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Foucault
Madness and Civilization
Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity
in the Age of Reason (French: Folie et Déraison: Histoire
de la folie à l'âge classique) is a 1964 abridged edition of a
1961 book by French philosopher Michel Foucault. An
nglish translation of the co!plete 1961 edition"entitled History of Madness, #as published in $une %&&6.'1
Foucaults *rst !a+or book" Madness and Civilization is
an e,a!ination of the e-ol-ing !eaning of !adness in
uropean culture" la#" politics" philosophy and !edicine
fro! the Middle Ages to the end of the eighteenth century"
and a critiue of historical !ethod and the idea of history.
/t !arks a turning in Foucaults thought a#ay
fro!pheno!enology to#ard structuralis!: though he uses
the language of pheno!enology to describe an e-ol-ing
e,perience of 0the other0 as !ad" he attributes this
e-olution to the inuence of speci*c po#erful social
structures.'%
2ackground
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3he book de-eloped out of Foucaults earlier #riting on
psychology"' his o#n psychological di5culties" and his
e,periences #orking in a !ental hospital" and #as #ritten
!ainly bet#een 19 and 199 #hile #orking in cultural7
diplo!atic and educational posts in 8#eden (as director of
a French cultural centre attached to the ni-ersity of
ppsala)"'4
er!any" and ;oland.'
8u!!ary
Foucault traces the e-olution of the concept of
!adness through three phases: the
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and unreason (as though seen fro! abo-e) co!pared #ith
the !ore inti!ate !edie-al descriptions fro! #ithin
society.'%
Foucault contends that in the !id7se-enteenth
century" in the depths of the age of reason" the rational
response to the !ad" #ho until then had been consigned to
societys !argins" #as to separate the! co!pletely fro!society by con*ning the!" along #ith prostitutes" -agrants"
blasphe!ers and the like" in ne#ly created institutions all
o-er urope ? a process he calls 0the reat =on*ne!ent.0'%
3he condition of these outcasts #as seen as one of
!oral error. 3hey #ere -ie#ed as ha-ing freely chosen
prostitution" -agrancy" blasphe!y" unreason" etc. and the
regi!es of these ne# rational institutions #ere !eticulous
progra!s of punish!ent and re#ard ai!ed at causing
the! to re-erse those choices.'%
3he social forces Foucault sees dri-ing this
con*ne!ent include the need for an e,tra7+udicial
!echanis! for getting rid of undesirables" and the #ish to
regulate une!ploy!ent and #ages (the cheap labour of
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the #orkhouses applied do#n#ard pressure on the #ages
of free labour). >e argues that the conceptual distinction
bet#een the !ad and the rational #as in a sense a product
of this physical separation into con*ne!ent: con*ne!ent
!ade the !ad con-eniently a-ailable to !edical doctors
#ho began to -ie# !adness as a natural ob+ect #orthy of
study and then as an illness to be cured.'%'
For Foucault the !odern e,perience began at the end
of the eighteenth century #ith the creation of places
de-oted solely to the con*ne!ent of the !ad under the
super-ision of !edical doctors" and these ne# institutions
#ere the product of a blending of t#o !oti-es: the ne#
goal of curing the !ad a#ay fro! their fa!ily #ho could
not a@ord the necessary care at ho!e" and the old purpose
of conning undesirables for the protection of society.
3hese distinct purposes #ere lost sight of" and the
institution soon ca!e to be seen as the only place #here
therapeutic treat!ent can be ad!inistered. >e sees the
no!inally !ore enlightened and co!passionate treat!ent
of the !ad in these !odern !edical institutions as +ust as
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cruel and controlling as their treat!ent in the earlier"
rational institutions had been.'%
...!odern !an no longer co!!unicates #ith the
!ad!an '... 3here is no co!!on language: or rather" it no
longer e,ists the constitution of !adness as !ental
illness" at the end of the eighteenth century" bears #itness
to a rupture in a dialogue" gi-es the separation as alreadyenacted" and e,pels fro! the !e!ory all those i!perfect
#ords" of no *,ed synta," spoken falteringly" in #hich the
e,change bet#een !adness and reason #as carried out.
3he language of psychiatry" #hich is a !onologue by
reason aout !adness" could only ha-e co!e into
e,istence in such a silence.
! Foucault, #reface to t$e %&% edition'6
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beha-ior" Madness and Civilization is nonetheless so
riddled #ith serious errors of fact and interpretation as to
be of -ery li!ited -alue. Meruior notes that there is
abundant e-idence of #idespread cruelty to and
i!prison!ent of the insane during eras #hen Foucault
contends that the !ad #ere percei-ed as possessing
#isdo!" and that Foucault has thus selecti-ely citeddata that supports his assertions #hile ignoring contrary
data. Madness #as typically linked #ith sin by =hristian
uropeans" noted Meruior" and #as therefore regarded as
!uch less benign than Foucault tends to i!ply. Meruior
sees Madness and Civilization as 0a call for the liberation of
the Dionysian id0 si!ilar to Eor!an . 2ro#ns (ife )gainst
Deat$(199)" and an inspiration for illes DeleuGe and FBli,
uattaris )nti*+edius (19H%).'H
Author Ienneth Je#es #rites that Madness and
Civilization is an e,a!ple of the 0critiue of the institutions
of psychiatry and psychoanalysis0 that occurred as part of
the 0general uphea-al of -alues in the 196&s0. Je#es sees
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pro-ed Madness and Civilization far the !ost penetrating
#ork e-er #ritten on the history of !adness.0 More
speci*cally" Foucault has recently been heralded as a
prophet of 0the ne# cultural history.0 2ut criticis! has also
been #idespread and often bitter.
8ee also
•
=ogito and the >istory of Madness
• -$e )rc$aeology of 0no2ledge
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. $u!p up to:a b c utting" ary" 0Michel
Foucault0" -$e 3tanford 4ncycloedia of
#$iloso$y (8u!!er %&1 dition)" d#ard E. Oalta (ed.)
6. Jump up ̂ Foucault M.. History of Madness.
3ranslated by Ihalfa $.. EL:
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-$e >irt$ of t$e Clinic
The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of
Medical Perception (French: aissance de la clinique:
une arc$éologie du regard /édical) is a 196 book by the
French philosopher Michel Foucault. First published in
French in 196" the #ork #as published in nglish
translation by Alan 8heridan 8!ith in the nited 8tates in19H"'1 follo#ed in the I in 19H6 by 3a-istock ;ublications
as part of the series Porld of Man edited by
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1Cth century" #hich #ould be e,panded in his ne,t !a+or
#ork" -$e +rder of -$ings.
