Foster Ch09

Managing Quality Integrating the Supply Chain S. Thomas FosterChapter 9
To provide a method for coping with the widespread problem of errorprone processes, Deming developed the PDCA (i.e., Plan, Do, Check, and Act) cycle, which provides a repeatable and reproducible, standardized, structured, teambased, factfinding, problemsolving approach to process improvement and correction using a set of simple, cost effective, low-tech tools.
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Why would you use a form such as the PDCA Worksheet in
managing improvement projects?
First, the PDCA Worksheet provides for communication, coordination, collaboration, and control of multiple correction and improvement projects. Second, this form provides for the codification and institutionalization of employee knowledge and experience about improvement and correction projects. Finally, management can input the data on the worksheet into a computer-based database which can provide status reports and historical analyses about multiple correction and improvement projects.
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Who should be on the team?
What is the problem?
What is the quantified objective?
How do you characterize the process?
What data are you going to collect?
How are you going to collect the data?
How are you going to analyze the data?
How are you going to identify the root cause or the improvement?
How are you going to identify the best alternative, countermeasure?
How are you going to setup a pilot?
How are you going to test the pilot?
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Standardized and Structured
The standardized and structured component means this approach (i.e., the sequenced set of steps and set of tools) is repeatable for any specific improvement or correction and the method is reproducible across all levels and functional areas of an organization.
Team-based
The teambased component means that management selects six to nine people from the process to work together as a team to take advantage of their knowledge and perspectives of the process in implementing the PDCA cycle according to the standardized structure. We use the team-based problem solving because we are all smarter than any one of us. This team can call on upstream and downstream process personnel and specialists to support their efforts. The team collaboration will reduce or eliminate the selective abstractions caused by bounded rationality and bounded awareness when one person solves a problem.
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Fact-finding
The factfinding component means that before we start solving the problem we use a standard set of tools to gather, examine, organize, question, and integrate the facts into a model to avoid making decisions based on assumptions, anecdotes, heuristics, hearsay, opinions and pseudo facts. If we leapfrog the fact-finding process, we can fail to see the uniqueness of the situation, and we will anchor on an incorrect diagnosis. This tendency to leap-frog the fact-finding process is typical of resident “experts” who have single, unified models which give you solutions that are direct, simple, obvious, and wrong.
Problem-solving
The problemsolving component means that we use a repeatable, reproducible, standardized, structured set of tools to generate, debate, and test alternatives, to decide on an alternative, and to implement a pilot to learn from experience.
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What is the purpose of the following steps in the PDCA cycle?
Plan
The purpose of the Plan step is to diagnose the problem and prescribe a remedy. Diagnosis, factfinding, is accomplished in steps #1, #2, and #3 on the PDCA Worksheet (i.e., characterize the process, identify root cause or improvement, find alternatives). Prescription, problem solving, is accomplished in step #4 (i.e., select an alternative as a countermeasure).
Do
The Do step, #5, is concerned with implementing a pilot to test the
proposed solution.
Check
The Check step, #6, is concerned with determining if the pilot is successful as defined by the operational definition of success for the pilot.
Act
The Act step, #7, is concerned with returning to Plan step #1 and repeating the PDCA cycle if the pilot is unsuccessful or, if the pilot is successful, proceeding with an expanded, fullscale implementation and developing new standards, policies, and procedures.
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Why should an improvement team not skip any steps in the PDCA cycle?
If you skip any of the steps, you are likely to be making decisions based on assumptions, anecdotes, heuristics, hearsay, opinions and pseudo facts, and it is unlikely that you will eliminate the problem or improve the process because you will leap-frog the fact-finding process, you will fail to see the uniqueness of the situation, and you will anchor on an incorrect diagnosis. This tendency to leap-frog the fact-finding process is typical of resident “experts” who have single, unified models which produce solutions that are direct, simple, obvious, and wrong.
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Why does the PDCA cycle use an iterative approach symbolized as a circle?
If you are sailing a boat with the intent to intercept another continuously moving boat, you periodically recalculate the course to the continuously moving target. Each time you make the best calculation you can.
