FOURTH INTERNATIONAL DISPOSAL CONFERENCE and …degraded under shifting anaerobic and aerobic...

THE SWEDISH SECTION FOR DETONICS AND COMBUSTION affiliated with The Combustion Institute

and The Competence Centre for Energetic Materials, KCEM

FOURTH INTERNATIONAL DISPOSAL CONFERENCE

and EXHIBITION

KATRINAHOLM, SWEDEN, 13-14 November 2006

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For additional information about Linköping University Electronic Press and its proce-dures for publication and for assurance of document integrity, please refer to its www home page: http://www.ep.liu.se/. Linköping Electronic Conference Proceedings, No. 18 Linköping University Electronic Press Linköping, Sweden, 2006 http://www.ep.liu.se/ecp/018/ ISSN 1650-3740 (online) ISSN 1650-3686 (print) © 2006, The Authors

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Table of Content

Sustainable development in defence I. G. Wallace...........................................................................................................................5 Physical background of the deflagration-to-detonation transition M. Liberman ...........................................................................................................................7 Degradation of explosives in filter columns – new research ideas E. Nehrenheim and M. Odlare ...............................................................................................9 Microbiological degradation of explosives in bioreactor M. Odlare and E. Nehrenheim ...............................................................................................11 Environmental considerations in the Swedish defence R. Tryman and J. Hägvall ......................................................................................................13 Recovery of energetic materials from PBXs J. Akhavan, G. Tan and A. J. Bellamy....................................................................................15 New ingredients in nitrocellulose based propellants A. Langlet, N. V. Latypov, M. Johansson and J. Dahlberg ....................................................17 Dynasafe SDC, a proven technology for destruction of chemical and conventional weapons J. Ohlson.................................................................................................................................19 Safe and environmentally friendly methods for the destruction of ammunition N. H. A. van Ham and W. Colpa ............................................................................................21 Lead and alternatives to lead in ammunition U. Qvarfort .............................................................................................................................23 Surplus ammunition disposal –the threat, international response and options in South Eastern and Eastern Europe A. Wilkinson ...........................................................................................................................25 Electro-Optic Detection of Land Mines and UXO S. Sjökvist and D. Loyd...........................................................................................................27 Sustainable and environmentally friendly methods for disposal of explosive materials R. Bragberg ............................................................................................................................29 Disposal of ammunition in France M. Michel ...............................................................................................................................31 Sustainable recycling of explosives from demilitarisation P. Eriksson .............................................................................................................................33

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Deflagration-to-detonation testing and new explosives C. Vörde, S. Röstlund, C. Sjöqvist and S. Persson .................................................................35 Development of a thermal fuse S. Röstlund..............................................................................................................................37 Detonation of high explosives in a semi-confined space - static and dynamic behaviour T. Widlund ..............................................................................................................................39 Education and training of explosive specialists D. Loyd, Stefan Sjökvist and H. Wallin ..................................................................................41 Workplace-based qualified vocational training and education H. Randle and G. Spak ...........................................................................................................43 EUEXCERT – Certifying expertise in the European explosives sector E. Nilsson and H. Wallin ........................................................................................................45 Modification of the approach to hazard assessment for energetic materials after 5 years of practice of the EU directive 96/82/CE “Seveso II” R. Folchi, L. Ferraglio and M. Battocchio.............................................................................47 Energy recovery of municipal solid waste by way of combustion I. Johansson............................................................................................................................49 Jönköping`s waste-to-energy heat and power plant H. Stigmarker .........................................................................................................................77 The disposal of Melanj oxidizer in Azerbaidjan: NAMSA achievements F. Peugeot, P. Robert and B. Tudes .......................................................................................79 Disposal of surplus munitions stockpiles in Ukraine. NAMSA achievements and perspectives F. Peugeot, S. Brown and P. Courtney-Green .......................................................................81 The characterisation of RDX recovered from barmine A .J. Busby and P. Q. Flower .................................................................................................83 Simultaneous desorption of explosives and lead from contaminated soil K. Elgh-Dalgren and P. van Hees..........................................................................................85 Change of toxicity during seondary treatment of industrial sludge containing nitroaromatics L. Gustavsson .........................................................................................................................87 Detection, uncovering, recovery, transportation and destruction of old chemical weapons discovered in the sea Kanda, Japan R. Kitamura and J. K. Asahina...............................................................................................89

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4rth Int. Disposal Conf., Katrinaholm, Sweden, 2006.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN DEFENCE

I. Wallace Cranfield University, Swindon SN6 8LA, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT

This paper will address the global challenge of sustainable development. It will emphasise the role of responsible environmental management in meeting that challenge and present examples of how environmental management principles are being integrated into the management of defence activities. It will focus on environmental management acquisition programmes including the end of life issues of disposal.

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PHYSICAL BACKGROUND AND MECHANISMS OF DEFLAGRATION-TO-DETONATION TRANSITION

M.A. Liberman

Department of Physics, Uppsala University, Box 530, SE-751 21 Uppsala, Sweden

ABSTRACT The formation of a preheat zone ahead of the flame propagating from the closed end of a semi-infinite tube, which causes acceleration of the reaction front, is the basic physical mechanisms of deflagration-to-detonation transition. The transition occurs when the pressure elevation at the accelerating reaction front becomes high enough to produce strong pressure jump following by the shock capable of supporting detonation. The preheat zone ahead of the flame front can be formed either by the flame folding, when the influx of heat from the folded reaction zone increases temperature inside the fold. The flame folding may be induced either by the classical Darrieus-Landau instability, or by the interaction of the flame with turbulent eddies, or by the wake from the obstacles in the tube. The preheat zone ahead of the flame may also be formed due to hydraulic resistance of adhesive walls or by obstacles. The role of the flame folding induced by the Darrieus-Landau instability on the transition to detonation is illustrated by numerical simulations of premixed gas combustion spreading from the closed end of a semi-infinite, smooth-walled channel, where the instability may invoke nucleation of hot spots within the folds of the developing wrinkled flame, triggering an abrupt transition from deflagrative to detonative combustion. The mechanism of transition due to formation of a preheat zone by hydraulic resistance in a channel with adhesive and rough walls is discussed and confirmed by numerical simulation.

