that attend ante-natal in UNTH Ituku/Ozalla and about 19% of them still

practice it. The feeding pattern of this 19% was being affected by these superstitions. Their nutritional status is

certainly determined by what they eat because "we are what we eat". However, about 42% had normal expected

body weight while 58% of pregnant women were malnourished. Hence, I recommend that nutrition education be

intensified in ante-natal clinics and different villages in Nigeria to help teach pregnant women on healthy food

selection and importance of nutrition before, during and after pregnancy.

Keywords: Food superstition, nutritional anthropometry, pregnant women

Introduction

Superstition is a belief or practice generally regarded as

irrational and as resulting from ignorance or from fear

of the unknown. It implies a belief in unseen and

unknown forces that can be influenced by objects and

rituals. Magic or sorcery, witchcraft, and the occult in

general are often referred to as superstitions (John,

2009).

In general, superstitious practices and beliefs are most

common in situations involving a high degree of risk,

chance, and uncertainty, and during times of personal or

social stress or crisis, when events seem to be beyond

human control. The question of what is or is not

superstitious, however, is relative. One person’s beliefs

can be another’s superstitions. All religious beliefs and

practices may be considered superstition by

unbelievers, while religious leaders often condemn

unorthodox popular practices as a superstitious parody

of true faith (John, 2009).

Taboo food and drink are food and beverages which

people abstain from consuming for religious, cultural or

hygienic reasons. Many food taboos forbid the meat of

a particular animal, including mammals, rodents,

reptiles, amphibians, bony fish, and crustaceans. Some

taboos are specific to a particular part or excretion of an

animal, while other taboos forgo the consumption of

plants, fungi, or insects (John, 2009).

All communities have their own cultural (traditional)

pattern. The cultural pattern of a group is based on

learned behaviour, acquired partly by deliberate

instruction on the part of parents, but mostly

subconsciously by incidental observation of the

behaviour of relatives and other close members of the

community (Ogbeide, 1974).

Food taboos can be defined as rules, codified or

otherwise, about which foods or combinations of foods

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may not be eaten and how animals are to be

slaughtered. The origins of these prohibitions and

commandments are varied. In some cases, these taboos

are a result of health considerations or other practical

reasons. In others, they are a result of human symbolic

systems. Some foods may be prohibited during certain

festivals (e.g., Lent), at certain times of life (e.g.,

pregnancy), or to certain classes of people (e.g.,

priests), although the food is in general permissible

(John, 2009)

Traditional beliefs and attitudes influence women’s

health. Even when women have access to appropriate

healthcare, they often prefer home/community based

care. Women’s overall health and nutritional status,

pregnancy outcomes and other reproductive health

problems are considered to be the major biological

causes of maternal mortality; therefore, the overall

nutritional status of a pregnant woman is principally

determined by the feeding practices and care facilities

available to her (Saba, 1996).

Statement of the problem The problem of malnutrition among pregnant women

poses a great challenge to nutritionist and the health

sector as well as to the government. Malnutrition of the

mother does not just affect the pregnant woman only

but also has a devastating effect on the foetus (unborn

child). Malnutrition has ranked as the major cause of

maternal mortality and it is a major determinant of a

successful pregnancy and a healthy well nourished

baby.

According to UNICEF (2009), each year, more than

half a million women die from causes related to

pregnancy and childbirth. Nearly 4 million newborns

die within 28 days of birth. Millions more suffer from

disability, disease, infection and injury. The lifetime

risk of maternal death for a woman in a least developed

country is more than 300 times greater than for a

woman living in an industrialized country.

Africa and Asia account for 95 percent of the world’s

maternal deaths, with particularly high burdens in Sub-

Saharan Africa (50 percent of the global total) and

South Asia (35 percent). These statistics above showed

while it is important that the major avoidable causes of

maternal mortality and adverse pregnancy outcome are

eliminated by looking into the feeding practices of

women due to their traditional belief and taboos and

also to determine its effect on their nutritional status.

