Frank de Langen - Business Cases in an Electronic Environment

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Business cases in an electronic environment: Lessons for e-education?

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Business cases in an electronic environmentLessons for e-education?

Abstract

In this paper a review is given of business cases as they are found in the literature. In the

introduction a business case or business model is defined as the way an organization earns itsmoney. Whether this is possible for e-commerce or even preferable for educational

institutions is shortly discussed. A taxonomy of possible business models, based on

Rappa(2006) is given. However, as shown, a large variety of models is possible. The four-

stages analyses of Rayport and Jaworski (2004) provides a tool which can be used to

determine the best business model given the consumers and resources of the organization. The

paper ends with an application of this model in the case of semi-commercial usage of

educational materials.

Frank de Langen

Open University of the Netherlands/Digital University

[email protected]

November 2006


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Content

Introduction 3

Business models on the internet 4

Choosing a business model 8

Business models, new or old? 12

Education and the business model: an application 12

Concluding remarks 14

Literature 15


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Introduction

This paper gives an overview of business cases for e-commerce as found in the literature. A

business case or business model is defined by Rappa (2006) as the method of doing businessby which a company can sustain itself that is, generate revenue. [..] how a company makes

money by specifying where it is positioned in the value chain .1

There is a disagreement if the internet will lead to new business models or if its the old

models in a new environment (see Bambury(1998) versus Rappa(2006)).

Yet another problem is stated by Bambury(1998) that: In the midst of the current hype about

e-commerce, most users of the Internet are not engaged in actual spending money but rather

securing free products or in obtaining some product or service by barter. However, Novak

en Hoffman(2001) declare Contrary to common wisdom, there is such a thing as a profitable

Web venture.

As the origin of this study lies in the search for a viable business model for a number of

educational products within the domain of management sciences (BEO), this paragraph is

concluded with some observations with respect to the funding of (public) education.

There are two ways to analyse the effects of education. Firstly, there is the approach of

growth theory. Education is seen as an investment in human capital, or (to put it differently)

in increasing the productivity of labour. These kinds of investments have positive external

effects. One characteristic of goods with external effects is that the level of investment on an

individual level will be too low for from the view of collective welfare. The advice of public

choice theory is for the government to either by spending or by legal measurements furtherinvestments in education.

Empirically, several studies found a strong positive correlation between the average level of

education and economic growth and social welfare (see Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995)).

The second approach is based on the traditional microeconomic cost-benefit analyses.

Empirical studies showed a positive correlation between every additional year individual and

the level of income (see Webbink(2006)). So people investing in education will earn back

there initial outlays as their income increases. This leads to the conclusion that individuals are

responsible for their own education. The government is, in this view, at most responsible for a

basic education (say up to 16/18 year), whereas further education should be paid for by those

people who will earn back their investment in later years.

Both views are supported by empirical studies. Which approach increases social welfare the

most is an undecided matter.

In practice, a mixed approach can be seen. The government finances the initial investment, for

example in Open Educational Resources, because it is accepted that this investment is beyond

the financial force of the individual institutions. The exploitation and actualisation has to be

financed by some kind of business model, accepting the view that users of the system benefit

from this usage and should bear the costs.

1For a short discussion on the definitions of business models and a historical overview see:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_model#Articles_on_business_models.


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Rappa(2006) gives a taxonomy of business models observed on the internet. This taxonomy is

discussed in the next paragraph. After the inventarisation of models, Rayport and Jaworski

(2004) are followed in their question: What are the characteristics of a good business

model? Their analyse aims at profit driven firms, but gives some insights which can be used

by other institutions.

Business models on the internet

There are several ways to arrange the actual firms operating on the internet in different

business models. So states Bambury(1998) that business models fall into two broad

categories. These are Transplanted real-world Business Models (business activities which

occur naturally in the real-world and have been transplanted onto the Internet) and Native

Internet Business Models (business activities which have evolved in the Internet environment

and are native to it). In his view, the main difference between true internet models and the

transplanted models is that the native economy of the Internet is not based on scarcity but on

abundance. There is an abundance of information and anyone can trade in it. Clearly the

scarcity-based capitalist system that dominates the real-world economy is quite different from

the native Internet economy. Examples of the native models are:

The library model; The freeware model; The information barter model; Digital products and

the digital delivery model; The access provision model; Web site hosting and other Internet

services.

