PERSPECTIVE Francisco Jos�e de Caldas and the earlydevelopment of plant geographyCarlos E. Gonz�alez-Orozco1*, Malte C. Ebach2 and Regina Varona3
1Institute for Applied Ecology and
Collaborative Research Network for Murray-
Darling Basin Futures, University of
Canberra, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia,2School of Biological, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, UNSW, Kensington,
NSW 2052, Australia, 3Fundacion “Amigos
del Sabio Francisco Jos�e de Caldas”, Popay�an,
Cauca, Colombia
*Correspondence: Carlos E. Gonz�alez-Orozco,Institute for Applied Ecology and Collaborative
Research Network for Murray-Darling Basin
Futures, University of Canberra, ACT 2601,
Australia.
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Between 1801 and 1810, the Colombian cartographer, astronomer and botanist
Francisco Jos�e de Caldas (1768–1816) produced a series of maps showing phy-
togeographical regions of taxon distributions drawn in three-dimensions across
landscapes in the Andean region of present-day Ecuador. However, until the
late 1990s, his phytogeographical maps remained unpublished and his methods
largely unknown. To create his maps, Caldas generated three-dimensional
topographic profiles showing the elevation, maximum and minimum limits of
distribution for single species and taxon regions delimited according to lati-
tude, illustrating the geographical extent of each phytogeographical region.
Here, we provide evidence to argue that Caldas’ scientific work is important
for understanding the development of plant geography in late 18th century
Latin America.
Keywords
bioregionalization, Colombia, Ecuador, Francisco Jos�e de Caldas, history of
biogeography, phytogeography, plants, Popay�an, Quito, von Humboldt
INTRODUCTION
The history of plant geography, or phytogeography, is well
understood by many scientists (Nelson, 1978; Browne, 1983;
Camerini, 1993; Ebach & Goujet, 2006; Ebach, 2015). How-
ever, the contribution of scientists living in Spanish colonies
such as New Granada in the late 18th century are poorly
understood (Appel, 1994). Nieto Olarte (2006) published re-
discovered phytogeographical maps developed in the early
1800s by an unknown Colombian cartographer, Francisco
Jos�e de Caldas (1768–1816) (Fig. 1). Until Nieto Olarte’s
book was made public, no other publication had illustrated
the full extent of Caldas’ phytogeographical maps. Here, we
discuss a previously unknown historical perspective to
demonstrate that during the late 18th and early 19th cen-
turies, Caldas developed a systematic method for drawing
three-dimensional phytogeographical maps independent of
European naturalists. We highlight the scientific contribution
that Caldas’ phytogeographical maps made to biogeography.
While Caldas’ cartographical work is well illustrated in
Nieto Olarte’s (2006) book, it fails to highlight the impor-
tance of Caldas’ work in relation to his European counter-
parts. Caldas’ maps differed from the work of European
naturalists, such as Jean-Louis Giraud Soulavie, Alexander
von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland, in a number of ways.
Caldas applied a systematic approach to draw, characterize
and define plant regions accurately across the Andean regions
of Ecuador based on taxon distributions. The maps of plant
regions published by Nieto Olarte show a detailed topograph-
ical contour of the Andes in a three-dimensional view. For
example, Caldas mapped individual species which, when
combined in a latitudinal gradient, showed the complete phy-
togeographical regions of Cocos butyracca and Cinchona dis-
similiflora across coastal and Andean areas of Ecuador (see
Appendix S1 in Supporting Information). Unlike the two-di-
mensional profiles of mountains depicted by Giraud Soulavie
in 1783 (Bourguet, 2002) and von Humboldt & Bonpland
(1805), Caldas’ more sophisticated three-dimensional maps
depict whole mountain ranges and show the location of spe-
cies in relation to the surrounding geography.
CALDAS’ EARLY LIFE
Caldas was born in 1768 in Popay�an (Fern�andez-P�erez,
1955), a province in the Spanish colony of New Granada
(present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Panama).