3he !edical gaGe
Foucault coined the ter! 0!edical gaGe0 to denote the
dehu!aniGing !edical separation of the patients body
fro! the patients person (identity) (see !ind7body
dualis!). >e uses the ter! in a genealogy describing thecreation of a *eld of kno#ledge of the body. 3he !aterial
and intellectual structures that !ade possible the analysis
of the body #ere !i,ed #ith po#er interests: in entering
the *eld of kno#ledge" the hu!an body also entered the
*eld of po#er" beco!ing a possible target for !anipulation.
riginally" the ter! 0!edical gaGe0 #as con*ned to post7
!odern andpost7structuralist acade!ic use" but it is no#
freuently used in graduate !edical and social #ork
courses.'4
Foucault also argued that the French and A!erican
re-olutions that spa#ned !odernity also created a 0!eta7
narrati-e0 of scienti*c discourse that held scientists"
speci*cally !edical doctors" as sages #ho #ould in ti!e
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abolish sickness and so sol-e all of hu!anitys proble!s.
For the nineteenth7century !oderns" !edical doctors
replaced the discredited !edie-al clergy physicians sa-e
bodies" not souls. 3his !yth #as part of the greater
discourse of the hu!anist and nlighten!ent schools of
thought that belie-ed the hu!an body to be the su! of a
person: biological reductionis! that beca!e a po#erfultool of the ne# sages: through thorough e,a!ination
(gaGing) of a body" a doctor deduces sy!pto!" illness" and
cause" therefore achie-ing unparalleled understanding of
the patient Q hence" the doctors /edical gaze #as
belie-ed to penetrate surface illusions" in near7!ystical
disco-ery of hidden truth.
3he episte!ic change
Foucaults understanding of the de-elop!ent of
the clinique is pri!arily opposed to those histories of
!edicine and the body that consider the late 1Cth century
to be the da#ning of a ne# 0supposed0 e!pirical syste!"
0based on the redisco-ery of the absolute -alues of the
-isible.0' /n Foucaults -ie#" the birth of !odern !edicine
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#as not a co!!onsensical !o-e!ent to#ards si!ply
seeing #hat #as already there (and therefore a science
#ithout a philosophy)" but rather a decisi-e shift in the
structure of kno#ledge. 3hat is to say" !odern !edicine is
not a !ere progression fro! the late 1Cth century #herein
an understanding of the true nature of the body and
disease is gradually acuired. Foucault reco!!ends a -ie#of the history of !edicine" and clinical !edicine in
particular" as an episte!ological rupture" rather than result
of a nu!ber of great indi-iduals disco-ering ne# #ays of
seeing and kno#ing the truth:
3he clinic 7 constantly praised for its e!piricis!" the
!odesty of its attention" and the care #ith #hich it silently
lets things surface to the obser-ing gaGe #ithout disturbing
the! #ith discourse 7 o#es its real i!portance to the fact
that it is a reorganiGation in depth" not only of !edical
discourse" but of the -ery possibility of a discourse about
disease.'6
3hus the e!piricis! of the 1Cth and 19th centuries is
not a nai-e or naked act of looking and noting do#n #hat is
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before the doctors eyes. 3he relationship bet#een sub+ect
and ob+ect is not +ust the one #ho kno#s and the one #ho
tells the contact bet#een the doctor and their indi-idual
patient does not pre7e,ist discourse as 0!indless
pheno!enologies0 #ould suggest.'H
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+rder of -$ings" the ta,ono!ic era ga-e #ay to the organic
historical era thus" the clinic #as not si!ply founded upon
the obser-ation of truth" and therefore !ore correct than
any preceding !edicinal practice" but rather an artefact of
a theory of kno#ledge inserted #ithin a speci*c discursi-e
period. 3he authority of the clinician relies on a relationship
to the then current organisation of kno#ledge" instead of arelationship to a non7discursi-e state of a@airs (reality).
2ecause of this" an early 1Cth7century doctor could obser-e
an organ #ith e,actly the sa!e disease as a 19th7century
doctor" #ith both doctors co!ing to -astly di@erent
conclusions about #hat caused the disease and ho# to
treat it. Despite this di@erence" both accounts #ould be
true" since they #ere both spoken in an episte!e that
considered such state!ents to be true.
3his !eans that anato!ists
like Morgagni and 2ichat #ere not students of the sa!e
discipline" e-en though their #ork #as only thirty years
apart.'9 3he episte!ic change !eant that the bodies"
diseases" tissues and pathologies that each cut open and
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e,plored #ere articulated in co!pletely di@erent and
discontinuousdiscourses fro! one another. 3hus anato!ys
clai! to be a pri-ileged e!pirical science that can obser-e
and deter!ine a true bodily sche!a cannot stand #hen its
beginnings #ere not in a disco-ery of a #ay of co!ing to
kno# #hat #as real" but rather e!erged a!ongst a ne#
philosophical #ay of granting !eaning and organisingcertain ob+ects. >ence the use of 0birth0 in the title the
clinic had no origins" but si!ply and suddenly arri-ed.
Eotes
1. Jump up ̂ Foucault, Mic$el 5%&AB78 -$e >irt$ of t$e
Clinic8 e2 or1: #ant$eon >oo1s8
%. Jump up ̂ Foucault, Mic$el 5%&A78 -$e >irt$ of t$e
Clinic8 (ondon: -avistoc1 #ulications
(td8 .3> =@
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4. Jump up ̂ 3t8 odard, 48 48 5irt$ of t$e Clinic" p. ,i-.C. Jump up ̂ Foucault" >irt$ of t$e Clinic" p. ,-.
9. Jump up ̂ Foucault" >irt$ of t$e Clinic" pp. 1%C71
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-4http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1072http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1072https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1503%2Fcmaj.051067https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-4http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1072http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1072https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1503%2Fcmaj.051067https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-9
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-$e +rder of -$ings
-$is article is aout t$e Foucault oo18 For t$e 0ifer
oo1, see -$e +rder of -$ings 50ifer oo178 For t$e /etal
alu/, see -$e +rder of -$ings 5alu/78
The "rder of Things: An Archaeology of the
H#$an %ciences (French: (es /ots et les c$oses: Kne
arc$éologie des sciences $u/aines) is a 1966 book by theFrench philosopher Michel Foucault. /t #as translated into
nglish and published by ;antheon 2ooks in 19H&.
(Foucault had preferred ('+rdre des C$oses for the original
French title" but changed the title because it had been used
by t#o structuralist #orks published i!!ediately prior to
Foucaults).