Table one gives a more extensive taxonomy, as used by Rappa (2006).

Type ofModel: Description:

Brokerage

Model

Brokers are market-makers: they bring buyers and sellers together and

facilitate transactions. Brokers play a frequent role in business-to-business

(B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C), or consumer-to-consumer (C2C)

markets. Usually a broker charges a fee or commission for each transaction

it enables. The formula for fees can vary.

Brokerage models include:

Marketplace Exchange -- offers a full range of services covering the

transaction process, from market assessment to negotiation and fulfillment.Exchanges operate independently or are backed by an industry consortium.[Orbitz, ChemConnect]Buy/Sell Fulfillment -- takes customer orders to buy or sell a product or

service, including terms like price and delivery. [CarsDirect, Respond.com]

Demand Collection System -- the patented "name-your-price" model

pioneered by Priceline.com. Prospective buyer makes a final (binding) bid

for a specified good or service, and the broker arranges fulfillment.[Priceline.com]Auction Broker -- conducts auctions for sellers (individuals or merchants).

Broker charges the seller a listing fee and commission scaled with the value

of the transaction. Auctions vary widely in terms of the offering andbidding rules. [eBay]


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Transaction Broker -- provides a third-party payment mechanism for buyers

and sellers to settle a transaction. [PayPal, Escrow.com]

Distributor -- is a catalog operation that connects a large number of product

manufacturers with volume and retail buyers. Broker facilitates business

transactions between franchised distributors and their trading partners.

Search Agent -- a software agent or "robot" used to search-out the price andavailability for a good or service specified by the buyer, or to locate hard to

find information.

Virtual Marketplace -- or virtual mall, a hosting service for online

merchants that charges setup, monthly listing, and/or transaction fees. May

also provide automated transaction and relationship marketing services.[zShops and Merchant Services at Amazon.com]

Advertising

Model

The web advertising model is an extension of the traditional media

broadcast model. The broadcaster, in this case, a web site, provides content

(usually, but not necessarily, for free) and services (like email, IM, blogs)

mixed with advertising messages in the form of banner ads. The banner adsmay be the major or sole source of revenue for the broadcaster. The

broadcaster may be a content creator or a distributor of content created

elsewhere. The advertising model works best when the volume of viewer

traffic is large or highly specialized.

Portal -- usually a search engine that may include varied content or

services. A high volume of user traffic makes advertising profitable and

permits further diversification of site services. A personalized portal allows

customization of the interface and content to the user. A niche portal

cultivates a well-defined user demographic. [Yahoo!]

Classifieds -- list items for sale or wanted for purchase. Listing fees arecommon, but there also may be a membership fee. [Monster.com, Craigslist,Match.com]User Registration -- content-based sites that are free to access but require

users to register and provide demographic data. Registration allows inter-

session tracking of user surfing habits and thereby generates data of

potential value in targeted advertising campaigns. [NYTimes Digital]

Query-based Paid Placement -- sells favorable link positioning (i.e.,

sponsored links) or advertising keyed to particular search terms in a user

query, such as Overture's trademark "pay-for-performance" model. [Google,Overture]

Contextual Advertising / Behavioral Marketing -- freeware developers whobundle adware with their product. For example, a browser extension that

automates authentication and form fill-ins, also delivers advertising links or

pop-ups as the user surfs the web. Contextual advertisers can sell targeted

advertising based on an individual user's surfing activity. [Claria]

Content-Targeted Advertising -- pioneered by Google, it extends the

precision of search advertising to the rest of the web. Google identifies the

meaning of a web page and then automatically delivers relevant ads when a

user visits that page. [Google]

Intromercials -- animated full-screen ads placed at the entry of a site before

a user reaches the intended content. [CBS MarketWatch]

Ultramercials -- interactive online ads that require the user to respondintermittently in order to wade through the message before reaching the


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intended content. [Salon in cooperation with Mercedes-Benz]

Infomediary

Model

Data about consumers and their consumption habits are valuable, especially

when that information is carefully analyzed and used to target marketing

campaigns. Independently collected data about producers and their products

are useful to consumers when considering a purchase. Some firms functionas infomediaries (information intermediaries) assisting buyers and/or sellers

understand a given market.