Methodology

Study area

The study was carried out in University of Nigeria

Teaching Hospital, Enugu. It is a tertiary health

institution that offers services which include training of

medical and paramedical students, graduates and

practitioners, research and treatment and management

for both in-patients and out-patients.

Data collection

Structured and validated questionnaire was used to

collect data. The questionnaire was designed to elicit

information on personal, socio-economic status, food

taboos, beliefs and feeding practices of the women. The

literate women were given the questionnaire to fill

while the illiterate ones were interviewed from the

questionnaires and the answers recorded.

During the data collection, I visited the ante-natal clinic

of UNTH Ituku/Ozalla on their ante-natal days to meet

with the pregnant women and randomly collect

samples.

Anthropometric measurement

Weights of the pregnant women were obtained using

portable body weight measurement scale (kg). Height

measurement was obtained using measurement tape in

centimetres (cm).

Weight

The actual weight was determined with a bathroom

weighing scale. The weighing scale was checked and

adjusted if need be to the zero mark before the subjects

mounted the scale and their weight was recorded.

Height

Heights were measured with a vertical measuring rod

calibrated in centimetres (cm). The subject stood erect

looking straight on a levelled surface with heels

together and toes apart, without shoes. The moving

head piece of the measuring rod was lowered to rest flat

on the top of head and the reading was taken to the

nearest centimetre.

Wrist circumference

The wrist circumference was measured using a cloth

tape wrapped around the bony part of the wrist

(anatomical point) and the reading was taken to the

nearest centimetre.

Frame size The frame size was determined using the measure

height and wrist circumference. Basically, frame size is

categorized into three;

1. Small frame: when the calculated frame size

value is greater than 11.0 (FS>11.0) for

females

2. Medium frame: when the calculate FS

value is between 10.1 – 11.0 (FS = 10.1 –

11.0) for females

3. Large frame: when the calculated FS value

is less than 10.1 (FS<10.1) for females.

Hence, to calculate the frame size (FS), the following

formula was used;

FS = Height (cm)

Wrist Circumference (cm)

Ideal Body Weight (IBW) This is calculated using the height and frame size,

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lent

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest


Hamwi Formula was used to determine the IBW; 45kg

for the first 5feet (60inches) + 2.3kg for each inch over

5feet (medium frame). For small frame, subtract 10% of

the calculated value and for large frame add 10% of the

calculated value. Determination of

Additional weight

Ellie and Sharon, (2008) method for weight gain pattern

during pregnancy was used to determine the expected

additional weight at each stage of pregnancy.

For a normal- weight woman, weight gain pattern

ideally follows a pattern of 3½ pounds (1.6kg) for the

first trimester (12 weeks) and 1 pound (0.45kg) per

week thereafter.

Expected weight

At each stage of pregnancy, there is an expected weight

for each individual, using the ideal body weight and

additional weight for each stage of pregnancy. Hence,

the formula for expected weight includes;

Expected Weight = IBW + Expected additional weight

at each stage.

Sample size

The following formula was used to calculate the

required sample size

for 10% of women

that attend antenatal

clinic in UNTH

using the medical

record data. This was determined using the Fisher’s

formula (Vaughan et al., 1989) (8) where:

n= Z2 PQ/d

2

P is the prevalence of the attribute

q is 1-P i.e. the proportion of the population that does

not have the characteristic

Z is the standard normal deviate for 95%

confidence level (1.96)

• d is the precision, Total sample size was

100

Data analysis The data was analyzed using SPSS version 17 to

determine the means with their standard deviations,

frequencies, and percentages as well as drawing of

charts.

Results

One hundred pregnant women completed the study and

the result of the survey is shown in the tables and charts

below.

Figure 1 revealed that the most of the respondents are

within the age 21 – 30 years of age (58%) and those that

are 31 – 40 years of age (40%) while those within 15 –

20 & 41 – 50 years of age make up 1% each.

1%

58%

40%

1%

Figure 1: The age of the respondents

15 – 20

21 – 30

31 – 40

41 – 50

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Figure 2 showed that 98% of the respondents were married while 1% each is single and widow.