What you don't do is follow your first course calculation without correction until the original calculation indicates that you have reached the target, because the target is not there anymore. You realize that despite your best initial efforts to calculate the course to the target, the target may be moving in unforeseen ways, and the currents and winds in which you are sailing may carry you off the calculated course. You follow the principle of seeking frequent feedback about your position and the target's position in relation to your course so you can make fact-based adjustments.
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In business, however, people tend to think that they should be able to develop the correct plan or procedure for meeting business needs without trial and feedback using pilots or prototypes, without using “what-if” scenario analyses of their selected plan, and without generating and exploring alternative plans.
The PDCA principle of iteration gives you a system for continuously making quick improvements and corrections in a step-by-step way, doing the best job you can within relatively short improvement cycles. In that way you can quickly try an improvement or correction (i.e., pilots or prototypes) and get immediate, fact-based, feedback regarding how well the improvement or correction performed. You want to do as little as possible and learn from experience. You want to fail fast, fail small, and correct quickly, without making costly errors, by performing a series of simple improvement or corrections.
We always show the PDCA cycle as a circle to stress the continuous, iterative nature of improvement and correction. All types of process improvement and correction require iteration.
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What value does brainstorming add to the team throughout the PDCA cycle?
We generally believe that humans can be rational problemsolvers. In other words, a knowledgeable person supposedly, with some effort, can become aware of all facts and alternatives for solutions and select the appropriate alternative based on its value relative to the facts and other alternatives.
However, in many situations, the problem or opportunity under consideration is sufficiently complicated that one person cannot comprehend all of the relationships, their interdependencies, causes, effects, surrounding facts, and possible alternatives for solutions, and then rank each alternative based on its value relative to the other alternatives. These constraints do not even consider situations with conflicting goals and priorities or the personality, irrationality, hopes, beliefs, values, agendas, selective abstractions, and expectations of the problemsolver, all of which further complicate nontrivial decisions.
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In summary, one person either cannot think of everything in nontrivial situations, because of their selective abstractions caused by bounded rationality and bounded awareness, or does not want to think of everything because of their personality, irrationality, hopes, beliefs, values, agendas, and expectations, or misses the most important goal or priority. This limitation is reduced in the PDCA cycle by using teams and the brainstorming technique for generating diverse possibilities at every decision making point.
With the above qualifications to the rational decision making model in mind, the statement that only the questions that get asked, get answered, and only the problems that get recognized, get solved becomes an important heuristic in process problem solving. Avoid insular, group-thinking. At the outset, you do not want consensus and “team players.” You want uncomfortable questions and debate to dominate. Teambased brainstorming helps to assure that the team asks the right questions and the team identifies the real problem and alternatives. Never decide alone – we are all smarter than any one of us.
a. define an objective
the correction questions
d. make the suggestions visible
e. do not allow criticism or comments about the suggestions
f. do it quickly
h. you can allow anonymous suggestions in a politically influenced
team
j. clarify the suggestions
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What are the improvement questions you ask to guide team brainstorming in generating improvement alternatives?
How can we: eliminate manpower to improve the process.
add material
combine methods
change machinery
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What are the correction questions you ask to guide team brainstorming in generating correction alternatives?
What has changed in: manpower to cause the differences materials between actual results and
methods specifications
How should we specify operational definitions?
An operational definition should provide communicable meaning to a concept by specifying the unit of measure, the who, what, when, where, why, how we measure, how much we measure, and how we respond to the measurement of a concept within a particular set of circumstances. Strictly speaking, operational definitions aren't "tools" in the same sense that flowcharts are. However, they are the vital underpinning that helps us to use all of the other tools successfully. Operational definitions provide quantified, explicit specifications which are not ambiguous.
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a. metric – unit of measure
b. criteria – variable we measure
c. test – how we measure
d. response – pass/fail action
Why should teams physically characterize a process before starting improvement efforts?
The purpose of the physical characterization of the process is to assure that:
the measurement systems are correct,
the specifications and standards are correct,
the inputs and outputs meet the specifications and standards, and
the team understands the historical behavior of the process, using pivot table analyses of the process data, before the correction or improvement efforts begin.