As a young man, Caldas had a keen interest in physics and
mathematics. However, at his father’s insistence, he studied
law at the Colegio Mayor del Rosario in the capital Santaf�e
de Bogot�a. In 1784, Caldas fell ill soon after finishing his
ª 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd http://wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jbi 1doi:10.1111/jbi.12586
Journal of Biogeography (J. Biogeogr.) (2015)
university studies, and he returned home to Popay�an. Once
his health was restored, he began to work as a merchant (Jar-
amillo Gonz�alez, 2010). During 1795, Caldas travelled to the
east of Popay�an across the central mountain range, trading
fabric in the towns between Popay�an, Timan�a and La Plata
(Appel, 1994). It was during these trips that Caldas devel-
oped an interest in plant geography, which extended to
understanding and mapping the complex topography and
plant distribution. One year before Caldas first encountered
the European naturalist Alexander von Humboldt, he
reflected on the geography of the plants that he had observed
during a trip to the Coconucos volcano located near
Popay�an:
In 1800, during my field trips to the Coconucos volcano, a
mountain at a high elevation and permanently covered with
snow, I began my botanical collections and my first observations
about the geography of the plants. This trip, dictated by my love
for these topics, resulted in a discovery. I found, after testing
many times, a method to measure the mountains using the tem-
perature at which water boils.
(Caldas, 1 July 1809, p. 214; Academia Colombiana de Ciencias,
1978; quote translated from Spanish to English by C.E.G-O. and
M.C.E.)
Unfortunately, it appears that there is no documentation
of his first observations from these earlier trips. His earliest
documented maps date back to 1802, when he produced
phytogeographical maps of the Ecuadorean Andes depicting
precise plant distributions.
THE ROYAL BOTANICAL EXPEDITION AND
PHYTOGEOGRAPHY
Caldas first personally met von Humboldt on 31 December
1801 in Ibarra, Ecuador (Jaramillo Gonz�alez, 2010). von
Humboldt invited Caldas to spend a few days in Hacienda
‘El Chillo’, where von Humboldt and Bonpland were staying
during their time in Quito, Ecuador. It was on that visit that
Caldas learnt about Linnaeus’ classification and plant geogra-
phic theory from von Humboldt. Caldas applied this knowl-
edge in his work documenting aspects of plant taxonomy
(Fig. 2a) on expeditions in Ecuador. In a letter to his friend
Santiago Arroyo, he wrote that soon after meeting von Hum-
boldt, he invited Caldas to join him on a trip to Peru. To
Caldas’ great disappointment, von Humboldt withdrew his
offer because of pressure from the Marques de Selva Alegre
to take his son Carlos Montufar on the expedition (Appel,
1994, p. 147). However, in 1802, Caldas was presented with
an opportunity to participate in the Royal Botanical Expedi-
tion of New Granada led by the Spanish botanist Jos�e Celes-
tino Mutis (Diaz-Piedrahita, 1984). This expedition gave
Caldas the chance to work with a well-known botanist who
had connections with important European naturalists, such
as Linnaeus, and royalty, such as King Charles III of Spain.
The objective of the expedition was to catalogue the flora of
New Granada, in particular to document the geographical
distribution and taxonomy of Cinchona species (commonly
known as quinine) in Ecuador (Fig. 2b) because these species
had an important medicinal use in preventing malaria. Cal-
das discovered that the natural distribution of Cinchona spe-
cies was mainly between 1000 and 3000 m a.s.l., which he
would later represent in his three-dimensional phytogeo-
graphical maps. Caldas collected extensive botanical and geo-
graphical data on Cinchona species, which he reported in a
letter to Mutis:
The biological and geographical data I collected during my field
trips between 1802 and 1805 were five to six thousand botanical
vouchers stored in a herbarium, two volumes of botanical
descriptions, and numerous handmade sketches of the most rele-
vant plants. I made the sketches myself because the expedition
did not pay for a painter to illustrate the plants. I collected min-
erals, as well as seeds and the bark of cultivated plants. All this
information will allow me to develop a geographical atlas of the
Viceroyalty, including a series of botanical and zoogeographical
monographs. I also created profiles of the Andes, including the
elevation of the most prominent Andean peaks, covering a dis-
tance of more than 9 degrees latitude. I recorded more than
1,500 elevation records for towns and mountains around the
region, as well as their barometric pressure. I collected numerous
data on meteorology and astronomy, which were used to write
two volumes of various observations and calculations. I even
sampled some specimens of mammals and birds. I presented this
Figure 1 Portrait of Francisco Jos�e de Caldas (1768–1816): thefather of plant geography in Latin America. The portrait was
painted by Antoine Maurin (1793–1860) and published in the
journal Semanario de la Nueva Granada: miscel�anea de ciencias,literatura, artes e industrias. Printed by Armand Godar (publication
date unknown; in Museo Nacional de Colombia, 2002).