Figure 3 revealed that 58% of the respondents attended

tertiary institution, 33% attended secondary school, 6%

attended primary school and 3% did not attend any

formal education.

98

1 1 0

Figure 2: The marital status of the respondents

3 6

33

58

3 6

33

58

INFORMAL PRIMARY SCHOOL SECONDARYSCHOOL

TERTIARY

Figure 3: Highest educational attainment

15




Figure 4 revealed that the respondents have varied

occupations and this include 37% civil servant, 22%

business women, 4% skilled workers and non is a full

time farmer. However, 37% of the women were

unemployed, students of housewife.

Figure 5 showed that 99% of the respondents were Christians while only 1% was a Muslim.

0%

22%

37%

4%

37%

Figure 4: The occupation of the respondents

FARMER

BUSINESS

CIVIL SERVANT

SKILLED LABOUR

UNEMPLOYED/HOUSEWIFE

CHRISTIAN MUSLIM TRADITIONAL OTHERS

99

1 0 0

Figure 5: The religion of the respondents

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Figure 6: Here, 95% of the women are from the South-

Eastern part of Nigeria where the survey was carried

out, 3% are from south-south which is the closest

geographical region to the survey site, 1% from North

Central, and 1% from south west.

Figure 7 showed that 8% of the women were in the first

trimester, 32% were in the second trimester and 60%

were in their last trimester.

0 0 1

95

1 3

NORTH EAST NORTH WEST NORTHCENTRAL

SOUTH EAST SOUTH WEST SOUTHSOUTH

Figure 6 :The geographical region of the respondent

8%

32%

60%

Figure 7:Stage of pregnancy of the respondents

FIRST TRIMESTER

SECOND TRIMESTER

THIRD TRIMESTER

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Table 1: Existence, acceptance and practice of foods superstition by pregnant women

Parameter Frequency Percentage

Existence of food superstition

Yes 29 29

No 71 71

Those that accept the beliefs

Yes 17 17

No 10 10

Not all 2 2

No response 71 71

Those that eat all these forbidden foods when they were not pregnant

Yes 8 8

No 18 18

Not all 3 3

No response 71 71

In table 1, 29% acknowledged that food superstitions about pregnant women exist in their areas, 19% accepted and

practiced it.

Figure 8 showed that 68 percent from the 19% of the

entire sample population of the women that accepted

and practiced the food superstitions in their community

attended tertiary institution, while 32 percent attended

secondary school.

68%

32%

Figure 8:Educational background of the women that

accepts and practices these superstitions

TERTIARY

SECONDARY

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Table 2: The different foods held in superstitions

Name of food/meat/drink Reason for superstition

Grass cutter Prolonged labour; Causes false labour in pregnant women

Honey Makes the baby to have soft head and spots on the skin

Snail Causes the baby to split (salivate excessively)

Pig meat (Pork) Makes the baby to breath like a pig

Banana No reason was given

Udah (Senegal Pepper -Xylopia

aethiopica) Causes early contraction and abortion of the baby

Alcohol

To avoid spitting; Christian; causes abortion of the baby and kidney

dysfunction

Coffee Health hazard risk

Akpu Makes the child to be over-weight

Beans Makes the child to be over-weight

Okro Makes the baby to salivate excessively

Ogbono (Dika nut) Makes the baby to salivate excessively

Cold water The baby could be born with pneumonia

Bitter cola Causes constant convulsion in babies

Smoking cigarette It is not good for mother and baby

Donkey (Jaki) It behaves like human beings in the olden days

Snake (Python) It is forbidden

Beverages Causes the baby to be big

Malt Causes the baby to be big

Ona No reason was given

In table 2, different foods, meats and drinks that are held in superstition for various reasons were listed.