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The team physically characterizes the process by:
a. performing gauge studies,
and standards,
and
process data.
Why do we perform gauge studies?
Teams perform gauge studies to assure that the process measurement devices and the operators using them are accurate. Otherwise, we could have a biased factfinding process because of unreliable and inaccurate feedback information.
How do we perform gauge studies?
Teams accomplish these studies by first calibrating the measurement devices, then comparing the measurements made on a single characteristic on a single item across all measurement devices to assure the measurements are repeatable across all devices. Finally, the team compares the
measurements made by all operators for a single item and measurement device combination to assure that identical measurements are reproducible across all operators.
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Distinguish between the actions you take if measurements are not accurate, repeatable or are not reproducible.
If the measurements are not accurate or are not repeatable across all devices, then technicians correct the problem with the devices. If the
measurements are not reproducible across all operators, then the operators need training. The team should complete any technical repair on the measurement devices and operator training before the factfinding process begins.
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Why do we reset the process to prescribed specifications and standards?
You reset the process to prescribed specifications and standards to assure that the initial starting conditions (i.e., inputs, activities, connections, pathways, and tests) for the improvement or correction are correct. You do not want to be correcting or improving a process based on incorrect inputs, activities, connections, pathways, or tests. This step is analogous to making sure you plug the printer into an appropriate receptacle and check it for paper before you try to find out why it is not operating correctly.
What is the purpose of the input variance analysis?
The input variance analysis lists and compares information about the inputs that process personnel expect and get from the upstream process. The purpose is to identify who is supplying what, when, where, how, how much, and why to this process. The metrics
used to control the inputs need to be identified. The results contrast the expectations of process personnel and suppliers to identify differences and opportunities for improvement.
Crossfunctional teams which include members from upstream processes can use specifications and standards and brainstorming to complete the input expectation sheet. The team needs to correct the variances before proceeding with process improvements or corrections.
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What is the purpose of the output variance analysis?
The output variance analysis lists and compares information about the product or service that process customers expect and get from the process. The purpose is to identify who is receiving what, when, where, how, how much, and why from this process. The metrics used to control the outputs need to be identified. The results contrast the expectations of process personnel and process customers to identify differences and opportunities for improvement.
Crossfunctional teams which include members from downstream processes can use specifications and standards and brainstorming to complete the output expectation sheet. The team needs to correct the variances before proceeding with process improvements or corrections.
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What is the difference between a variance and variability?
A variance is the gap between "what is" and "what should be." The team can use the input and output variance analyses to reveal variances. Any quality gap is a variance and an opportunity for correction or improvement.
A variance is different from variability. Every process produces at least some random variability. If that variability is within specifications, then that natural variability is not necessarily a quality gap. A variance is something that does not meet the process's target specifications or the customer's target specifications.
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Why does the team perform pivot table analyses during the process characterization step?
The purpose of pivot table analyses is to help the team to identify the scope of the improvement or correction. You are trying to define which part of the organization, organizational categorical variables, and which part of the process, operational categorical variables, the team should focus upon in an improvement or correction project.
Pivot table analyses can help to describe who, what, when, where, how, and how much of the improvement or correction. Pivot table analyses are a rough cut of the process information to locate your problems.
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Why do we use the Is/Is-Not matrix to help diagnose a problem?
You use the Is/Is-Not Matrix analysis to help you locate the exact point in the process, with regard to the operational categorical variables, which are causing the differences you need to correct when you do not have computer-based data about the operational categorical variables.
The Is/IsNot matrix stratifies data about process variation to expose underlying patterns in the operational categorical variables. Discovering such patterns helps to localize a problem, making it easier to diagnose the cause of the problem.
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How do you setup the Is/Is-Not matrix?
a. First, the team needs to identify the specification of concern.
b. Next, the team needs to provide answers to the following questions:
1. Who is performing the operation when the variance occurs? Who is
performing the operation when the variance does not occur?
2. What product/service has the variance? What product/service does
not have the variance?
3. When does the variance occur? When does the variance not occur?
4. Where does the variance occur? Where does the variance not occur?
5. What method (operation) is used when the variance occurs?
What method (operation) is used when the variance does not occur?
