Research ArticleForest Resource Use Pattern in Fringe Villages of BarseyRhododendron Sanctuary and Singalila National Park ofKhangchendzonga Landscape India
Santosh K Chettri 12 Ghanashyam Sharma1 Kailash S Gaira2 Aseesh Pandey 2
Rajesh Joshi2 Nakul Chettri3 and Bharat Kumar Pradhan4
113e Mountain Institute (TMI)ndashIndia Tadong Gangtok Sikkim India2G B Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment Sikkim Regional Centre Pangthang Sikkim India3International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development Kathmandu Nepal4Sikkim State Biodiversity Board Forest Environment and Wildlife Management Department Deorali Gangtok Sikkim India
Correspondence should be addressed to Santosh K Chettri basnett66rediffmailcom and Aseesh Pandeydraseeshpandeygmailcom
Received 15 September 2020 Revised 27 December 2020 Accepted 28 December 2020 Published 11 February 2021
Academic Editor Daniel M Kashian
Copyright copy 2021 Santosh K Chettri et al is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work isproperly cited
Forests in the Barsey-Singalila transboundary area under Khangchendzonga landscape (KL) are facing pressures of resource usesDespite continuous utilizations complete data are lacking from the ground level Socioeconomic demographic and forest use datawere obtained by interviewing 233 households across two study locations Forest productmarket survey was undertaken to determineprices of forest products Resource dependence index was (060) high for both the locations Alnus nepalensis is highly preferred fuelspecies with probability of use (0791) and Rhododendron arboreum with probability of use (009) is considered as least preferredspecies Relatively bigger village withmore population is aggravating utilization pressures Resource use at Gorkhey-Samanden is low(20 in case of fuelwood) as compared to the use at Ribdi-Bhareng (80 for fuelwood) Only preferred medicinal plants or wildedibles namely Yushania maling are collected regardless of their availability for fuelwood and other uses which is causing morepressure on a small group of plants A huge shortfall between resource demand and production indicates the possible extraction ofresources from surrounding reserve forests e results provide significant information on peoples dependency on forest resourcesand may be utilized for developing forest conservation policies for enhanced ecosystem services and livelihoods in the region
1 Introduction
Forest is an essential component of various ecosystem servicesLocal people depend on forest resources for various productssuch as fuel wood construction materials medicine and food[1] Globally it is estimated that between 11 billion and 17billion people depend to varying degrees on forests for theirlivelihoods and about 200million indigenous communities arealmost fully dependent on forests [2] It is estimated that20ndash25 of rural peoplesrsquo income is obtained from environ-mental resources in developing countries [3] and act as safetynets in periods of crisis or during seasonal food shortages [4 5]
While in rural India nearly 275 million people are di-rectly dependent on forests for sustaining their livelihood[6] Forest and people are inextricably linked in India andaround 350ndash400 million (40) people are dependent onforest resources [7] About 70 of Indian population lives inrural areas and most of them have either agriculture orforest-based economy [8] eir dependency on the forestresource is still high due to easy access simple use and lackof economically viable options [9] Demand and con-sumption of fuelwood is not increasing over last decades ascompared to the rate estimated earlier in 1980s and it is stillvalid in rural areas [10] e underutilized wild edible
HindawiInternational Journal of Forestry ResearchVolume 2021 Article ID 8856988 11 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520218856988
bioresources can play a significant role in rural developmentpoverty alleviation livelihood enhancement and nutritionalsecurity of local communities through bioprospecting withapplication of suitable scientific interventions [11ndash14]
Barsey-Singalila transboundary area within Khang-chendzonga landscape (KL) houses unique ethnic and socialgroups with rich traditional knowledge on bioresourceutilization [15] Over the years human pressure is exertedupon this transborder area for collection of basic subsistencematerials viz fuelwood fodder construction timber andnontimber forest produces (NTFPs) e dwelling com-munity in the region employs different farming and livestockpractices and also depends on forest resources for regularincome generation Hence a comprehensive information onresource utilization patterns is required across statersquos borderof KL Also to assess environmental impacts posed uponfrom the intervention is greatly sensed erefore weplanned to assess indigenous resource use patterns andpeoplersquos dependency on bioresource needs e studyprincipally highlights on the resource availability their usepatterns demand and peoplersquos dependency on natural re-sources for setting conservation priorities and livelihoodsecurity as apparent from the assessment
2 Materials and Methods
21 Study Sites Singalila National Park (SNP) having786 km2 area is located on the Singalila Ridge at an altitudeof 7000m asl in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal It isfamous for trekking route to Sandakphu that runs through ite park was previously declared a wildlife sanctuary in1986 e region had long been used as the trekking routefromManebhanjang to Sandakphu (the highest peak ofWestBengal and Phalut) e trek along the Singalila Ridge toSandakphu and Phalut is one of the most popular ones in theEastern Himalaya due to the grand vistas of the Khang-chendzonga range and the Everest range which can be seenfrom the ridge and also for the seasonal wildflower bloomsand birding
Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary (BRS) covers an area of104 km2 established in 2004 in the Singalila Ridge in westernSikkim It borders on Nepal to the west and on the state ofWest Bengal to the south across the Rambong Khola streamere are three points of entry to this sanctuary from HilleyDentam and Soreng Tourists generally prefer Hilley since itis approachable by road too e bridle path from Hilley toBarsey is a favorite amongst tourists especially during theRhododendron flowering season e faunal value of BRSincludes leopard cat Himalayan Yellow throated MartenHimalayan Palm Civet and many diverse species of birdsTwo villages were selected for the present study from theBarsey-Singalila transboundary area namely Ribdi-Bharengsurrounding the BRS (Sikkim) and Gorkhey-Samanden(Darjeeling district West Bengal) surrounding the SNP(Table 1)
Gorkhey-Samanden a forest village located at an altitudeof 2286m asl is the remotest village situated in the closeproximity to the SNP (Darjeeling) in the north and BRS(Sikkim) in the east connected by an interstate border
(Figure 1) It is bestowed with rich biodiversity providing awide range of ecosystem services and hence bears localsignificance e village covers an area of 36 hectares ereare 65 households in the village with a total population of205 persons comprising of Sherpa Rai Chettri and Tamangcommunities Male literacy rate of the village is 64whereas female literacy rate is 52 Agriculture livestockand tourism are major livelihood options of the communityPotato maize oat (barley) bean rayosaag (green leafyvegetable) pea cabbage radish and squash are commoncrops found Apart from these yacon (Smallanthus son-chifolius) is recently introduced speciesunder KLprogramme
Ribdi-Bhareng West Sikkim is a Gram Panchayat Unit(GPU) with a total area of 543 hectares ere are 324households in the GPU with total population of 1536 per-sons Sherpa Rai Chettri Tamang and Gurung are the maindwelling communities Male literacy rate of Ribdi-Bhareng is60 and female 50 Agriculture and livestock rearing aremajor occupations of the people in Ribdi-Bhareng Potatomaize oat (barley) bean rayosaag pea buckwheat cabbagecauliflower radish squash and large cardamom are staplecrops cultivated and cattle are also kept for diary purposes
22 Methods
221 Survey and Sampling e socioeconomic survey ofthe households using semistructured questionnaire formatswas carried out A total of 233 households were surveyedfrom Gorkhey-Samanden (as site-A 60 hh) and Ribdi-Bhareng (as site-B 173 hh) e data were collected throughstratified random sampling [16] to select households in thesample villages to collect primary socioeconomic data ontypes of forest resource consumption source frequencyresource demand and farm production e forest productmarket survey was undertaken to determine prices of forestproducts In addition the PRA (including focus groupdiscussions) survey was conducted In the process keystakeholdersinformants members of the farming com-munity ecotourism committee members government em-ployees and the panchayat representatives were involvedPreferred fodder species were also documented from thehouseholds Households were asked about the fuelwoodfodder and other non-timber forest product collection andquantity of biomass that they extracted annually from theforest Two individuals per household per day were foundinvolved in collection of fuelWeighed the head loads (bhari)for fuelwood at the entry and exit points of the forestboundary during NovemberndashMarch approximately for 150days Forty bharis were sampled in each village during eachinvestigation Collected amount of each species segregatedout of each bundle based on local names and then weighedusing a spring balance [17] Living samples (twig containingleaf and flowers) of each species were locally identified andwere later identified scientifically To measure fuelwoodutilization actual number of hours burnt by a species wasdivided by the total number of hours that the fuel could haveburnt [17] Additional information were collected using field
2 International Journal of Forestry Research
observations and transect walks Information on price ofdifferent NTFPswild edibles and medicinal plants werecollected through the market survey e collected data onfuelwood were analysed following [17 18]
222 Data Analysis
Total species collected householdminus 1dayminus 1Cd( 1113857 number of individuals househosldminus 1responsible for collection
amp9 timesaverage collection(A)(1)
or
A T
N (2)
where T is the total species collected in all samples and N isthe number of samples
Probability of use (PU) 1113936 FiPi
1113936 Pi
(3)
where Fi is the frequency of collection of a species in the ithsite and Pi is the population of the ith site
Resource use index (RUI) total species collection householdminus 1yearminus 1times PU (4)
Fuelwood consumption among the sites was determinedusing Sorensonrsquos similarity index [19]
Similarity index (SI) 2C
A + Btimes 100 (5)
where C is the amount of fuel collected common in sites (Aand B) A is the collection of fuel in site A and B is thecollection of fuel in site B Shortfall in resource needs andpossible extraction are determined on the basis of the in-formation collected
Table 1 Detail of the study sites
Study area Latitude and longitude Total no ofhouseholds
Figure 1 Map of the study area showing the location of study villages in Khangchendzonga landscape India
International Journal of Forestry Research 3
3 Results
31 Resource Availability Status and Peoplersquos DependencyWith the aim of collecting data on resource base for villageswe carried out the seasonal study on resource extraction andutilization patterns Results of the studied parametersdepicted that fuelwood fodder timber wild edibles me-dicinal plants and litter are the most common forest re-sources for Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samandenhouseholds (Table 2) Regardless of availability status sourceof resource would be preferentially private forests (as ruralpeople claim) reserved forest national parks and wildlifesanctuaries We evidenced colloquial activities of tourismpractices forest collections and grazing from the sitesPeople have to travel atleast 2ndash5 kilometers distances ev-eryday to extract the resource Wherein the dependencyindex of studied sites was determined within 060
e fuelwood consumption at Ribdi-Bhareng wasrecorded slightly higher than Gorkhey-Samanden by 15farmland production of fuelwood at Ribdi-Bhareng wasmore than private land fuelwood growth at Gorkhey-Samanden by 80 is may be due to higher fraction oflandholdings possessed by the house of Ribdi-Bhareng etotal number of households at Ribdi-Bhareng is 324 andGorkhey-Samanden is 65 Likewise fodder consumptionrate was more at Ribdi-Bhareng (17) than fodder con-sumption at Gorkhey-Samanden and in a similar way thefarm fodder production rate at Gorkhey-Samanden waslower than Ribdi-Bhareng (583)
Timber required at Gorkhey-Samanden was found 6cubic cmmiddothhminus1 yrminus1 which is much higher than the estimatedproduction of 01 cubic cm hhminus1 yminus1 Similarly timber de-mand in Ribdi-Bhareng was recorded 75 cubic cmhhminus1middotyrminus1 and the production was 02 cubic cmmiddothhminus1middotyrminus1On the other hand litter use at both Gorkhey-Samanden andRibdi-Bhareng villages was found 10 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 and12 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 respectively Similarly production amountwas found 7 kgmiddothhminus1middotyrminus1 for both the villages NTFPwildedibles demand at Gorkhey-Samanden was 05 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1
and Ribdi-Bhareng 04 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 whereas production wasfound half of the amount ie 025 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 for both theabove villages Across the study sites food stuffs (ration)required were estimated 12 kgmiddothhminus1middotmonthminus1 for a familyhaving 6 members in each Per capita crop production wasestimated 3 kgmiddotmonthminus1 for a family
32 Fuelwood Collection Probability of Use (PU) and Re-source Use Index (RUI) Habit and mean collection (kgsampleminus1middotdayminus1 and kg sampleminus1middotyrminus1) for common fuelwoodspecies are presented in Table 3 Most species used for fuelare regarded as tree species Mean collection for Arundodonax (168 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) is found to be the mostcollected species followed by Quercus lamellosa(162 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) and least for Tsuga dumosa andAnkhle (011 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) For yearly extrapolationAundo donax (252 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyearminus1) showed the mostcollected species followed by Quercus lamellosa Sm(243 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyearminus1) and the least to Alnus nepalensis D
Don (2415 sampleminus1middotyearminus1) Probability of use (PU) ismaximum for Arundo donax (0813) followed by Alnusnepalensis (0791) Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (0745) andCastanopsis tribuloides (07) and least in Rhododendronarboreum (009)
Resource extraction processes were studied for fuel foddertimber NTFPswild edibles litter and crop (Table 4) Oursurvey revealed that per year fuelwood consumption at Ribdi-Bhareng is (74095kkmiddothhminus1) fodder (6570kkmiddothhminus1) and NTFPs(146kgmiddothhminus1) and Gorkhey-Samanden fuelwood is(7300kkmiddothhminus1) fodder (5475kgmiddothhminus1) and NTFPs(1825kgmiddothhminus1) Resource demand is compared with the re-source production as shown in Table 5 Demand of fuelwood(239327 tonmiddotyrminus1) and fodder (212211 tonmiddotyrminus1) at Ribdi-Bhareng was comparatively more than what is recorded fromGorkhey-Samanden (fuelwood 4453 tonmiddotyrminus1 and fodder33398 tonmiddotyrminus1) Considering the fact that wood biomass isrequired for construction purposes such as house and gothscowshed such is evident from timber requirement at Ribdi-Bhareng (24225 cftyr) and also production (646 cftyr) therebyleading to shortfall amount (23579 cftyr) Fuelwood demand inGorkhey-Samanden was (4453 tonmiddotyrminus1) whereas productionwas (012 tonmiddotyrminus1) As per the primary survey of the vil-lages the fuel consumption was 41886 ton and the annualfuel availability was estimated as 21103 ton which indi-cates a deficit of 20783 ton Per family fuel consumptionwas found 5253 kg which varies seasonally (summer1728 kg and winter 3525 kg)
33 Fodder Use Farm animals in Barsey-Singalila arerearing by two means stall feeding and open grazingOpen grazing in forest sites has been banned in Sikkimunder statersquos revised grazing policy 2005 (remainedeffective from 2010) although illegal grazing insideforests occur But the animal percentage meant for stallfeeding is more (80) While studying the fodderpreferences 8 most preferred species 12 preferredspecies and 6 least preferred species were found for bothRibdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden villages(Table 6)
34 NTFP Use Varying degrees of NTFP use (as highmedium and low) and availability status (abundant mod-erate and rare) were noted Peoplersquos dependency (highmedium and low) and market prices of various wild ediblesNTFPs and medicinal herbs were studied as shown inTable 7 It is observed that Diplazium sp is priced to a low ofonly Rs 10bundle and Nardostachys jatamansi fetched thehighest price of Rs300 Some of the medicinal plants speciesare available seasonallyannually either in community for-ests (CF) reserve forest (RF) protected forests (PF) khasmalforest (KF) and agroforests (AF) as presented in Table 8
4 Discussion
e forests preserve the biological diversity as well as providethe natural wealth to the human being But forests are stilldegrading day by day due to exponential population growth
4 International Journal of Forestry Research
Table 3 Amount of collection probability of use (PU) and resource use index (RUI) for important fuelwood species in Barsey-Singalila
Species (local name) HabitCollection (mean)
Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdminus1 Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyrminus1 Probability of use(PU)
Resource use index(RUI)
Alnus nepalensis DDon (Uttis) T 161 2415 0791 1898Beilschmiedia roxburghiana Nees (Tarsing) T 019 285 0339 813Betula cylindrostachys Wall ex Diels (Saur) T 045 675 0632 1516Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) T 144 216 0678 1627
Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm) A DC (MusureyKatus) T 133 1995 07 168
Chukrasia tabularis AJuss (Bogipoma) T 121 1815 0271 650Cryptomeria japonica (unb ex Lf) DDon(Dhuppi) T 025 375 0293 703
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees amp Arn exMunro (Bans) T 123 1845 0745 1788
Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall) Meisn (Argeli) S 057 855 0542 1300Engelhardtia spicata Lechen ex Blume (Mauwa) T 045 675 0587 1408Eurya acuminata DC (Zhingane) T 085 1275 0519 1245Leucosceptrum canum Sm (Ghurpis) T 062 93 0565 1356Lithocarpus pachyphyllus (Kurz) Rehder T 012 18 018 432Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall) Drude (Angaree) T 043 645 0203 487Macaranga indica Wight (Malata) T 066 99 0361 866Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Mull Arg(Sanomalata) T 013 195 0384 921
Machilus edulis King ex Hookf (Rani Kawlo) T 031 465 0406 974Maesa chisia Buch-Ham ex D Don (Bilaune) T 024 36 0406 974Nyssa javanica (Blume) Wangerin(Lekhchilaune) T 014 21 0293 703
Prunus cerasoides Buch-Ham ex DDon(Paiyun) T 054 81 0497 1192
Lithocarpus fenestratus (Roxb) Rehder(Arkahulo) T 059 885 018 432
Quercus lamellosa Sm (Bajranth) T 162 243 0158 379Quercus lineata Blume (Phlant) T 098 147 0135 324Rhododendron arboretum Sm (Laligurans) T 045 675 009 216Schima wallichii Choisy (Chilaune) T 086 129 0429 1029Symplocos theifolia (Kharane) T 023 345 0316 758Symplocos sumuntia Buch-Ham ex DDon(Kholme) T 012 18 0339 813
Tsuga dumosa (DDon) Eichler (ingre salla) T 011 165 0113 271Viburnum nervosum DDon (Ashare) T 067 1005 0226 542Meliosma arnottiana (Wight) Walp (Dabdabe) T 013 195 018 432(Aankhle) T 011 165 0135 324Arundo donax (Narkat) S 168 252 0813 1951T tree S shrub
Table 2 Different sources availability status and peoplersquos dependency on local resources found in Barsey-Singalila site
Wildlife sanctuary reservedforests khasmal forests and