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DEGRADATION OF EXPLOSIVES IN FILTER COLUMNS – NEW RESEARCH IDEAS

E. Nehrenheim and M. Odlare

Department of Public Technology, Mälardalen University, Box 883, SE721 23 Västerås, Sweden

ABSTRACT

There are many potentially hazardous substances in explosive materials. During manufacture, use and disposal there can be leaching to the surrounding environment, to the factory site and the waste water from the processes. Many of the explosives consist of organic substances which are possible to treat biologically. This means degradation by using micro organisms either in batch reactor systems or in continuous processes. The first has been tried out in the laboratory whereas the latter is a research idea which will be discussed in the present paper. Principally, the method is envisaged as flow through a filter column or box with an inert substrate well suited for a bio-film to grow on. Close to a free liquid surface, the environment is aerobic, with available oxygen At particle surfaces, however, the micro biological process consumes the oxygen and offers an anaerobic environment. The anaerobic environment is well suited for denitrification bacteria which together will work for a degradation of the nitric groups on the explosive substance molecule.

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MICROBIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OF EXPLOSIVES IN BIOREACTOR

M. Odlare and E. Nehrenheim Department of Public Technology, Mälardalen University, Box 883, SE721 23 Västerås,

Sweden

ABSTRACT The production, testing, use and disposal of explosives have extensively contaminated the soil and water at a large number of sites. Several laboratory and field studies have indicated that explosives are toxic to a number of organisms, including humans, in relatively low amounts. There is an urgent need for simple, cheap and effective techniques which can degrade explosive compounds in soil and sludge in an ecologically sound manner. In the present study, a two-step microbiological method was developed where explosive compounds were degraded under shifting anaerobic and aerobic conditions. The method was optimized in a small-scale bioreactor where TNT was mixed with soil, water and substrate and subjected to continuous stirring. For the first 8 days, anaerobic conditions were applied to the bioreactor and for the remaining 12 days, aerobic conditions were applied. Preliminary results show that 75% of the TNT was degraded after four days. The conclusion from the study is that TNT is effectively degraded by the bioreactor technique, and the efficiency can probably be even more improved by certain modification measures.

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ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SWEDISH DEFENCE

R. Tryman & J. Hägvall Swedish Defence Institute, SE-147 25 Tumba, Sweden

ABSTRACT

The environmental constraints on all activities in society are continuously increased. Conventional munitions have an impact on the environment during all stages of their life cycle: production, use and demilitarisation. FOI has continuous research to reduce the environmental impact of these stages. Research and development are directed towards technologies and products that will reduce the direct and indirect environmental impact from the activities from and around the armed forces. This presentation will cover an overview of some activities to enhance the Armed forces’ possibilities to reduce their environmental impact.

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RECOVERY OF ENERGETIC MATERIALS FROM PBXs

G. Tan, J. Akhavan and A.J. Bellamy Department of Environmental and Ordnance Systems, Cranfield University,

Defence Academy of UK, Shrivenham, Swindon, SN6 8LA, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT Following the International Treaty held in London and Oslo in 1972 and its amendment in Paris in 1992 on banning the dumping of hazardous and toxic waste at sea, large stockpiles of unwanted munition are now awaiting disposal. Public awareness, environmental concern and legislation are preventing the disposal of this explosive waste by landfill, detonation and open pit burning. One solution to this dilemma is to recover the waste from the containers and recycle the waste in an environmentally sensitive manner.

In this investigation, a study was conducted to explore the possibility of recovering RDX from a PBX using a supercritical fluid. An environmentally friendly method for the resource, reuse and recycling was also developed. The results showed that RDX could be extracted from PBX using supercritical carbon dioxide and that the recovery is enhanced by using co-solvents. Two methods have been proposed (SWAT and DARE) which lead to an increase in RDX recovery yield and shorten the extraction time.

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NEW INGREDIENTS IN NITROCELLULOSE BASED PROPELLANTS

A. Langlet Swedish Defence Materiel Administration SE-115 88 Stockholm, Sweden

N.V. Latypov, M. Johansson FOI, Swedish Defence Research Agency, Department of Energetic Materials,

SE-14725 Tumba, Sweden J. Dahlberg

EURENCO Bofors AB, SE-69186 Karlskoga, Sweden

In Sweden there is an ongoing effort to develop a new gun propellant for the Uniflex 2*, 155 mm modular charge system aimed for a new Swedish field howitzer Archer*. The Archer Artillery System is a 155 mm L/52 howitzer mounted on a modified articulated hauler. The system-solution features several advantages among which increased fire-power and mobility are a two.

The propellant charge first suggested for the Archer system was a bimodular charge system with two different propellants. This is a common solution that has several disadvantages in relation to a unimodular charge where all the modules are equal. To design a fully functioning unimodular system is however rather difficult, and numerous efforts has been made (by several manufacturers) to design such a system.

The use of new energetic fillers developed at FOI, makes it possible to tweak the burning characteristics in such a way that the design problem of a unimodular charge might be solved. A recent government funded project has addressed the possibility to develop a low sensitity unimodular charge system where several propellant components have been up-dated.

After a screening of possible filler and binder systems, a system based on nitrocellulose (NC), guanylurea dinitramid (FOX-12) and energetic plasticizers was selected. The reason to select NC was price and performance whereas FOX-12 and NENA were selected due to the low sensivity and good burning behaviours. Acardite II was the first choice of stabilizer and is considered among the best stabiliser for NC/energetic plasticizer systems. Acardite II is however, as many other well known stabilizers, known to form nitrosoamines when it reacts with the nitrous oxides formed in the decomposition of the propellant matrix. As nitrosoamines are infamous for their carcinogenity a new group of compounds was investigated, not previously used as stabilizers for NC, namely phenyl aliphatic ethers.