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These answers will be the symptoms of the problem situation (i.e., the Is column for variance) and the symptoms of the normal situation (i.e., the Is Not column for no variance) across five dimensions. These two sets of facts opposite each of these dimensions describe precisely the attributes of the situation when you have a variance, the Is column, and the attributes of the situation when you do not have a variance, the Is Not column.
The Is column is completed with only those facts directly affected by the problem, and the Is Not column will be completed with the facts that are closely related to the problem but not affected by the problem.
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The specification of the facts as either Is or Is Not will separate the problem from everything that Is Not the problem. This process draws a tight line around the problem, to describe it precisely, define the scope, and provide clues about the cause of the problem. This process also limits the amount of information needed for the solution. There is no need to get all of the facts, only the relevant facts.
c. Third, the team needs to identify the differences between the problem situation and normal situation. Whatever caused the problem produced only those effects in the Is column. If there are one or more differences between the Is and Is Not column, then these differences will lead to the cause of the problem.
d. Fourth, the team needs to identify what has changed in the process (i.e., manpower, materials, methods, machinery, feedback, environment, time, and technology) that can cause these differences. If the process was running correctly, then something has changed.
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In using pivot tables and the Is/Is-Not matrix, why should teams identify differences between the problem situation and the normal situation?
We have a tendency to leap-frog the fact collection process, ignore the uniqueness of the situation, and to anchor on an incorrect diagnosis. The purpose of the pivot table and the Is/Is Not matrix is to have the teams think in terms of differences before thinking in terms of similarities with regard to their past experience.
This approach avoids attribute error (i.e., misclassification) which is caused by equifinality (i.e., multiple causes can have some of the same effects and multiple effects can have some of the same causes).
Jumping to conclusions anchored on intuition and hunches (i.e., flawed pattern matching using assumptions, anecdotes, heuristics, hearsay, opinions, and pseudo facts) is natural and is effective when equifinality does not exist. However, flawed pattern matching occurs when process “experts” use single unified models which give answers that are direct, simple, obvious, but wrong because equifinality exists.
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“Experts” and the rest of us use our single unified models most of the time successfully. However, when you have unrecognized uniqueness and equifinality, you will likely commit attribute error, because your single unified model is based on a flawed hidden assumption that the situation is the same as the past (i.e., treating different things the same).
Remember: It’s not what we don’t know that hurts us. It’s what we know that ain’t so (i.e., hidden assumptions).
Teams have a tendency to quickly see how a problem situation is similar to other situations in their experience (i.e., anchoring on the most recent or available similar experience) and then to judge this situation as they correctly did with the similar situation(s). They hear hoof beats and they think horses. They don’t see the zebra.
Their hidden assumptions cause them to leap-frog the fact collection process, ignore the uniqueness of the situation, and to incorrectly diagnose the problem.
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Attribute error caused by equifinality frequently affects diagnoses by experts. For example, approximately 15% of all diagnoses by medical doctors are wrong because of attribute error. Also, medical doctors have approximately 20-30% inter-observer variance and a 20-30% intra-observer variance. This means that 20-30% of the diagnoses by two different doctors for the same patient will be different (inter-observer variance). And 20-30% of the diagnoses by the same doctor for the same patient will be different (intra-observer error). And these professionals complete 4 to 12 years in graduate studies and internships to master their specialties.
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As stated above, when we use single unified models anchored on flawed hidden assumptions, we are ignoring the uniqueness of a situation. When teams hear hoof beats they think horses, and they do not see the zebras. The zebras indicate the situation is unique and different. Look carefully for the zebra (i.e., the uniqueness).
Finally, completing the columns in the Is/Is Not matrix will prevent the teams from treating different things the same or treating the same things differently and will require them to translate their opinions into facts.
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In using pivot tables and the Is/Is-Not matrix, what should the team do if the team finds differences between the problem situation and the normal situation?
The team needs to go to the physical location of the problem and observe the process to identify possible changes that could create the differences in the facts between the IS and IS NOT columns. Do not rely on reports, interviews, surveys, aggregated or transaction data, or statistics. Go see it for yourself.