private forestsMedium 2ndash4 060
Gorkhey-Samanden
Firewood fodder woodpolesNTFPs and medicinal herbs and
litter
National park reserved forestsand khasmal forests Low 2ndash5 060
lowastDependence index (DI) is calculated on a scale of 0-1
International Journal of Forestry Research 5
poverty and lack of awareness about the ecosystem services[8] More than 350 million people were living inside or onthe fringes of forests across the world out of which 60million were largely dependent for sustenance [6] Forests inmost developing countries are under anthropogenic pres-sure from resource use by marginalized communities forsubsistence [7 20 21] e condition is considered moreperilous in Asia and Africa where loss of forests during aten-year period in the later part of the 20th century wasestimated to 163 million ha of which 154 million ha (945)was in the tropics alone [22]
Resource use data suggests that resource need is col-lected from a certain distance in the forest area which willbe far from the houses e dependency index of study siteswas found much higher than the dependency rate of
households as estimated in the midhills of eastern Nepal(40) [23] e households with low income and smallfragmented land are more dependent on the forest re-sources [24] Type and degree of dependence varies fromplace to place It is highest among the families living withinforest areas Such families (about 10 of the households)have no or very small landholdings Others who signifi-cantly depend for their household and day to day re-quirements as well as for certain specific (such asmedicinal) uses on neighbouring forests (about 50) in-clude not only those principally associated with agricultureor allied activities but also involved with forests one way orthe other [25]
Whereas the average fuelwood consumption in the areais comparatively higher than the fuelwood consumption
Table 4 Traditional resource use pattern in the Barsey-Singalila site
Resource Extraction process Species under use Frequency
Timber Felling and sawing2-3 times inbetween 5ndash10
yearsmdash 6 cm3
NTFPs andmedicinalplants
Felling chopping umbelpicking uprooting and
collecting
Morning 2-3 timesa week 05 1825
Litter Collecting gt2-3 times a day 10 3650lowastTimber is required in between 10 and 15 years for house construction
Table 5 Annual resource production and actual demand in study villages under Barsey-Singalila range
ResourceRibdi Bhareng Gorkhey-Samanden
Demand(toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE Demand (toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE
Fuelwood 239327 323 239004 143402 4453 012 44518 26711Fodder 212211 4651 20756 124536 33398 366 33032 19819Timber 24225 646 23579 141474 366 61 3599 21594NTFPs 4716 2947 1769 1061 1113 57 543 326Litter 141474 226 141248 84749 22265 043 22222 13333Food cropslowast 27907 6977 2093 12558 5270 1318 3952 2371DI dependency index from Table 1 Shortfall (S) D minus P Possible extraction (PE) S times DI lowastPurchasing of food cropsitems
6 International Journal of Forestry Research
amount as reported for Garhwal Himalaya [26] but lesserthan the amount measured in Kedarnath region [27] So ithonestly proves that pressure on resources is considerablyhigh Yearly production of the resource was also compar-atively much lesser than the requirement for households ofboth the study sites and this result can be compared with astudy held in Niti valley where fuelwood consumption wasmuch lower than the consumption amount of other greaterHimalayan villages [28]e average fuelwood consumptiondata is also compared with data in Kumaon villages whereper capita consumption amount was estimated to 314 kgday [29] Since fuelwood collection forms the highest and themost frequent use of forests followed by timber and foddercollection for livestock [25] Although Arundo donax showshigh RUI it is available at farmland Alnus nepalensisDendrocalamushamiltoni and Castanopsis tribuloides hav-ing high RUI are available at the forest including Alnusnepalensis depicting high pressure on the species Definitelythese species having high PU show preferences in the vil-lages us a comparatively larger village with more pop-ulation will aggravate utilization pressures
Resource production is far lesser than the demand asevident from the present survey e area is characterizedby sparse vegetation cover low primary productivity andshort growing season and is thus highly susceptible toirreversible changes of natural habitats [28 30] A hugeshortfall in resource availability predicts the possibleextraction of resources from the surrounding forests(namely the khasmal forests protected areas and agro-forestry areas) And the whole can also be compared withthe total available fodder in Central Himalayan village[31]
ere is a huge gap between timber demand andproduction which is required for construction of houseand gothscowshed and such case is evident from timberdemand at Ribdi-Bhareng and wood production ratethereby leading to huge shortfall Considering the factthat a very small fraction of firewood comes from theagriculture fields various resources demand and pro-duction in the study villages are attributed to productionand utilization patterns
Table 6 Preference-wise ranking of fodder species in study sites
Toona ciliata M Roem(Tuni)Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson ex Benth
(ekiphal)1 abundant 2 common 3 rare
International Journal of Forestry Research 7
e higher price is attributed being the species grow inhigh altitudes and in rare status [32] Similarly mush-room considered as valuable wild edible fetch highermarket cost is income can be compared with the value-added products of most selected wild edibles which de-rived maximum economic returns in Garhwal Himalayafor Hippophae salicifolia followed by Rhododendronarboreum and Spondias pinnata and minimum forMyricaesculenta [33] Communities of both the villages use localmedicinal plants for treatment of health problems relatedto indigestion antispasmodic chronic fever dysenteryand influenza for which different parts (eg root fruitleaf and sometimes entire plant) are used ese me-dicinal plants are found to be distributed within an ele-vation range between 800 and 3600m asl in the Himalaya[34] Preferred species are collected regardless of theiravailability for fuelwood and other uses which is causinghigh pressure on a small group of plants Marketing ofmedicinal herbs is inefficient informal secretive andopportunistic As a result the raw material supply situ-ation is shaky unsustainable and exploitative which inturn leads to depletion of the resource base exploiting ofthe rural people (who are the real stewards of the re-source) adulteration and nonavailability of quality herbaldrugs for domestic consumption as well as for exports[35 36] In a conclusion local ecosystem suffers from
shortage of suitable resource management policies in onesimilarly delay in implementation of associated policiesmay also result in gradual loss of biodiversity in anothere regional initiatives taken by G B Pant NationalInstitute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE) underKhangchendzonga Landscape Conservation and Devel-opment Initiative- (KLCDI-) India programme have beenwidely appreciated KLCDI is one of such transboundaryprogramme where partner countries may work togethertaking the above approaches
5 Conclusion
Transboundary areas are more vulnerable in terms of en-croachment such as tourist trekking carrying of businessitems animal grazing and collection of medicinalwildplants as evidenced in the Barsey-Singalila transboundaryarea Sustainable use of the resource in the area is muchrequired so that livelihood of the local people be improvedProduction using local and productive fodder species shouldbe emphasized Fuel fodder and wild edibles includingmedicinal herbal are diverse but there may a great threat tothose species of protected areas Our results emphasized theneed for regular assessment of forest resources particularlyin protected areas e afforestation of degraded unculti-vated and marginal lands through high-quality fuel species
Table 7 NTFPswild edibles (1 US$Rs 72 approx)
Species (local name) Usage Degree ofuse
Availabilitystatus
Peoplersquosdependency
Market price(Rsmiddotkgminus1)
Polygonum molle D Don (otnee) Fodder NTFP andedible Low Abundant High mdash
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) NTFP and medicine High Abundant High mdashZanthoxylum sp (Eirmong) NTFP and medicine Low Abundant Low 500Himalayacalamus hookerianus (Munro)Stapleton (Paraeing)
Roofing fencingand NTFP High Moderate High 500
Yushania maling (Gamble) R B Majumdar ampKarthik(Malingo) Roofing and NTFP Medium Rare High 800
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham ex DDon(Budookhati) Medicine Low Rare Medium 300
Diplazium sp(Ninguro) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant High 100Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook) Benth (Khanakpa) NTFP and remedial Low Rare High mdashHeracleum wallichii DC (Chimphing) NTFP and medicine Low Rare High 300Litsea cubeba (Lour) Pers (Siltimur) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High 540Pentapanax castanopsidicola Hayata(Chinday) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant Medium 300
Rhododendron arboreum Sm (Gurans) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High mdashRubus ellipticus Sm (Aiselu) NTFP and edible Low Abundant Medium mdash
Urtica dioica L (Sisnu) NTFP fibre andedible High Abundant High 250
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC (Bokeytimur)
NTFP edible andmedicine Low Rare Medium 200
Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson exBenth (ekiphal) NTFP and edible Medium Rare Medium 200
Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham ex DDon (JangaliMel)
NTFP edible andmedicine Medium Rare Medium 200
Agaricus sp (Local) NTFP and edible High Rare High 1500Arisema sp (Gurbo) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 300Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 200
8 International Journal of Forestry Research
in the villages might reduce pressure Energy value of thesespecies also needs to be determined
e study further suggests that providing alternate andnonconventional energy sources such as solar cookers andfuel efficient portable ovens to the inhabitants at subsi-dized rates could reduce the pressure on nearby forestsHowever the local government has supported the com-munity people through supplying LPG stoves and cyl-inders at free of cost which may not be in sufficientquantity Besides judicious harvest of resources consid-ering the production rate is ever appreciated Similarlygovernment policies involving resource management canimpact development processes Further alternative energysources are to be generated such as the use of biobriquettes(matula) as fuelwood
Data Availability
e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
e authors are grateful to the Director G B Pant NationalInstitute for Himalayan Environment for providing nec-essary support and facilities for carrying out research Fi-nancial support and cooperation received fromInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) during KLCDI-India programme implementa-tion are duly acknowledged e kind of support extendedby e Mountain Institute India is acknowledged e au-thors are also grateful to Forest Environment and WildlifeManagement Department Government of Sikkim andDirectorate of Forests West Bengal for affording supportduring our field works Last the support and cooperationextended by the Panchayat members and community peopleof Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden are deeplyappreciated
Table 8 Medicinal herbs from the study sites
Species(local name)
Elevation(m) Habit Availability
time Parts use ColourTaste Usage Consumption
(kg hhminus1middotyrminus1) Source
Acorus calamus L (Bonjho) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Root Whitebitter Bone fracture 5 CF
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) 800ndash2000 Herb Perennial Root andleaves
Greenbitter
Antiseptic andasthma 400 FRF
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham exDDon (Budookhat) 1600ndash3300 Shrub Perennial Root Green
bitter Dysentery 200 RF
Eupatorium cannabinumL (Banmara) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Leaf Green
bitter Bleeding mdash AFCF
Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook)Benth (Khanakpa) 1500ndash2500 Tree August Fruit Green
bitter Indigestion 500 RF
Heracleum wallichii DC(Chimphing) 1500ndash2500 Herb September Fruit Redbitter Influenza 600 KF
AFRhus succedanea L (Arkhol) 800ndash2500 Tree November Fruit Greysour Dysentery 100 CFAFRF reserved forest PF protected forest F farm
International Journal of Forestry Research 9
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
bioresources can play a significant role in rural developmentpoverty alleviation livelihood enhancement and nutritionalsecurity of local communities through bioprospecting withapplication of suitable scientific interventions [11ndash14]
Barsey-Singalila transboundary area within Khang-chendzonga landscape (KL) houses unique ethnic and socialgroups with rich traditional knowledge on bioresourceutilization [15] Over the years human pressure is exertedupon this transborder area for collection of basic subsistencematerials viz fuelwood fodder construction timber andnontimber forest produces (NTFPs) e dwelling com-munity in the region employs different farming and livestockpractices and also depends on forest resources for regularincome generation Hence a comprehensive information onresource utilization patterns is required across statersquos borderof KL Also to assess environmental impacts posed uponfrom the intervention is greatly sensed erefore weplanned to assess indigenous resource use patterns andpeoplersquos dependency on bioresource needs e studyprincipally highlights on the resource availability their usepatterns demand and peoplersquos dependency on natural re-sources for setting conservation priorities and livelihoodsecurity as apparent from the assessment
2 Materials and Methods
21 Study Sites Singalila National Park (SNP) having786 km2 area is located on the Singalila Ridge at an altitudeof 7000m asl in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal It isfamous for trekking route to Sandakphu that runs through ite park was previously declared a wildlife sanctuary in1986 e region had long been used as the trekking routefromManebhanjang to Sandakphu (the highest peak ofWestBengal and Phalut) e trek along the Singalila Ridge toSandakphu and Phalut is one of the most popular ones in theEastern Himalaya due to the grand vistas of the Khang-chendzonga range and the Everest range which can be seenfrom the ridge and also for the seasonal wildflower bloomsand birding
Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary (BRS) covers an area of104 km2 established in 2004 in the Singalila Ridge in westernSikkim It borders on Nepal to the west and on the state ofWest Bengal to the south across the Rambong Khola streamere are three points of entry to this sanctuary from HilleyDentam and Soreng Tourists generally prefer Hilley since itis approachable by road too e bridle path from Hilley toBarsey is a favorite amongst tourists especially during theRhododendron flowering season e faunal value of BRSincludes leopard cat Himalayan Yellow throated MartenHimalayan Palm Civet and many diverse species of birdsTwo villages were selected for the present study from theBarsey-Singalila transboundary area namely Ribdi-Bharengsurrounding the BRS (Sikkim) and Gorkhey-Samanden(Darjeeling district West Bengal) surrounding the SNP(Table 1)
Gorkhey-Samanden a forest village located at an altitudeof 2286m asl is the remotest village situated in the closeproximity to the SNP (Darjeeling) in the north and BRS(Sikkim) in the east connected by an interstate border
(Figure 1) It is bestowed with rich biodiversity providing awide range of ecosystem services and hence bears localsignificance e village covers an area of 36 hectares ereare 65 households in the village with a total population of205 persons comprising of Sherpa Rai Chettri and Tamangcommunities Male literacy rate of the village is 64whereas female literacy rate is 52 Agriculture livestockand tourism are major livelihood options of the communityPotato maize oat (barley) bean rayosaag (green leafyvegetable) pea cabbage radish and squash are commoncrops found Apart from these yacon (Smallanthus son-chifolius) is recently introduced speciesunder KLprogramme
Ribdi-Bhareng West Sikkim is a Gram Panchayat Unit(GPU) with a total area of 543 hectares ere are 324households in the GPU with total population of 1536 per-sons Sherpa Rai Chettri Tamang and Gurung are the maindwelling communities Male literacy rate of Ribdi-Bhareng is60 and female 50 Agriculture and livestock rearing aremajor occupations of the people in Ribdi-Bhareng Potatomaize oat (barley) bean rayosaag pea buckwheat cabbagecauliflower radish squash and large cardamom are staplecrops cultivated and cattle are also kept for diary purposes
22 Methods
221 Survey and Sampling e socioeconomic survey ofthe households using semistructured questionnaire formatswas carried out A total of 233 households were surveyedfrom Gorkhey-Samanden (as site-A 60 hh) and Ribdi-Bhareng (as site-B 173 hh) e data were collected throughstratified random sampling [16] to select households in thesample villages to collect primary socioeconomic data ontypes of forest resource consumption source frequencyresource demand and farm production e forest productmarket survey was undertaken to determine prices of forestproducts In addition the PRA (including focus groupdiscussions) survey was conducted In the process keystakeholdersinformants members of the farming com-munity ecotourism committee members government em-ployees and the panchayat representatives were involvedPreferred fodder species were also documented from thehouseholds Households were asked about the fuelwoodfodder and other non-timber forest product collection andquantity of biomass that they extracted annually from theforest Two individuals per household per day were foundinvolved in collection of fuelWeighed the head loads (bhari)for fuelwood at the entry and exit points of the forestboundary during NovemberndashMarch approximately for 150days Forty bharis were sampled in each village during eachinvestigation Collected amount of each species segregatedout of each bundle based on local names and then weighedusing a spring balance [17] Living samples (twig containingleaf and flowers) of each species were locally identified andwere later identified scientifically To measure fuelwoodutilization actual number of hours burnt by a species wasdivided by the total number of hours that the fuel could haveburnt [17] Additional information were collected using field
2 International Journal of Forestry Research
observations and transect walks Information on price ofdifferent NTFPswild edibles and medicinal plants werecollected through the market survey e collected data onfuelwood were analysed following [17 18]
222 Data Analysis
Total species collected householdminus 1dayminus 1Cd( 1113857 number of individuals househosldminus 1responsible for collection
amp9 timesaverage collection(A)(1)
or
A T
N (2)
where T is the total species collected in all samples and N isthe number of samples
Probability of use (PU) 1113936 FiPi
1113936 Pi
(3)
where Fi is the frequency of collection of a species in the ithsite and Pi is the population of the ith site
Resource use index (RUI) total species collection householdminus 1yearminus 1times PU (4)
Fuelwood consumption among the sites was determinedusing Sorensonrsquos similarity index [19]
Similarity index (SI) 2C
A + Btimes 100 (5)
where C is the amount of fuel collected common in sites (Aand B) A is the collection of fuel in site A and B is thecollection of fuel in site B Shortfall in resource needs andpossible extraction are determined on the basis of the in-formation collected
Table 1 Detail of the study sites
Study area Latitude and longitude Total no ofhouseholds
Figure 1 Map of the study area showing the location of study villages in Khangchendzonga landscape India
International Journal of Forestry Research 3
3 Results