In this work, the preferred phenyl aliphatic ether was 1,4-dimethoxybensene. With this compound as a stabilizer, the propellant fulfils the storage stability test (STANAG4582) at

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90 ˚C, corresponding to 20 years of storage at 25˚ C. The new compound is considered as a replacement stabilizer for diphenylamine derivatives used in NC-containing propellants.

The conclusion is that these new stabilizers have similar or better effect in stabilizing NC-based propellants than diphenylamine-derivatives and that they do not form carcinogenic nitrosamines. * Uniflex 2 and Archer are both trademarks belonging to BAE-systems Bofors AB.

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DYNASAFE SDC, A PROVEN TECHNOLOGY FOR DESTRUCTION OF CHEMICAL AND CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS

J. Ohlson

Dynasafe, Baggängsvägen 47, SE-691 80 Karlskoga, Sweden

ABSTRACT The Dynasafe Static Detonation Chamber, SDC, is equipment for destroying all types of explosives and munition. It is an reinforced and heated detonation chamber which operates at approximately 500-550 °C and where all types of explosive materials – open or encapsulated in munition – are 100% destroyed. Chemical or biological material connected to the explosives is also safely destroyed.

The feeding system is designed – depending on its application – to operate without any personnel involvement close to the plant. The operator controls the plant from a control room a safe distance away.

The Dynasafe SDC can be delivered with off-gas systems optimised for each feeding material and local regulations. Off-gas systems can also be designed in a modular way that future improvements are applicable in a simple and cost effective way.

Besides high capacity, the Dynasafe SDC can be produced as a fixed installation, semi-mobile and mobile. These possibilities make the system superior to most of the competing technologies.

Dynasafe SDC has been delivered to many countries world wide such as Sweden, Japan, Germany, USA, Portugal, Spain, Taiwan etc.

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SAFE AND ENVIRONMENTAL-FRIENDLY METHODS FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF AMMUNITION

N. H. A. van Ham & W. Colpa

TNO Defense, Security and Safety, Box 45, 2280 AA Rijswijk, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT Unexploded ordnances (UXOs) in the soil of the Netherlands as a heritage from WWII are still a large problem in 2005. Up to now approximately 10% of all ammunition that was buried has been excavated. On an annual basis, thousands of ammunition articles are found that require destruction. In recent history the destruction of the UXOs was accomplished by open burning and open detonation. During these uncontrolled events, toxic chemicals are distributed into the environment threatening the flora and fauna as well as the health of the people involved in the open burning/open detonation. However, new legislation (European Union and the Netherlands) will prohibit the application of these environmentally unfriendly methodologies in near future. Therefore, TNO has developed proper techniques for the destruction of small, medium and large calibre ammunition. These techniques facilitate on-site destruction of the ammunition which prevents unnecessary transport of the ammunition. Furthermore, the developed methodologies enable the destruction of small, medium and large calibre ammunition in an environmentally friendly and secure way. Next to this, the technique which is applied to large calibre ammunition also enables the re-use of the ammunition as a practice shell. Within this presentation we will address each technique and show their application as they will be implemented in near future.

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LEAD AND ALTERNATIVES TO LEAD IN AMMUNITION

U. Qvarfort FOI NBC Defence, SE-901 82 Umeå, Sweden

ABSTRACT

Lead has been used by humans for the past 6000 to 9000 years, and was one of the first metals humans learned to use. Five thousand years ago, it was discovered that small amounts of silver could be extracted as a by-product from lead, and production increased to a more extensive level. The introduction of silver coins about 2500 years ago also inspired an increase in production. Lead is mentioned in Egyptian writing already around 2000 B.C. and also appeared in various places in The Old Testament. There are descriptions of how lead was used in the hanging gardens of Babylon.

Concerning ammunition, lead has been used for a long time. One of the reasons for this is the metal’s suitable attributes for manufacture, its great resistance, and high density. It has furthermore been easy to produce bullets with good ballistic properties, making it possible to hunt wildlife fast and effectively. The use of lead in ammunition has however been questioned and a Swedish regulation involving the prohibition of lead in ammunition will be established in the year 2008. One exception is shooting in environmentally-safe shooting ranges or similar activities.

As alternatives, several solutions have been proposed where other metals are used in the ammunition, often in different mixtures. In this presentation, a comparison between lead in ammunition and some other alternative materials including antimony, tin, nickel, tungsten, bismuth and iron (steel) is made. Several of these metals are not the only component in the bullets, but are often present as an alloy. This is necessary when a technical adaptation to ballistic requirements needs to be made, for example in terms of difference in density (mass per volume).

The starting point for this presentation will be to show the environmental properties of lead in comparison with alternative materials, regarding characteristics such as corrosion, transport in groundwater and surface water, availability in the environment, and human toxicology. In the report, the term corrosion is consistently used instead of the term weathering. Metals are the primary objects of study that will form corrosion products, which in turn might have a possible effect on the environment.

In the present report, activities are considered which are associated only with shooting and to some extent with hunting. Military shooting is only presented as an example. The same conditions are relevant with pellet shooting on marshes. In the presentation, general facts are shown about metal availability in the environment, how metals accumulate in plants, animals

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and humans, and the environmental toxicological aspects of these metals. Furthermore, a survey and comparison is presented of the various metals that might be contained in ammunition.