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In using the Is/Is-Not matrix, how do you confirm that the cause you find when you go see the problem is the actual cause?
The cause must explain all of the differences in the Is/Is-Not matrix. If the process was running correctly before the problem was detected, then one or more factors (i.e., manpower, materials, methods, machinery, feedback, environment, timing, technology) have changed in the process to cause the problem. If a change fails to explain all the differences, then it will not be the actual cause. The actual cause will produce exactly all the facts in the IS column and will explain the differences in those facts and the facts in the IS NOT column. If you do not check a possible cause this way, you may be taking action on something that is not the cause at all.
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In using the Is/Is-Not matrix, what should the team do if the team cannot find any differences between the problem situation and the normal situation?
If you cannot find any difference between the problem situation and the normal situation, then you need to check your variance specification, your measurement systems, your data collection systems, and your analyses and reporting systems. If the process was running within specifications and is now not running within specifications, one or more of the factors (i.e., manpower, materials, methods, machinery, feedback, environment, timing, and technology) had to change. If the Is/Is-Not matrix does not show differences in who, what, when, where, how, and how much, then you have errors in the variance, measurement, data collection, analyses, and reporting processes you used to implement the Is/Is-Not matrix.
Once you have corrected the information systems, you have to repeat the process. Specify your Is/Is-Not matrix again.
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What is the relationship between changes in the process and differences in the Is/Is-Not matrix?
If there is a change in process behavior, there has to be at least one difference between the Is and the Is Not columns (i.e., who, what, when, where, how, and how much), and there has to be at least one change in the factors (i.e., manpower, materials, methods, machinery, feedback, environment, timing, and technology) that works through this area of difference to cause the problem.
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What is the purpose of the “as is” process flow diagrams?
Process flow diagrams describe the way in which work "flows" through a process. The purpose of the “as is” process flow diagrams is to provide a single picture of the process that the whole team can view and confirm before beginning process improvement (i.e., everyone should be on the same page). A picture is worth a thousand words. Trying to get a team to understand and agree on a written description of the process would bottleneck the improvement process.
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How do you prepare “as is” process flow diagrams?
Anyone who knows about the process should be involved on the team preparing the “as is” process flow diagram. Use brainstorming and complete the process flow diagram by asking who, what, when, where, how (i.e., the method), and how much about manpower, materials, methods, machinery, feedback, environment, timing, and technology for each input, activity, connection, pathway, test, and output. You want to annotate your diagram with boxes noting any non-value-added time, just-in-case buffers, and waste. Finally, you want to note any variances from specification and standards.
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The following types of questions are representative of those you need to ask to prepare the “as is” process flow diagram.
1. Where does the input for this operation come from?
2. How does the input get to this operation?
3. Is the input ever delayed during its movement to this
operation?
4. Where and for how long is the input stored before it is
used?
because of exceptions?
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7. What decisions are necessary in this operation?
8. What tests are performed on the output for this operation?
9. What happens if the output is out of tolerance or incorrect?
10. Who makes the decision?
11. What happens if the decision is "yes" or "no"?
12. Where is the output from this operation stored and for how
long?
14. How does the output get to the next operation?
15. Is the output ever delayed during its movement from this operation?
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Give an example of a system of symbols you can use to diagram the flows in a process?
Any system of symbols to represent the process is acceptable if you use it consistently because it is the understanding you gain from preparing the process flow diagram that is important, not the format. One system is to use:
1. diamonds for decisions;
2. lines with arrows for material flows (inputs and pathways);
3. dotted lines with arrows for information flows (connections);
4. circles for activities;
6. boxes with labels describing waste, non-value-added time, just-in-case
buffers, and variances.
If there is more than one output arrow out of an activity circle, a decision diamond may be required. Finally, make sure every decision diamond has one line entering it and at least two lines leaving it.
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How do you prepare a “should be” process flow diagram for improving a process?
You evaluate the process to support process improvement with the following procedure:
1. you begin with the process "as is" flow diagram in the
physical characterization step;
2. you refine the flows to reduce or eliminate waste, non-value-
added, just-in-case buffers, and variances from
specifications and standards:
3. you redraw the process flow diagram integrating the
results from step 2 to show the process as it "should be."