Table 3: The Percentage of Response to the Different Superstitious Foods

Name of food/meat/drink Frequency Percentage

Grass cutter 10 10

Honey 3 3

Snail 4 4

Pig meat (Pork) 1 1

Banana 1 1

Udah (Senegal Pepper -Xylopia aethiopica) 3 3

Alcohol 6 6

Coffee 1 1

Akpu 1 1

Beans 3 3

Okro 1 1

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Ogbono (Dika nut) 1 1

Cold water 1 1

Bitter cola 1 1

Smoking cigarette 1 1

Donkey (Jaki) 1 1

Snake (Python) 1 1

Beverages 1 1

Malt 1 1

Ona 1 1

Table 3, revealed that grass-cutter (Nchi) meat featured

more frequently in the response of the respondents it

has 10% of the responses. Alcohol (6%), Snail (4%),

honey, beans and uda (3%) featured more than once in

their responses.

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Table 4: The Feeding Pattern of the Respondents

Parameter Frequency Percentage

No of meals per day

1 2 2

2 7 7

3 63 63

> 3 28 28

How often they take snacks (eg: meat pie)

Daily 18 18

1 – 2 times a week 21 21


Rarely 52 52

Meal(s) they usually skipped

Breakfast 6 6

Lunch 2 2

Dinner 1 1

None 91 91

Total 100 100

Reasons for skipping meals

Limited fund 0 0

Fear of vomiting 2 2

Insufficient time to prepare meals 0 0

Lifestyle 6 6

Tiredness 0 0

Do not want my child to be too big 1 1

No response 91 91

How often they eat fruits and vegetables

Daily 53 53



Rarely 10 10

How often they take their routine drugs

Daily 79 79

1 – 2 times per week 9 9


Rarely 6 6

Those that considered they should change

their food habit

Yes 29 29

No 71 71

Table 4, showed the feeding pattern of the respondents, 53% takes fruits and vegetables daily, 9% skip meals and

6% rarely take their supplements.

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In table 5, the incompatible lifestyles with pregnancy among the respondents as well as different diseases they

suffer from were revealed. Seven percent (7%) are on weight reducing diet, 1% smokes and 67% do not take

alcohol at all.

Table 6: Anthropometric Parameters of the Pregnant Women

Parameter Mean±SD Range

Table 5: The Incompatible lifestyles of The Pregnant Women

Parameter Frequency Percentages

Those on weight reducing diet

Yes 7 7

No 93 93

Total 100 100

Their smoking history

Current smoker 1 1

Ex – smoker 0 0

Never smoked 99 99

Those that take coffee often

Yes 1 1

No 99 99

How often they take alcohol take alcohol

Daily 3 3



Rarely 27 27

Not at all 67 67

Quantity of alcohol per day

1 bottle per day 11 11

2 bottle sper day 0 0

3 bottles per day 1 1

Above 3 bottles per day 0 0

1 glass per day 21 21

No response 67 67

Type of alcohol taken

Beer 8 8

Kaikai 0 0

Palmwine 14 14

Others 11 11

No response 67 67

How often they take their routine drugs

Daily 79 79



Rarely 6 6

Do you suffer from any chronic disease

Diabetes mellitus 0 0

Hypertension 1 1

Anaemia 0 0

Arthritis 3 3

None 96 96

22




Weight (Kg) 77.47±12.23 60.00 – 120.00

Height (M) 1.66±0.06 1.51–1.84

Wrist Circumference (cm) 16.17±0.99 14.00 –19.00

Expected Weight (Kg) 66.97±7.91 49.00 –86.00

Frame Size 10.30±0.60 8.17 –11.77

As presented in table 6, the mean weight and height of

the subjects were 77.47 ± 12.23kg and1.66± 0.06m

respectively. Their mean wrist circumference was 16.17

± 0.99cm. Also, the mean frame size and mean

expected weight were 10.30 ± 0.60 and 66.97 ± 7.91

respectively.

Also it important to report that 42% of the women were

within normal expected body weight while 3% were

underweight and 55% overweight

Discussion

Socio-economic characteristics of the subjects

The age of the women ranged from 15 to 50 years. The

highest number 58 (58%) of the pregnant women were

within the age range of 21 - 30 years, It is also

important to note that although the incidence of teenage

pregnancy among the respondents was very low; about

1% of the women are teenagers, which belong to the

age range of 15 - 20 years. Contrary to a similar study

carried out in Ganye L.G.A. in Adamawa state where

the incidence of adolescent pregnancy was very high.