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SURPLUS AMMUNITION DISPOSAL - THE THREAT, INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE AND OPTIONS IN SOUTH EASTERN AND EASTERN EUROPE

A. Wilkinson

SEESAC, Internacionalnih Brigada 56, Belgrade, Serbia

ABSTRACT There are potentially significant security and safety risks posed by the presence of stockpiles of conventional ammunition and explosives in post-conflict environments, and also those that are surplus to the new national security requirements and therefore awaiting destruction in many developing States. These risks can adversely affect the local population and the environment, and hamper sustainable development. Additionally, and just as importantly, the possibility of illicit trafficking and uncontrolled spread, especially to terrorists and other criminal groups, can have a negative impact on armed violence within communities and the security of neighbouring States. Therefore the destruction of these stockpiles should be considered as a significant conflict prevention measure, a confidence and security building measure as well as being a post conflict human security issue. From the perspective of SALW control, the UN definition includes weapons and related ammunition natures of 100mm calibre and below. Yet the destruction factors and issues surrounding the destruction of calibers above 100 mm are similar, and it seems to make sense when planning destruction under the auspices of SALW control to ensure that systems developed are capable of supporting the destruction of the larger calibres, which present very similar risks and hazards.

To date, the demilitarisation and destruction of ammunition within developing and post-conflict countries has been based on a wide range of factors, including treaty obligations, CSBM and available funds. To date, few projects or priorities have been developed in terms of human security. Small Arms Ammunition often has priority as donors have budgets to support the destruction of these particular natures, whereas the larger calibre ammunition and bulk explosives that can present the greater explosive and security risks are afforded a lower priority. Whilst this is understandable from a political perspective due to the range of international and local agreements concerning Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW), it is may not the most effective, or efficient methodology for approaching the destruction of a national stockpile in a holistic manner. Donor support for the destruction of elements of ammunition stockpiles as part of confidence and security building measures is understandable, and should be supported, but there is also an argument to suggest that the impact on; 1) the reduction of risk to the civil population (human security task area); or 2) the physical security of SALW (proliferation of SALW task area) should also be considered. One problem is that the term SALW means different things to different stakeholders and there is

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therefore a lack of consistency when responses are planned or funded. Additionally, in some commercial cases, ammunition has been selected purely for ease of destruction or the potential return on material recovery, and minimal consideration has been paid to the selection of ammunition on security or humanitarian grounds.

It is highly unlikely that the international donor community can fund the destruction of all surplus SALW and ammunition even within South Eastern Europe, let alone the much larger stockpiles within Central and Eastern Europe and the remainder of the world. The stockpiles stored within the wider Europe as a legacy of the Cold War probably present the largest challenge, but the impact of poorly controlled stockpiles at the community level are also a global issue. To the community living at risk from the ammunition stockpile next door, it doesn’t matter what proportion it is of the global problem! This unfortunate fact means that prioritization for future ammunition destruction is complicated as the hard priorities of available national and donor resources versus threat should be considered.

This paper will therefore illustrate the threat within South Eastern and Eastern Europe, identify progress to date and suggest future priorities.

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ELECTRO-OPTIC DETECTION OF LAND MINES AND UXO

S. Sjökvist Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI,SE-58 111 Linköping, Sweden

D. Loyd Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden

ABSTRACT

The objective of this paper is to present the Swedish land mine and UXO detection project "Multi Optical Mine Detection System", MOMS. The goal for MOMS is to provide knowledge and competence for fast detection of mines, especially surface laid mines, by the use of both active and passive optical sensors. The research within the project is presented. However, the paper will focus on the infrared sensors and their possibilities and limitations to detect different objects, e.g. mines and UXOs.

The paper includes descriptions of modelling, simulations and experiments concerning optical mine detection systems.

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SUSTAINABLE AND ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY METHODS FOR DISPOSAL OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

R. Bragberg

Nammo Vingåkerverken, SE-643 92 Vingåker, Sweden

ABSTRACT Demilitarisation (demil) of excess and obsolete ammunition and explosives products is not a priority subject in most countries or among most of the potential buyers of these services. Demil is also an area where the normal environmental concerns are not given priority and accordingly low price is the dominating development driver. This has in turn led to disposal and demilitarisation methods/processes that are targeting the present minimum environmental requirements and regulations, while the future society will be very dependent on high sustainable environmental standards where recycling and reuse of all type of available resources is very important. The speech will present a number of areas and subjects that are important to address to change the present development, as well as some possible solutions to reach desirable future results.”

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DISPOSAL OF AMMUNITIONS IN FRANCE

M-C. Michel EFEE, OPPBTP, 25 Avenue du Général Leclerc, 92 660 Boulogne Billancourt, France

ABSTRACT

Due to several factors, especially the sale of military properties and a lack of competence, French institutions decided to modify the procedure for the disposal of ammunition.

The old ammunition is now allowed to be destroyed by civilian companies under limited conditions. This means that we must transfer the knowledge and the competence from military to civilian fields.

Hence, it is necessary to put in place new organisational structures and specific training courses. While a new regulation has been edicted for one year, its implementation is very difficult. Despite the various problems raised, application on-site must be ensured.

After a presentation of the organisational structure for the disposal of ammunition in France, I underline the problems posed by this transfer, the technical discussions we have had and the work we do now, especially in the matter of training.

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SUSTAINABLE RECYCLING OF EXPLOSIVES FROM DEMILITARISATION

P. Eriksson Nammo Vingåkersverken, SE-643 92 Vingåker, Sweden

ABSTRACT

Nammo Vingåkersverken AB is one of the sites in the Nammo Demil Division specialized in handling excess, outdated and obsolete conventional ammunition.

All processing at the Nammo Vingåkersverken AB site is focused to the R3 philosophy: Resources, Recovery and Recycling.

Today the magnitude of explosive recovery from ammunition depends on the type of explosives that is useable in civilian explosive manufacturing processes. To be cost effective in this recycling, Vingåkersverken’s processes have been adjusted to produce the explosives as bulk products. In a normal year, the total fraction of recycled explosives is over 95% of the mass of the incoming amount.

Since Nammo Vingåkersverken is one of the leading R3 demil sites in the world we are trying to find ways to improve explosive recycling so as to include more difficult explosives not normally useful in civilian explosive manufacturing processes. Vingåkersverken has started cooperation directly with the Swedish mining industry. Successful tests in Sweden’s biggest open pit mine, Aitik, New Boliden, opens up possibilities for Nammo Vingåkersverken to increase the magnitude of explosive recycling even more.