Journal of Biogeographyª 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
2
C. E. Gonz�alez-Orozco et al.
information in 16 letters to Mutis, but unfortunately, he did not
respond as positively as I had expected.
(Caldas, 1808, p. 351; Academia Colombiana de Ciencias, 1978;
quote translated from Spanish to English by C.E.G-O. and
M.C.E.)
Caldas’ studies of the geography of the Cinchona species
provided him with the opportunity to further develop and
apply his knowledge of phytogeography and plant distribu-
tion mapping. It was indeed a valuable experience for Caldas,
and he believed that this early work would make a significant
contribution to plant geography, as stated in a letter to
Mutis:
I started my Ecuador field trip in July 1802. I left Quito and
travelled to Ibarra and Otavalo. I explored both areas and made
a number of cartographic and astronomical maps whilst there. I
also went to the Cotacache, Mojanda and Imbabura volcanoes
and measured their elevation. I descended to the mouth of the
Imbabura volcano and collected samples of its numerous plants.
I described the taxonomy of each plant specimen and illustrated
each one in drawings. Here was where I believe I began to collect
the information necessary to fulfil my greatest work, which I will
title ‘Plant Geography of the Santaf�e Viceroyalty’. This was chal-
lenging work that required experience in different fields, such as
geography, astronomy and, more importantly, the science of
barometric measurements. That is why it is important to master
the barometer, because my questions and perhaps my discoveries
depend on it. It is the reason why I carried it with me every-
where I went and used it to record each place where the plants
grow. . .
. . .If I get the support and the time necessary to finish my work,
my nation will see a botanical atlas of New Granada with profiles
of the Andes from 40 degrees of austral latitude to 91/2 degrees
of boreal latitude showing the location and elevation where each
plant grows, descriptions of the climate they need, and the most
suitable conditions. Neither Mutis nor anyone else can deny that
my way of looking at vegetation was not conceived in Europe
where they do not deviate from common knowledge.
(Caldas, 1808, pp. 345–346; Academia Colombiana de Ciencias,
1978; quote translated from Spanish to English by C.E.G-O. and
M.C.E.)
PROFILES AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHICAL MAPS
Caldas created a complete profile map of the Imbabura vol-
cano and the surrounding mountains in 1802 (Fig. 3). In
one single map, Caldas was able to represent the distribution
(a) (b)
Figure 2 Unpublished samples of Caldas’ scientific work. (a) A sketch of a botanical collection (no. 39; Asteraceae) by Caldas, probably
collected on his field trips to the Imbabura volcano, Ecuador in 1802. (b) Original hand-written description of his economic botanywork on the medicinal properties and human uses of four species of Cinchona (C. longifolia, C. oblongifolia, C. coxoifolia and
C. ovalifolia) in Ecuador. Each column represents a Cinchona species, its medicinal use and morphological features. Images publishedwith permission of Jose Bolivar Mosquera, Popay�an.