The result of the study in Ganye showed that prevalence

of adolescent pregnancy in Ganye was 51%. The

research revealed the occurrence of adolescent

pregnancy in each of the tribe sampled which showed

84.61% for Hausa, 63.15% for Fulani, 43.54% for

Chambas and 33.33% for others (Maduforo & Ojebode,

2011). This however, is of a great concern in that

nourishing a growing foetus adds to a teenage girl's

nutrition burden, especially if her growth is still

incomplete. Simply being young increases the risks of

pregnancy complications independent of important

socio-economic factors (Klein et al., 2005).

Another important factor to note here was that the

highest number 58 (58%) attended tertiary institution

and 33% attended secondary school, still amongst these

groups food superstitions were being practiced. A

common saying that says "Knowledge is power" was

being demonstrated which revealed that although these

women attended school but they lack the correct

nutrition knowledge and wisdom which the inability to

apply the knowledge in everyday life this however is a

very serious threat to adequate nutrition. Poverty and

shortage of nutritious foods are of the most important

factors related to malnutrition. Everyone needs nutrition

education to fight malnutrition (Okoli, 2009).

Existence, acceptance and practice of foods

superstition by pregnant women

Most women (71%) said there are not food superstitions

during pregnancy. However, some women (29%)

admitted the existence of food superstition in pregnancy

in the various communities. The food superstitions here

was in line with a similar research published in the

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition on the topic

“Nutritional Hazards of Food Taboos and Preferences

in Mid-West Nigeria” by Ogbeide (1994) which

revealed the following food taboos in:

Meat – are not to be eaten by children because it makes

them acquire excessive food habits which they cannot

afford unless they steal.

Eggs – not to be eaten by children because it makes

them steal.

Liver – not to be eaten by children because it causes

abscess of the liver.

Milk – not to be eaten by children because it makes

them to develop bad habit.

Coconut Milk – not to be eaten by children because it

renders them unintelligent.

Snail – not to be eaten by pregnant women because it

causes excessive salivation in the newborn baby.

Porcupine – not to be eaten by pregnant women because

it causes delay in labour.

Oil – not to be eaten by newly delivered mothers

because it causes jaundice in babies.

It is important to note therefore that the customs that

prohibit consumption of certain nutritionally valuable

foods may not have an important overall nutritional

impact, particularly if only one or two food items are

affected. Some societies, however, forbid such as wide

range of foods to women during pregnancy that it is

difficult for them to obtain a balanced diet.

Among the 29% that admitted it, 65.52% accepted these

superstitions and practiced it. It quite unveiling that

among those that accepted and practices these

superstitions 68% of them were educated at least they

have attended tertiary institution while the rest 32%

attended secondary school. This is quite important to

note that being educated in a particular discipline do not

guarantee that one has a good nutritional knowledge.

Acquiring knowledge is required that one gets it from

the right source, i.e. somebody who is trained in that

area.

In table 2, different foods, meats and drinks that are

held in superstition for various reasons were listed. The

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result shown revealed that fufu (akpu), beans, beverages

(cocoa drinks) and malt were attached with a

superstition that they believed it results to overweight

child. Most of these foods such as fufu, beverages and

even malt are good sources of carbohydrate and energy

in the south-eastern part of Nigeria where this research

was carried out. Pregnancy imposes greater need for

energy in the body hence, when all these easy sources

of energy foods are forbidden, the women would find

little to select food from and hence, monotonous

feeding will set in. Furthermore, cocoa

drunks/beverages like milo were believed to result to

overweight baby while it is an important fast food for

breakfast in Nigeria. It contains energy and protein and

never results to overweight baby except if consumed

excessively.

Also, there is a superstition, snail, beans, bush meat

(Grass cutter), and pork that are good sources of protein

especially beans that is easily affordable. Also, bush

meat has very high biological value protein and it is

common in Enugu that their consumption could

ameliorate the problem of protein deficiency and even

other nutrients present in meats and beans.