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DDT TESTING AND NEW EXPLOSIVES

C. Vörde, S. Röstlund, C. Sjöqvist & S. Persson. Bofors Bepab, SE-691 86 Karlskoga

ABSTRACT

A number of secondary explosives has been compared with regards to their detonation velocity and detonation pressure in a method involving a small detonation cap placed against a witness plate. The resulting craters in the plate correspond to literature data for the detonation behaviour of the chosen secondary explosives. CL-20 is the explosive with highest impact in the witness plate in accordance with the literature.

In the development of a new explosive, copper tetraaminodinitramide, this method in combination with other tests has been of great help in the characterisation of both explosive and sensitivity properties.

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DEVELOPMENT OF A THERMAL FUSE

S. Röstlund Bofors Bepab, SE-691 86 Karlskoga

ABSTRACT

In the case of a fire in a vehicle, an airbag system is a potential bomb. The gas-generating substance in an air bag system will slowly heat up to its ignition temperature at which point all of the substance ignites simultaneously. This problem can be overcome if a thermal fuse is used. The thermal fuse should be designed to ignite before the gas-generating substance and hence will prevent an explosion if there is a fire. With new gas-generating substances used in airbag systems, however, new demands are made on thermal fuses. This is because the new substances have lower ignition temperatures than earlier ones. In order to get a satisfying effect from a thermal fuse, its ignition temperature should be a great deal lower than that for the gas-generating substance. The earlier thermal fuse developed by Bepab and currently in use by Autoflator has an ignition temperature between 200 and 225 °C. This value is too high for new gas-generating substances and for this reason a new composition for the thermal fuse had to be developed.

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DETONATION OF HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN A SEMI CONFINED SPACE – STATIC AND DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR

T. Widlund

Saab Bofors Dynamics AB, SE- 691 80 Karlskoga, Sweden Demilitarisation entails handling of explosives and therefore involves a potential risk of unexpected energy release. Accidents have frequently occurred with fatal consequences throughout the history of demilitarisation. One useful tool for avoiding accidental explosions is computer codes to simulate static pressure in closed volumes. Furthermore, today it is also possible to simulate dynamic pressure changes (i.e. with space and time). This can be helpful when designing facilities for demilitarisation purposes to minimize the risk of human injuries. The paper presents simulations of pressure propagation from detonating PBXN-5 under different conditions.

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EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF EXPLOSIVE SPECIALISTS

D. Loyd Linköpings Universitet, Linköping,

S. Sjökvist, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, Linköping,

H. Wallin Nammo Vingåkersverken AB, Vingåker, Sweden

ABSTRACT

Life-long maintaining and development of competence is necessary in all industrial sectors and especially in the explosives industry. There are three large problems concerning education of experts in the Swedish explosives industry: the small industrial sector, the cost and the complex problem area. It is necessary to organize a new type of education for the explosives industry.

The traditional type of education is, with very few exceptions, impossible to use. There are many reasons for this statement and the main reason is the cost. Another reason is the size and the organisation of the Swedish explosives industry. The number of employees is today approximately 2500 including the administration and the service sector. There are also many small companies and some of these companies are very small. A combination of the traditional education and a new internet-based education seems to be the only realistic alternative now and in the future.

Future society will be very dependent on highly sustainable environmental standards, where recycling and reuse of all type of available resources is fundamental. This will create a need for new education and curricula in order to meet the request. European transnational cooperation - in research and education - between universities is the fundament and key for building a sustainable future for the world.

The Bologna Process will completely change the university education system in Sweden as well as in the rest of Europe. The new system will be introduced in Sweden and in most European countries in a few years. This opens a possibility to design an international education of experts in the explosives industry.

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WORKPLACE-BASED QUALIFIED VOCATIONAL TRAINING AND EDUCATION

H. Randle Working Life Science, Karlstad University, SE-651 88 Karlstad, Sweden

G. Spak Learning Centre Masugnen, SE-711 31 Lindesberg, Sweden

ABSTRACT

This paper will present how a community learning centre, “Masugnen”, in the middle of Sweden is developing new methods for workplace learning for the explosives sector, which fit the requirements from both employers and students. The basis for learning is the workplace, where learning is based on practice. The learning arena is situated in a real-work situation where problem solving and learning from peers is part of the learning process. The vocational training is supported by theoretical education organised and facilitated by staff from a learning centre. All learning is based on individual needs and documented in individual study plans. Emphasis is put on developing a favourable learning environment where the participants have access to support systems for learning such as a technical infrastructure for learning, personal coaching, study plans, mentoring programmes, trained facilitators in the workplace, study colleagues and peers.

This paper will present how qualified vocational training and education can play an important role in developing arenas for lifelong learning. Workplace learning can develop opportunities for individual development, develop company competitiveness, reduce risk of competence drain when employees retire and promote recruitment of younger employees. The paper is based on experiences from a European project – EUExcert, which has the ambition to develop a European system for qualifications for the Explosives sector.

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EUEXCERT – CERTIFYING EXPERTISE IN THE EUROPEAN EXPLOSIVES SECTOR

E. Nilsson & H. Wallin

KCEM, Gammelbackavägen 6, SE-691 51 Karlskoga, Sweden

ABSTRACT An understanding of explosives science and technology, and the competence to harness it, is central to maintaining explosives capability, national security, and sustaining a competitive industry. A consequence of losing this competence is the increased likelihood of explosives accidents. These are often catastrophic as demonstrated by accidents in Nigeria, Russia, Toulouse and Enschede. In addition to the loss of life, there was the very significant damage to homes, domestic and industrial infrastructure and to the environment at a cost of many millions of euros.

There is a perception and some evidence that, in Europe, competence in this key technological area is being eroded. In several European nations, a high proportion of the most experienced and knowledgeable personnel are retiring or nearing retirement. Urgent efforts are therefore underway in some European nations to replenish this expertise.