Foucault endea-ours to e9cavate the origins of the
hu!an sciences" particularly but not
e,clusi-ely psychology andsociology. 3he book opens #ith
an e,tended discussion of Diego RelSGueGs painting (as
Meninas and its co!ple, arrange!ent of sightlines"
hiddenness" and appearance. 3hen it de-elops its central
clai!: that all periods of history ha-e possessed certain
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underlying episte!ological assu!ptions that deter!ined
#hat #as acceptable as" for e,a!ple" scienti*c discourse.
Foucault de-elops the notion of episte!e" and argues
that these conditions of discourse ha-e changed o-er ti!e"
fro! one periods episte!e to another. Foucault
de!onstrates parallels in the de-elop!ent of three *elds:
linguistics" biology" and econo!ics. 3he concept of episte!e
3he key concept of the book is that -arious periods of
history ha-e been characteriGed by a certain nu!ber of
conditions of truth or discourse #hich are co!!on to
-arious areas of kno#ledge and deter!ine #hat it is
possible or acceptable to a5r!" and that these ha-e been
sub+ect to change o-er ti!e.'1 Foucault analyGes shifts in
the paradig! of thought bet#een the classical and !odern
periods:
• /n respect of language : fro! general gra!!ar
to linguistics
• /n respect of li-ing organis!s : fro! natural
history to biology
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• /n respect of !oney : fro! the science of #ealth
to econo!ics.
Foucault references three episte!es :
1. 3he episte!e of the
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critiue the pro+ection of !odern categories of kno#ledge
onto sub+ects that re!ain intrinsically unintelligible" in spite
of historical kno#ledge.
-$e +rder of -$ings brought Foucault to pro!inence
as an intellectual *gure in France. A re-ie# by $ean7;aul
8artre attacked Foucault as 0the last barricade of
the bourgeoisie0. Foucault responded" 0;oor bourgeoisie /fthey needed !e as a barricade" then they had already lost
po#erT0'
$ean ;iaget" in 3tructuralis/" co!pared Foucaults
episte!e to 3ho!as Iuhns notion of a paradig!.'6
Eotes
1. Jump up ̂ Foucault" Dits et Lcrits ." in 3ur la Justice
oulaire" p.1%9
%. Jump up ̂ Foucault" (es /ots et les c$oses" o8 cit8"
p. %&
. Jump up ̂ C$a/on, )drienne 5%&&&78 Eeading
Foucault for 3ocial or18 e2 or1: Colu/ia Kniversity
#ress8 8 BBA8 .3> =*
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4. Jump up ̂ ;orter" 3heodore (199%). Uuanti*cation and
the accounting ideal in science. 3ocial 3tudies of
3cience %%(4): pp. 6?61.
. Jump up ̂ Miller" $a!es (1994). -$e #assion of Mic$el
Foucault . Ee# Lork: Anchor 2ooks. p.19.
6. Jump up ̂ ;iaget" $ean (19H&). 3tructuralis/. Ee#
Lork: >arper K irt$ of t$e
Clinic" and -$e +rder of -$ings.'1 /t is Foucaults only
e,plicitly !ethodological #ork.
3he pre!ise of the book is that syste!s of thought
and kno#ledge (0episte!es0 or 0discursi-e for!ations0) are
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go-erned by rules (beyond those of gra!!ar and logic)
#hich operate beneath the consciousness of indi-idual
sub+ects and de*ne a syste! of conceptual possibilities
that deter!ines the boundaries of thought and language
use in a gi-en do!ain and period.'1
Most pro!inently in its /ntroduction and =onclusion"
the book also beco!es a philosophical treat!ent andcritiue of pheno!enological and
dog!atic structural readings of history and philosophy"
portraying continuous narrati-es as naV-e #ays of
pro+ecting our o#n consciousness onto the past" thus being
e,clusi-e and e,cluding. =haracteristically" Foucault
de!onstrates his political !oti-ations" personal pro+ects
and preoccupations" and" e,plicitly and i!plicitly" the !any
inuences that infor! the discourse of the ti!e.
3heory
Foucault argues that the conte!porary study of the
history of ideas" although it targets !o!ents of transition
bet#een historical #orld-ie#s" ulti!ately depends on
continuities that break do#n under close inspection. 3he
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history of ideas !arks points of discontinuity bet#een
broadly de*ned !odes of kno#ledge" but the assu!ption
that those !odes e,ist as #holes fails to do +ustice to the
co!ple,ities of discourse. Foucault argues that
0discourses0 e!erge and transfor! not according to a
de-eloping series of unarticulated" co!!on #orld-ie#s"
but according to a -ast and co!ple, set of discursi-e andinstitutional relationships" #hich are de*ned as !uch by
breaks and ruptures as by uni*ed the!es.'%
Foucault de*nes a 0discourse0 as a #ay of speaking.
' 3hus" his !ethod studies only the set of things said in
their e!ergences and transfor!ations" #ithout any
speculation about the o-erall" collecti-e !eaning of those
state!ents" and carries his insistence on discourse7in7itself
do#n to the !ost basic unit of things said: the state!ent
(énoncé). During !ost of )rc$aeology " Foucault argues for
and against -arious notions of #hat are inherent aspects of
a state!ent" #ithout arri-ing at a co!prehensi-e
de*nition.'% >e does" ho#e-er" argue that a state!ent is
the rules #hich render an e,pression (that is" a phrase"
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a proposition" or a speech act) discursi-ely !eaningful.
3his concept of !eaning di@ers fro! the concept of
signi*cation:'4 3hough an e,pression is signifying" for
instance 03he gold !ountain is in =alifornia0" it !ay
ne-ertheless be discursively /eaningless and therefore
ha-e no e,istence #ithin a certain discourse.' For this
reason" the 0state!ent0 is an e9istencefunction for discursive /eaning.'6
2eing rules" the 0state!ent0 has a special !eaning in
the )rc$aeology : it is not the e,pression itself" but the rules
#hich !ake an e,pression discursi-ely !eaningful. 3hese
rules are not the synta, and se!antics'H that !akes an
e,pression signifying. /t is additional rules. /n contrast
to structuralists" Foucault de!onstrates that the se!antic
and syntactic structures do not su5ce to deter!ine the
discursi-e !eaning of an e,pression.'C Depending on
#hether or not it co!plies #ith these rules of discursi-e
!eaning" a gra!!atically correct phrase !ay lack
discursi-e !eaning or" in-ersely" a gra!!atically incorrect
sentence !ay be discursi-ely !eaningful 7 e-en
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!eaningless letters (e.g. 0UP
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Foucault concludes )rc$aeology #ith responses to
criticis!s fro! a hypothetical critic (#hich he anticipates
#ill occur after his book is read).
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C. Jump up ̂ French -ersion: p. 1&C" 11?14" 11C?