Journal of Biogeographyª 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3
Origins of plant geography
of 30 native plant species on the western slopes of the Imba-
bura volcano. For this purpose, Caldas drew a profile of the
volcano and each of the surrounding mountains, which
included the elevation, atmospheric pressure and location of
taxa. Each profile map also included the location of the taxa
represented in the map with a collection number that
referred to a botanical voucher stored in a herbarium and a
sketch of the plants. Caldas employed his knowledge of
astronomy and climatology to estimate the elevation at
which each plant grew. He developed a method to calculate
the elevation of mountains by measuring the temperature of
boiling water (Pombo et al., 1958; Appel, 1994). Caldas
noted his discovery in his diary in 1801, referring to it as the
‘Caldas hypsometric thermometer’ (Arias de Greiff, 1996;
Jaramillo Gonz�alez, 2010). Caldas was isolated from the
European naturalists and hence had no support from any
scientific community, except for Mutis’s botanical expedition
collaboration. Despite this, Caldas’ hypsometric thermometer
is considered a significant contribution to science, made by a
scientist in isolation and for which he is most widely known
(see appendix A in Appel, 1994). In a letter to King Charles
III of Spain, who had funded the expedition, Caldas
described his discovery:
In 1799 and the early 1800s, I tested the temperature at which
water boils at different elevations. I collected barometric and
temperature variations at different elevations while climbing the
Andean mountains around Popay�an. I came to the conclusion
that the elevation of the mountains can be measured using the
thermometer in the same way as a barometer is used.
(Caldas, 30 September 1808, p 347; Academia Colombiana de
Ciencias, 1978; quote translated from Spanish to English by
C.E.G-O. and M.C.E.)
Once individual profile maps were completed (Fig. 3),
Caldas combined them into a single regional three-
dimensional map (Fig. 4a) and phyto-regions (Fig. 4b),
giving the observer a sense of space and the geographical
location of the objects in the landscape. Caldas’ collections
of the Cinchona species and other native flora in the entire
Andean region of Ecuador were documented in a full series
of phytogeographical maps (Appendix S1). Caldas’ phytogeo-
graphical maps are possibly the first attempt to develop an
elegant and systematic approach to mapping plant distribu-
tions across regions and elevational gradients using detailed
cartography in a multi-dimensional space. In a letter to King
Charles III of Spain, Caldas described his three-dimensional
maps:
I mapped the geographical location of towns, villages, mountains
and rivers that can be found in the middle of the exuberant veg-
etation of the colony. I did not conform by just locating the spa-
tial distribution of plants, which is a major aim in my project. I
managed to make cross sections of the Andean mountains from
4°300 austral to 40°300 boreal latitude. The profiles are projected
east–west with a blue background simulating the sky. The profiles
allow us to see the peak shapes, volcanoes, villages, major towns,
valleys and the plant distribution with the corresponding eleva-
tion where they are located. Just by looking at the profiles, it is
also possible to identify the latitude of each locality. I also
mapped the maximum and minimum elevation limit for each
plant, the region, the width of the region and the middle point
in respect to the vegetation type. There are 18 sheets with moun-
tain profiles that I mapped using astronomical, geographic and
barometric measurements. Each profile has a particular topogra-
phy that represents parts of the Andes, when put together they
roughly illustrate the cartography of the equatorial Andes.
(Caldas, 1809, pp. 219–220; Academia Colombiana de Ciencias,
1978; quote translated from Spanish to English by C.E.G-O. and
M.C.E.)
The complete phytogeographical work consisted of 18
regional profile maps, of which, unfortunately, only nine
were fully completed (Appendix S1). Caldas wrote to King
Charles III of Spain in one of his letters:
As I already mentioned to you, the profiles of the Andes cover
4°300 austral to 40°300 boreal latitude. These profiles are really
important and provide the foundations of phytogeography,
which ceased because of our beloved Director’s [Mutis] death.
This work deserves your Excellency’s order that it be concluded.
The development of these profiles was stopped due to Mutis’s
sudden death. There are 18 profiles that make up this regional
Figure 3 Caldas’ first profile map made in1802. The Imbabura volcano in Ecuador,
showing the spatial location of 30 nativeplant species and their elevation. (Published
in 1804 by Francisco Jos�e de Caldas;Biblioteca Ecuatoriana Aurelio Espinosa
P€olit; in Gonz�alez Su�arez, 1907.)