In 2003, KCEM started a European project with partners from Finland, Italy, Norway and United Kingdom to tackle this problem. The project is partly financed by the Leonardo da Vinci programme. The aim of this pilot project is to establish a training and education programme aimed at restoring and maintaining the competence of workers engaged in the explosives industry. The programme places increased emphasis on improving the quality of the educational material and in improving access to training through use of workplace and e-learning. Improvement in competence and skills will enhance the status of explosives workers, improve worker and public safety and improve European industrial competitiveness through greater worker mobility and the ability to react rapidly to a fast changing economic and industrial environment.

This paper will describe the project, the outcomes of the project and coming activities. More information about the project can be found on the project’s website, www.euexcert.org.

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MODIFICATION OF THE APPROACH TO HAZARD ASSESSMENT FOR ENERGETIC MATERIALS AFTER 5 YEARS OF PRACTICE OF

THE EU DIRECTIVE 96/82/CE “SEVESO II”

R.Folchi, L. Ferraglio & M. Battocchio NITREX, Via Verona, 4, 25019 Sirmione, Italy

ABSTRACT

The European Directive 96/82/EC, “Seveso II”, required companies to quantify the impact caused by a major accident. However, due to new knowledge about dangerous substances and because of severe accidents involving dangerous products (Baia Mare, Romania and Donana, Estonia), it was felt necessary to improve the Seveso II legislation.

Through the Directive, 2003/105/EC, more detailed plans were introduced as well as information needed to assess the potential damage caused by major accidents involving explosives. In fact, the new directive proposes a drastic reduction of the quantities of dangerous substances allowed, new and more detailed information both on the structure and on the surrounding areas and more specific and focused controls by competent authorities.

In this article, algorithms and procedures are given to asses danger, risk and total impact after 5 years of practice and confrontation with fire departments and local environmental authorities. The procedure is presented through the following categories:

1. Environmental analysis 2. Human resources 3. Dangerous products (both present in the structure or originated by the

transformation/modification of the dangerous substances) 4. Activities, infrastructures, plants and instruments 5. Safety and security 6. Consequences of the accident (overpressure waves, primary fragmentation, seismic

waves, dangerous gasses, thermal radiations, iso-damage areas) 7. Environmental damage (combustion, explosion, dispersion) 8. Analysis of the surrounding environment 9. Territorial compatibility of the deposit 10. Precaution to prevent accidents (both on a project and organisation level) 11. Critical situations, emergencies 12. Containment systems 13. Insurance

Furthermore, practical cases are discussed.

47

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by w

ay o

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49

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50

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tion

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es e

tc

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ironm

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catio

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form

atio

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orc

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51

1969

The

Env

ironm

enta

l Pro

tect

ion

Act

.

1972

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Pub

lic C

lean

sing

Act

. Res

pons

abili

ty b

y th

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wfo

r Lo

cal A

utho

ritie

s/M

unci

palit

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to c

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reat

and

land

fill M

unic

ipal

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for t

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etal

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lati

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1)

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Text Box

52

1999

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e E

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with

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ndan

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inan

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.

2000

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x on

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d w

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.

2001

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ith re

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on

land

fillin

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2002

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cine

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lati

on S

weden (

2)

petbe

Text Box

53

2005

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an o

n la

ndfil

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of o

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aste

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wed

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ronm

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f la

ndfil

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te to

be

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ith 1

994.

2006

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lati

on S

weden (

3)

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Text Box

54

2009

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2010

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iona

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lati

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weden (

4)

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55

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56

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61

Each

ton

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62

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1995

1999

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2001

2002

2003

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64

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66

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67

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68

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000

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000

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spap

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box

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000

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ardo

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incl

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69

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70

Tota

l ann

ual i

ncin

erat

ion

of 4

00 0

00 to

nsw

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, with

an

ener

gy p

rodu

ctio

n of

:

• 1 0

00 0

00 M

Wh

of

heat

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00 M

Wh

of

ele

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resp

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to 4

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istri

cthe

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mun

icip

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trici

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nd h

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petbe

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71

0

100

200

300

400

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1112131415161718191

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of 4

00 0

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ns o

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ear

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Text Box

72

The

Sys

av W

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nerg

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2006

2008

petbe

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73

SYSA

V

0

100

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251

261

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281

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301

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MW

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of 5

50 0

00 to

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0 G

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of e

lect

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sou

rces

petbe

Text Box

74

Was

te to

hea

t and

pow

er

petbe

Text Box

75

The

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petbe

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76

JÖN

KÖ

PIN

G E

NER

GI

PR

ES

EN

TS

A N

EW

EN

ER

GY

SO

UR

CE

Hea

t an

d po

wer

in

Was

te-to-

Ene

rgy

Pla

nt T

orsv

ik

The

roa

d to

the

pla

nt h

as b

een

quit

elo

ng a

nd w

indi

ng. F

or a

long

tim

e,di

ffer

ent

stra

tegi

es h

ave

been

stu

died

to k

eep

dist

rict

hea

ting

del

iver

ies

com

peti

tive

and

rel

iabl

e. A

t th

e sa

me

tim

e, n

atio

nal a

nd E

urop

ean

was

teha

ndlin

g st

rate

gies

are

cha

ngin

g.R

ecyc

ling

of m

ater

ials

and

ene

rgy

is

pref

erre

d to

was

te d

epos

its.

The

mun

icip

alit

y of

Jön

köpi

ng s

olve

s tw

opr

oble

ms

– w

aste

bec

omes

an

ener

gyre

sour

ce.

Huge b

uild

ing p

roje

ctT

he p

roce

ss f

rom

dec

isio

n to

env

i-ro

nmen

tal p

erm

it a

lmos

t to

ok u

sth

ree

year

s. I

n A

pril

2004

, whe

n w

ere

ceiv

ed t

he f

inal

dec

isio

n, t

he g

roun

dw

orks

had

alr

eady

sta

rted

. In

two

year

s ti

me,

thi

s hu

ge c

onst

ruct

ion

proj

ect

is t

o be

com

plet

ed a

nd t

heco

mpl

ex t

echn

olog

y pu

t in

to o

pera

-ti

on.