Advertising Networks -- feed banner ads to a network of member sites,

thereby enabling advertisers to deploy large marketing campaigns. Ad

networks collect data about web users that can be used to analyze

marketing effectiveness. [DoubleClick]

Audience Measurement Services -- online audience market research

agencies. [Nielsen//Netratings]

Incentive Marketing -- customer loyalty program that provides incentives to

customers such as redeemable points or coupons for making purchasesfrom associated retailers. Data collected about users is sold for targeted

advertising. [Coolsavings]

Metamediary -- facilitates transactions between buyer and sellers by

providing comprehensive information and ancillary services, without being

involved in the actual exchange of goods or services between the parties.

Merchant

Model

Wholesalers and retailers of goods and services. Sales may be made based

on list prices or through auction.

Virtual Merchant --or e-tailer, is a retail merchant that operates solely over

the web. [Amazon.com]Catalog Merchant -- mail-order business with a web-based catalog.

Combines mail, telephone and online ordering. [Lands' End]

Click and Mortar -- traditional brick-and-mortar retail establishment with

web storefront. [Barnes & Noble]

Bit Vendor -- a merchant that deals strictly in digital products and services

and, in its purest form, conducts both sales and distribution over the web.[Apple iTunes Music Store]

Manufacturer

(Direct)

Model

The manufacturer or "direct model", it is predicated on the power of the

web to allow a manufacturer (i.e., a company that creates a product or

service) to reach buyers directly and thereby compress the distribution

channel. The manufacturer model can be based on efficiency, improved

customer service, and a better understanding of customer preferences.

Purchase -- the sale of a product in which the right of ownership is

transferred to the buyer.

Lease -- in exchange for a rental fee, the buyer receives the right to use the

product under a terms of use agreement. The product is returned to the

seller upon expiration or default of the lease agreement. One type of

agreement may include a right of purchase upon expiration of the lease.

License -- the sale of a product that involves only the transfer of usage

rights to the buyer, in accordance with a terms of use agreement.Ownership rights remain with the manufacturer (e.g., with software


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licensing).

Brand Integrated Content -- in contrast to the sponsored-content approach

(i.e., the advertising model), brand-integrated content is created by the

manufacturer itself for the sole basis of product placement. [bmwfilms].

AffiliateModel

In contrast to the generalized portal, which seeks to drive a high volume oftraffic to one site, the affiliate model, provides purchase opportunities

wherever people may be surfing. It does this by offering financial

incentives (in the form of a percentage of revenue) to affiliated partner

sites. The affiliates provide purchase-point click-through to the merchant. It

is a pay-for-performance model -- if an affiliate does not generate sales, it

represents no cost to the merchant. The affiliate model is inherently well-

suited to the web, which explains its popularity.

Variations include, banner exchange, pay-per-click, and revenue sharing

programs. [Barnes & Noble, Amazon.com]

Banner Exchange -- trades banner placement among a network of affiliatedsites.

Pay-per-click -- site that pays affiliates for a user click-through.

Revenue Sharing -- offers a percent-of-sale commission based on a user

click-through in which the user subsequently purchases a product.

Community

Model

The viability of the community model is based on user loyalty. Users have

a high investment in both time and emotion. Revenue can be based on the

sale of ancillary products and services or voluntary contributions; or

revenue may be tied to contextual advertising and subscriptions for

premium services. The Internet is inherently suited to community business

models and today this is one of the more fertile areas of development, asseen in rise of social networking.

Open Source -- software developed collaboratively by a global community

of programmers who share code openly. Instead of licensing code for a fee,

open source relies on revenue generated from related services like systems

integration, product support, tutorials and user documentation. [Red Hat]

Open Content -- openly accessible content developed collaboratively by a

global community of contributors who work voluntarily. [Wikipedia]

Public Broadcasting -- user-supported model used by not-for-profit radio

and television broadcasting extended to the web. A community of users

support the site through voluntary donations. [The Classical Station (WCPE.org)]Social Networking Services -- sites that provide individuals with the ability

to connect to other individuals along a defined common interest

(professional, hobby, romance). Social networking services can provide

opportunities for contextual advertising and subscriptions for premium

services. [Flickr, Friendster, Orkut]

Subscription

Model

Users are charged a periodic -- daily, monthly or annual -- fee to subscribe

to a service. It is not uncommon for sites to combine free content with

"premium" (i.e., subscriber- or member-only) content. Subscription fees are

incurred irrespective of actual usage rates. Subscription and advertising

models are frequently combined.