31 Resource Availability Status and Peoplersquos DependencyWith the aim of collecting data on resource base for villageswe carried out the seasonal study on resource extraction andutilization patterns Results of the studied parametersdepicted that fuelwood fodder timber wild edibles me-dicinal plants and litter are the most common forest re-sources for Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samandenhouseholds (Table 2) Regardless of availability status sourceof resource would be preferentially private forests (as ruralpeople claim) reserved forest national parks and wildlifesanctuaries We evidenced colloquial activities of tourismpractices forest collections and grazing from the sitesPeople have to travel atleast 2ndash5 kilometers distances ev-eryday to extract the resource Wherein the dependencyindex of studied sites was determined within 060
e fuelwood consumption at Ribdi-Bhareng wasrecorded slightly higher than Gorkhey-Samanden by 15farmland production of fuelwood at Ribdi-Bhareng wasmore than private land fuelwood growth at Gorkhey-Samanden by 80 is may be due to higher fraction oflandholdings possessed by the house of Ribdi-Bhareng etotal number of households at Ribdi-Bhareng is 324 andGorkhey-Samanden is 65 Likewise fodder consumptionrate was more at Ribdi-Bhareng (17) than fodder con-sumption at Gorkhey-Samanden and in a similar way thefarm fodder production rate at Gorkhey-Samanden waslower than Ribdi-Bhareng (583)
Timber required at Gorkhey-Samanden was found 6cubic cmmiddothhminus1 yrminus1 which is much higher than the estimatedproduction of 01 cubic cm hhminus1 yminus1 Similarly timber de-mand in Ribdi-Bhareng was recorded 75 cubic cmhhminus1middotyrminus1 and the production was 02 cubic cmmiddothhminus1middotyrminus1On the other hand litter use at both Gorkhey-Samanden andRibdi-Bhareng villages was found 10 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 and12 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 respectively Similarly production amountwas found 7 kgmiddothhminus1middotyrminus1 for both the villages NTFPwildedibles demand at Gorkhey-Samanden was 05 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1
and Ribdi-Bhareng 04 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 whereas production wasfound half of the amount ie 025 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 for both theabove villages Across the study sites food stuffs (ration)required were estimated 12 kgmiddothhminus1middotmonthminus1 for a familyhaving 6 members in each Per capita crop production wasestimated 3 kgmiddotmonthminus1 for a family
32 Fuelwood Collection Probability of Use (PU) and Re-source Use Index (RUI) Habit and mean collection (kgsampleminus1middotdayminus1 and kg sampleminus1middotyrminus1) for common fuelwoodspecies are presented in Table 3 Most species used for fuelare regarded as tree species Mean collection for Arundodonax (168 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) is found to be the mostcollected species followed by Quercus lamellosa(162 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) and least for Tsuga dumosa andAnkhle (011 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) For yearly extrapolationAundo donax (252 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyearminus1) showed the mostcollected species followed by Quercus lamellosa Sm(243 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyearminus1) and the least to Alnus nepalensis D
Don (2415 sampleminus1middotyearminus1) Probability of use (PU) ismaximum for Arundo donax (0813) followed by Alnusnepalensis (0791) Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (0745) andCastanopsis tribuloides (07) and least in Rhododendronarboreum (009)
Resource extraction processes were studied for fuel foddertimber NTFPswild edibles litter and crop (Table 4) Oursurvey revealed that per year fuelwood consumption at Ribdi-Bhareng is (74095kkmiddothhminus1) fodder (6570kkmiddothhminus1) and NTFPs(146kgmiddothhminus1) and Gorkhey-Samanden fuelwood is(7300kkmiddothhminus1) fodder (5475kgmiddothhminus1) and NTFPs(1825kgmiddothhminus1) Resource demand is compared with the re-source production as shown in Table 5 Demand of fuelwood(239327 tonmiddotyrminus1) and fodder (212211 tonmiddotyrminus1) at Ribdi-Bhareng was comparatively more than what is recorded fromGorkhey-Samanden (fuelwood 4453 tonmiddotyrminus1 and fodder33398 tonmiddotyrminus1) Considering the fact that wood biomass isrequired for construction purposes such as house and gothscowshed such is evident from timber requirement at Ribdi-Bhareng (24225 cftyr) and also production (646 cftyr) therebyleading to shortfall amount (23579 cftyr) Fuelwood demand inGorkhey-Samanden was (4453 tonmiddotyrminus1) whereas productionwas (012 tonmiddotyrminus1) As per the primary survey of the vil-lages the fuel consumption was 41886 ton and the annualfuel availability was estimated as 21103 ton which indi-cates a deficit of 20783 ton Per family fuel consumptionwas found 5253 kg which varies seasonally (summer1728 kg and winter 3525 kg)
33 Fodder Use Farm animals in Barsey-Singalila arerearing by two means stall feeding and open grazingOpen grazing in forest sites has been banned in Sikkimunder statersquos revised grazing policy 2005 (remainedeffective from 2010) although illegal grazing insideforests occur But the animal percentage meant for stallfeeding is more (80) While studying the fodderpreferences 8 most preferred species 12 preferredspecies and 6 least preferred species were found for bothRibdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden villages(Table 6)
34 NTFP Use Varying degrees of NTFP use (as highmedium and low) and availability status (abundant mod-erate and rare) were noted Peoplersquos dependency (highmedium and low) and market prices of various wild ediblesNTFPs and medicinal herbs were studied as shown inTable 7 It is observed that Diplazium sp is priced to a low ofonly Rs 10bundle and Nardostachys jatamansi fetched thehighest price of Rs300 Some of the medicinal plants speciesare available seasonallyannually either in community for-ests (CF) reserve forest (RF) protected forests (PF) khasmalforest (KF) and agroforests (AF) as presented in Table 8
4 Discussion
e forests preserve the biological diversity as well as providethe natural wealth to the human being But forests are stilldegrading day by day due to exponential population growth
4 International Journal of Forestry Research
Table 3 Amount of collection probability of use (PU) and resource use index (RUI) for important fuelwood species in Barsey-Singalila
Species (local name) HabitCollection (mean)
Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdminus1 Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyrminus1 Probability of use(PU)
Resource use index(RUI)
Alnus nepalensis DDon (Uttis) T 161 2415 0791 1898Beilschmiedia roxburghiana Nees (Tarsing) T 019 285 0339 813Betula cylindrostachys Wall ex Diels (Saur) T 045 675 0632 1516Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) T 144 216 0678 1627
Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm) A DC (MusureyKatus) T 133 1995 07 168
Chukrasia tabularis AJuss (Bogipoma) T 121 1815 0271 650Cryptomeria japonica (unb ex Lf) DDon(Dhuppi) T 025 375 0293 703
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees amp Arn exMunro (Bans) T 123 1845 0745 1788
Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall) Meisn (Argeli) S 057 855 0542 1300Engelhardtia spicata Lechen ex Blume (Mauwa) T 045 675 0587 1408Eurya acuminata DC (Zhingane) T 085 1275 0519 1245Leucosceptrum canum Sm (Ghurpis) T 062 93 0565 1356Lithocarpus pachyphyllus (Kurz) Rehder T 012 18 018 432Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall) Drude (Angaree) T 043 645 0203 487Macaranga indica Wight (Malata) T 066 99 0361 866Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Mull Arg(Sanomalata) T 013 195 0384 921
Machilus edulis King ex Hookf (Rani Kawlo) T 031 465 0406 974Maesa chisia Buch-Ham ex D Don (Bilaune) T 024 36 0406 974Nyssa javanica (Blume) Wangerin(Lekhchilaune) T 014 21 0293 703
Prunus cerasoides Buch-Ham ex DDon(Paiyun) T 054 81 0497 1192
Lithocarpus fenestratus (Roxb) Rehder(Arkahulo) T 059 885 018 432
Quercus lamellosa Sm (Bajranth) T 162 243 0158 379Quercus lineata Blume (Phlant) T 098 147 0135 324Rhododendron arboretum Sm (Laligurans) T 045 675 009 216Schima wallichii Choisy (Chilaune) T 086 129 0429 1029Symplocos theifolia (Kharane) T 023 345 0316 758Symplocos sumuntia Buch-Ham ex DDon(Kholme) T 012 18 0339 813
Tsuga dumosa (DDon) Eichler (ingre salla) T 011 165 0113 271Viburnum nervosum DDon (Ashare) T 067 1005 0226 542Meliosma arnottiana (Wight) Walp (Dabdabe) T 013 195 018 432(Aankhle) T 011 165 0135 324Arundo donax (Narkat) S 168 252 0813 1951T tree S shrub
Table 2 Different sources availability status and peoplersquos dependency on local resources found in Barsey-Singalila site
Wildlife sanctuary reservedforests khasmal forests and
private forestsMedium 2ndash4 060
Gorkhey-Samanden
Firewood fodder woodpolesNTFPs and medicinal herbs and
litter
National park reserved forestsand khasmal forests Low 2ndash5 060
lowastDependence index (DI) is calculated on a scale of 0-1
International Journal of Forestry Research 5
poverty and lack of awareness about the ecosystem services[8] More than 350 million people were living inside or onthe fringes of forests across the world out of which 60million were largely dependent for sustenance [6] Forests inmost developing countries are under anthropogenic pres-sure from resource use by marginalized communities forsubsistence [7 20 21] e condition is considered moreperilous in Asia and Africa where loss of forests during aten-year period in the later part of the 20th century wasestimated to 163 million ha of which 154 million ha (945)was in the tropics alone [22]
Resource use data suggests that resource need is col-lected from a certain distance in the forest area which willbe far from the houses e dependency index of study siteswas found much higher than the dependency rate of
households as estimated in the midhills of eastern Nepal(40) [23] e households with low income and smallfragmented land are more dependent on the forest re-sources [24] Type and degree of dependence varies fromplace to place It is highest among the families living withinforest areas Such families (about 10 of the households)have no or very small landholdings Others who signifi-cantly depend for their household and day to day re-quirements as well as for certain specific (such asmedicinal) uses on neighbouring forests (about 50) in-clude not only those principally associated with agricultureor allied activities but also involved with forests one way orthe other [25]
Whereas the average fuelwood consumption in the areais comparatively higher than the fuelwood consumption
Table 4 Traditional resource use pattern in the Barsey-Singalila site
Resource Extraction process Species under use Frequency
Timber Felling and sawing2-3 times inbetween 5ndash10
yearsmdash 6 cm3
NTFPs andmedicinalplants
Felling chopping umbelpicking uprooting and
collecting
Morning 2-3 timesa week 05 1825
Litter Collecting gt2-3 times a day 10 3650lowastTimber is required in between 10 and 15 years for house construction
Table 5 Annual resource production and actual demand in study villages under Barsey-Singalila range
ResourceRibdi Bhareng Gorkhey-Samanden
Demand(toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE Demand (toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE
Fuelwood 239327 323 239004 143402 4453 012 44518 26711Fodder 212211 4651 20756 124536 33398 366 33032 19819Timber 24225 646 23579 141474 366 61 3599 21594NTFPs 4716 2947 1769 1061 1113 57 543 326Litter 141474 226 141248 84749 22265 043 22222 13333Food cropslowast 27907 6977 2093 12558 5270 1318 3952 2371DI dependency index from Table 1 Shortfall (S) D minus P Possible extraction (PE) S times DI lowastPurchasing of food cropsitems
6 International Journal of Forestry Research
amount as reported for Garhwal Himalaya [26] but lesserthan the amount measured in Kedarnath region [27] So ithonestly proves that pressure on resources is considerablyhigh Yearly production of the resource was also compar-atively much lesser than the requirement for households ofboth the study sites and this result can be compared with astudy held in Niti valley where fuelwood consumption wasmuch lower than the consumption amount of other greaterHimalayan villages [28]e average fuelwood consumptiondata is also compared with data in Kumaon villages whereper capita consumption amount was estimated to 314 kgday [29] Since fuelwood collection forms the highest and themost frequent use of forests followed by timber and foddercollection for livestock [25] Although Arundo donax showshigh RUI it is available at farmland Alnus nepalensisDendrocalamushamiltoni and Castanopsis tribuloides hav-ing high RUI are available at the forest including Alnusnepalensis depicting high pressure on the species Definitelythese species having high PU show preferences in the vil-lages us a comparatively larger village with more pop-ulation will aggravate utilization pressures
Resource production is far lesser than the demand asevident from the present survey e area is characterizedby sparse vegetation cover low primary productivity andshort growing season and is thus highly susceptible toirreversible changes of natural habitats [28 30] A hugeshortfall in resource availability predicts the possibleextraction of resources from the surrounding forests(namely the khasmal forests protected areas and agro-forestry areas) And the whole can also be compared withthe total available fodder in Central Himalayan village[31]
ere is a huge gap between timber demand andproduction which is required for construction of houseand gothscowshed and such case is evident from timberdemand at Ribdi-Bhareng and wood production ratethereby leading to huge shortfall Considering the factthat a very small fraction of firewood comes from theagriculture fields various resources demand and pro-duction in the study villages are attributed to productionand utilization patterns
Table 6 Preference-wise ranking of fodder species in study sites
Toona ciliata M Roem(Tuni)Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson ex Benth
(ekiphal)1 abundant 2 common 3 rare
International Journal of Forestry Research 7
e higher price is attributed being the species grow inhigh altitudes and in rare status [32] Similarly mush-room considered as valuable wild edible fetch highermarket cost is income can be compared with the value-added products of most selected wild edibles which de-rived maximum economic returns in Garhwal Himalayafor Hippophae salicifolia followed by Rhododendronarboreum and Spondias pinnata and minimum forMyricaesculenta [33] Communities of both the villages use localmedicinal plants for treatment of health problems relatedto indigestion antispasmodic chronic fever dysenteryand influenza for which different parts (eg root fruitleaf and sometimes entire plant) are used ese me-dicinal plants are found to be distributed within an ele-vation range between 800 and 3600m asl in the Himalaya[34] Preferred species are collected regardless of theiravailability for fuelwood and other uses which is causinghigh pressure on a small group of plants Marketing ofmedicinal herbs is inefficient informal secretive andopportunistic As a result the raw material supply situ-ation is shaky unsustainable and exploitative which inturn leads to depletion of the resource base exploiting ofthe rural people (who are the real stewards of the re-source) adulteration and nonavailability of quality herbaldrugs for domestic consumption as well as for exports[35 36] In a conclusion local ecosystem suffers from
shortage of suitable resource management policies in onesimilarly delay in implementation of associated policiesmay also result in gradual loss of biodiversity in anothere regional initiatives taken by G B Pant NationalInstitute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE) underKhangchendzonga Landscape Conservation and Devel-opment Initiative- (KLCDI-) India programme have beenwidely appreciated KLCDI is one of such transboundaryprogramme where partner countries may work togethertaking the above approaches
5 Conclusion
Transboundary areas are more vulnerable in terms of en-croachment such as tourist trekking carrying of businessitems animal grazing and collection of medicinalwildplants as evidenced in the Barsey-Singalila transboundaryarea Sustainable use of the resource in the area is muchrequired so that livelihood of the local people be improvedProduction using local and productive fodder species shouldbe emphasized Fuel fodder and wild edibles includingmedicinal herbal are diverse but there may a great threat tothose species of protected areas Our results emphasized theneed for regular assessment of forest resources particularlyin protected areas e afforestation of degraded unculti-vated and marginal lands through high-quality fuel species
Table 7 NTFPswild edibles (1 US$Rs 72 approx)
Species (local name) Usage Degree ofuse
Availabilitystatus
Peoplersquosdependency
Market price(Rsmiddotkgminus1)
Polygonum molle D Don (otnee) Fodder NTFP andedible Low Abundant High mdash
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) NTFP and medicine High Abundant High mdashZanthoxylum sp (Eirmong) NTFP and medicine Low Abundant Low 500Himalayacalamus hookerianus (Munro)Stapleton (Paraeing)
Roofing fencingand NTFP High Moderate High 500
Yushania maling (Gamble) R B Majumdar ampKarthik(Malingo) Roofing and NTFP Medium Rare High 800
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham ex DDon(Budookhati) Medicine Low Rare Medium 300
Diplazium sp(Ninguro) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant High 100Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook) Benth (Khanakpa) NTFP and remedial Low Rare High mdashHeracleum wallichii DC (Chimphing) NTFP and medicine Low Rare High 300Litsea cubeba (Lour) Pers (Siltimur) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High 540Pentapanax castanopsidicola Hayata(Chinday) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant Medium 300
Rhododendron arboreum Sm (Gurans) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High mdashRubus ellipticus Sm (Aiselu) NTFP and edible Low Abundant Medium mdash
Urtica dioica L (Sisnu) NTFP fibre andedible High Abundant High 250
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC (Bokeytimur)
NTFP edible andmedicine Low Rare Medium 200
Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson exBenth (ekiphal) NTFP and edible Medium Rare Medium 200
Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham ex DDon (JangaliMel)
NTFP edible andmedicine Medium Rare Medium 200
Agaricus sp (Local) NTFP and edible High Rare High 1500Arisema sp (Gurbo) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 300Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 200
8 International Journal of Forestry Research
in the villages might reduce pressure Energy value of thesespecies also needs to be determined
e study further suggests that providing alternate andnonconventional energy sources such as solar cookers andfuel efficient portable ovens to the inhabitants at subsi-dized rates could reduce the pressure on nearby forestsHowever the local government has supported the com-munity people through supplying LPG stoves and cyl-inders at free of cost which may not be in sufficientquantity Besides judicious harvest of resources consid-ering the production rate is ever appreciated Similarlygovernment policies involving resource management canimpact development processes Further alternative energysources are to be generated such as the use of biobriquettes(matula) as fuelwood
Data Availability
e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
e authors are grateful to the Director G B Pant NationalInstitute for Himalayan Environment for providing nec-essary support and facilities for carrying out research Fi-nancial support and cooperation received fromInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) during KLCDI-India programme implementa-tion are duly acknowledged e kind of support extendedby e Mountain Institute India is acknowledged e au-thors are also grateful to Forest Environment and WildlifeManagement Department Government of Sikkim andDirectorate of Forests West Bengal for affording supportduring our field works Last the support and cooperationextended by the Panchayat members and community peopleof Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden are deeplyappreciated