Was

te r

educe

s oil

use

Was

te-t

o-E

nerg

y P

lant

Tor

svik

will

be o

ur n

ew b

ase

in d

istr

ict

heat

ing

prod

ucti

on. T

he e

xist

ing

Mun

ksjö

heat

and

pow

er p

lant

will

sti

ll be

an

impo

rtan

t pa

rt o

f th

e sy

stem

. Man

yof

the

sm

alle

r, oi

l-fu

elle

d un

its

will

turn

into

bac

k-up

uni

ts, t

houg

h.T

hus,

our

dep

ende

ncy

on o

il as

a f

uel

will

be

sign

ific

antl

y re

duce

d, a

nd s

ow

ill t

he g

reen

hous

e ga

s em

issi

ons.

Ele

ctri

city

genera

tion

Was

te-t

o-E

nerg

y P

lant

Tor

svik

will

also

be

an im

port

ant

elec

tric

ity

supp

-lie

r. In

a la

rger

per

spec

tive

, thi

s re

du-

ces

the

Swed

ish

impo

rt o

f fo

ssil

pow

er.

In J

une

2006,

the

new

hea

t an

d po

wer

pla

nt w

ill b

e pu

t in

to o

pera

tion

. The

ene

rgy

prod

uced

cor

re-

spon

ds t

o he

at a

nd p

ower

for

abo

ut 1

5 0

00 s

mal

l ho

uses

. Thi

s is

a n

ew loc

al e

nerg

y so

urce

– o

urpr

oduc

tion

sys

tem

is

rene

wed

thr

ough

was

te r

ecov

ery.

12

34

12

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ble

20

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77

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2-1968 Folder Torsvik Eng Vers 04-08-31 16.04 Sida 3

petbe

Text Box

78


DISPOSAL OF MELANJ OXIDIZER IN AZERBAIJAN: NAMSA ACHIEVEMENTS

F. Peugeot, R. Pettit & B. Tudes NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency, L-8302 Capellen, Grand.Duchy of Luxembourg

ABSTRACT

Melanj is the generic name used in countries of the Former Soviet Union (FSU) and Warsaw Pact for a series of nitric acid based oxidizers commonly used in liquid fuelled anti-aircraft and tactical missile rocket motors. It is primarily a mix of concentrated nitric acid containing dissolved nitrogen oxides. Small concentrations of fluoride ions or iodine atoms, normally in the form of hydrogen fluoride or iodine, are added to inhibit the reaction of the acid on the steel and aluminum storage containers. The withdrawal of Soviet Forces coupled with the limited need for operational ground to air missiles resulted in little or no maintenance being undertaken. The storage tanks were left to deteriorate.

It is estimated that 100 000 tonnes of Melanj remain in countries of the FSU and former Warsaw Pact, 1 200 tonnes of it being in Azerbaijan. Most of it is held in steel or aluminum bulk storage containers, all of which are more than 15 years old, and some considerably older. Most of the tanks have deteriorated as the inhibitors have been exhausted, resulting in leaks into the ground and the escape of nitrous oxide fumes into the air. The high risk of leaks represents a serious threat to the environment and public health.

With the NATO Programme for Security through Science as financial support and the NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency (NAMSA) as the project's executing agency, a mobile melange treatment plant has been developed as a Science for Peace project and installed in Azerbaijan to begin neutralising the melange stored in the country. Since 04 July 2006, official inauguration of the plant, more than 5 tonnes of melange have been converted every day into a non-hazardous, low-grade fertiliser material using an environmentally-safe chemical process complying to the Rotterdam and Stockholm Hazardous Chemicals and Wastes Conventions, and the European Directives on Hazardous Waste Management.

The Azeri government is participating in the project, which is implemented under Azerbaijan’s Individual Partnership Action Plan, by supplying the necessary infrastructure, consumables and logistic support.

NATO’s ultimate goal is to demonstrate the effectiveness of this conversion technology in order to assist also other Partner countries in melange disposal projects.

This unique capability will be reviewed.

79


DISPOSAL OF SURPLUS MUNITION STOCKPILES IN UKRAINE: NAMSA ACHIEVEMENTS AND PERSPECTIVES

F. Peugeot , S. Brown & P. Courtney-Green

NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency, L-8302 Capellen, Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg

As a legacy of the Cold War, Ukraine holds more than seven million surplus small arms and light weapons and more than two million tons of excess munitions.

The presence of such huge stockpiles is dangerous and represents a direct threat to the safety of the population of Ukraine as well as a potential security threat to the region. Three ammunition depots in Ukraine have suffered devastating explosions in the last few years and the situation will worsen as the stockpiles age and degrade.

A 12-year NATO Partnership for Peace (PfP) project has been established at the request of Ukraine. This project was led for the first 3-years by the United States with funding from 12 other NATO Member and Partner Nations (Austria, Bulgaria, Canada, Germany, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Slovakia, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom) and the European Union aims at the safe destruction of 1000 MANPADS, 1.5 million small arms and light weapons and 133,000 tons of munitions.

The first nine months achievements of the project will be reviewed with a special emphasis on the MANPADS destruction.

81


THE CHARACTERISATION OF RDX RECOVERED FROM BAR MINES

A.J. Busby & P.Q. Flower QinetiQ, MoD Fort Halstead, Sevenoaks, Kent, TN14 7BP, United Kingdom

The recycling of explosives is currently of interest to researchers as it offers potential economic and environmental benefits. If the recovered material is to be reused, its chemical and hazard properties must be fully understood. To this end, RDX was successfully separated from an RDX/TNT/wax composition, which had been recovered from a bar mine. Two different methods of separation were employed: a conventional Soxhlet-type solvent extraction using a chlorinated organic solvent to effect the separation, and an extraction using supercritical CO2 as a “green” solvent. The resulting RDX was analysed using both tests specified in DEFSTAN 07-23/1 and other, more modern analytical techniques. Small-scale EMTAP hazard tests were also performed. Conclusions are drawn, both concerning the relevance of the DEFSTAN and of possible concerns to be addressed when contemplating reuse of recovered explosives.