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What is the typical ratio between throughput time and value-added time?
When you first examine the activities in a process using a process flow sheet, you may be surprised to see that the material or service, as it flows through the process, spends more time waiting (approximately 90% of the through-put time) than in actual operations. A great deal of waste in processes is in delays because of bottlenecks. Value-added time consumes only 10% of the throughput time. The typical ratio between throughput time and value-added time is 10:1.
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What is the objective of process improvement flow analyses?
The objective of process improvement analyses is to achieve an interruptionfree, continuous, linear, level, one-piece flow of 100% valueadded operations producing 100% yield with 100% utilization which exactly matches the mix, volume, and timing of customer demand. You will never achieve this objective. But if you consistently can get closer to this objective than your competitors, you will own your market.
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Multi-voting, the Ben Franklin Balance Sheet, and Bracket Elimination are useful in situations where the team produces more than two or three alternatives in their brainstorming session.
Describe the procedure used in generating and evaluating the alternatives for improvements and corrections?
The team evaluates the proposed correction or improvement using the following procedure.
1. First, the team brainstorms for alternatives.
2. Second, the team uses Multi-voting to reduce the number of alternatives to
6 or less.
3. Third, the team uses the Ben Franklin Balance Sheets for each alternative
retained from the multi-voting process.
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4. Fourth, the team uses the Bracket Elimination technique to reduce
the alternatives to one.
5. Fifth, the team assures the selected alternative will not require too
much time to implement, too much project cost, and will be accepted
by the operators.
6. Sixth, the team evaluates the selected alternative with regard to
quality, reliability, cycle time, and cost.
With regard to quality, reliability, cycle time, and cost, if quality is the
problem and it is not improved, then the alternative obviously does not
solve the problem. Next, the alternative must be reliable or, in other
words, stable and consistent over time. Third, the alternative must be
efficient with respect to cycle time. Finally, the alternative must be cost
effective for the product or service.
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In summary, first you go through the Brainstorming, Multi-voting, Ben Franklin Balance Sheets, and Bracket Elimination procedures. Then, if you have the time to do it, the total cost of the correction or improvement is reasonable, and the operators accept it, the team needs to evaluate the alternative with further, more finegrained analyses with respect to quality, reliability, cycle time, and cost effectiveness. This matrix carefully eliminates the obvious and moves the team to a more finegrained investigation of the proposed alternatives that remain.
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Why do we use Multi-voting?
We need a democratic method for reducing the number of alternatives produced by the brainstorming session to a reasonable number for evaluation. If the team produces more than six alternatives in the brainstorming session, the team uses multi-voting after the brainstorming session for countermeasures to reduce a long list of alternatives to six or less alternatives.
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a. list the alternatives
b. everyone votes for one-half plus one of the alternatives
c. eliminate the alternatives not receiving a vote
d. repeat the voting process until you have 6 or less
alternatives left
For example, assume the team brainstorming session produced 16 alternatives. On the first round of voting, everyone on the team would vote for one-half plus one of the total number of alternatives or 9 alternatives. If 10 alternatives remain after the first round of voting, then on the second round of voting, everyone on the team would vote for 6 alternatives. This process continues until 6 or less alternatives remain.
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Why do we use the Ben Franklin Balance Sheet?
We need a visible, democratic method for evaluating the alternatives retained from the Multi-voting session. Once the team has reduced the alternatives to six or less, the team displays each alternative and draws a T-chart beneath each alternative. The left side is for the advantages (i.e., assets) and the right side is for the disadvantages (i.e., liabilities). The team then brainstorms about advantages and disadvantages for each alternative.
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Why do we use the Bracket Elimination technique?
We need a visible, democratic method for selecting the best alternative. This is the same paired comparison method used to eliminate all teams down to two teams in sports. The team divides the alternatives into pairs, and then the team selects a winner from each pair. The team then pairs these winners and selects a winner from these pairs. Finally, the team has reduced the competition to two alternatives and the team selects the winner between these two remaining alternatives.
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How do you prepare for the implementation of a pilot?