Donkey meat and snake were forbidden but they are not

easily available so even when there were no

superstitions attached, a pregnant woman might not

even see it. However, the beliefs placed on them are not

scientifically proven. Three leave yam (Dioscorea

dumetorum) (Una) had been forbidden without any

reason. However its consumption had not been proven

detrimental both to the mother or child.

Okro, dika nut and snail also had superstitions attached

to them. They believed that this causes the child to

salivate excessively. This is completely a wrong

superstition because okro is a good source of

micronutrient; dika nut is common soup thickeners that

contain micronutrients as well as protein. Cold water

was also said to cause pneumonia for the child, this as

well is wrong information. Pneumonia is cause by

bacteria and not water born disease. It is important for a

pregnant woman to drink enough water of any type to

replenish fluid loss. Honey was said to make the baby

have soft head and spots on the skin, however, the

complexion off a child of any mark is not as a result of

what the mother ate but genetically determined.

Bitter kola, coffee, smoking and alcohol were other

things that were found to be forbidden for pregnant

women. According to Odebunmi et al. (2009) bitter

kola (Garcinia cola) is also known as African wonder

nut. It comes from Garcinia cola trees, which belongs to

the family Clusiaceae and grows in coastal rainforests

in the South Western and South Eastern parts of

Nigeria. Traditionally, these nuts were chewed as a

masticatory substance, to stimulate the flow of saliva

(Leakey, 2001) but are now widely consumed as snack

in West and Central Africa. The kernels of the nuts are

widely traded and eaten as a stimulant (Leakey, 2001;

Omode et al., 1995). Bitter kola is also rich in caffeine

and threobromine and is also believed to be an

aphrodisiac. Unlike other kola nuts however, bitter kola

is believed to clean the digestive system, without side

effects such as abdominal problems, even when a lot of

nuts are eaten (Onochie and Stanfield, 1960). In folk

medicine, bitter kola is dried, ground and mixed with

honey to make a traditional cough mixture.

Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can cause

irreversible mental and physical retardation of the

Fetus-Fatal alcohol Syndrome (FAS). Of the leading

causes of mental retardation, FAS is the only one that is

totally preventable. To that end, the surgeon generally

urges all pregnant women to refrain from drinking

alcohol (United States Morbidity and Mortality Weekly

Report, 2004).

Also coffee has high content of caffeine. Caffeine

crosses the placenta, and the developing foetus has a

limited ability to metabolize it. Research studies have

not proved that caffeine (even in high doses) causes

birth defects in human infants (as it does in animals),

but some evidence suggests that heavy use increases the

risk of foetal death (Bech, 2005). (In these studies,

heavy caffeine use is defined as the equivalent of eight

or more cups of coffee a day). All things considered, it

is most sensible to limit caffeine consumption to the

equivalent of a cup of coffee or two 12 ounce cola

beverage a day.

Smoking cigarettes and chewing tobacco at any time

exert harmful effects, and pregnancy dramatically

magnifies the hazards of these practices. Smoking

restricts the blood supply to the growing fetus and thus

limits oxygen and nutrient delivery and waste removal.

A mother who smokes is more likely to have a

complicated birth and a low-birth weight infant. Indeed,

of all preventable causes of low birth weight in the

United States, smoking is at the top of the list.

Although, most infants born to cigarette smokers are

low birth weight, some are not, suggesting that the

effect of smoking on birth weight also depends in part,

on genes involved in the metabolism of smoking toxins

(Wang, 2002).

In addition to contribution to low birth weight, smoking

interferes with lung growth and increases the risk of

respiratory infections and childhood asthma (Difranza

et al., 2004). It can also cause death in an otherwise

healthy fetus or newborn. A positive relationship exists

between Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and

both cigarette smoking during pregnancy and postnatal

exposure to passive smoke (Difranza et al., 2004).