Table 8 Medicinal herbs from the study sites
Species(local name)
Elevation(m) Habit Availability
time Parts use ColourTaste Usage Consumption
(kg hhminus1middotyrminus1) Source
Acorus calamus L (Bonjho) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Root Whitebitter Bone fracture 5 CF
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) 800ndash2000 Herb Perennial Root andleaves
Greenbitter
Antiseptic andasthma 400 FRF
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham exDDon (Budookhat) 1600ndash3300 Shrub Perennial Root Green
bitter Dysentery 200 RF
Eupatorium cannabinumL (Banmara) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Leaf Green
bitter Bleeding mdash AFCF
Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook)Benth (Khanakpa) 1500ndash2500 Tree August Fruit Green
bitter Indigestion 500 RF
Heracleum wallichii DC(Chimphing) 1500ndash2500 Herb September Fruit Redbitter Influenza 600 KF
AFRhus succedanea L (Arkhol) 800ndash2500 Tree November Fruit Greysour Dysentery 100 CFAFRF reserved forest PF protected forest F farm
International Journal of Forestry Research 9
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
observations and transect walks Information on price ofdifferent NTFPswild edibles and medicinal plants werecollected through the market survey e collected data onfuelwood were analysed following [17 18]
222 Data Analysis
Total species collected householdminus 1dayminus 1Cd( 1113857 number of individuals househosldminus 1responsible for collection
amp9 timesaverage collection(A)(1)
or
A T
N (2)
where T is the total species collected in all samples and N isthe number of samples
Probability of use (PU) 1113936 FiPi
1113936 Pi
(3)
where Fi is the frequency of collection of a species in the ithsite and Pi is the population of the ith site
Resource use index (RUI) total species collection householdminus 1yearminus 1times PU (4)
Fuelwood consumption among the sites was determinedusing Sorensonrsquos similarity index [19]
Similarity index (SI) 2C
A + Btimes 100 (5)
where C is the amount of fuel collected common in sites (Aand B) A is the collection of fuel in site A and B is thecollection of fuel in site B Shortfall in resource needs andpossible extraction are determined on the basis of the in-formation collected
Table 1 Detail of the study sites
Study area Latitude and longitude Total no ofhouseholds
Figure 1 Map of the study area showing the location of study villages in Khangchendzonga landscape India
International Journal of Forestry Research 3
3 Results
31 Resource Availability Status and Peoplersquos DependencyWith the aim of collecting data on resource base for villageswe carried out the seasonal study on resource extraction andutilization patterns Results of the studied parametersdepicted that fuelwood fodder timber wild edibles me-dicinal plants and litter are the most common forest re-sources for Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samandenhouseholds (Table 2) Regardless of availability status sourceof resource would be preferentially private forests (as ruralpeople claim) reserved forest national parks and wildlifesanctuaries We evidenced colloquial activities of tourismpractices forest collections and grazing from the sitesPeople have to travel atleast 2ndash5 kilometers distances ev-eryday to extract the resource Wherein the dependencyindex of studied sites was determined within 060
e fuelwood consumption at Ribdi-Bhareng wasrecorded slightly higher than Gorkhey-Samanden by 15farmland production of fuelwood at Ribdi-Bhareng wasmore than private land fuelwood growth at Gorkhey-Samanden by 80 is may be due to higher fraction oflandholdings possessed by the house of Ribdi-Bhareng etotal number of households at Ribdi-Bhareng is 324 andGorkhey-Samanden is 65 Likewise fodder consumptionrate was more at Ribdi-Bhareng (17) than fodder con-sumption at Gorkhey-Samanden and in a similar way thefarm fodder production rate at Gorkhey-Samanden waslower than Ribdi-Bhareng (583)
Timber required at Gorkhey-Samanden was found 6cubic cmmiddothhminus1 yrminus1 which is much higher than the estimatedproduction of 01 cubic cm hhminus1 yminus1 Similarly timber de-mand in Ribdi-Bhareng was recorded 75 cubic cmhhminus1middotyrminus1 and the production was 02 cubic cmmiddothhminus1middotyrminus1On the other hand litter use at both Gorkhey-Samanden andRibdi-Bhareng villages was found 10 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 and12 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 respectively Similarly production amountwas found 7 kgmiddothhminus1middotyrminus1 for both the villages NTFPwildedibles demand at Gorkhey-Samanden was 05 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1
and Ribdi-Bhareng 04 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 whereas production wasfound half of the amount ie 025 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 for both theabove villages Across the study sites food stuffs (ration)required were estimated 12 kgmiddothhminus1middotmonthminus1 for a familyhaving 6 members in each Per capita crop production wasestimated 3 kgmiddotmonthminus1 for a family
32 Fuelwood Collection Probability of Use (PU) and Re-source Use Index (RUI) Habit and mean collection (kgsampleminus1middotdayminus1 and kg sampleminus1middotyrminus1) for common fuelwoodspecies are presented in Table 3 Most species used for fuelare regarded as tree species Mean collection for Arundodonax (168 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) is found to be the mostcollected species followed by Quercus lamellosa(162 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) and least for Tsuga dumosa andAnkhle (011 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) For yearly extrapolationAundo donax (252 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyearminus1) showed the mostcollected species followed by Quercus lamellosa Sm(243 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyearminus1) and the least to Alnus nepalensis D
Don (2415 sampleminus1middotyearminus1) Probability of use (PU) ismaximum for Arundo donax (0813) followed by Alnusnepalensis (0791) Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (0745) andCastanopsis tribuloides (07) and least in Rhododendronarboreum (009)
Resource extraction processes were studied for fuel foddertimber NTFPswild edibles litter and crop (Table 4) Oursurvey revealed that per year fuelwood consumption at Ribdi-Bhareng is (74095kkmiddothhminus1) fodder (6570kkmiddothhminus1) and NTFPs(146kgmiddothhminus1) and Gorkhey-Samanden fuelwood is(7300kkmiddothhminus1) fodder (5475kgmiddothhminus1) and NTFPs(1825kgmiddothhminus1) Resource demand is compared with the re-source production as shown in Table 5 Demand of fuelwood(239327 tonmiddotyrminus1) and fodder (212211 tonmiddotyrminus1) at Ribdi-Bhareng was comparatively more than what is recorded fromGorkhey-Samanden (fuelwood 4453 tonmiddotyrminus1 and fodder33398 tonmiddotyrminus1) Considering the fact that wood biomass isrequired for construction purposes such as house and gothscowshed such is evident from timber requirement at Ribdi-Bhareng (24225 cftyr) and also production (646 cftyr) therebyleading to shortfall amount (23579 cftyr) Fuelwood demand inGorkhey-Samanden was (4453 tonmiddotyrminus1) whereas productionwas (012 tonmiddotyrminus1) As per the primary survey of the vil-lages the fuel consumption was 41886 ton and the annualfuel availability was estimated as 21103 ton which indi-cates a deficit of 20783 ton Per family fuel consumptionwas found 5253 kg which varies seasonally (summer1728 kg and winter 3525 kg)
33 Fodder Use Farm animals in Barsey-Singalila arerearing by two means stall feeding and open grazingOpen grazing in forest sites has been banned in Sikkimunder statersquos revised grazing policy 2005 (remainedeffective from 2010) although illegal grazing insideforests occur But the animal percentage meant for stallfeeding is more (80) While studying the fodderpreferences 8 most preferred species 12 preferredspecies and 6 least preferred species were found for bothRibdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden villages(Table 6)
34 NTFP Use Varying degrees of NTFP use (as highmedium and low) and availability status (abundant mod-erate and rare) were noted Peoplersquos dependency (highmedium and low) and market prices of various wild ediblesNTFPs and medicinal herbs were studied as shown inTable 7 It is observed that Diplazium sp is priced to a low ofonly Rs 10bundle and Nardostachys jatamansi fetched thehighest price of Rs300 Some of the medicinal plants speciesare available seasonallyannually either in community for-ests (CF) reserve forest (RF) protected forests (PF) khasmalforest (KF) and agroforests (AF) as presented in Table 8
4 Discussion
e forests preserve the biological diversity as well as providethe natural wealth to the human being But forests are stilldegrading day by day due to exponential population growth
4 International Journal of Forestry Research
Table 3 Amount of collection probability of use (PU) and resource use index (RUI) for important fuelwood species in Barsey-Singalila
Species (local name) HabitCollection (mean)
Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdminus1 Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyrminus1 Probability of use(PU)
Resource use index(RUI)
Alnus nepalensis DDon (Uttis) T 161 2415 0791 1898Beilschmiedia roxburghiana Nees (Tarsing) T 019 285 0339 813Betula cylindrostachys Wall ex Diels (Saur) T 045 675 0632 1516Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) T 144 216 0678 1627
Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm) A DC (MusureyKatus) T 133 1995 07 168
Chukrasia tabularis AJuss (Bogipoma) T 121 1815 0271 650Cryptomeria japonica (unb ex Lf) DDon(Dhuppi) T 025 375 0293 703
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees amp Arn exMunro (Bans) T 123 1845 0745 1788
Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall) Meisn (Argeli) S 057 855 0542 1300Engelhardtia spicata Lechen ex Blume (Mauwa) T 045 675 0587 1408Eurya acuminata DC (Zhingane) T 085 1275 0519 1245Leucosceptrum canum Sm (Ghurpis) T 062 93 0565 1356Lithocarpus pachyphyllus (Kurz) Rehder T 012 18 018 432Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall) Drude (Angaree) T 043 645 0203 487Macaranga indica Wight (Malata) T 066 99 0361 866Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Mull Arg(Sanomalata) T 013 195 0384 921
Machilus edulis King ex Hookf (Rani Kawlo) T 031 465 0406 974Maesa chisia Buch-Ham ex D Don (Bilaune) T 024 36 0406 974Nyssa javanica (Blume) Wangerin(Lekhchilaune) T 014 21 0293 703
Prunus cerasoides Buch-Ham ex DDon(Paiyun) T 054 81 0497 1192
Lithocarpus fenestratus (Roxb) Rehder(Arkahulo) T 059 885 018 432
Quercus lamellosa Sm (Bajranth) T 162 243 0158 379Quercus lineata Blume (Phlant) T 098 147 0135 324Rhododendron arboretum Sm (Laligurans) T 045 675 009 216Schima wallichii Choisy (Chilaune) T 086 129 0429 1029Symplocos theifolia (Kharane) T 023 345 0316 758Symplocos sumuntia Buch-Ham ex DDon(Kholme) T 012 18 0339 813
Tsuga dumosa (DDon) Eichler (ingre salla) T 011 165 0113 271Viburnum nervosum DDon (Ashare) T 067 1005 0226 542Meliosma arnottiana (Wight) Walp (Dabdabe) T 013 195 018 432(Aankhle) T 011 165 0135 324Arundo donax (Narkat) S 168 252 0813 1951T tree S shrub
Table 2 Different sources availability status and peoplersquos dependency on local resources found in Barsey-Singalila site
Wildlife sanctuary reservedforests khasmal forests and
private forestsMedium 2ndash4 060
Gorkhey-Samanden
Firewood fodder woodpolesNTFPs and medicinal herbs and
litter
National park reserved forestsand khasmal forests Low 2ndash5 060
lowastDependence index (DI) is calculated on a scale of 0-1
International Journal of Forestry Research 5
poverty and lack of awareness about the ecosystem services[8] More than 350 million people were living inside or onthe fringes of forests across the world out of which 60million were largely dependent for sustenance [6] Forests inmost developing countries are under anthropogenic pres-sure from resource use by marginalized communities forsubsistence [7 20 21] e condition is considered moreperilous in Asia and Africa where loss of forests during aten-year period in the later part of the 20th century wasestimated to 163 million ha of which 154 million ha (945)was in the tropics alone [22]
Resource use data suggests that resource need is col-lected from a certain distance in the forest area which willbe far from the houses e dependency index of study siteswas found much higher than the dependency rate of
households as estimated in the midhills of eastern Nepal(40) [23] e households with low income and smallfragmented land are more dependent on the forest re-sources [24] Type and degree of dependence varies fromplace to place It is highest among the families living withinforest areas Such families (about 10 of the households)have no or very small landholdings Others who signifi-cantly depend for their household and day to day re-quirements as well as for certain specific (such asmedicinal) uses on neighbouring forests (about 50) in-clude not only those principally associated with agricultureor allied activities but also involved with forests one way orthe other [25]
Whereas the average fuelwood consumption in the areais comparatively higher than the fuelwood consumption
Table 4 Traditional resource use pattern in the Barsey-Singalila site
Resource Extraction process Species under use Frequency
Timber Felling and sawing2-3 times inbetween 5ndash10
yearsmdash 6 cm3
NTFPs andmedicinalplants
Felling chopping umbelpicking uprooting and
collecting
Morning 2-3 timesa week 05 1825
Litter Collecting gt2-3 times a day 10 3650lowastTimber is required in between 10 and 15 years for house construction
Table 5 Annual resource production and actual demand in study villages under Barsey-Singalila range
ResourceRibdi Bhareng Gorkhey-Samanden
Demand(toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE Demand (toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE
Fuelwood 239327 323 239004 143402 4453 012 44518 26711Fodder 212211 4651 20756 124536 33398 366 33032 19819Timber 24225 646 23579 141474 366 61 3599 21594NTFPs 4716 2947 1769 1061 1113 57 543 326Litter 141474 226 141248 84749 22265 043 22222 13333Food cropslowast 27907 6977 2093 12558 5270 1318 3952 2371DI dependency index from Table 1 Shortfall (S) D minus P Possible extraction (PE) S times DI lowastPurchasing of food cropsitems
6 International Journal of Forestry Research
amount as reported for Garhwal Himalaya [26] but lesserthan the amount measured in Kedarnath region [27] So ithonestly proves that pressure on resources is considerablyhigh Yearly production of the resource was also compar-atively much lesser than the requirement for households ofboth the study sites and this result can be compared with astudy held in Niti valley where fuelwood consumption wasmuch lower than the consumption amount of other greaterHimalayan villages [28]e average fuelwood consumptiondata is also compared with data in Kumaon villages whereper capita consumption amount was estimated to 314 kgday [29] Since fuelwood collection forms the highest and themost frequent use of forests followed by timber and foddercollection for livestock [25] Although Arundo donax showshigh RUI it is available at farmland Alnus nepalensisDendrocalamushamiltoni and Castanopsis tribuloides hav-ing high RUI are available at the forest including Alnusnepalensis depicting high pressure on the species Definitelythese species having high PU show preferences in the vil-lages us a comparatively larger village with more pop-ulation will aggravate utilization pressures
Resource production is far lesser than the demand asevident from the present survey e area is characterizedby sparse vegetation cover low primary productivity andshort growing season and is thus highly susceptible toirreversible changes of natural habitats [28 30] A hugeshortfall in resource availability predicts the possibleextraction of resources from the surrounding forests(namely the khasmal forests protected areas and agro-forestry areas) And the whole can also be compared withthe total available fodder in Central Himalayan village[31]
ere is a huge gap between timber demand andproduction which is required for construction of houseand gothscowshed and such case is evident from timberdemand at Ribdi-Bhareng and wood production ratethereby leading to huge shortfall Considering the factthat a very small fraction of firewood comes from theagriculture fields various resources demand and pro-duction in the study villages are attributed to productionand utilization patterns
Table 6 Preference-wise ranking of fodder species in study sites
Toona ciliata M Roem(Tuni)Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson ex Benth
(ekiphal)1 abundant 2 common 3 rare
International Journal of Forestry Research 7
e higher price is attributed being the species grow inhigh altitudes and in rare status [32] Similarly mush-room considered as valuable wild edible fetch highermarket cost is income can be compared with the value-added products of most selected wild edibles which de-rived maximum economic returns in Garhwal Himalayafor Hippophae salicifolia followed by Rhododendronarboreum and Spondias pinnata and minimum forMyricaesculenta [33] Communities of both the villages use localmedicinal plants for treatment of health problems relatedto indigestion antispasmodic chronic fever dysenteryand influenza for which different parts (eg root fruitleaf and sometimes entire plant) are used ese me-dicinal plants are found to be distributed within an ele-vation range between 800 and 3600m asl in the Himalaya[34] Preferred species are collected regardless of theiravailability for fuelwood and other uses which is causinghigh pressure on a small group of plants Marketing ofmedicinal herbs is inefficient informal secretive andopportunistic As a result the raw material supply situ-ation is shaky unsustainable and exploitative which inturn leads to depletion of the resource base exploiting ofthe rural people (who are the real stewards of the re-source) adulteration and nonavailability of quality herbaldrugs for domestic consumption as well as for exports[35 36] In a conclusion local ecosystem suffers from
shortage of suitable resource management policies in onesimilarly delay in implementation of associated policiesmay also result in gradual loss of biodiversity in anothere regional initiatives taken by G B Pant NationalInstitute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE) underKhangchendzonga Landscape Conservation and Devel-opment Initiative- (KLCDI-) India programme have beenwidely appreciated KLCDI is one of such transboundaryprogramme where partner countries may work togethertaking the above approaches
5 Conclusion
Transboundary areas are more vulnerable in terms of en-croachment such as tourist trekking carrying of businessitems animal grazing and collection of medicinalwildplants as evidenced in the Barsey-Singalila transboundaryarea Sustainable use of the resource in the area is muchrequired so that livelihood of the local people be improvedProduction using local and productive fodder species shouldbe emphasized Fuel fodder and wild edibles includingmedicinal herbal are diverse but there may a great threat tothose species of protected areas Our results emphasized theneed for regular assessment of forest resources particularlyin protected areas e afforestation of degraded unculti-vated and marginal lands through high-quality fuel species
Table 7 NTFPswild edibles (1 US$Rs 72 approx)
Species (local name) Usage Degree ofuse
Availabilitystatus
Peoplersquosdependency
Market price(Rsmiddotkgminus1)
Polygonum molle D Don (otnee) Fodder NTFP andedible Low Abundant High mdash
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) NTFP and medicine High Abundant High mdashZanthoxylum sp (Eirmong) NTFP and medicine Low Abundant Low 500Himalayacalamus hookerianus (Munro)Stapleton (Paraeing)
Roofing fencingand NTFP High Moderate High 500