19" 14
9. Jump up ̂ French -ersion p. 114
1&. Jump up ̂ utting, ary 5%&&@78 -$e Ca/ridge
Co/anion to Foucault8 Ca/ridge: Ca/ridge Kniversity
#ress8 8 =*6and.
Jondon: Althone" 19CC. /82E &7C%647HC&7&.
• Foucault" Michel. 1969. -$e )rc$aeology of
0no2ledge. 3rans. A. M. 8heridan 8!ith. Jondon and Ee#
Lork:
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Disciline and #unis$
(iscipline and P#nish: The Birth of the
Prison (French: 3urveiller et unir: aissance de la #rison)
is a 19H book by the French philosopher Michel Foucault.
An analysis of the social and theoretical !echanis!s
behind the !assi-e changes that occurred in
Pestern penal syste!s during the !odern age" it focuses
on historical docu!ents fro! France. Foucault argues
against the idea that the prison beca!e the consistent
for! of punish!ent due !ainly to
thehu!anitarian concerns of refor!ists. >e traces the
cultural shifts that led to the prisons do!inance" focusing
on the body and uestions of po#er. ;rison is a for! used
by the 0disciplines0" a ne# technological po#er" #hich can
also be found" according to Foucault" in places such
as schools" hospitals" and !ilitary barracks.'1
/n a later #ork" 3ecurity, -erritory, #oulation" Foucault
ad!its that he #as so!e#hat o-erGealous in his
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descriptions of ho# disciplinary po#er conditions society
he uali*es and de-elops his earlier ideas.'%
8u!!ary
3he !ain ideas of Disciline and #unis$ can be
grouped according to its four parts: torture" punish!ent"
discipline" and prison.'1
Torture
Foucault begins by contrasting t#o for!s of penalty:
the -iolent and chaotic public torture of
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>e belie-es that the uestion of the nature of these
changes is best asked by assu!ing that they #erent used
to create a !ore hu!anitarian penal syste!" nor to !ore
e,actly punish or rehabilitate" but as part of a continuing
tra+ectory of sub+ection. Foucault #ants to tie scienti*c
kno#ledge and technological de-elop!ent to the
de-elop!ent of the prison to pro-e this point. >e de*nes a0!icro7physics0 of po#er" #hich is constituted by a po#er
that is strategic and tactical rather than acuired"
preser-ed or possessed. >e e,plains that po#er and
kno#ledge i!ply one another" as opposed to the co!!on
belief that kno#ledge e,ists independently of po#er
relations (kno#ledge is al#ays conte,tualiGed in a
fra!e#ork #hich !akes it intelligible" so the hu!aniGing
discourse of psychiatry is an e,pression of the tactics of
oppression).'4 3hat is" the ground of the ga!e of po#er
isnt #on by liberation" because liberation already e,ists
as a facet of sub+ection. 03he !an described for us" #ho!
#e are in-ited to free" is already in hi!self the e@ect of a
sub+ection !uch !ore profound than hi!self.0' 3he
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proble! for Foucault is in so!e sense a theoretical
!odelling #hich posits a soul" an identity (the use of soul
being fortunate since identity or na!e #ould not
properly e,press the !ethod of sub+ectionQe.g." if !ere
!ateriality #ere used as a #ay of tracking indi-iduals then
the !ethod of punish!ent #ould not ha-e s#itched fro!
torture to psychiatry) #hich allo#s a #hole !ateriality ofprison to de-elop. /n Phat is an Author] Foucault also deals
#ith notion of identity" and its use as a !ethod of control"
regulation" and tracking.'
>e begins by e,a!ining public torture and e,ecution.
>e argues that the public spectacle of torture and
e,ecution #as a theatrical foru! the original intentions of
#hich e-entually produced se-eral unintended
conseuences. Foucault stresses the e,actitude #ith #hich
torture is carried out" and describes an e,tensi-e legal
fra!e#ork in #hich it operates to achie-e speci*c
purposes. Foucault describes public torture as cere!ony.
3he intended purposes #ere:
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• 3o !ake the secret public (according to Foucault the
in-estigation #as kept entirely secret e-en fro! the
accused). 3he secret of the in-estigation and the
conclusion of the !agistrates #as +usti*ed by the publicity
of the torture.
• 3o sho# the e@ect of in-estigation on confession.
(According to Foucault torture could occur during the
in-estigation" because partial proofs !eant partial guilt. /f
the torture failed to elicit a confession then the
in-estigation #as stopped and innocence assu!ed. A
confession legiti!iGed the in-estigation and any torture
that occurred.)
•
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of the so-ereigns body" and so the re-enge !ust take the
for! of har!ing the con-icts body.
0 .t PtortureQ assured t$e articulation of t$e 2ritten on
t$e oral, t$e secret on t$e ulic, t$e rocedure of
investigation on t$e oeration of t$e confession it /ade it
ossile to reroduce t$e cri/e on t$e visile ody of t$e
cri/inal in t$e sa/e $orror, t$e cri/e $ad to e
/anifested and annulled8 .t also /ade t$e ody of t$e
conde/ned /an t$e lace 2$ere t$e vengeance of t$e
sovereign 2as alied, t$e anc$oring oint for a
/anifestation of o2er, an oortunity of aRr/ing t$e
dissy//etry of forces8G'6
Foucault looks at public torture as the outco!e 0of a
certain !echanis! of po#er0 that -ie#s cri!e in a !ilitary
sche!a. =ri!e and rebellion are akin to a declaration of
#ar. 3he so-ereign #as not concerned #ith de!onstrating
the ground for the enforce!ent of its la#s" but of
identifying ene!ies and attacking the!" the po#er of
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#hich #as rene#ed by the ritual of in-estigation and the
cere!ony of public torture.'H
8o!e unintended conseuences #ere:
• ;ro-iding a foru! for the con-icts body to beco!e a
focus of sy!pathy and ad!iration.
•
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participation of the people. 3orture #as !ade public in
order to create fear in the people" and to force the! to
participate in the !ethod of control by agreeing #ith its
-erdicts. 2ut proble!s arose in cases in #hich the people
through their actions disagreed #ith the so-ereign" by
heroiGing the -icti! (ad!iring the courage in facing death)
or in !o-ing to physically free the cri!inal or toredistribute the e@ects of the strategically deployed po#er.
3hus" he argues" the public e,ecution #as ulti!ately an
ine@ecti-e use of the body" uali*ed as non7econo!ical. As
#ell" it #as applied non7unifor!ly and haphaGardly. >ence"
its political cost #as too high. /t #as the antithesis of the
!ore !odern concerns of the state: order and
generaliGation. 8o it had to be refor!ed to allo# for greater
stability of property for the bourgeoisie.