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There are a lot of possible business models and variations, as can been seen in Rappas

taxonomy. Which one should be applied in which situation?

Following Rayport and Jaworski (2004), a firm has to specify its business model by making

choices. An online business model requires four choices on the part of senior management.

These include the specification of (1) a value proposition or value cluster for targetedcustomers; (2) an online offering (which could be product, service, information or all three);

(3) a unique defendable resource system; and (4) a revenue model.

(1) The value proposition or value cluster

The value proposition consists of the target segment of consumers, the consumer benefits and

the key resource with which the firm supplies the key benefit. Specific for online firms is the

possibility to customize their capabilities and so supply a variety of benefits. Therefore, online

firms have to consider value clusters: target customer segmentation, a focal combination of

customers benefits, and most important the reason why the firm can deliver the consumer

benefits better than competitors.

So each online company should answer three questions:

a. Segmentation: Which consumers or consumer groups are targeted?b. Benefit choice: Which is the value the consumers are after?c. Resource choice: What are the specific capabilities of the firm which makes it better

fit to provide this consumer value than its competitors?

Or as Novak and Hoffman (2001) describe this: Customer centricity is maximizing the

understanding of our customers within a time frame and a context short of long duration

to achieve business objectives and maximize customer value.

From the examples provided by Evans and Wurster (2000) two conclusions can be drawn.

Firstly, not all goods will be purchased through the internet. Fresh vegetables and high

fashion seem to be goods which consumers like to see and touch, whereas second hand high

fashion and even boats will be bought electronically. Secondly, there is a cultural and

geographical difference between countries. In countries with a tradition of post order

shopping, or in large countries, online shopping was faster accepted than in small, shop-

orientated, countries. People are used to buying goods without touching and are more

familiar with guarantees and methods of payment.

(2) The online offering

To determine the actual product, management has to make three decisions:a. The scope of the offeringb. Define the consumer decision processc. Map the offering to the consumer decision process

The scope of the offering can be either very broad, a category specific (flowers) offering, or a

specific niche orientated offering. A development within the online business is the movement

of firms from a specific orientation towards a broader supply. For example, Amazone has

extended its offering from books towards CDs and electronic appliances, socalled cross-

overs (Rayport and Jaworski (2004), 117).


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The last two factors describe how the firm can enter the decision process of the consumer, so

the offering of the firm is taken into account, hopefully leading to an actual purchase (for

details, see Rayport and Jaworski (2004, 119-122).

(3) The resource system

The resource system determines how the firm selects and aligns its resources to deliver thebenefits to the value proposition or cluster. According to Rayport and Jaworski (2004, 122), a

firms success does depend largely on: the choice of actions and assets that are used to

deliver the value proposition. These actions include the selection of resources that uniquely

deliver the value proposition.

Besides the determination of the resources necessary for the delivery of the benefits (which

Rayport and Jaworski (2004) describe by a four stepsmodel) the quality of the resources is of

equal importance to distinguish itself from the competitors.

(4) The revenue model

Given the offering in line with consumers demand and the resources to satisfy this demand,the next question is : what their consumers are willing to pay for and how much they are

willing to pay? (Rayport and Jaworski (2004, 128)).

The revenue model can include advertising, sales of products, information, transactions,

subscriptions or licenses.

Rayport and Jaworski (2004) distinguish a number of business models, ranging from the

traditional Porter-like lowest price and highest quality models. Specific network models can

be (eq. Porters niche model) aimed at customization, speed of information or metamarket

models. These models do overlap with Rappas taxanomy.

Table two gives Rayport and Jaworskis combination of the four decisions to be made, in

combination with the different actual business models they distinguished.

By answering the key questions from the four levels of decision, the table aids a firm to

choose a business model. However, Rayport and Jaworski (2004) see the decision process as

linear, as depicted in figure one.

It is, however, very well conceivable that by inspection of the potential revenue model a new

segmentation of the value cluster becomes possible. For example, a service which initially

was thought to be paid for per unit could also be provided based on a subscription model. Thesubscribers have other needs than the piecewise costumers, resulting in a new segmentation

based on the same online offering and resource system. Of course, some adjustments upward

will cause the resource system to shift, depending on the interdependency between customers,

customers needs and the revenue model.