Yushania maling (Gamble) R B Majumdar ampKarthik(Malingo) Roofing and NTFP Medium Rare High 800
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham ex DDon(Budookhati) Medicine Low Rare Medium 300
Diplazium sp(Ninguro) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant High 100Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook) Benth (Khanakpa) NTFP and remedial Low Rare High mdashHeracleum wallichii DC (Chimphing) NTFP and medicine Low Rare High 300Litsea cubeba (Lour) Pers (Siltimur) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High 540Pentapanax castanopsidicola Hayata(Chinday) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant Medium 300
Rhododendron arboreum Sm (Gurans) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High mdashRubus ellipticus Sm (Aiselu) NTFP and edible Low Abundant Medium mdash
Urtica dioica L (Sisnu) NTFP fibre andedible High Abundant High 250
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC (Bokeytimur)
NTFP edible andmedicine Low Rare Medium 200
Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson exBenth (ekiphal) NTFP and edible Medium Rare Medium 200
Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham ex DDon (JangaliMel)
NTFP edible andmedicine Medium Rare Medium 200
Agaricus sp (Local) NTFP and edible High Rare High 1500Arisema sp (Gurbo) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 300Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 200
8 International Journal of Forestry Research
in the villages might reduce pressure Energy value of thesespecies also needs to be determined
e study further suggests that providing alternate andnonconventional energy sources such as solar cookers andfuel efficient portable ovens to the inhabitants at subsi-dized rates could reduce the pressure on nearby forestsHowever the local government has supported the com-munity people through supplying LPG stoves and cyl-inders at free of cost which may not be in sufficientquantity Besides judicious harvest of resources consid-ering the production rate is ever appreciated Similarlygovernment policies involving resource management canimpact development processes Further alternative energysources are to be generated such as the use of biobriquettes(matula) as fuelwood
Data Availability
e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
e authors are grateful to the Director G B Pant NationalInstitute for Himalayan Environment for providing nec-essary support and facilities for carrying out research Fi-nancial support and cooperation received fromInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) during KLCDI-India programme implementa-tion are duly acknowledged e kind of support extendedby e Mountain Institute India is acknowledged e au-thors are also grateful to Forest Environment and WildlifeManagement Department Government of Sikkim andDirectorate of Forests West Bengal for affording supportduring our field works Last the support and cooperationextended by the Panchayat members and community peopleof Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden are deeplyappreciated
Table 8 Medicinal herbs from the study sites
Species(local name)
Elevation(m) Habit Availability
time Parts use ColourTaste Usage Consumption
(kg hhminus1middotyrminus1) Source
Acorus calamus L (Bonjho) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Root Whitebitter Bone fracture 5 CF
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) 800ndash2000 Herb Perennial Root andleaves
Greenbitter
Antiseptic andasthma 400 FRF
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham exDDon (Budookhat) 1600ndash3300 Shrub Perennial Root Green
bitter Dysentery 200 RF
Eupatorium cannabinumL (Banmara) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Leaf Green
bitter Bleeding mdash AFCF
Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook)Benth (Khanakpa) 1500ndash2500 Tree August Fruit Green
bitter Indigestion 500 RF
Heracleum wallichii DC(Chimphing) 1500ndash2500 Herb September Fruit Redbitter Influenza 600 KF
AFRhus succedanea L (Arkhol) 800ndash2500 Tree November Fruit Greysour Dysentery 100 CFAFRF reserved forest PF protected forest F farm
International Journal of Forestry Research 9
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
3 Results
31 Resource Availability Status and Peoplersquos DependencyWith the aim of collecting data on resource base for villageswe carried out the seasonal study on resource extraction andutilization patterns Results of the studied parametersdepicted that fuelwood fodder timber wild edibles me-dicinal plants and litter are the most common forest re-sources for Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samandenhouseholds (Table 2) Regardless of availability status sourceof resource would be preferentially private forests (as ruralpeople claim) reserved forest national parks and wildlifesanctuaries We evidenced colloquial activities of tourismpractices forest collections and grazing from the sitesPeople have to travel atleast 2ndash5 kilometers distances ev-eryday to extract the resource Wherein the dependencyindex of studied sites was determined within 060
e fuelwood consumption at Ribdi-Bhareng wasrecorded slightly higher than Gorkhey-Samanden by 15farmland production of fuelwood at Ribdi-Bhareng wasmore than private land fuelwood growth at Gorkhey-Samanden by 80 is may be due to higher fraction oflandholdings possessed by the house of Ribdi-Bhareng etotal number of households at Ribdi-Bhareng is 324 andGorkhey-Samanden is 65 Likewise fodder consumptionrate was more at Ribdi-Bhareng (17) than fodder con-sumption at Gorkhey-Samanden and in a similar way thefarm fodder production rate at Gorkhey-Samanden waslower than Ribdi-Bhareng (583)
Timber required at Gorkhey-Samanden was found 6cubic cmmiddothhminus1 yrminus1 which is much higher than the estimatedproduction of 01 cubic cm hhminus1 yminus1 Similarly timber de-mand in Ribdi-Bhareng was recorded 75 cubic cmhhminus1middotyrminus1 and the production was 02 cubic cmmiddothhminus1middotyrminus1On the other hand litter use at both Gorkhey-Samanden andRibdi-Bhareng villages was found 10 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 and12 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 respectively Similarly production amountwas found 7 kgmiddothhminus1middotyrminus1 for both the villages NTFPwildedibles demand at Gorkhey-Samanden was 05 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1
and Ribdi-Bhareng 04 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 whereas production wasfound half of the amount ie 025 kgmiddothhminus1middotdminus1 for both theabove villages Across the study sites food stuffs (ration)required were estimated 12 kgmiddothhminus1middotmonthminus1 for a familyhaving 6 members in each Per capita crop production wasestimated 3 kgmiddotmonthminus1 for a family
32 Fuelwood Collection Probability of Use (PU) and Re-source Use Index (RUI) Habit and mean collection (kgsampleminus1middotdayminus1 and kg sampleminus1middotyrminus1) for common fuelwoodspecies are presented in Table 3 Most species used for fuelare regarded as tree species Mean collection for Arundodonax (168 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) is found to be the mostcollected species followed by Quercus lamellosa(162 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) and least for Tsuga dumosa andAnkhle (011 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdayminus1) For yearly extrapolationAundo donax (252 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyearminus1) showed the mostcollected species followed by Quercus lamellosa Sm(243 kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyearminus1) and the least to Alnus nepalensis D
Don (2415 sampleminus1middotyearminus1) Probability of use (PU) ismaximum for Arundo donax (0813) followed by Alnusnepalensis (0791) Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (0745) andCastanopsis tribuloides (07) and least in Rhododendronarboreum (009)
Resource extraction processes were studied for fuel foddertimber NTFPswild edibles litter and crop (Table 4) Oursurvey revealed that per year fuelwood consumption at Ribdi-Bhareng is (74095kkmiddothhminus1) fodder (6570kkmiddothhminus1) and NTFPs(146kgmiddothhminus1) and Gorkhey-Samanden fuelwood is(7300kkmiddothhminus1) fodder (5475kgmiddothhminus1) and NTFPs(1825kgmiddothhminus1) Resource demand is compared with the re-source production as shown in Table 5 Demand of fuelwood(239327 tonmiddotyrminus1) and fodder (212211 tonmiddotyrminus1) at Ribdi-Bhareng was comparatively more than what is recorded fromGorkhey-Samanden (fuelwood 4453 tonmiddotyrminus1 and fodder33398 tonmiddotyrminus1) Considering the fact that wood biomass isrequired for construction purposes such as house and gothscowshed such is evident from timber requirement at Ribdi-Bhareng (24225 cftyr) and also production (646 cftyr) therebyleading to shortfall amount (23579 cftyr) Fuelwood demand inGorkhey-Samanden was (4453 tonmiddotyrminus1) whereas productionwas (012 tonmiddotyrminus1) As per the primary survey of the vil-lages the fuel consumption was 41886 ton and the annualfuel availability was estimated as 21103 ton which indi-cates a deficit of 20783 ton Per family fuel consumptionwas found 5253 kg which varies seasonally (summer1728 kg and winter 3525 kg)
33 Fodder Use Farm animals in Barsey-Singalila arerearing by two means stall feeding and open grazingOpen grazing in forest sites has been banned in Sikkimunder statersquos revised grazing policy 2005 (remainedeffective from 2010) although illegal grazing insideforests occur But the animal percentage meant for stallfeeding is more (80) While studying the fodderpreferences 8 most preferred species 12 preferredspecies and 6 least preferred species were found for bothRibdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden villages(Table 6)
34 NTFP Use Varying degrees of NTFP use (as highmedium and low) and availability status (abundant mod-erate and rare) were noted Peoplersquos dependency (highmedium and low) and market prices of various wild ediblesNTFPs and medicinal herbs were studied as shown inTable 7 It is observed that Diplazium sp is priced to a low ofonly Rs 10bundle and Nardostachys jatamansi fetched thehighest price of Rs300 Some of the medicinal plants speciesare available seasonallyannually either in community for-ests (CF) reserve forest (RF) protected forests (PF) khasmalforest (KF) and agroforests (AF) as presented in Table 8
4 Discussion
e forests preserve the biological diversity as well as providethe natural wealth to the human being But forests are stilldegrading day by day due to exponential population growth
4 International Journal of Forestry Research
Table 3 Amount of collection probability of use (PU) and resource use index (RUI) for important fuelwood species in Barsey-Singalila
Species (local name) HabitCollection (mean)
Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdminus1 Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyrminus1 Probability of use(PU)
Resource use index(RUI)
Alnus nepalensis DDon (Uttis) T 161 2415 0791 1898Beilschmiedia roxburghiana Nees (Tarsing) T 019 285 0339 813Betula cylindrostachys Wall ex Diels (Saur) T 045 675 0632 1516Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) T 144 216 0678 1627
Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm) A DC (MusureyKatus) T 133 1995 07 168
Chukrasia tabularis AJuss (Bogipoma) T 121 1815 0271 650Cryptomeria japonica (unb ex Lf) DDon(Dhuppi) T 025 375 0293 703
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees amp Arn exMunro (Bans) T 123 1845 0745 1788
Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall) Meisn (Argeli) S 057 855 0542 1300Engelhardtia spicata Lechen ex Blume (Mauwa) T 045 675 0587 1408Eurya acuminata DC (Zhingane) T 085 1275 0519 1245Leucosceptrum canum Sm (Ghurpis) T 062 93 0565 1356Lithocarpus pachyphyllus (Kurz) Rehder T 012 18 018 432Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall) Drude (Angaree) T 043 645 0203 487Macaranga indica Wight (Malata) T 066 99 0361 866Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Mull Arg(Sanomalata) T 013 195 0384 921
Machilus edulis King ex Hookf (Rani Kawlo) T 031 465 0406 974Maesa chisia Buch-Ham ex D Don (Bilaune) T 024 36 0406 974Nyssa javanica (Blume) Wangerin(Lekhchilaune) T 014 21 0293 703
Prunus cerasoides Buch-Ham ex DDon(Paiyun) T 054 81 0497 1192
Lithocarpus fenestratus (Roxb) Rehder(Arkahulo) T 059 885 018 432
Quercus lamellosa Sm (Bajranth) T 162 243 0158 379Quercus lineata Blume (Phlant) T 098 147 0135 324Rhododendron arboretum Sm (Laligurans) T 045 675 009 216Schima wallichii Choisy (Chilaune) T 086 129 0429 1029Symplocos theifolia (Kharane) T 023 345 0316 758Symplocos sumuntia Buch-Ham ex DDon(Kholme) T 012 18 0339 813
Tsuga dumosa (DDon) Eichler (ingre salla) T 011 165 0113 271Viburnum nervosum DDon (Ashare) T 067 1005 0226 542Meliosma arnottiana (Wight) Walp (Dabdabe) T 013 195 018 432(Aankhle) T 011 165 0135 324Arundo donax (Narkat) S 168 252 0813 1951T tree S shrub
Table 2 Different sources availability status and peoplersquos dependency on local resources found in Barsey-Singalila site
Wildlife sanctuary reservedforests khasmal forests and
private forestsMedium 2ndash4 060
Gorkhey-Samanden
Firewood fodder woodpolesNTFPs and medicinal herbs and
litter
National park reserved forestsand khasmal forests Low 2ndash5 060
lowastDependence index (DI) is calculated on a scale of 0-1
International Journal of Forestry Research 5
poverty and lack of awareness about the ecosystem services[8] More than 350 million people were living inside or onthe fringes of forests across the world out of which 60million were largely dependent for sustenance [6] Forests inmost developing countries are under anthropogenic pres-sure from resource use by marginalized communities forsubsistence [7 20 21] e condition is considered moreperilous in Asia and Africa where loss of forests during aten-year period in the later part of the 20th century wasestimated to 163 million ha of which 154 million ha (945)was in the tropics alone [22]
Resource use data suggests that resource need is col-lected from a certain distance in the forest area which willbe far from the houses e dependency index of study siteswas found much higher than the dependency rate of
households as estimated in the midhills of eastern Nepal(40) [23] e households with low income and smallfragmented land are more dependent on the forest re-sources [24] Type and degree of dependence varies fromplace to place It is highest among the families living withinforest areas Such families (about 10 of the households)have no or very small landholdings Others who signifi-cantly depend for their household and day to day re-quirements as well as for certain specific (such asmedicinal) uses on neighbouring forests (about 50) in-clude not only those principally associated with agricultureor allied activities but also involved with forests one way orthe other [25]
Whereas the average fuelwood consumption in the areais comparatively higher than the fuelwood consumption
Table 4 Traditional resource use pattern in the Barsey-Singalila site
Resource Extraction process Species under use Frequency
Timber Felling and sawing2-3 times inbetween 5ndash10
yearsmdash 6 cm3
NTFPs andmedicinalplants
Felling chopping umbelpicking uprooting and
collecting
Morning 2-3 timesa week 05 1825
Litter Collecting gt2-3 times a day 10 3650lowastTimber is required in between 10 and 15 years for house construction
Table 5 Annual resource production and actual demand in study villages under Barsey-Singalila range
ResourceRibdi Bhareng Gorkhey-Samanden
Demand(toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE Demand (toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE
Fuelwood 239327 323 239004 143402 4453 012 44518 26711Fodder 212211 4651 20756 124536 33398 366 33032 19819Timber 24225 646 23579 141474 366 61 3599 21594NTFPs 4716 2947 1769 1061 1113 57 543 326Litter 141474 226 141248 84749 22265 043 22222 13333Food cropslowast 27907 6977 2093 12558 5270 1318 3952 2371DI dependency index from Table 1 Shortfall (S) D minus P Possible extraction (PE) S times DI lowastPurchasing of food cropsitems
6 International Journal of Forestry Research
amount as reported for Garhwal Himalaya [26] but lesserthan the amount measured in Kedarnath region [27] So ithonestly proves that pressure on resources is considerablyhigh Yearly production of the resource was also compar-atively much lesser than the requirement for households ofboth the study sites and this result can be compared with astudy held in Niti valley where fuelwood consumption wasmuch lower than the consumption amount of other greaterHimalayan villages [28]e average fuelwood consumptiondata is also compared with data in Kumaon villages whereper capita consumption amount was estimated to 314 kgday [29] Since fuelwood collection forms the highest and themost frequent use of forests followed by timber and foddercollection for livestock [25] Although Arundo donax showshigh RUI it is available at farmland Alnus nepalensisDendrocalamushamiltoni and Castanopsis tribuloides hav-ing high RUI are available at the forest including Alnusnepalensis depicting high pressure on the species Definitelythese species having high PU show preferences in the vil-lages us a comparatively larger village with more pop-ulation will aggravate utilization pressures
Resource production is far lesser than the demand asevident from the present survey e area is characterizedby sparse vegetation cover low primary productivity andshort growing season and is thus highly susceptible toirreversible changes of natural habitats [28 30] A hugeshortfall in resource availability predicts the possibleextraction of resources from the surrounding forests(namely the khasmal forests protected areas and agro-forestry areas) And the whole can also be compared withthe total available fodder in Central Himalayan village[31]
ere is a huge gap between timber demand andproduction which is required for construction of houseand gothscowshed and such case is evident from timberdemand at Ribdi-Bhareng and wood production ratethereby leading to huge shortfall Considering the factthat a very small fraction of firewood comes from theagriculture fields various resources demand and pro-duction in the study villages are attributed to productionand utilization patterns
Table 6 Preference-wise ranking of fodder species in study sites
Toona ciliata M Roem(Tuni)Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson ex Benth
(ekiphal)1 abundant 2 common 3 rare
International Journal of Forestry Research 7
e higher price is attributed being the species grow inhigh altitudes and in rare status [32] Similarly mush-room considered as valuable wild edible fetch highermarket cost is income can be compared with the value-added products of most selected wild edibles which de-rived maximum economic returns in Garhwal Himalayafor Hippophae salicifolia followed by Rhododendronarboreum and Spondias pinnata and minimum forMyricaesculenta [33] Communities of both the villages use localmedicinal plants for treatment of health problems relatedto indigestion antispasmodic chronic fever dysenteryand influenza for which different parts (eg root fruitleaf and sometimes entire plant) are used ese me-dicinal plants are found to be distributed within an ele-vation range between 800 and 3600m asl in the Himalaya[34] Preferred species are collected regardless of theiravailability for fuelwood and other uses which is causinghigh pressure on a small group of plants Marketing ofmedicinal herbs is inefficient informal secretive andopportunistic As a result the raw material supply situ-ation is shaky unsustainable and exploitative which inturn leads to depletion of the resource base exploiting ofthe rural people (who are the real stewards of the re-source) adulteration and nonavailability of quality herbaldrugs for domestic consumption as well as for exports[35 36] In a conclusion local ecosystem suffers from
shortage of suitable resource management policies in onesimilarly delay in implementation of associated policiesmay also result in gradual loss of biodiversity in anothere regional initiatives taken by G B Pant NationalInstitute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE) underKhangchendzonga Landscape Conservation and Devel-opment Initiative- (KLCDI-) India programme have beenwidely appreciated KLCDI is one of such transboundaryprogramme where partner countries may work togethertaking the above approaches