Punishment
3he s#itch to prison #as not i!!ediate. 3here #as a
!ore graded change" though it ran its course rapidly. ;rison
#as preceded by a di@erent for! of public spectacle. 3he
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theater of public torture ga-e #ay to public chain gangs.
;unish!ent beca!e 0gentle0" though not
for hu!anitarian reasons" Foucault suggests. >e argues
that refor!ists #ere unhappy #ith the unpredictable"
une-enly distributed nature of the -iolence the so-ereign
#ould inict on the con-ict. 3he so-ereigns right to punish
#as so disproportionate that it #as ine@ecti-e anduncontrolled.
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their punish!ent" and thus to reect on the cri!e. 2ut
these e,peri!ents lasted less than t#enty years.
Foucault argues that this theory of 0gentle0
punish!ent represented the *rst step a#ay fro! the
e,cessi-e force of the so-ereign" and to#ards !ore
generaliGed and controlled !eans of punish!ent. 2ut he
suggests that the shift to#ards prison that follo#ed #as the
result of a ne# 0technology0 and ontology for the body
being de-eloped in the 1Cth century" the 0technology0 of
discipline" and the ontology of 0!an as !achine0.
Discipline
3he e!ergence of prison as the for! of punish!ent
for e-ery cri!e gre# out of the de-elop!ent of discipline in
the 1Cth and 19th centuries" according to Foucault. >e
looks at the de-elop!ent of highly re*ned for!s of
discipline" of discipline concerned #ith the s!allest and
!ost precise aspects of a persons body. Discipline" he
suggests" de-eloped a ne# econo!y and politics for
bodies. Modern institutions reuired that bodies !ust be
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indi-iduated according to their tasks" as #ell as for training"
obser-ation" and control. 3herefore" he argues" discipline
created a #hole ne# for! of indi-iduality for bodies" #hich
enabled the! to perfor! their duty #ithin the ne# for!s of
econo!ic" political" and !ilitary organiGations e!erging in
the !odern age and continuing to today.
3he indi-iduality that discipline constructs (for the
bodies it controls) has four characteristics" na!ely it !akes
indi-iduality #hich is:
• =ellularQdeter!ining the spatial distribution of the
bodies
• rganicQensuring that the acti-ities reuired of the
bodies are 0natural0 for the!
• eneticQcontrolling the e-olution o-er ti!e of the
acti-ities of the bodies
• =o!binatoryQallo#ing for the co!bination of the
force of !any bodies into a single !assi-e force
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Foucault suggests this indi-iduality can be
i!ple!ented in syste!s that are o5cially egalitarian" but
use discipline to construct non7egalitarian po#er relations:
Historically, t$e rocess y 2$ic$
t$e ourgeoisie eca/e in t$e course of t$e eig$teent$
century t$e olitically do/inant class 2as /as1ed y t$e
estalis$/ent of an e9licit, coded and for/ally egalitarian
Juridical fra/e2or1, /ade ossile y t$e organization of a
arlia/entary, reresentative regi/e8 >ut t$e
develo/ent and generalization of discilinary
/ec$anis/s constituted t$e ot$er, dar1 side of t$ese
rocesses8 -$e general Juridical for/ t$at guaranteed a
syste/ of rig$ts t$at 2ere egalitarian in rincile 2as
suorted y t$ese tiny, everyday, $ysical /ec$anis/s,
y all t$ose syste/s of /icro*o2er t$at are essentially
non*egalitarian and asy//etrical t$at 2e call t$e
discilines8 (%%%)
Foucaults argu!ent is that discipline creates 0docile
bodies0" ideal for the ne# econo!ics" politics and #arfare
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of the !odern industrial age 7 bodies that function in
factories" ordered !ilitary regi!ents" and school
classroo!s. 2ut" to construct docile bodies the disciplinary
institutions !ust be able to (a) constantly obser-e and
record the bodies they control and (b) ensure the
internaliGation of the disciplinary indi-iduality #ithin the
bodies being controlled. 3hat is" discipline !ust co!eabout #ithout e,cessi-e force through careful obser-ation"
and !olding of the bodies into the correct for! through
this obser-ation. 3his reuires a particular for! of
institution" e,e!pli*ed" Foucault argues" by $ere!y
2entha!s #anoticon. 3his architectural !odel" though it
#as ne-er adopted by architects according to 2entha!s
e,act blueprint" beco!es an i!portant conceptualiGation of
po#er relations for prison refor!ers of the 19th =entury"
and its general principle is a recurring the!e in !odern
prison construction.
3he ;anopticon #as the ulti!ate realiGation of a
!odern disciplinary institution. /t allo#ed for constant
obser-ation characteriGed by an 0uneual gaGe0 the
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constant possibility of obser-ation. ;erhaps the !ost
i!portant feature of the panopticon #as that it #as
speci*cally designed so that the prisoner could ne-er be
sure #hether they #ere being obser-ed at any !o!ent.
3he uneual gaGe caused the internaliGation of disciplinary
indi-iduality" and the docile body reuired of its in!ates.
3his !eans one is less likely to break rules or la#s if theybelie-e they are being #atched" e-en if they are not. 3hus"
prisons" and speci*cally those that follo# the !odel of the
;anopticon" pro-ide the ideal for! of !odern punish!ent.
Foucault argues that this is #hy the generaliGed" 0gentle0
punish!ent of public #ork gangs ga-e #ay to the prison. /t
#as the ideal !oderniGation of punish!ent" so its e-entual
do!inance #as natural.
>a-ing laid out the e!ergence of the prison as the
do!inant for! of punish!ent" Foucault de-otes the rest of
the book to e,a!ining its precise for! and function in our
society" laying bare the reasons for its continued use" and
uestioning the assu!ed results of its use.
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Prison
/n e,a!ining the construction of the prison as the
central !eans of cri!inal punish!ent" Foucault builds a
case for the idea that prison beca!e part of a larger
0carceral syste!0 that has beco!e an all7enco!passing
so-ereign institution in !odern society. ;rison is one part of
a -ast net#ork" including schools" !ilitary institutions"
hospitals" and factories" #hich build a panoptic society for
its !e!bers. 3his syste! creates 0disciplinary
careers0'C for those locked #ithin its corridors. /t is
operated under the scienti*c authority
of !edicine" psychology" and cri!inology. Moreo-er" it
operates according to principles that ensure that it 0cannot
fail to produce delinuents.0'9 Delinuency" indeed" is
produced #hen social petty cri!e (such as taking #ood
fro! the lords lands) is no longer tolerated" creating a
class of specialiGed 0delinuents0 acting as the polices
pro,y in sur-eillance of society.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-9
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3he structures Foucault chooses to use as his starting
positions help highlight his conclusions. /n particular" his
choice as a perfect prison of the penal institution at
Mettray helps personify the carceral syste!. Pithin it is
included the ;rison" the 8chool" the =hurch" and the #ork7
house (industry) 7 all of #hich feature hea-ily in his
argu!ent. 3he prisons at Eeufchatel'disa/iguation
needed" Mettray" and Mettray Eetherlands #ere perfect
e,a!ples for Foucault" because they" e-en in their original
state" began to sho# the traits Foucault #as searching for.