Secondly, Novak en Hoffman (2001) state that successful internet organizations can be

characterized by three factors: value for the customer, value to the firm(as in Rayport and

Jaworski (2004)), but also by business model integration (..)The integration of business

models involves combining customer models, value models, and revenue models. Since each

different type of customer model (segmentation) can support a variety of revenue and

customer value models, it is possible to develop multiple streams within each of these models we call this business model integration. Integration is a key factor to success and


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includes multiple value models, multiple revenue opportunities, along with built-in

mechanisms for directing traffic to the site and keeping it coming back again and again.

Figure 1: The determination of the business model

Scource: Rayport and Jaworski (2004), p. 111

Table 2: The four decision model and the business models.

Source: Rayport and Jaworski (2004), p. 132


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Business models, new or old?

The business model focuses on the microeconomic consumer, who makes a decision based on

a cost-benefit analyze. Actual demand are needs, which benefits exceed costs. The supply

ranges from one product for all (no segmentation) to tailor-made goods designed for one

specific customer (perfect segmentation). By segmentation of supply producers try either toattract more customers or realize a higher price level for their product. Because, the business

model is the practical translation of the microeconomic producers model: determine income

by determining demand, determine costs of producing for this demand, and if the cost-benefit

analyze is positive, then supply the goods or services.

Are new business models necessary because of the possibilities of the internet? The answer is

yes and no. No because, as shown above, the segmentation of Porter is still true. Firms

compete either by through their price (minimizing costs for the consumer), through quality

(raising the perceived benefits) or by becoming a niche-player (identifying of and supplying

for a specific need). However, because of the characteristics of the internet and the increasing

technical possibilities, segmentation because increasingly important and it can be stated that

we are all niche-players now. In this sense, electronic possibilities influence the business

model and require organizations to fine tune their supply to the segmented demand, but also

open new opportunities as advertising, direct sale (for producers) and raising earnings through

open auctions.

Education and the business model: an application

Accepting the assumption that educational services have to realize (at least partly) their own

income, it will become increasingly important to identify the needs of their customers, theiroffering, their resources and the accompanying revenue model.

Most electronically educational systems are database orientated. This has the advantage that

the same database can be reused for different segmentations. Assuming a crude segmentation

of educational demand:

- General educational demand (primary education)- Recreational demand (languages, cultural studies)- Career related demand (business studies, ict)

Segmentation is not only about identifying the different interest groups, but also has

implications for the way the material is described by the meta data (what is of interest forwhich group), the didactical choices and has organizational implications.

A simple example is a database with courseware about insects. Using the potential of the

specific program, it is possible to use this course in a linear way: text, questions and feedback.

But is also possible to design a task oriented course: tasks (adjusted questions) and feedback,

with the texts as secondary material. Lastly, the data can be browsed using the database as an

encyclopedia. Although these are not the most advanced functions, at the present state of

technology, the authors had to think thoroughly about the future users of the system as each

new group of users required additional investments in the rearrangement of the basic

materials.


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It becomes more complex when, for example, a department which teaches French as a foreign

language has to earn part of its income. They already have a set of customers, the general

educational demand. The business model based on the regular students is the subscription

model: they pay an annual fee for their study. This is based in the fact that they aim for a

grade, often requiring a longer study.

The value cluster. The department could expand its focus by taking into account the

recreational demand. It has to define the needs of these customers (short courses, aimed at the

expressions necessary for tourists in France), the competitors (commercial schools) and

decide on the market segment they want to explore (compete on price, quality (academic

reputation) or some niche (the cultural experience). Then there is the business segment of

the market. This includes both formal usage of the language (juridical documents) and

negotiations in French.

The online offering. Secondly, the department has to consider what they will offer to the

different segmentations. Should the focus be on writing and reading, or should there also be

vocal instructions? Would this include online-video? Which crossovers are possible, based onthe existing courseware and how much will it cost to adapt the existing materials to the needs

of the other consumer groups?

Another factor the department has to consider is that (given different price settings) the

offerings have to be so different that hopping between segments is not profitable.