5 Conclusion
Transboundary areas are more vulnerable in terms of en-croachment such as tourist trekking carrying of businessitems animal grazing and collection of medicinalwildplants as evidenced in the Barsey-Singalila transboundaryarea Sustainable use of the resource in the area is muchrequired so that livelihood of the local people be improvedProduction using local and productive fodder species shouldbe emphasized Fuel fodder and wild edibles includingmedicinal herbal are diverse but there may a great threat tothose species of protected areas Our results emphasized theneed for regular assessment of forest resources particularlyin protected areas e afforestation of degraded unculti-vated and marginal lands through high-quality fuel species
Table 7 NTFPswild edibles (1 US$Rs 72 approx)
Species (local name) Usage Degree ofuse
Availabilitystatus
Peoplersquosdependency
Market price(Rsmiddotkgminus1)
Polygonum molle D Don (otnee) Fodder NTFP andedible Low Abundant High mdash
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) NTFP and medicine High Abundant High mdashZanthoxylum sp (Eirmong) NTFP and medicine Low Abundant Low 500Himalayacalamus hookerianus (Munro)Stapleton (Paraeing)
Roofing fencingand NTFP High Moderate High 500
Yushania maling (Gamble) R B Majumdar ampKarthik(Malingo) Roofing and NTFP Medium Rare High 800
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham ex DDon(Budookhati) Medicine Low Rare Medium 300
Diplazium sp(Ninguro) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant High 100Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook) Benth (Khanakpa) NTFP and remedial Low Rare High mdashHeracleum wallichii DC (Chimphing) NTFP and medicine Low Rare High 300Litsea cubeba (Lour) Pers (Siltimur) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High 540Pentapanax castanopsidicola Hayata(Chinday) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant Medium 300
Rhododendron arboreum Sm (Gurans) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High mdashRubus ellipticus Sm (Aiselu) NTFP and edible Low Abundant Medium mdash
Urtica dioica L (Sisnu) NTFP fibre andedible High Abundant High 250
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC (Bokeytimur)
NTFP edible andmedicine Low Rare Medium 200
Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson exBenth (ekiphal) NTFP and edible Medium Rare Medium 200
Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham ex DDon (JangaliMel)
NTFP edible andmedicine Medium Rare Medium 200
Agaricus sp (Local) NTFP and edible High Rare High 1500Arisema sp (Gurbo) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 300Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 200
8 International Journal of Forestry Research
in the villages might reduce pressure Energy value of thesespecies also needs to be determined
e study further suggests that providing alternate andnonconventional energy sources such as solar cookers andfuel efficient portable ovens to the inhabitants at subsi-dized rates could reduce the pressure on nearby forestsHowever the local government has supported the com-munity people through supplying LPG stoves and cyl-inders at free of cost which may not be in sufficientquantity Besides judicious harvest of resources consid-ering the production rate is ever appreciated Similarlygovernment policies involving resource management canimpact development processes Further alternative energysources are to be generated such as the use of biobriquettes(matula) as fuelwood
Data Availability
e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
e authors are grateful to the Director G B Pant NationalInstitute for Himalayan Environment for providing nec-essary support and facilities for carrying out research Fi-nancial support and cooperation received fromInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) during KLCDI-India programme implementa-tion are duly acknowledged e kind of support extendedby e Mountain Institute India is acknowledged e au-thors are also grateful to Forest Environment and WildlifeManagement Department Government of Sikkim andDirectorate of Forests West Bengal for affording supportduring our field works Last the support and cooperationextended by the Panchayat members and community peopleof Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden are deeplyappreciated
Table 8 Medicinal herbs from the study sites
Species(local name)
Elevation(m) Habit Availability
time Parts use ColourTaste Usage Consumption
(kg hhminus1middotyrminus1) Source
Acorus calamus L (Bonjho) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Root Whitebitter Bone fracture 5 CF
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) 800ndash2000 Herb Perennial Root andleaves
Greenbitter
Antiseptic andasthma 400 FRF
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham exDDon (Budookhat) 1600ndash3300 Shrub Perennial Root Green
bitter Dysentery 200 RF
Eupatorium cannabinumL (Banmara) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Leaf Green
bitter Bleeding mdash AFCF
Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook)Benth (Khanakpa) 1500ndash2500 Tree August Fruit Green
bitter Indigestion 500 RF
Heracleum wallichii DC(Chimphing) 1500ndash2500 Herb September Fruit Redbitter Influenza 600 KF
AFRhus succedanea L (Arkhol) 800ndash2500 Tree November Fruit Greysour Dysentery 100 CFAFRF reserved forest PF protected forest F farm
International Journal of Forestry Research 9
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
Table 3 Amount of collection probability of use (PU) and resource use index (RUI) for important fuelwood species in Barsey-Singalila
Species (local name) HabitCollection (mean)
Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotdminus1 Kgmiddotsampleminus1middotyrminus1 Probability of use(PU)
Resource use index(RUI)
Alnus nepalensis DDon (Uttis) T 161 2415 0791 1898Beilschmiedia roxburghiana Nees (Tarsing) T 019 285 0339 813Betula cylindrostachys Wall ex Diels (Saur) T 045 675 0632 1516Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) T 144 216 0678 1627
Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm) A DC (MusureyKatus) T 133 1995 07 168
Chukrasia tabularis AJuss (Bogipoma) T 121 1815 0271 650Cryptomeria japonica (unb ex Lf) DDon(Dhuppi) T 025 375 0293 703
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees amp Arn exMunro (Bans) T 123 1845 0745 1788
Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall) Meisn (Argeli) S 057 855 0542 1300Engelhardtia spicata Lechen ex Blume (Mauwa) T 045 675 0587 1408Eurya acuminata DC (Zhingane) T 085 1275 0519 1245Leucosceptrum canum Sm (Ghurpis) T 062 93 0565 1356Lithocarpus pachyphyllus (Kurz) Rehder T 012 18 018 432Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall) Drude (Angaree) T 043 645 0203 487Macaranga indica Wight (Malata) T 066 99 0361 866Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Mull Arg(Sanomalata) T 013 195 0384 921
Machilus edulis King ex Hookf (Rani Kawlo) T 031 465 0406 974Maesa chisia Buch-Ham ex D Don (Bilaune) T 024 36 0406 974Nyssa javanica (Blume) Wangerin(Lekhchilaune) T 014 21 0293 703
Prunus cerasoides Buch-Ham ex DDon(Paiyun) T 054 81 0497 1192
Lithocarpus fenestratus (Roxb) Rehder(Arkahulo) T 059 885 018 432
Quercus lamellosa Sm (Bajranth) T 162 243 0158 379Quercus lineata Blume (Phlant) T 098 147 0135 324Rhododendron arboretum Sm (Laligurans) T 045 675 009 216Schima wallichii Choisy (Chilaune) T 086 129 0429 1029Symplocos theifolia (Kharane) T 023 345 0316 758Symplocos sumuntia Buch-Ham ex DDon(Kholme) T 012 18 0339 813
Tsuga dumosa (DDon) Eichler (ingre salla) T 011 165 0113 271Viburnum nervosum DDon (Ashare) T 067 1005 0226 542Meliosma arnottiana (Wight) Walp (Dabdabe) T 013 195 018 432(Aankhle) T 011 165 0135 324Arundo donax (Narkat) S 168 252 0813 1951T tree S shrub
Table 2 Different sources availability status and peoplersquos dependency on local resources found in Barsey-Singalila site
Wildlife sanctuary reservedforests khasmal forests and
private forestsMedium 2ndash4 060
Gorkhey-Samanden
Firewood fodder woodpolesNTFPs and medicinal herbs and
litter
National park reserved forestsand khasmal forests Low 2ndash5 060
lowastDependence index (DI) is calculated on a scale of 0-1
International Journal of Forestry Research 5
poverty and lack of awareness about the ecosystem services[8] More than 350 million people were living inside or onthe fringes of forests across the world out of which 60million were largely dependent for sustenance [6] Forests inmost developing countries are under anthropogenic pres-sure from resource use by marginalized communities forsubsistence [7 20 21] e condition is considered moreperilous in Asia and Africa where loss of forests during aten-year period in the later part of the 20th century wasestimated to 163 million ha of which 154 million ha (945)was in the tropics alone [22]
Resource use data suggests that resource need is col-lected from a certain distance in the forest area which willbe far from the houses e dependency index of study siteswas found much higher than the dependency rate of
households as estimated in the midhills of eastern Nepal(40) [23] e households with low income and smallfragmented land are more dependent on the forest re-sources [24] Type and degree of dependence varies fromplace to place It is highest among the families living withinforest areas Such families (about 10 of the households)have no or very small landholdings Others who signifi-cantly depend for their household and day to day re-quirements as well as for certain specific (such asmedicinal) uses on neighbouring forests (about 50) in-clude not only those principally associated with agricultureor allied activities but also involved with forests one way orthe other [25]
Whereas the average fuelwood consumption in the areais comparatively higher than the fuelwood consumption
Table 4 Traditional resource use pattern in the Barsey-Singalila site
Resource Extraction process Species under use Frequency
Timber Felling and sawing2-3 times inbetween 5ndash10
yearsmdash 6 cm3
NTFPs andmedicinalplants
Felling chopping umbelpicking uprooting and
collecting
Morning 2-3 timesa week 05 1825
Litter Collecting gt2-3 times a day 10 3650lowastTimber is required in between 10 and 15 years for house construction
Table 5 Annual resource production and actual demand in study villages under Barsey-Singalila range
ResourceRibdi Bhareng Gorkhey-Samanden
Demand(toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE Demand (toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE
Fuelwood 239327 323 239004 143402 4453 012 44518 26711Fodder 212211 4651 20756 124536 33398 366 33032 19819Timber 24225 646 23579 141474 366 61 3599 21594NTFPs 4716 2947 1769 1061 1113 57 543 326Litter 141474 226 141248 84749 22265 043 22222 13333Food cropslowast 27907 6977 2093 12558 5270 1318 3952 2371DI dependency index from Table 1 Shortfall (S) D minus P Possible extraction (PE) S times DI lowastPurchasing of food cropsitems
6 International Journal of Forestry Research
amount as reported for Garhwal Himalaya [26] but lesserthan the amount measured in Kedarnath region [27] So ithonestly proves that pressure on resources is considerablyhigh Yearly production of the resource was also compar-atively much lesser than the requirement for households ofboth the study sites and this result can be compared with astudy held in Niti valley where fuelwood consumption wasmuch lower than the consumption amount of other greaterHimalayan villages [28]e average fuelwood consumptiondata is also compared with data in Kumaon villages whereper capita consumption amount was estimated to 314 kgday [29] Since fuelwood collection forms the highest and themost frequent use of forests followed by timber and foddercollection for livestock [25] Although Arundo donax showshigh RUI it is available at farmland Alnus nepalensisDendrocalamushamiltoni and Castanopsis tribuloides hav-ing high RUI are available at the forest including Alnusnepalensis depicting high pressure on the species Definitelythese species having high PU show preferences in the vil-lages us a comparatively larger village with more pop-ulation will aggravate utilization pressures
Resource production is far lesser than the demand asevident from the present survey e area is characterizedby sparse vegetation cover low primary productivity andshort growing season and is thus highly susceptible toirreversible changes of natural habitats [28 30] A hugeshortfall in resource availability predicts the possibleextraction of resources from the surrounding forests(namely the khasmal forests protected areas and agro-forestry areas) And the whole can also be compared withthe total available fodder in Central Himalayan village[31]
ere is a huge gap between timber demand andproduction which is required for construction of houseand gothscowshed and such case is evident from timberdemand at Ribdi-Bhareng and wood production ratethereby leading to huge shortfall Considering the factthat a very small fraction of firewood comes from theagriculture fields various resources demand and pro-duction in the study villages are attributed to productionand utilization patterns
Table 6 Preference-wise ranking of fodder species in study sites
Toona ciliata M Roem(Tuni)Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson ex Benth
(ekiphal)1 abundant 2 common 3 rare
International Journal of Forestry Research 7
e higher price is attributed being the species grow inhigh altitudes and in rare status [32] Similarly mush-room considered as valuable wild edible fetch highermarket cost is income can be compared with the value-added products of most selected wild edibles which de-rived maximum economic returns in Garhwal Himalayafor Hippophae salicifolia followed by Rhododendronarboreum and Spondias pinnata and minimum forMyricaesculenta [33] Communities of both the villages use localmedicinal plants for treatment of health problems relatedto indigestion antispasmodic chronic fever dysenteryand influenza for which different parts (eg root fruitleaf and sometimes entire plant) are used ese me-dicinal plants are found to be distributed within an ele-vation range between 800 and 3600m asl in the Himalaya[34] Preferred species are collected regardless of theiravailability for fuelwood and other uses which is causinghigh pressure on a small group of plants Marketing ofmedicinal herbs is inefficient informal secretive andopportunistic As a result the raw material supply situ-ation is shaky unsustainable and exploitative which inturn leads to depletion of the resource base exploiting ofthe rural people (who are the real stewards of the re-source) adulteration and nonavailability of quality herbaldrugs for domestic consumption as well as for exports[35 36] In a conclusion local ecosystem suffers from
shortage of suitable resource management policies in onesimilarly delay in implementation of associated policiesmay also result in gradual loss of biodiversity in anothere regional initiatives taken by G B Pant NationalInstitute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE) underKhangchendzonga Landscape Conservation and Devel-opment Initiative- (KLCDI-) India programme have beenwidely appreciated KLCDI is one of such transboundaryprogramme where partner countries may work togethertaking the above approaches
5 Conclusion
Transboundary areas are more vulnerable in terms of en-croachment such as tourist trekking carrying of businessitems animal grazing and collection of medicinalwildplants as evidenced in the Barsey-Singalila transboundaryarea Sustainable use of the resource in the area is muchrequired so that livelihood of the local people be improvedProduction using local and productive fodder species shouldbe emphasized Fuel fodder and wild edibles includingmedicinal herbal are diverse but there may a great threat tothose species of protected areas Our results emphasized theneed for regular assessment of forest resources particularlyin protected areas e afforestation of degraded unculti-vated and marginal lands through high-quality fuel species
Table 7 NTFPswild edibles (1 US$Rs 72 approx)
Species (local name) Usage Degree ofuse
Availabilitystatus
Peoplersquosdependency
Market price(Rsmiddotkgminus1)
Polygonum molle D Don (otnee) Fodder NTFP andedible Low Abundant High mdash
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) NTFP and medicine High Abundant High mdashZanthoxylum sp (Eirmong) NTFP and medicine Low Abundant Low 500Himalayacalamus hookerianus (Munro)Stapleton (Paraeing)
Roofing fencingand NTFP High Moderate High 500
Yushania maling (Gamble) R B Majumdar ampKarthik(Malingo) Roofing and NTFP Medium Rare High 800
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham ex DDon(Budookhati) Medicine Low Rare Medium 300
Diplazium sp(Ninguro) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant High 100Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook) Benth (Khanakpa) NTFP and remedial Low Rare High mdashHeracleum wallichii DC (Chimphing) NTFP and medicine Low Rare High 300Litsea cubeba (Lour) Pers (Siltimur) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High 540Pentapanax castanopsidicola Hayata(Chinday) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant Medium 300
Rhododendron arboreum Sm (Gurans) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High mdashRubus ellipticus Sm (Aiselu) NTFP and edible Low Abundant Medium mdash
Urtica dioica L (Sisnu) NTFP fibre andedible High Abundant High 250
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC (Bokeytimur)
NTFP edible andmedicine Low Rare Medium 200
Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson exBenth (ekiphal) NTFP and edible Medium Rare Medium 200
Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham ex DDon (JangaliMel)
NTFP edible andmedicine Medium Rare Medium 200
Agaricus sp (Local) NTFP and edible High Rare High 1500Arisema sp (Gurbo) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 300Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 200
8 International Journal of Forestry Research
in the villages might reduce pressure Energy value of thesespecies also needs to be determined
e study further suggests that providing alternate andnonconventional energy sources such as solar cookers andfuel efficient portable ovens to the inhabitants at subsi-dized rates could reduce the pressure on nearby forestsHowever the local government has supported the com-munity people through supplying LPG stoves and cyl-inders at free of cost which may not be in sufficientquantity Besides judicious harvest of resources consid-ering the production rate is ever appreciated Similarlygovernment policies involving resource management canimpact development processes Further alternative energysources are to be generated such as the use of biobriquettes(matula) as fuelwood
Data Availability
e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
e authors are grateful to the Director G B Pant NationalInstitute for Himalayan Environment for providing nec-essary support and facilities for carrying out research Fi-nancial support and cooperation received fromInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) during KLCDI-India programme implementa-tion are duly acknowledged e kind of support extendedby e Mountain Institute India is acknowledged e au-thors are also grateful to Forest Environment and WildlifeManagement Department Government of Sikkim andDirectorate of Forests West Bengal for affording supportduring our field works Last the support and cooperationextended by the Panchayat members and community peopleof Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden are deeplyappreciated
Table 8 Medicinal herbs from the study sites
Species(local name)
Elevation(m) Habit Availability
time Parts use ColourTaste Usage Consumption
(kg hhminus1middotyrminus1) Source
Acorus calamus L (Bonjho) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Root Whitebitter Bone fracture 5 CF
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) 800ndash2000 Herb Perennial Root andleaves
Greenbitter
Antiseptic andasthma 400 FRF
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham exDDon (Budookhat) 1600ndash3300 Shrub Perennial Root Green