3hey sho#ed the body of kno#ledge being de-eloped
about the prisoners" the creation of the delinuent class"
and the disciplinary careers e!erging.'1&
=riticis!
Fi-e theoretical argu!ents in fa-or of re+ecting the
Foucauldian !odel of panopticis! !ay be considered:
1(Displace!ent of the panoptical ideal by
!echanis!s of seduction"
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neufchatelhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mettray_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panopticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neufchatelhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mettray_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panopticism
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%(
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3he third argu!ent for post7panopticis!" concerning
action before the fact" is articulated by Pillia! 2ogard:
3he *gure of the ;anopticon is already haunted by a
parallel *gure of si!ulation. 8ur-eillance" #e are told" is
discreet" unobtrusi-e" ca!ouaged" un-eri*able ? all
ele!ents of arti*ce designed into an architectural
arrange!ent of spaces to produce real e@ects of discipline.
-entually this #ill lead" by its !eans of perfection" to the
eli!ination of the ;anopticon itself . . . sur-eillance as its
o#n si!ulation. Eo# it is no longer a !atter of the speed
at #hich infor!ation is gained to defeat an ene!y. . . .
Eo#" one can si!ulate a space of control" pro+ect an
inde*nite nu!ber of courses of action" train for each
possibility" and react i!!ediately #ith pre7progra!!ed
responses to the actual course of e-ents . . . #ith
si!ulation" sight and foresight" actual and -irtual begin to
!erge. . . . /ncreasingly the technological enlarge!ent of
the *eld of perceptual control" the erasure of distance in
the speed of electronic infor!ation has pushed sur-eillance
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beyond the -ery li!its of speed to#ard the purest for!s of
anticipation.'1
Anticipation is e-ident in e!ergent sur-eillance
technologies such as social net#ork analysis.'citation needed
Fourth" the ^8ynopticon_ concerns the sur-eillance of
the fe# by the !any.'14 ,a!ples of this kind of
sur-eillance !ay include the theatre" the coliseu!" and
celebrity tabloid reporting. 3his Zre-ersal of the ;anoptical
polarity !ay ha-e beco!e so !arked that it *nally
deconstructs the panoptical !etaphor altogether\.'11
3he *fth point concerns the self7defeating nature of
panoptical regi!es. 3he failure of sur-eillance states is
illustrated by e,a!ples such as Zprison riots" asylu! sub7
cultures" ego sur-i-al in ulag or concentration ca!p"
'and retribaliGation in the 2alkans.\'11
/n their %&&H article" Dobson and Fisher'1 lay out an
alternati-e !odel of post7panopticis! as they identify
three panoptic !odels. ;anopticis! / refers to $ere!y
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Bogard-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_analysishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Mathiesen-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Dobson_Fisher-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Benthamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Bogard-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Bogard-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_analysishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Mathiesen-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Dobson_Fisher-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham
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2entha!_s original conceptualiGation of the panopticon"
and is it the !odel of panopticis! that Foucault responds
to in Disciline and #unis$. ;anopticis! // refers to
an r#ellian ^2ig 2rother_ ideal of sur-eillance. ;anopticis!
///" refers to the high7technology hu!an tracking syste!s
that are e!ergent in the %1st century. 3hese geographical
infor!ation syste!s (/8) include technologies such ascellphone ;8"
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1%. Jump up^ 2au!an" O. (199C) lobaliGation: 3he
>u!an =onseuences" =a!bridge: ;olity.QQ 1999 ^n
post!odern uses of se,_" in Mike Featherstone (ed.) Jo-e
and roticis!" Jondon: 8age.
1. Jump up^ 2ogard" P. (1996). 3he 8i!ulation of
8ur-eillance " =a!bridge: =a!bridge ni-ersity ;ress.
14. Jump up^ Mathiesen" 3. (199H) ^3he -ie#ersociety_" 3heoretical =ri!inology 1(%).
1. $u!p up to:a b Dobson" $. ." and ;. F. Fisher.
%&&H. 3he ;anopticons changing geography. eographical
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-$e History of 3e9uality
The History of %e)#ality (French: (SHistoire de lase9ualité) is a three7-olu!e study of se,uality in
the #estern #orldby French historian and
philosopher Michel Foucault. 3he *rst -olu!e" -$e ill to
0no2ledge ((a volonté de savoir )" #as *rst published in
19H6 by ditions alli!ard an nglish translation
by urley #as published by Allen Janein 19HC. /t
#as follo#ed by -$e Kse of #leasure (l'usage des laisirs)"
and -$e Care of t$e 3elf (le souci de soi)" both published in
19C4.
/n -$e History of 3e9uality " Foucault e,a!ines the
e!ergence of 0se,uality0 as a discursi-e ob+ect and
separate sphere of life. >e argues that the notion that
e-ery indi-idual has a se,uality is a relati-ely recent
de-elop!ent in Pestern societies. /n Rolu!e /" Foucault
e,plores the 0repressi-e hypothesis0" the idea that #estern
society suppressed se,uality fro! the 1Hth to the !id7%&th
century due to the rise of capitalis! and bourgeois society.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttps://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ditions_Gallimardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hurley_(translator)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Lanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttps://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ditions_Gallimardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hurley_(translator)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Lanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism
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Foucault !aintains that the hypothesis is incorrect" and
that discourse on se,uality proliferated during this period"
during #hich e,perts began to e,a!ine se,uality in a
scienti*c !anner" encouraging people to confess their
se,ual feelings and actions. /n the 1Cth and 19th centuries"
he argues" society takes an increasing interest in
se,ualities that did not *t #ithin the !arital bond: the0#orld of per-ersion0 that includes the se,uality of
children" the !entally ill" the cri!inal and the ho!ose,ual.