Journal of Biogeographyª 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
4
C. E. Gonz�alez-Orozco et al.
map of which only 9 have been completed and it would be pain-
ful to abandon this work at this stage.
(Caldas, 1804, pp. 227–228; Academia Colombiana de Ciencias,
1978; quote translated from Spanish to English by C.E.G-O. and
M.C.E.)
RELEVANCE TO BIOGEOGRAPHY
While Caldas is most known for his discovery of the hypso-
metric thermometer, his work on phytogeography is
undoubtedly his greatest intellectual contribution (Diaz-Pie-
drahita, 1992; Appel, 1994). It was not until 2006, when
Nieto Olarte first published Caldas’ cartographical work that
greater attention was given to his studies of phytogeography.
Caldas’ method was unique because his maps provided
greater visual detail and technical sophistication than other
maps drawn at that time. He achieved this despite his lim-
ited resources compared to those of his European peers.
Much of Caldas’ phytogeography was influenced by von
Humboldt (Nicolson, 1987). However, Caldas’ ideas on plant
geography were different from those of von Humboldt. Caldas
was most interested in researching the use of plants (i.e. medi-
cine, agriculture), identifying the optimal environmental con-
ditions for crops to grow (Diaz-Piedrahita, 1997) and
mapping local plant regions. von Humboldt, on the other
hand, was more interested in documenting the natural history
and ecological aspects of the organisms in ecosystems. Such
fundamental differences led both men to generate methods to
create maps that, whilst complementary, are best suited to
their particular purposes. Specifically, von Humboldt’s maps
contained multiple layers of geographical information describ-
ing broad plant assemblages (Nicolson, 1996). His maps cov-
ered entire biomes and vegetation types based on large and
extensive collections of data, but as a result, they lacked detail
about individual species. Caldas’ maps covered relatively small
areas of the Andes and focused on individual plant distribu-
tions and their relationship with topographic features across
landscapes.
Consequently, Caldas’ phytogeographical method is simpler
than von Humboldt’s and uses smaller data sets (i.e. location,
elevation and species name). Caldas explained to King Charles
III of Spain some of his principles of plant geography:
The plants that we cultivate, that serve us in the arts and that
cure us, are those that deserve our attention. Humboldt is lim-
ited to elevation, whereas we establish the precise limits to deter-
mine the location of each species below the equator; we even
dare to establish the latitude as far as it extends, and as it were,
determine the location of all the plants in the tropics that we
have studied. We define principles and general laws about the
(a)
(b)
Figure 4 Examples of Caldas’phytogeographical work in Ecuador (maps
completed between 1801 and 1810). (a)Topographical map of one of the regions
between Loja and Quito (ArchivoCartogr�afico y de Estudios Geogr�aficos delCentro Geogr�afico del Ejercito, Ministeriode Defensa, Madrid, Espa~na -SGE-,
Cartograf�ıa Iberoamericana, Serie 2, Lamina4; Code: X.SG-a-11; in Nieto Olarte, 2006).
(b) Phytogeographical map of regionnumber 7. This phytogeographical map of
region number 7 shows the Chimborazovolcano on the top right, the names and
descriptions of the phytogeographicalregions, the dominant taxonomic group (i.e.
cultivated or native plants), elevation,latitude and three taxon regions described at
the bottom of the map: Spondias region (ingreen), Cinchona dissimiflora region (in red)
and Cocos butyracca region (in blue). Today,
Cinchona dissimiflora is known asFernandusia dissimiliflora, and Cocos
butyracea is known as Attalea butyraceae.(Archivo Cartogr�afico y de Estudios
Geogr�aficos del Centro Geogr�afico delEj�ercito, Ministerio de Defensa, Madrid,
Espa~na -SGE-, Lamina 7. Cartograf�ıaIberoamericana, Code: X.SG-a-11. Latitude:
1°–1°300; in Nieto Olarte, 2006).