bitter Dysentery 200 RF
Eupatorium cannabinumL (Banmara) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Leaf Green
bitter Bleeding mdash AFCF
Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook)Benth (Khanakpa) 1500ndash2500 Tree August Fruit Green
bitter Indigestion 500 RF
Heracleum wallichii DC(Chimphing) 1500ndash2500 Herb September Fruit Redbitter Influenza 600 KF
AFRhus succedanea L (Arkhol) 800ndash2500 Tree November Fruit Greysour Dysentery 100 CFAFRF reserved forest PF protected forest F farm
International Journal of Forestry Research 9
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
poverty and lack of awareness about the ecosystem services[8] More than 350 million people were living inside or onthe fringes of forests across the world out of which 60million were largely dependent for sustenance [6] Forests inmost developing countries are under anthropogenic pres-sure from resource use by marginalized communities forsubsistence [7 20 21] e condition is considered moreperilous in Asia and Africa where loss of forests during aten-year period in the later part of the 20th century wasestimated to 163 million ha of which 154 million ha (945)was in the tropics alone [22]
Resource use data suggests that resource need is col-lected from a certain distance in the forest area which willbe far from the houses e dependency index of study siteswas found much higher than the dependency rate of
households as estimated in the midhills of eastern Nepal(40) [23] e households with low income and smallfragmented land are more dependent on the forest re-sources [24] Type and degree of dependence varies fromplace to place It is highest among the families living withinforest areas Such families (about 10 of the households)have no or very small landholdings Others who signifi-cantly depend for their household and day to day re-quirements as well as for certain specific (such asmedicinal) uses on neighbouring forests (about 50) in-clude not only those principally associated with agricultureor allied activities but also involved with forests one way orthe other [25]
Whereas the average fuelwood consumption in the areais comparatively higher than the fuelwood consumption
Table 4 Traditional resource use pattern in the Barsey-Singalila site
Resource Extraction process Species under use Frequency
Timber Felling and sawing2-3 times inbetween 5ndash10
yearsmdash 6 cm3
NTFPs andmedicinalplants
Felling chopping umbelpicking uprooting and
collecting
Morning 2-3 timesa week 05 1825
Litter Collecting gt2-3 times a day 10 3650lowastTimber is required in between 10 and 15 years for house construction
Table 5 Annual resource production and actual demand in study villages under Barsey-Singalila range
ResourceRibdi Bhareng Gorkhey-Samanden
Demand(toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE Demand (toncm3yr) Production (tonyr) S PE
Fuelwood 239327 323 239004 143402 4453 012 44518 26711Fodder 212211 4651 20756 124536 33398 366 33032 19819Timber 24225 646 23579 141474 366 61 3599 21594NTFPs 4716 2947 1769 1061 1113 57 543 326Litter 141474 226 141248 84749 22265 043 22222 13333Food cropslowast 27907 6977 2093 12558 5270 1318 3952 2371DI dependency index from Table 1 Shortfall (S) D minus P Possible extraction (PE) S times DI lowastPurchasing of food cropsitems
6 International Journal of Forestry Research
amount as reported for Garhwal Himalaya [26] but lesserthan the amount measured in Kedarnath region [27] So ithonestly proves that pressure on resources is considerablyhigh Yearly production of the resource was also compar-atively much lesser than the requirement for households ofboth the study sites and this result can be compared with astudy held in Niti valley where fuelwood consumption wasmuch lower than the consumption amount of other greaterHimalayan villages [28]e average fuelwood consumptiondata is also compared with data in Kumaon villages whereper capita consumption amount was estimated to 314 kgday [29] Since fuelwood collection forms the highest and themost frequent use of forests followed by timber and foddercollection for livestock [25] Although Arundo donax showshigh RUI it is available at farmland Alnus nepalensisDendrocalamushamiltoni and Castanopsis tribuloides hav-ing high RUI are available at the forest including Alnusnepalensis depicting high pressure on the species Definitelythese species having high PU show preferences in the vil-lages us a comparatively larger village with more pop-ulation will aggravate utilization pressures
Resource production is far lesser than the demand asevident from the present survey e area is characterizedby sparse vegetation cover low primary productivity andshort growing season and is thus highly susceptible toirreversible changes of natural habitats [28 30] A hugeshortfall in resource availability predicts the possibleextraction of resources from the surrounding forests(namely the khasmal forests protected areas and agro-forestry areas) And the whole can also be compared withthe total available fodder in Central Himalayan village[31]
ere is a huge gap between timber demand andproduction which is required for construction of houseand gothscowshed and such case is evident from timberdemand at Ribdi-Bhareng and wood production ratethereby leading to huge shortfall Considering the factthat a very small fraction of firewood comes from theagriculture fields various resources demand and pro-duction in the study villages are attributed to productionand utilization patterns
Table 6 Preference-wise ranking of fodder species in study sites
Toona ciliata M Roem(Tuni)Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson ex Benth
(ekiphal)1 abundant 2 common 3 rare
International Journal of Forestry Research 7
e higher price is attributed being the species grow inhigh altitudes and in rare status [32] Similarly mush-room considered as valuable wild edible fetch highermarket cost is income can be compared with the value-added products of most selected wild edibles which de-rived maximum economic returns in Garhwal Himalayafor Hippophae salicifolia followed by Rhododendronarboreum and Spondias pinnata and minimum forMyricaesculenta [33] Communities of both the villages use localmedicinal plants for treatment of health problems relatedto indigestion antispasmodic chronic fever dysenteryand influenza for which different parts (eg root fruitleaf and sometimes entire plant) are used ese me-dicinal plants are found to be distributed within an ele-vation range between 800 and 3600m asl in the Himalaya[34] Preferred species are collected regardless of theiravailability for fuelwood and other uses which is causinghigh pressure on a small group of plants Marketing ofmedicinal herbs is inefficient informal secretive andopportunistic As a result the raw material supply situ-ation is shaky unsustainable and exploitative which inturn leads to depletion of the resource base exploiting ofthe rural people (who are the real stewards of the re-source) adulteration and nonavailability of quality herbaldrugs for domestic consumption as well as for exports[35 36] In a conclusion local ecosystem suffers from
shortage of suitable resource management policies in onesimilarly delay in implementation of associated policiesmay also result in gradual loss of biodiversity in anothere regional initiatives taken by G B Pant NationalInstitute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE) underKhangchendzonga Landscape Conservation and Devel-opment Initiative- (KLCDI-) India programme have beenwidely appreciated KLCDI is one of such transboundaryprogramme where partner countries may work togethertaking the above approaches
5 Conclusion
Transboundary areas are more vulnerable in terms of en-croachment such as tourist trekking carrying of businessitems animal grazing and collection of medicinalwildplants as evidenced in the Barsey-Singalila transboundaryarea Sustainable use of the resource in the area is muchrequired so that livelihood of the local people be improvedProduction using local and productive fodder species shouldbe emphasized Fuel fodder and wild edibles includingmedicinal herbal are diverse but there may a great threat tothose species of protected areas Our results emphasized theneed for regular assessment of forest resources particularlyin protected areas e afforestation of degraded unculti-vated and marginal lands through high-quality fuel species
Table 7 NTFPswild edibles (1 US$Rs 72 approx)
Species (local name) Usage Degree ofuse
Availabilitystatus
Peoplersquosdependency
Market price(Rsmiddotkgminus1)
Polygonum molle D Don (otnee) Fodder NTFP andedible Low Abundant High mdash
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) NTFP and medicine High Abundant High mdashZanthoxylum sp (Eirmong) NTFP and medicine Low Abundant Low 500Himalayacalamus hookerianus (Munro)Stapleton (Paraeing)
Roofing fencingand NTFP High Moderate High 500
Yushania maling (Gamble) R B Majumdar ampKarthik(Malingo) Roofing and NTFP Medium Rare High 800
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham ex DDon(Budookhati) Medicine Low Rare Medium 300
Diplazium sp(Ninguro) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant High 100Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook) Benth (Khanakpa) NTFP and remedial Low Rare High mdashHeracleum wallichii DC (Chimphing) NTFP and medicine Low Rare High 300Litsea cubeba (Lour) Pers (Siltimur) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High 540Pentapanax castanopsidicola Hayata(Chinday) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant Medium 300
Rhododendron arboreum Sm (Gurans) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High mdashRubus ellipticus Sm (Aiselu) NTFP and edible Low Abundant Medium mdash
Urtica dioica L (Sisnu) NTFP fibre andedible High Abundant High 250
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC (Bokeytimur)
NTFP edible andmedicine Low Rare Medium 200
Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson exBenth (ekiphal) NTFP and edible Medium Rare Medium 200
Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham ex DDon (JangaliMel)
NTFP edible andmedicine Medium Rare Medium 200
Agaricus sp (Local) NTFP and edible High Rare High 1500Arisema sp (Gurbo) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 300Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 200
8 International Journal of Forestry Research
in the villages might reduce pressure Energy value of thesespecies also needs to be determined
e study further suggests that providing alternate andnonconventional energy sources such as solar cookers andfuel efficient portable ovens to the inhabitants at subsi-dized rates could reduce the pressure on nearby forestsHowever the local government has supported the com-munity people through supplying LPG stoves and cyl-inders at free of cost which may not be in sufficientquantity Besides judicious harvest of resources consid-ering the production rate is ever appreciated Similarlygovernment policies involving resource management canimpact development processes Further alternative energysources are to be generated such as the use of biobriquettes(matula) as fuelwood
Data Availability
e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
e authors are grateful to the Director G B Pant NationalInstitute for Himalayan Environment for providing nec-essary support and facilities for carrying out research Fi-nancial support and cooperation received fromInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) during KLCDI-India programme implementa-tion are duly acknowledged e kind of support extendedby e Mountain Institute India is acknowledged e au-thors are also grateful to Forest Environment and WildlifeManagement Department Government of Sikkim andDirectorate of Forests West Bengal for affording supportduring our field works Last the support and cooperationextended by the Panchayat members and community peopleof Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden are deeplyappreciated
Table 8 Medicinal herbs from the study sites
Species(local name)
Elevation(m) Habit Availability
time Parts use ColourTaste Usage Consumption
(kg hhminus1middotyrminus1) Source
Acorus calamus L (Bonjho) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Root Whitebitter Bone fracture 5 CF
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) 800ndash2000 Herb Perennial Root andleaves
Greenbitter
Antiseptic andasthma 400 FRF
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham exDDon (Budookhat) 1600ndash3300 Shrub Perennial Root Green
bitter Dysentery 200 RF
Eupatorium cannabinumL (Banmara) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Leaf Green
bitter Bleeding mdash AFCF
Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook)Benth (Khanakpa) 1500ndash2500 Tree August Fruit Green
bitter Indigestion 500 RF
Heracleum wallichii DC(Chimphing) 1500ndash2500 Herb September Fruit Redbitter Influenza 600 KF
AFRhus succedanea L (Arkhol) 800ndash2500 Tree November Fruit Greysour Dysentery 100 CFAFRF reserved forest PF protected forest F farm
International Journal of Forestry Research 9
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
amount as reported for Garhwal Himalaya [26] but lesserthan the amount measured in Kedarnath region [27] So ithonestly proves that pressure on resources is considerablyhigh Yearly production of the resource was also compar-atively much lesser than the requirement for households ofboth the study sites and this result can be compared with astudy held in Niti valley where fuelwood consumption wasmuch lower than the consumption amount of other greaterHimalayan villages [28]e average fuelwood consumptiondata is also compared with data in Kumaon villages whereper capita consumption amount was estimated to 314 kgday [29] Since fuelwood collection forms the highest and themost frequent use of forests followed by timber and foddercollection for livestock [25] Although Arundo donax showshigh RUI it is available at farmland Alnus nepalensisDendrocalamushamiltoni and Castanopsis tribuloides hav-ing high RUI are available at the forest including Alnusnepalensis depicting high pressure on the species Definitelythese species having high PU show preferences in the vil-lages us a comparatively larger village with more pop-ulation will aggravate utilization pressures
Resource production is far lesser than the demand asevident from the present survey e area is characterizedby sparse vegetation cover low primary productivity andshort growing season and is thus highly susceptible toirreversible changes of natural habitats [28 30] A hugeshortfall in resource availability predicts the possibleextraction of resources from the surrounding forests(namely the khasmal forests protected areas and agro-forestry areas) And the whole can also be compared withthe total available fodder in Central Himalayan village[31]
ere is a huge gap between timber demand andproduction which is required for construction of houseand gothscowshed and such case is evident from timberdemand at Ribdi-Bhareng and wood production ratethereby leading to huge shortfall Considering the factthat a very small fraction of firewood comes from theagriculture fields various resources demand and pro-duction in the study villages are attributed to productionand utilization patterns
Table 6 Preference-wise ranking of fodder species in study sites
Toona ciliata M Roem(Tuni)Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson ex Benth
(ekiphal)1 abundant 2 common 3 rare
International Journal of Forestry Research 7
e higher price is attributed being the species grow inhigh altitudes and in rare status [32] Similarly mush-room considered as valuable wild edible fetch highermarket cost is income can be compared with the value-added products of most selected wild edibles which de-rived maximum economic returns in Garhwal Himalayafor Hippophae salicifolia followed by Rhododendronarboreum and Spondias pinnata and minimum forMyricaesculenta [33] Communities of both the villages use localmedicinal plants for treatment of health problems relatedto indigestion antispasmodic chronic fever dysenteryand influenza for which different parts (eg root fruitleaf and sometimes entire plant) are used ese me-dicinal plants are found to be distributed within an ele-vation range between 800 and 3600m asl in the Himalaya[34] Preferred species are collected regardless of theiravailability for fuelwood and other uses which is causinghigh pressure on a small group of plants Marketing ofmedicinal herbs is inefficient informal secretive andopportunistic As a result the raw material supply situ-ation is shaky unsustainable and exploitative which inturn leads to depletion of the resource base exploiting ofthe rural people (who are the real stewards of the re-source) adulteration and nonavailability of quality herbaldrugs for domestic consumption as well as for exports[35 36] In a conclusion local ecosystem suffers from
shortage of suitable resource management policies in onesimilarly delay in implementation of associated policiesmay also result in gradual loss of biodiversity in anothere regional initiatives taken by G B Pant NationalInstitute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE) underKhangchendzonga Landscape Conservation and Devel-opment Initiative- (KLCDI-) India programme have beenwidely appreciated KLCDI is one of such transboundaryprogramme where partner countries may work togethertaking the above approaches
5 Conclusion
Transboundary areas are more vulnerable in terms of en-croachment such as tourist trekking carrying of businessitems animal grazing and collection of medicinalwildplants as evidenced in the Barsey-Singalila transboundaryarea Sustainable use of the resource in the area is muchrequired so that livelihood of the local people be improvedProduction using local and productive fodder species shouldbe emphasized Fuel fodder and wild edibles includingmedicinal herbal are diverse but there may a great threat tothose species of protected areas Our results emphasized theneed for regular assessment of forest resources particularlyin protected areas e afforestation of degraded unculti-vated and marginal lands through high-quality fuel species
Table 7 NTFPswild edibles (1 US$Rs 72 approx)
Species (local name) Usage Degree ofuse
Availabilitystatus
Peoplersquosdependency
Market price(Rsmiddotkgminus1)
Polygonum molle D Don (otnee) Fodder NTFP andedible Low Abundant High mdash
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) NTFP and medicine High Abundant High mdashZanthoxylum sp (Eirmong) NTFP and medicine Low Abundant Low 500Himalayacalamus hookerianus (Munro)Stapleton (Paraeing)
Roofing fencingand NTFP High Moderate High 500
Yushania maling (Gamble) R B Majumdar ampKarthik(Malingo) Roofing and NTFP Medium Rare High 800
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham ex DDon(Budookhati) Medicine Low Rare Medium 300
Diplazium sp(Ninguro) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant High 100Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook) Benth (Khanakpa) NTFP and remedial Low Rare High mdashHeracleum wallichii DC (Chimphing) NTFP and medicine Low Rare High 300Litsea cubeba (Lour) Pers (Siltimur) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High 540Pentapanax castanopsidicola Hayata(Chinday) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant Medium 300
Rhododendron arboreum Sm (Gurans) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High mdashRubus ellipticus Sm (Aiselu) NTFP and edible Low Abundant Medium mdash
Urtica dioica L (Sisnu) NTFP fibre andedible High Abundant High 250
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC (Bokeytimur)
NTFP edible andmedicine Low Rare Medium 200
Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson exBenth (ekiphal) NTFP and edible Medium Rare Medium 200
Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham ex DDon (JangaliMel)
NTFP edible andmedicine Medium Rare Medium 200
Agaricus sp (Local) NTFP and edible High Rare High 1500Arisema sp (Gurbo) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 300Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 200
8 International Journal of Forestry Research
in the villages might reduce pressure Energy value of thesespecies also needs to be determined