The resource system. The resources necessary to deliver the promised value by realizing the

online offering are not only captured in the teaching capabilities of the department, but also in

the competence to design a system which can discriminate between the three groups of

customers. The different groups will have different preferences with respect to the educational

system. Lastly, the organization of which the department is part has to have an administration

which can handle different kind of customers, different kind of prices and different kind of

diplomas and degrees. The revenue system will fail to deliver when the organization can only

handle the regular student.

The revenue model. The last questions to answer is what exactly is it that the students want to

pay for, how much are they prepared to pay and which business model is the most appropriate

model for this kind of services? The willingness to pay, depending on the value offered,

determines the profitability of the supply and so the possibilities to adjust resources. It is only

when the revenues cover the costs that it is worthwhile to expand the educational services.

So, when the educational institution starts with a new educational product (greenfield-

approach), its important to define all relevant students (customers) from the start. The

second step is to design the educational material in such a way that it can be used for more

segments, without raising the cost of the exploitation of the material above the estimated

earnings. Thirdly, it has to set up a structure which can handle the intake, the process and the

conclusion of the education. Lastly, it has to choice a revenue model, which fits both

customers and the organization, taking in account the potential competitors.

When an institution decides to reuse existing educational materials for a broader group of

customers, covering more segments, it has to define the crossovers. Of course, this also starts

with the identification of the potential customers and competitors. The cost-benefit analysis inthis case includes the costs of rearranging of the existing materials (with a new description of


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the metadata). Also, the organization should take into account the potential internal

competition: students shifting from high-price education towards low-price education.

Secondly, the new segments should fit within the existing accounting system and lastly, the

revenue model for the different segments of students has to corroborate the different identified

needs

Concluding, the different models for e-business can be used by educational organizations and

projects which have to generate earnings to cover their costs. The emphasis on the customer

does not only show in the actual selling conditions, but also has implications for the design of

the educational materials (because of the importance of the crossovers) and the existing

organization.

Without a good coordination between those three factors, the commercial exploitation of

educational materials will not have the required effects; or stated otherwise, the additional

activities of the educational institution will only enlarge its financial burden!

Concluding remarks

Firstly, the question can be asked why e-education should go beyond the traditional business

models. The traditional business model is based on the insight that governments should

finance education when social effects exceed than costs. Education can be funded privately

when expected individual benefits exceed individual costs. Seemingly, in the past years, an

ideologically and politically shift occurred, which causes a shift in the division between

privately and publicly funded education.

Business models, for physical or electronic trade, concentrate on the consumer. Importantquestions asked are:

1. What can we offer to which group of customers?2. Why should anyone pay us for this offer3. How can we organize both the production process and the logistics to realise the offer

and the revenue.

A major difference between physical and electronic trade lies in the possibilities for

segmentation and combination of customers groups.

The same basic materials can be used to back different forms of supply. However, each

additional business offer adds to the costs, so should be submitted to a cost-benefit decision.

To support this approach, an overview of possible choices and outcomes were given, usingthe four-step model of Rayport and Jaworski (2004).

Setting the consumer central coincides with the new didactical approach on demand-

orientated education. In this sense, the application of business models to education enforces

the tendency towards more personalized teachings. A major differences between the

didactical approach and business models is that the last have to take into account the

willingness of the consumer to pay for the product and the ability to organise the revenue

model.

Internet and electronic innovations enlarge the possibilities of educational institutes to find

additional sources of income, but the organisation of this requires an explicit usage of e-business models.


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Literature

Bambury, P.A taxomomy of Internet Commerce, 1998,

www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue3_10/bambury/index.html

Barro, R. and X. Sala-i-Martin,Economic growth, McGraw Hill, 1995

Bramlett, K., The proven Internet business models,www.4hb.com/0503wwgproveninternetmod.html

Evans, PH. And Th. Wuster,Blown to bits, how the new economics of information transform

strategy, 2000

Novak, Th. en D. Hoffman, Profitability on the Web: Business models an revenue streams,

elab Position Paper, 2001

Rappa, M., Business models on the web, http://digitalenterprise.org/models/models.html, 03-

05-2006

Rayport, J. and B. Jaworski,Introduction to e-commerce, 2004

Tiggelaar, B.,Internet Strategie, 2001

Webbink, D., Returns to university education, evidence from an institutional reform,

discussion paper 34, Central Planbureau of the Netherlands, 2006

Davis, M and J. Heineke,Managing services: using technology to create value, 2003

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Frank de Langen - Business Cases in an Electronic Environment

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