Journal of Biogeographyª 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
5
Origins of plant geography
geography of the vegetation, and we believe we have made a con-
tribution to this science, which, as confessed by Humboldt, is in
its infancy.
(Caldas, 30 September 1808, p. 385; Academia Colombiana de
Ciencias, 1978; quote translated from Spanish to English by
C.E.G-O. and M.C.E.)
In Europe, von Humboldt’s work in ecological biogeogra-
phy and de Candolle’s in historical biogeography established
new scientific frontiers in their own right. von Humboldt
published his essay on the geography of plants (von Hum-
boldt & Bonpland, 1805), focusing on the geophysical fac-
tors, vegetation types, plant forms, animals, geology and
(a)
(b)
Figure 5 The European maps most similar to Caldas’ phytogeographical work. (a) von Humboldt’s Tableau Physique showing a cross
section of Mount Chimborazo and Mount Cotopaxi in the Andes (von Humboldt & Bonpland, 1805). (b) Vertical cross–section of theVivaroises Mountains and its respective limits of plants by Giraud Soulavie (1783; in Bourguet, 2002).
Journal of Biogeographyª 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
6
C. E. Gonz�alez-Orozco et al.
climate (Fig. 5a). At the same time, Candolle (in de Lamarck
& de Candolle, 1805) published the first biogeographical
map of the French flora (Ebach & Goujet, 2006). The French
naturalist Jean-Louis Giraud Soulavie (Bourguet, 2002) also
developed profiles of plant distributions (Fig. 5b), but they
did not provide the same level of geographical detail as those
depicted by Caldas. Caldas’ approach involved mapping
phyto-regions as taxic distributions unlike the plant assem-
blages that were mapped by von Humboldt or the vertical
climate profiles mapped by Soulavie (Bourguet, 2002). Cal-
das, therefore, introduced a specific method with a strong
cartographic perspective to map individual species, for exam-
ple, the species found in the Chimborazo volcano region.
The combination of aesthetics and geographical accuracy of
the taxon regions across latitudinal gradients also differenti-
ated Caldas’ work. Another unique element of Caldas’ plant
geography was the grid sketched on top of the topographical
profiles and regions of taxon distribution showing the precise
location of single species in a region (see map of Cinchona
officinalis; Nieto Olarte, 2006, p. 71, fig. 3.9). This concept of
gridded maps is used in today’s digital mapping.
Caldas’ maps provided a high level of spatial detail utiliz-
ing botanical collections at the species level to infer phyto-
geographical regions. The fact that Caldas focused on local
in situ collections of individual plants allowed him to map
species distributions in detail. If Caldas’ maps had not been
lost and had been published once they were completed in
the late 18th century, they could have provided a wealth of
insight and knowledge to the further development of plant
geography.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Julia de Raadt, Anthony C. Gill and Peter Unmack
for their constructive comments on an earlier draft of the
manuscript. This paper is dedicated in memory of the
Colombian historian and botanist Santiago D�ıaz-Piedrahita,
who extensively documented Caldas’ life and work.
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Additional Supporting Information may be found in the
online version of this article:
Appendix S1 Caldas’ phytogeographical maps, Quito to
Loja, Ecuador.
BIOSKETCHES
Carlos E. Gonz�alez-Orozco is a research fellow at the
Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra (Aus-
tralia) and is interested in biogeography, evolution, phyloge-
netics, conservation, agronomical ecology, climate change
and the history of science. His research aims to explain the
relationship between evolutionary processes, environment,
agriculture, biodiversity and human populations.
Ebach Malte is a senior lecturer at the University of New
South Wales UNSW (Australia) who is working in a research
program on Australasian biogeography and natural classifica-
tion.
Regina Varona is a lawyer based in Popay�an (Colombia)
who takes a keen interest in documenting Caldas’ life and
work. She is currently the director of the Fundaci�on Amigos
del S�abio Caldas ‘FUNDACALDAS’.
Editor: Hans-Peter Comes
Journal of Biogeographyª 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
8
C. E. Gonz�alez-Orozco et al.