According to Foucault" by the 19th century se,uality #as
being readily e,plored both through confession and
scienti*c enuiry. /n the second t#o -olu!es" Foucault
deals #ith the role of se, in reek and
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Publication
3hree -olu!es of -$e History of 3e9uality #ere
published before Foucaults death in 19C4. 3he *rst
-olu!e" -$e ill to 0no2ledge (pre-iously kno#n as )n
.ntroduction in nglishQHistoire de la se9ualité, %: la
volonté de savoir in French) #as published in France in
19H6" and translated in 19HH" focusing pri!arily on the last
t#o centuries" and the functioning of se,uality as an
analytics of po#er related to the e!ergence of a science of
se,uality" and the e!ergence of biopo#erin the Pest. 3he
#ork #as a further de-elop!ent of the account of the
interaction of kno#ledge and po#er Foucault pro-ided
in Disciline and #unis$ (19H).'1
3he second t#o -olu!es" -$e Kse of #leasure (Histoire
de la se9ualité, ..: l'usage des laisirs) and -$e Care of t$e
3elf (Histoire de la se9ualité, ...: le souci de soi) dealt #ith
the role of se, in reek and
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the hypo!ne!a #hich #as used to establish a per!anent
relationship to oneself. 2oth #ere published in 19C4" the
year of Foucaults death" the second -olu!e being
translated in 19C" and the third in 19C6.
/n his lecture series fro! 19H9 to 19C& Foucault
e,tended his analysis of go-ern!ent to its 0...#ider sense
of techniues and procedures designed to direct the
beha-iour of !en0" #hich in-ol-ed a ne# consideration of
the 0...e,a!ination of conscience0 and confession in
early =hristian literature. 3hese the!es of early =hristian
literature see!ed to do!inate Foucaults #ork" alongside
his study of reek and
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Rolu!e /: 3he Pill to Ino#ledge
Part I: We "Other Victorians"
;art ne" entitled 0Pe Zther Rictorians\0" opens #ith
a discussion of #hat Foucault calls the 0...repressi-e
hypothesis0" the #idespread belief a!ong late %&th7
century #esterners that se,uality" and the open discussion
of se," #as socially repressed during the late 1Hth" 1Cth"
19th and early %&th centuries" a by7product of the rise
of capitalis! and bourgeois society. Arguing that this #as
ne-er actually the case" he asks the uestion as to #hy
!odern #esterners belie-e such a hypothesis" noting that
in portraying past se,uality as repressed" it pro-ides a
basis for the idea that in re+ecting past !oral syste!s"
future se,uality can be free and uninhibited" a 0...garden of
earthly delights0.'
Part II: The Repressive Hypothesis
e /ust888 aandon
t$e $yot$esis t$at
/odern industrial
!
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societies us$ered in an
age of increased se9ual
reression8 e $ave not
only 2itnessed a visile
e9losion of unort$odo9
se9ualities ut and t$is
is t$e i/ortant oint a
deloy/ent quite
diTerent fro/ t$e la2,
even if it is locally
deendent on rocedures
of ro$iition, $as
ensured, t$roug$ a
net2or1 of
interconnecting
/ec$anis/s, t$e
roliferation of secic
leasures and t$e
/ultilication of disarate
se9ualities8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_repressionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_repressionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_repressionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_repression
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! Foucault, %&A8'4
;roceeding to go into further depth in ;art 3#o" 03he
ypothesis"0 Foucault notes that fro! the 1Hth
century to the 19H&s" there had actually been a
0...-eritable discursi-e e,plosion0 in the discussion of se,"
albeit using an 0...authoriGed -ocabulary0 that codi*ed
#here one could talk about it" #hen one could talk about it"
and #ith #ho!. >e argues that this desire to talk so
enthusiastically about se, in the #estern #orld ste!s fro!
the =ounter7e
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confession_(religion)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confession_(religion)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)
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notes that in that century" go-ern!ents beca!e
increasingly a#are that they #ere not !erely ha-ing to
!anage 0sub+ects0 or 0a people0 but a 0population0" and
that as such they had to concern the!sel-es #ith such
issues as birth and death rates" !arriage" and
contraception" thereby increasing their interest and
changing their discourse on se,uality.'
ntering the second chapter of this section" 03he
;er-erse /!plantation0" Foucault argues that prior to the
1Cth century" discourse on se,uality focuses on the
producti-e role of the !arried couple" #hich is !onitored
by both canonical and ci-il la#. /n the 1Cth and 19th
centuries" he argues" society ceases discussing the se,
li-es of !arried couples" instead taking an increasing
interest in se,ualities that did not *t #ithin this union the
0#orld of per-ersion0 that includes the se,uality of
children" the !entally ill" the cri!inal and the ho!ose,ual.
>e notes that this had three !a+or e@ects on society.
Firstly" there #as increasing categoriGation of these
0per-erts0 #here pre-iously a !an #ho engaged in sa!e7
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage
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se, acti-ities #ould be labeled as an indi-idual #ho
succu!bed to the sin of sodo!y" no# they #ould be
categorised into a ne# 0species"0 that of ho!ose,ual.
8econdly" Foucault argues that the labeling of per-erts
con-eyed a sense of 0pleasure and po#er0 on to both those
studying se,uality and the per-erts the!sel-es. 3hirdly" he
argues that bourgeoisie society e,hibited 0blatant andfrag!ented per-ersion"0 readily engaging in per-ersity but
regulating #here it could take place.'6
Part III: %cientia %e)#alis
/n part three" 08cientia 8e,ualis0" Foucault e,plores the
de-elop!ent of the scienti*c study of se," the atte!pt to
unearth the 0truth0 of se," a pheno!enon #hich Foucault
argues is peculiar to the Pest. /n contrast to the Pests
se,ual science" Foucault introduces the 0ars erotica0 #hich
he states has only e,isted in Ancient and astern societies.
Further!ore" he argues that this scientia se9ualis has
repeatedly been used for political purposes" being utiliGed
in the na!e of 0public hygiene0 to support state racis!.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_racismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_racism
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out Foucaults argu!ent that #e need to de-elop an
0analytics0 of po#er through #hich to understand se,.