83


SIMULTANEOUS DESORPTION OF EXPLOSIVES AND LEAD FROM CONTAMINATED SOIL: BENCH-SCALE

SOIL WASHING AND BIOREMEDIATION

K. Elgh-Dalgren & P. van Hees MTM Research Center, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden.

ABSTRACT

Explosives, such as TNT, 2,4-DNT, RDX and HMX, and heavy metals, such as lead (Pb), are often found on old military sites. The simultaneous presence of both organic and inorganic pollutants, so called mixed contaminants, causes great problems for the remediation process since the different contaminants possess diverse chemical properties.

This survey aims to find new approaches to the remediation of mixed contaminants, whereby the desorption patterns of both organic and inorganic contaminants are studied simultaneously. Simulated soil washing and bench-scale bioremediation are the central constituents of the project. Soil washing is a technique where size separation, thereby minimizing the amount of soil needing further treatment, and mechanical washing, sometimes with the addition of specific washing solutions, are combined to fractionate and wash soil-particle surfaces. Bioremediation, utilizing microorganisms to degrade organic contaminants in the soil, is a technology which is both cost-efficient and easy to use.

Two different soils, containing high levels of explosives and lead, were collected at the open destruction area at Bofors Test Center (BTC). Following primary classification, the soils were washed in a simulated soil-washing process. To enhance the washing, pH-adjustment was used. Additionally, the effect of three different bioremediation technologies was evaluated in bench-scale surveys.

While both an increase and a decrease in pH had an effect on the explosives,. there was a larger effect from a pH-increase. During the pH 12 washing, OH- ions were consumed, indicated through a decrease in solution pH, at the same time as the solution was colored red, which may imply the degradation of TNT.

Results from the bioremediation study indicate that this technique can be applicable on explosives-contaminated soil. The concentration of explosives decreased in all three studied applications of bioremediation. Further on, the microorganisms seemed to affect the binding of lead to the soils.

85


CHANGE OF TOXICITY DURING SECONDARY TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL SLUDGE CONTAINING NITROAROMATICS

Lillemor Gustavsson

MTM Research Center, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden

ABSTRACT Those operating Sweden’s wastewater treatment plants are facing a great challenge due to the prohibition on landfilling organic waste from January 2005. Biological, commercially available alternatives for disposal are composting and anaerobic digestion. Additionally, a growing technique for wastewater and sludge treatment is the use of constructed wetlands.

We have looked at the sludge from a wastewater treatment plant receiving wastewater from industries manufacturing pharmaceutical substances, chemical intermediates and explosives. The wastewater and sludge contained high concentrations of nitro-aromatic compounds and amino-aromatic compounds and several studies have reported the alteration of nitroaromatics to more potent cytotoxic and genotoxic compounds after degradation.

The aim of this study was to follow the change in toxicity (both general and mechanism-specific) of three different sludge treatment methods: aerobic composting, anaerobic digestion and constructed wetland. We used DR-Calux assay to detect the persistent lipophilic compounds causing dioxin-like activity, the umu-C assay to detect genotoxicity and the fish egg assay to detect embryotoxicty.

The results showed that anaerobic treatment is the least suitable for these sludges, showing high induction in all toxicity tests compared to the aerobic treatment. The anaerobic treatment also transformed the nitroaromatic compounds to more lipophilic and persistent forms.

The constructed wetland left a non-toxic effluent and a bed material with lower toxicity than expected considering the concentrations and loading period.

87


DETECTION, UNCOVERING, RECOVERY, TRANSPORTATION AND DESTRUCTION OF OLD CHEMICAL WEAPONS DISCOVERED

IN THE SEA KANDA, JAPAN

R. Kitamura and J. K. Asahina Kobe Steel, Ltd., 2-7, 4-chome, Iwayanakamachi, Nada-ku, Kobe, 657-0845 JAPAN

ABSTRACT

Chemical weapons from World War II were found on the sea bottom in the Port of Kanda, in Kyushu, the western part of Japan in 2000. Most of these explosives are 15 kg Red bombs, which contain the chemical DC/DA (Clark I/II) and a mixture of TNT and naphthalene as buster. A few of the explosives are 50 kg Yellow bombs containing a mixture of mustard (HD) and Lewisite (L) as chemical agent and picric acid as burster. Some of these bombs are found on the surface of the sea floor but many of them are found in the thick layer of the bottom mud. The Government of Japan decided to recover and destroy these chemical bombs and hence the Kanda Port Project started.

Kobe Steel, Ltd., which was awarded the project in 2003, has previous experience with chemical weapons destruction from the Lake Kussharo Project (26 50 kg Yellow bombs) and the Samukawa Project (about 800 glass bottles filled with chemical agents and more than 8,000 m3 of soil contaminated by chemical agents) and has developed a chemical weapons destruction system utilizing controlled detonation technology, called DAVINCHTM. This hass been applied to the Kanda Weapon Destruction Facility (KWDF).

Beside the destruction technology, many new technologies were developed and employed for the special case of under water recovery of the chemical bombs from the sea. Such technologies include a high precision magnetometer detection technology to detect and locate the chemical bombs, an anti-chemical diving system for divers who uncover the bombs in the bottom mud, a submerged X-ray system to determine whether a bomb is fused or not before lifting the bombs from the sea bottom and double walled containers to keep the bombs

89

pressurized as on the sea bottom to avoid the leakage of the chemicals. The operation of KWDF has been carried out in operation Phases I, II and III in 2004,

2005 and 2006, respectively and more than 1,000 chemical bombs have been recovered and destroyed successfully.

These technologies and the record of the operation are to be reported in this presentation.

90

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