Smoking during pregnancy may even harm the

intellectual and behavioural development of the child

later in life. According to Ellie and Sharon, (2008), the

24




following complications are associated with smoking

during pregnancy;

Foetal growth retardation

Low birth weight

Complications at birth (prolonged final stage

of labour)

Misallocation of the placenta

Premature separation of the placenta

Vaginal bleeding

Spontaneous abortion

Foetal death

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Middle ear diseases

Cardiac and respiratory diseases.

Infants of mothers who chew tobacco also have low

birth weights and high rates of foetal deaths. Any

woman who smokes cigarette or chews tobacco and is

considering pregnancy or who is already pregnant

should try to quit.

Feeding pattern of the women

Table 4; showed that 63% of the women eat 3 meals per

day which is the highest while most of the women do

not skip any meal, 91% of them, however, the meal

they most frequently skip is breakfast (6%) and lunch

(2%), while supper showed to be 1%. Nutritional status

is the outcome of food consumed, absorbed and utilized

by the body. Hence, weight-loss dieting, even for short

periods, is hazardous during pregnancy. Low-

carbohydrate diets or fasts that cause ketosis deprive the

fetal brain of needed glucose and may impair cognitive

development. Regardless of pre-pregnancy weight,

pregnant women should never intentionally loose

weight (Ellie & Sharon, 2008).

Another important parameter in table 4 is their intake of

fruits and vegetables, which is the richest way of

meeting the needs of micro-nutrients like vitamins and

minerals. Only 53% actively engage in daily

consumption of fruits and vegetables while 10% rarely

consume it. Another way of meeting these needs is by

taking their vitamin supplements daily. But however,

about 6% rarely engage in the act while 79% rightly

take their supplements daily.



Fetus-Fatal alcohol Syndrome (FAS). Of the leading

causes of mental retardation, FAS is the only one that is

totally preventable. To that end, the surgeon generally

urges all pregnant women to refrain from drinking

alcohol (United States Morbidity and Mortality Weekly

Report, 2004).

The incompatible lifestyles of the pregnant women

Table 5 showed that about 7% were on weight reducing

diet, 1% smoked, 1% took coffee often and 33% took

alcohol. Krummel (2007) posits that weight-loss dieting

during pregnancy is never advisable. Overweight

women should try to achieve a healthy body weight

before becoming pregnant, avoid excessive weight gain

during pregnancy, and postpone weight loss until after

childbirth. Weight loss is best achieved by eating

moderate amounts of nutrient-dense foods and

exercising to loose body fat.

Smoking cigarettes and chewing tobacco at any time

exert harmful effects, and pregnancy dramatically

magnifies the hazards of these practices. Smoking

restricts the blood supply to the growing fetus and thus

limits oxygen and nutrient delivery and waste removal.

A mother who smokes is more likely to have a

complicated birth and a low-birth weight infant. The

Federal Ministry of Health warns that smokers are

liable to die young yet a percentage of the women

smoked which may be harmful to the foetus, 99% never

smoked. Caffeine crosses the placenta, and the

developing foetus has a limited ability to metabolize it.

Research studies have not proved that caffeine (even in

high doses) causes birth defects in human infants (as it

does in animals), but some evidence suggests that heavy

use increases the risk of foetal death (Bech, 2005). (In

these studies, heavy caffeine use is defined as the

equivalent of eight or more cups of coffee a day). All

things considered, it is most sensible to limit caffeine

consumption to the equivalent of a cup of coffee or two

12 ounce cola beverage a day. Only a percentage of the

pregnant women take coffee while 99% don’t take

coffee at all.



Fetus-Fatal alcohol Syndrome (FAS). Among the

leading causes of mental retardation, FAS is the only

one that is totally preventable. To that end, the surgeon

generally urges all pregnant women to refrain from

drinking alcohol (United States Morbidity and Mortality

Weekly Report, 2004). Table 5 also reveals that up to

6% of the women drink alcohol within the week, of

these, 3% drinks daily, 3% drinks 1 - 2 times in a week.

About 67% of the women do not drink alcohol at all.