e study further suggests that providing alternate andnonconventional energy sources such as solar cookers andfuel efficient portable ovens to the inhabitants at subsi-dized rates could reduce the pressure on nearby forestsHowever the local government has supported the com-munity people through supplying LPG stoves and cyl-inders at free of cost which may not be in sufficientquantity Besides judicious harvest of resources consid-ering the production rate is ever appreciated Similarlygovernment policies involving resource management canimpact development processes Further alternative energysources are to be generated such as the use of biobriquettes(matula) as fuelwood
Data Availability
e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
e authors are grateful to the Director G B Pant NationalInstitute for Himalayan Environment for providing nec-essary support and facilities for carrying out research Fi-nancial support and cooperation received fromInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) during KLCDI-India programme implementa-tion are duly acknowledged e kind of support extendedby e Mountain Institute India is acknowledged e au-thors are also grateful to Forest Environment and WildlifeManagement Department Government of Sikkim andDirectorate of Forests West Bengal for affording supportduring our field works Last the support and cooperationextended by the Panchayat members and community peopleof Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden are deeplyappreciated
Table 8 Medicinal herbs from the study sites
Species(local name)
Elevation(m) Habit Availability
time Parts use ColourTaste Usage Consumption
(kg hhminus1middotyrminus1) Source
Acorus calamus L (Bonjho) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Root Whitebitter Bone fracture 5 CF
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) 800ndash2000 Herb Perennial Root andleaves
Greenbitter
Antiseptic andasthma 400 FRF
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham exDDon (Budookhat) 1600ndash3300 Shrub Perennial Root Green
bitter Dysentery 200 RF
Eupatorium cannabinumL (Banmara) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Leaf Green
bitter Bleeding mdash AFCF
Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook)Benth (Khanakpa) 1500ndash2500 Tree August Fruit Green
bitter Indigestion 500 RF
Heracleum wallichii DC(Chimphing) 1500ndash2500 Herb September Fruit Redbitter Influenza 600 KF
AFRhus succedanea L (Arkhol) 800ndash2500 Tree November Fruit Greysour Dysentery 100 CFAFRF reserved forest PF protected forest F farm
International Journal of Forestry Research 9
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
e higher price is attributed being the species grow inhigh altitudes and in rare status [32] Similarly mush-room considered as valuable wild edible fetch highermarket cost is income can be compared with the value-added products of most selected wild edibles which de-rived maximum economic returns in Garhwal Himalayafor Hippophae salicifolia followed by Rhododendronarboreum and Spondias pinnata and minimum forMyricaesculenta [33] Communities of both the villages use localmedicinal plants for treatment of health problems relatedto indigestion antispasmodic chronic fever dysenteryand influenza for which different parts (eg root fruitleaf and sometimes entire plant) are used ese me-dicinal plants are found to be distributed within an ele-vation range between 800 and 3600m asl in the Himalaya[34] Preferred species are collected regardless of theiravailability for fuelwood and other uses which is causinghigh pressure on a small group of plants Marketing ofmedicinal herbs is inefficient informal secretive andopportunistic As a result the raw material supply situ-ation is shaky unsustainable and exploitative which inturn leads to depletion of the resource base exploiting ofthe rural people (who are the real stewards of the re-source) adulteration and nonavailability of quality herbaldrugs for domestic consumption as well as for exports[35 36] In a conclusion local ecosystem suffers from
shortage of suitable resource management policies in onesimilarly delay in implementation of associated policiesmay also result in gradual loss of biodiversity in anothere regional initiatives taken by G B Pant NationalInstitute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE) underKhangchendzonga Landscape Conservation and Devel-opment Initiative- (KLCDI-) India programme have beenwidely appreciated KLCDI is one of such transboundaryprogramme where partner countries may work togethertaking the above approaches
5 Conclusion
Transboundary areas are more vulnerable in terms of en-croachment such as tourist trekking carrying of businessitems animal grazing and collection of medicinalwildplants as evidenced in the Barsey-Singalila transboundaryarea Sustainable use of the resource in the area is muchrequired so that livelihood of the local people be improvedProduction using local and productive fodder species shouldbe emphasized Fuel fodder and wild edibles includingmedicinal herbal are diverse but there may a great threat tothose species of protected areas Our results emphasized theneed for regular assessment of forest resources particularlyin protected areas e afforestation of degraded unculti-vated and marginal lands through high-quality fuel species
Table 7 NTFPswild edibles (1 US$Rs 72 approx)
Species (local name) Usage Degree ofuse
Availabilitystatus
Peoplersquosdependency
Market price(Rsmiddotkgminus1)
Polygonum molle D Don (otnee) Fodder NTFP andedible Low Abundant High mdash
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) NTFP and medicine High Abundant High mdashZanthoxylum sp (Eirmong) NTFP and medicine Low Abundant Low 500Himalayacalamus hookerianus (Munro)Stapleton (Paraeing)
Roofing fencingand NTFP High Moderate High 500
Yushania maling (Gamble) R B Majumdar ampKarthik(Malingo) Roofing and NTFP Medium Rare High 800
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham ex DDon(Budookhati) Medicine Low Rare Medium 300
Diplazium sp(Ninguro) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant High 100Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook) Benth (Khanakpa) NTFP and remedial Low Rare High mdashHeracleum wallichii DC (Chimphing) NTFP and medicine Low Rare High 300Litsea cubeba (Lour) Pers (Siltimur) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High 540Pentapanax castanopsidicola Hayata(Chinday) NTFP and edible Medium Abundant Medium 300
Rhododendron arboreum Sm (Gurans) NTFP and medicine Medium Abundant High mdashRubus ellipticus Sm (Aiselu) NTFP and edible Low Abundant Medium mdash
Urtica dioica L (Sisnu) NTFP fibre andedible High Abundant High 250
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC (Bokeytimur)
NTFP edible andmedicine Low Rare Medium 200
Actinidia strigosa Hook F amp omson exBenth (ekiphal) NTFP and edible Medium Rare Medium 200
Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham ex DDon (JangaliMel)
NTFP edible andmedicine Medium Rare Medium 200
Agaricus sp (Local) NTFP and edible High Rare High 1500Arisema sp (Gurbo) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 300Castanopsis indica (Roxb ex Lindl) ADC(Dhalne Katus) NTFP and edible Low Rare Medium 200
8 International Journal of Forestry Research
in the villages might reduce pressure Energy value of thesespecies also needs to be determined
e study further suggests that providing alternate andnonconventional energy sources such as solar cookers andfuel efficient portable ovens to the inhabitants at subsi-dized rates could reduce the pressure on nearby forestsHowever the local government has supported the com-munity people through supplying LPG stoves and cyl-inders at free of cost which may not be in sufficientquantity Besides judicious harvest of resources consid-ering the production rate is ever appreciated Similarlygovernment policies involving resource management canimpact development processes Further alternative energysources are to be generated such as the use of biobriquettes(matula) as fuelwood
Data Availability
e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
e authors are grateful to the Director G B Pant NationalInstitute for Himalayan Environment for providing nec-essary support and facilities for carrying out research Fi-nancial support and cooperation received fromInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) during KLCDI-India programme implementa-tion are duly acknowledged e kind of support extendedby e Mountain Institute India is acknowledged e au-thors are also grateful to Forest Environment and WildlifeManagement Department Government of Sikkim andDirectorate of Forests West Bengal for affording supportduring our field works Last the support and cooperationextended by the Panchayat members and community peopleof Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden are deeplyappreciated
Table 8 Medicinal herbs from the study sites
Species(local name)
Elevation(m) Habit Availability
time Parts use ColourTaste Usage Consumption
(kg hhminus1middotyrminus1) Source
Acorus calamus L (Bonjho) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Root Whitebitter Bone fracture 5 CF
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) 800ndash2000 Herb Perennial Root andleaves
Greenbitter
Antiseptic andasthma 400 FRF
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham exDDon (Budookhat) 1600ndash3300 Shrub Perennial Root Green
bitter Dysentery 200 RF
Eupatorium cannabinumL (Banmara) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Leaf Green
bitter Bleeding mdash AFCF
Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook)Benth (Khanakpa) 1500ndash2500 Tree August Fruit Green
bitter Indigestion 500 RF
Heracleum wallichii DC(Chimphing) 1500ndash2500 Herb September Fruit Redbitter Influenza 600 KF
AFRhus succedanea L (Arkhol) 800ndash2500 Tree November Fruit Greysour Dysentery 100 CFAFRF reserved forest PF protected forest F farm
International Journal of Forestry Research 9
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
in the villages might reduce pressure Energy value of thesespecies also needs to be determined
e study further suggests that providing alternate andnonconventional energy sources such as solar cookers andfuel efficient portable ovens to the inhabitants at subsi-dized rates could reduce the pressure on nearby forestsHowever the local government has supported the com-munity people through supplying LPG stoves and cyl-inders at free of cost which may not be in sufficientquantity Besides judicious harvest of resources consid-ering the production rate is ever appreciated Similarlygovernment policies involving resource management canimpact development processes Further alternative energysources are to be generated such as the use of biobriquettes(matula) as fuelwood
Data Availability
e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
e authors are grateful to the Director G B Pant NationalInstitute for Himalayan Environment for providing nec-essary support and facilities for carrying out research Fi-nancial support and cooperation received fromInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) during KLCDI-India programme implementa-tion are duly acknowledged e kind of support extendedby e Mountain Institute India is acknowledged e au-thors are also grateful to Forest Environment and WildlifeManagement Department Government of Sikkim andDirectorate of Forests West Bengal for affording supportduring our field works Last the support and cooperationextended by the Panchayat members and community peopleof Ribdi-Bhareng and Gorkhey-Samanden are deeplyappreciated
Table 8 Medicinal herbs from the study sites
Species(local name)
Elevation(m) Habit Availability
time Parts use ColourTaste Usage Consumption
(kg hhminus1middotyrminus1) Source
Acorus calamus L (Bonjho) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Root Whitebitter Bone fracture 5 CF
Artemisia vulgaris L (Titeypati) 800ndash2000 Herb Perennial Root andleaves
Greenbitter
Antiseptic andasthma 400 FRF
Astilbe rivularis Buch-Ham exDDon (Budookhat) 1600ndash3300 Shrub Perennial Root Green
bitter Dysentery 200 RF
Eupatorium cannabinumL (Banmara) 800ndash2500 Herb Perennial Leaf Green
bitter Bleeding mdash AFCF
Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook)Benth (Khanakpa) 1500ndash2500 Tree August Fruit Green
bitter Indigestion 500 RF
Heracleum wallichii DC(Chimphing) 1500ndash2500 Herb September Fruit Redbitter Influenza 600 KF
AFRhus succedanea L (Arkhol) 800ndash2500 Tree November Fruit Greysour Dysentery 100 CFAFRF reserved forest PF protected forest F farm
International Journal of Forestry Research 9
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
References
[1] D K Langat E K Maranga A A Aboud andJ K Cheboiwo ldquoRole of forest resources to local livelihoodsthe case of East Mau forest ecosystem Kenyardquo InternationalJournal of Forestry Research vol 2016 Article ID 453735410 pages 2016
[2] S Chao Forest People Numbers across the World ForestPeoples Program Moreton-in-Marsh UK 2012
[3] P Vedeld A Angelsen J Bojo E Sjaastad and G KobugabeBerg ldquoForest environmental incomes and the rural poorrdquoForest Policy and Economics vol 9 no 7 pp 869ndash879 2007
[4] C Shackleton and S Shackleton ldquoe importance of nontimber forest products in rural livelihood security and assafety nets a review of evidence from South Africardquo SouthAfrican Journal of Science vol 100 no 11-12 pp 658ndash6642004
[5] C M Shackleton and S E Shackleton ldquoHousehold wealthstatus and natural resource use in the Kat River valley SouthAfricardquo Ecological Economics vol 57 no 2 pp 306ndash3172006
[6] World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Sector Unitand South Asia Region India Unlocking Opportunities forForest Dependent People e World Bank Washington DCUSA 2006
[7] MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest Government ofIndia State of Environment Report Vol 126 Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest New Delhi India 2009
[8] K A Khan A Musavi J A Khan and K Ahmad ldquoLivelihoodof two local communities and their dependence on forestresources a case study from Western Himalaya Dachigamnational park Jammu amp Kashmir Indiardquo Journal of HumanResource and Sustainability Studies vol 6 no 4 pp 294ndash3052018
[9] N Chettri E Sharma D C Deb and R C Sundriyal ldquoImpactof firewood extraction on tree structure regeneration andwoody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of theSikkim Himalayardquo Mountain Research and Developmentvol 22 no 2 pp 150ndash158 2002
[10] M Arnold G Kohlin R Persson and G Shepherd FuelwoodRevisited What Has Changed in the Last Decade Centre forInternational Forestry Research Bogor Indonesia 2003
[11] D Dhyani R K Maikhuri K S Rao et al ldquoBasic nutritionalattributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) pop-ulations from Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Current Sciencevol 92 no 8 pp 1148ndash1152 2007
[12] R K Maikhuri L S Rawat V Negi and V K Purohit Eco-Friendly Appropriate Technologies for Sustainable Develop-ment of Rural Ecosystems in Central Himalaya G B PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment and DevelopmentAlmora Uttarakhand 2007
[13] R K Maikhuri V Negi L S Rawat and V K PurohitPromoting Value Addition in Potential Wild Edibles of CentralHimalaya for Sustainable Livelihood and Small Scale Enter-prise Development G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Envi-ronment and Development Almora Uttarakhand 2007
[14] M Singh A Chettri A Pandey S Sinha K K Singh andH K Badola ldquoIn vitro propagation and phytochemical as-sessment of Aconitum ferox wall a threatened medicinal plantof Sikkim Himalayardquo Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences India Section B Biological Science vol 90 pp 1ndash92019
[15] P Kandel N Chettri R P Chaudhary et al ldquoPlant diversityof the Kangchenjunga Landscape Eastern Himalayasrdquo PlantDiversity vol 41 no 3 pp 153ndash165 2019
[16] M I Clarke ldquoActivity modelling a research tool or a practicalplanning techniquerdquo in Behavioral Research for TransportPolicyVol 123 VNU Science Press Utrecht Netherlands1986
[17] S S Samant U Dhar and R S Rawal ldquoAssessment of fuelresource diversity and utilization patterns in Askot wildlifesanctuary in Kumaun Himalaya India for conservation andmanagementrdquo Environmental Conservation vol 27 no 1pp 5ndash13 2000
[18] M S Rana B Rana Sakshi B Sakshi and S S SamantldquoExtraction utilization pattern and prioritization of fuel re-sources for conservation in Manali wildlife sanctuaryNorthwestern Himalayardquo Journal Mountain Science vol 9pp 580ndash588 2012
[19] D Mueller-Dombois and H Ellenberg Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology John Willey and Sons New York NYUSA 1974
[20] P Davidar S Sahoo P C Mammen et al ldquoAssessing theextent and causes of forest degradation in India where do westandrdquo Biological Conservation vol 143 no 12pp 2937ndash2944 2010
[21] FSI Forest Survey of India India State of Forest Report ForestSurvey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests) NewDelhi India 2011
[22] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Non-Wood ForestProducts in Nutrition FAOGOI Expert Consultation on NonWood Forest Products Yogyakarta Indonesia 1995
[23] D Pant S apa A Singh M Bhattarai and D MoldenIntegrated Management of Water Forest and Land Resourcesin Nepal Opportunities for Improved Livelihood InternationalWater Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2005
[24] A J Dougill J G Soussan E Kiff et al ldquoImpacts of com-munity forestry on farming system sustainability in themiddle hills of Nepalrdquo Land Degradation amp Developmentvol 12 no 3 pp 261ndash276 2001
[25] M Junaid Jazib ldquoForest dependence and the utilizationpatterns of locals in the PirPanjal Himalayasrdquo Civil andEnviromental Research vol 7 no 1 pp 78ndash83 2015
[26] A Awasthi S K Uniyal G S Rawat and A RajvanshildquoForest resource availability and its use by the migratoryvillages of Uttarkashi Garhwal Himalaya (India)rdquo ForestEcology and Management vol 174 no 1ndash3 pp 13ndash24 2003
[27] G Singh G S Rawat and D Verma ldquoComparative study offuelwood consumption by villagers and seasonal ldquoDhabaownersrdquo in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal HimalayaIndiardquo Energy Policy vol 38 no 4 pp 1895ndash1899 2010
[28] M Mitra A Kumar B S Adhikari and G S RawatldquoFuelwood resources and their use pattern by Bhotia com-munity in Niti Valley Western Himalayardquo Botanica Ori-entalis Journal of Plant Science vol 11 pp 1ndash6 2017
[29] V S Negi and R K Maikhuri ldquoForest resources consumptionpattern in Govind wildlife sanctuary Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Environmental Planning and Managementvol 60 no 7 pp 1235ndash1252 2017
[30] B C Joshi R S Rawal K Chandra Sekar and A PandeyldquoQuantitative ethnobotanical assessment of woody species ina representative watershed of West Himalaya Indiardquo EnergyEcology and Environment vol 4 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2019
[31] S Narayan and R C Sundriyal ldquoFuelwood and fodder useand deficit pattern in Central Himalayan villagerdquo Nature andScience vol 7 no 4 pp 85ndash88 2009
10 International Journal of Forestry Research
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
International Journal of Forestry Research 11
[32] H Meilby C Smith-Hall A Byg et al ldquoAre forest incomessustainable firewood and timber extraction and productivityin community managed forests in Nepalrdquo World Develop-ment vol 64 no S1 pp S113ndashS124 2014
[33] V S Negi R K Maikhuri and L S Rawat ldquoNon-timberforest products (NTFPs) a viable option for biodiversityconservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Hima-layardquo Biodiversity Conservation vol 20 pp 545ndash559 2010
[34] M Sundriyal and R C Sundriyal ldquoUnderutilized edible plantsof the Sikkim Himalaya need for domesticationrdquo CurrentScience vol 85 no 6 pp 731ndash736 2003
[35] D N Tiwari Report of the Task Force on Conservation andSustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Government of IndiaPlanning Commission New Delhi India 2000
[36] S Rayamajhi Forest dependency livelihoods and conservationof high altitude forests in Nepal PhD esis University ofCopenhagen Copenhagen Denmark 2010