>ighlighting that po#er controls se, by laying do#n rules
for it to follo#" he discusses ho# po#er de!ands
obedience through do!ination" sub!ission" and
sub+ugation" and also ho# po#er !asks its true intentions
by disguising itself as bene*cial. As an e,a!ple" hehighlights the !anner in #hich the feudal absolute
!onarchies of historical urope" the!sel-es a for!
of o2er " disguised their intentions by clai!ing that they
#ere necessary to !aintain la#" order" and peace. As a
lefto-er concept fro! the days of feudalis!" Foucault
argues that #esterners still -ie# po#er as e!anating fro!
la#" but he re+ects this" proclai!ing that #e !ust
0...construct an analytics of po#er that no longer takes la#
as a !odel and a code"0 and announcing that a di@erent
for! of po#er go-erns se,uality. 0Pe !ust"0 Foucault
states" 0at the sa!e ti!e concei-e of se, #ithout the la#"
and po#er #ithout the king.0'C
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-8
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/n the second chapter" 0Method0" Foucault e,plores
#hat he !eans by 0;o#er0" e,plaining that he does not
!ean o2er as the do!ination or sub+ugation e,erted on
society by the go-ern!ent or the state" but instead
re!arks that po#er should be understood 0as the
!ultiplicity of force relations i!!anent in the sphere in
#hich they operate.0 /n this #ay" he argues" 0;o#er ise-ery#here . . . because it co!es fro! e-ery#here"0
e!anating fro! all social relationships and being i!posed
throughout society botto!7up rather than top7do#n.'9
Part V: Ri%ht o Death an& Po'er over (ie
/n part *-e" 03he
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decides to e,ecute so!eone as a safe guard to society not
as +usti*ed" as it once #as" as -engeful +ustice. 3his ne#
e!phasis on po#er o-er life is called 2iopo#er and co!es
in t#o for!s. First" Foucault says it is 0centered on the body
as a !achine: its disciplining" the opti!iGation of its
capabilities" the e,tortion of its forces" the parallel increase
of its usefulness and its docility" its integration into syste!sof e5cient and econo!ic controls.0'1& 3he second for!"
Foucault argues" e!erged later and focuses on the 0species
body" the body i!bued #ith the !echanics of life and
ser-ing as the basis of the biological processes:
propagation" births and !ortality" the le-el of health" life
e,pectancy and longe-ity" #ith all the conditions that
cause these to -ary.'11 2iopo#er" it is argued" is the source
of the rise of capitalis!" as states beca!e interested in
regulating and nor!aliGing po#er o-er life and not as
concerned about punishing and conde!ning actions.
8cholarly reception
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-11
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3he reception of -$e History of 3e9uality a!ong
scholars and acade!ics has been !i,ed.
)*+,-)*.*
>istorian $ane =aplan calls -$e History of
3e9uality 0certainly the !ost a!bitious and interesting
recent atte!pt to analyse the relations bet#een the
production of concepts and the history of society in the
*eld of se,uality0" but criticiGes Foucault for using 0an
undi@erentiated concept0 of speech and an i!precise
notion of 0po#er0.'1% ay acti-ist Dennis Alt!an describes
Foucaults #ork as representati-e of the position that
ho!ose,uals e!erged as a social category in 1Cth and
19th century #estern urope.'1 Fe!inist er!aine
reer #rites that Foucault rightly argues that" 0#hat #e
ha-e all along taken as the breaking7through of a silence
and the long delayed gi-ing of due attention to hu!an
se,uality #as in fact the pro!otion of hu!an se,uality"
indeed" the creation of an internal focus for the indi-iduals
preoccupations.0'14
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Altmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Altmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-14
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>istorian ;eter ay #rites that Foucault is right to
raise uestions about the 0repressi-e hypothesis0" but that
0his procedure is anecdotal and al!ost #holly
unencu!bered by facts using his accusto!ed techniue
(re!iniscent of the principle underlying scar Pildes
hu!or) of turning accepted ideas upside do#n" he turns
out to be right in part for his pri-ate reasons.0'1
=lassicist;age du2ois describes -$e Kse of #leasure as 0one of the
!ost e,citing ne# books in the *eld of classical studies0
and 0an i!portant contribution to the history of se,uality0"
but adds that Foucault 0takes for granted" and thus
authoriGes" e,actly #hat needs to be e,plained: the
philosophical establish!ent of the autono!ous !ale
sub+ect0.'16 >istorian ;atricia 2rien #rites that Foucault
#as 0#ithout e,pertise0 in dealing #ith antiuity" and
that -$e History of 3e9uality lacks 0the !ethodological
rigor of Foucaults earlier #orks" and especially
of Disciline and #unis$.0'1H
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wildehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wildehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-17
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)**/-present
=lassicist Da-id M. >alperin #rites in +ne Hundred
ears of Ho/ose9uality (199&) that the appearance of the
nglish translation of the *rst -olu!e of Foucaults #ork in
19HC" together #ith the publication of I. $. Do-ers ree1
Ho/ose9uality the sa!e year" !arked the beginning of a
ne# era in the study of the history of se,uality.'1C >e
suggests that -$e History of 3e9uality !ay be the !ost
i!portant contribution to the history of #estern !orality
since Friedrich EietGsches +n t$e enealogy of
Morality (1CCH).'19
8cholar =a!ille ;aglia re+ects >alperins
-ie#s as uninfor!ed" calling -$e History of 3e9uality a
0disaster0 and clai!ing that !uch of it is fantasy
unsupported by the historical record. ;aglia obser-es that
the book 0is ackno#ledged e-en by Foucaults ad!irers to
be his #eakest #ork0.'%&
$urist and econo!ist
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brilliant and that the book is lucidly #ritten.'%1 >istorian
Michael Mason #rites that in -$e History of
3e9uality Foucault presents #hat a!ounts to an argu!ent
0against the possibility of !aking historical connections
bet#een beliefs about se, and se,ual practices0. Mason
#rites that Foucaults argu!ent is only acceptable if one
accepts the need to shift attention fro! 0se,uality0 to 0se,0in thinking about the se,ual culture of the last three
centuries" and that Foucault does not !ake a case for such
a need.'%% Jiterary critic Ale,ander Pelsh criticiGes Foucault
for failing to place 8ig!und Freud in the conte,t of 19th
century thought and culture.'%>istorian erbert Marcuse in 4ros and Civilization (19)" that
0industrialiGation de!anded erotic austerity.0'%4
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freudhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Marcusehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eros_and_Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freudhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Marcusehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eros_and_Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-24
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. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. pp. 1?14.
4. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. 49.
. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. pp. 1?6.
6. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. pp. H?49.
H. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. pp. ?H.
C. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. HH?91.
9. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. 9%?1&%.1&. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. 19.
11. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. 19.
1%. Jump up^ =aplan 19C1. p. 16.
1. Jump up^ Alt!an 19C%. p. 4C.
14. Jump up^ reer 19C. p. 19C.
1. Jump up^ ay 19C. pp. 46C79.
16. Jump up^ du2ois 19CC. p. %.
1H. Jump up^ 2rien 19C9. p. 4%.
1C. Jump up^ >alperin 199&. p. 4.
19. Jump up^ >alperin 199&. p. 6%.
%&. Jump up^ ;aglia 199. p. 1CH.
%1. Jump up^ ;osner 199%. p. %.
%%. Jump up^ Mason 199. pp. 1H%7.
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Sexuality#cite_ref-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Cap81https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Alt82https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Gre85https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Gay85https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#duB88https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#O.27B89https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Hal90https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Hal90https://en.wikipedia.org/wik