The quantity of alcohol taken mostly by the pregnant

women was seen to be a glass per day (21%), seconded

by a bottle per day (11%). According to table 5 palm-

wine (14%) was the most favourite of the women while

beer (11%) was the least. Pregnant women who

suffered from chronic diseases were very few. Some

women develop hypertension during the second half of

pregnancy. Most often, the rise in blood pressure is

mild and does not affect the pregnancy adversely.

Blood pressure usually returns to normal during the first

few weeks after childbirth. This transient hypertension

of pregnancy differs from the life-threatening

hypertensive diseases of pregnancy – preeclampsia and

eclampsia (Ellie & Sharon, 2008). Only a percentage of

25




the women had hypertension. However, 3% of the

women had arthritis. Majority (96%) had none of the

chronic diseases.

Nutritional status of the pregnant women figure 9 showed that 42% of the women were within the

range of expected body weight while 55% were

overweight and 3% were underweight. This statistics is

abnormal and needs an urgent intervention.

Surkan, (2004) stated that without adequate nutrition

during pregnancy, foetal growth and infant health are

compromised. In general, consequences of malnutrition

during pregnancy include fetal growth retardation,

congenital malformations (birth defects), spontaneous

abortion and stillbirth, preterm birth and low infant

birth weight. Preterm birth and low infant birth weight,

in turn, predict the risk of stillbirth in a subsequent

pregnancy. Ellie and Sharon, (2008) says that

malnutrition, coupled with low birth weight, is a factor

in more than half of all deaths of children under four

years of age worldwide.

Obese women have an especially high risk of medical

complications such as hypertension, gestational

diabetes, and postpartum infections. Compared with

other women, obese women are also more likely to have

other complications of labour and delivery (Young et

al., 2002). Overweight women have the lowest rate of

low-birthweight infants. However, overweight women

are more likely to born post-term and to weigh more

than 9 pounds. Large newborns increase the likelihood

of a difficulty labour and delivery, birth trauma, and

cesarean section. Consequently, these infants have a

greater risk of poor health and death than infants of

normal weight (Ellie & Sharon, 2008).

Obesity may double the risk for neural tube defects.

Folates role has been examined, but a more likely

explanation seems to be poor glycaemic control (King,

2006). In addition, both overweight and obese women

have a greater risk of giving birth to infants with heart

defects and other abnormalities (Watkins, 2003).

An underweight woman has a high risk of having a low-

birthweight infant, especially if she is malnourished or

unable to gain sufficient weight during pregnancy. In

addition, the rates of preterm births and infant deaths

are higher for underweight women. An underweight

woman improves her chances of having a healthy infant

by gaining sufficient weight prior to conception or by

gaining extra pounds during pregnancy (Ellie & Sharon,

2008).

Conclusion

Conclusively, this research has revealed that 29%

acknowledged that there is still an existence of food

superstition among pregnant women that attend ante-

natal in UNTH Ituku/Ozalla how much more those that

do not come for ante-natal and about 65.52% of the

29% them still practice it. The feeding pattern of this

65.52% was being affected by these superstitions. Their

nutritional status is certainly determined by what they

eat because "we are what we eat". However, about 42%

had normal expected body weight while 58% of

pregnant women were malnourished.

Recommendation

The findings of this research work have necessitate that

we salvage the incidence of maternal and preterm death,

I therefore recommend the following to be carried out

in ante-natal clinic UNTH Ituku/Ozalla and as well as

other localities that practice similar food superstitions;

Nutrition intervention such as nutrition

education in different villages, health centres

and women organizations to be given mainly

on the area of food superstitions against

pregnant women.

A healthy eating pattern to be taught to these

women when they are pregnant and the

importance of consumption of fruits and

vegetables to supply micronutrients and fibre

to the body.

Husbands should be educated on the

importance of their wives' food and nutrition

during pregnancy.

Government should also provide employment

to the vast population of women that are

unemployed in the area.

These women should be educated to engage

in subsistence farming which will help

alleviate the level of poverty and hunger in

the area.

These women should also be educated to eat

more of unrefined food instead of the refined

foods that predispose them to overweight and

obesity.

Women should be educated on the

importance of healthy weight prior to

pregnancy.

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