To prepare for the implementation of a pilot, the team needs to prepare:
1. a cost/benefit analyses,
2. an action plan for implementing and testing the pilot,
3. indicator design checklist,
4. process score sheet,
5. an operational definition for success of the pilot project (i.e.,
metric, criteria, test, response), and
6. a presentation checklist.
These steps are necessary to support the implementation and testing of the proposed countermeasure in the pilot.
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Why should teams use cost/benefit analyses?
Cost/benefit analyses simply identify the current costs, projected costs, projected savings, actual costs, and actual savings of the activities affected by a correction or improvement project to help in measuring the cost effectiveness of the countermeasure. This tool is used by the team to costjustify their proposed countermeasure to management and then to confirm the projected
costjustification after the pilot is accomplished and a fullscale implementation of the countermeasure is being considered.
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Why should teams prepare action plans?
The team action plan ensures that all elements of your pilot of the proposed countermeasure are considered.
The basic questions of who, what, when, where, when, why, how, and how much are asked and answered about each of the steps the team must perform to execute the pilot, and are assembled in a matrix format.
With a visible team action plan, members of the team can participate in the design and implementation of the solution, thereby gaining commitment. This tool provides a basis for review and suggestions by higher level teams before implementation takes place.
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How does the team prepare a team action plan?
The team develops the action plan on flip charts using the following four steps:
1. Using brainstorming, the team members generate a draft of the team action plan by listing all actions, with their affected operations, people, objectives, and required resources without comment or criticism, and the team records these actions in the basic team action plan on a flip chart.
2. After the brainstorming session is completed, the team clarifies and confirms each of the actions, operations, people, and resources.
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3. Then the team revises the draft action plan and lists the actions
chronologically as milestones.
4. The team then answers the questions who, what, when, where, how,
how much, and why about each of the actions.
The team can post the action plan in a visible place so that the team members can easily monitor the project’s progress.
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Why should teams use indicator design checklists and process score sheets?
The team uses indicator design checklists and process score sheets as aids in developing and monitoring process control and process performance indicators. Process control and process performance indicators help your team keep score on the process during the pilot and the fullscale implementation that follows a successful pilot. You must specify who, what, when, where, how, how much, and why for each of the process control and performance indicators.
The team can first brainstorm to generate a list of process control and performance indicators. Then the list can be reviewed, clarified, and pared down to the "vital few" that are critical to the process's success.
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What is the difference between process control and process performance indicators?
Process control indicators keep track of the vital signs of a process as it is operating. The team should select process control indicators at process leverage points where the team can achieve the greatest amount of control. We call these types of indicators process lever variables.
Process performance indicators are targets that represent the outputs of the process. The process control and performance indicators are specifications.
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Why should teams prepare presentation checklists?
You might need to present your proposed improvement project to a management team for approval and funding. You can enhance or jeopardize the worth of everything you have done with your presentation.
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What are the components of a presentation checklist?
1. Arrange for the presentation room to be the right size with the right
atmosphere and audio visual equipment.
2. Decide who the key decision makers are and evaluate their vested
interests in the improvement or correction project.
3. Mark your various flip charts and slides with notes as to how the
action plan affects each of these vested interests.
4. Invite the key decision makers to the presentation and get
confirmation that they will attend.
5. Assign presentation responsibilities.
6. At the presentation speak clearly and slowly. Listen to questions
carefully; they tell what you what to stress in the presentation.
Summarize recommendations simply and clearly.
If management approves the pilot implementation, then the team implements the pilot.
Chapter 9
Describe the Check step.
In the check step, you use the operational definition for success of the pilot project (i.e., metric, criteria, test, response) to determine if the correction or improvement is a success.
In the Act step, what is the next step for the team if the pilot is a success or if the pilot is not a success?
If the pilot is a success, then the team can proceed with fullscale implementation of the solution. If the pilot is not a success, then the team returns to step #1.
But this next iteration through the PDCA cycle will utilize the facts and experience gathered from the first iteration of the cycle. Therefore, the team will be gathering facts only to fill gaps revealed by the pilot and focusing on causes and alternatives that are relevant to the experience gained from the pilot.

Date post:	21-Nov-2015
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Foster Ch09

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