Freedom of Expressing One's Ideas (2011)

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The Freedom of Expressing Ones

IdeasLieve Jooken

a& Guy Rooryck

a

aUniversity College Ghent, Belgium

Published online: 21 Feb 2014.

To cite this article:Lieve Jooken & Guy Rooryck (2011) The Freedom of Expressing Ones Ideas,

The Translator, 17:2, 233-254, DOI: 10.1080/13556509.2011.10799488

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ISSN 1355-6509 St Jerome Publishing Manchester

The Translator. Volume 17, Number 2 (2011), 233-54 ISBN 978-1-905763-27-6 ISBN 978-1-905763-27-6

The Freedom of Expressing Ones IdeasTranslating La Mettrie

LIEVE JOOKEN & GUY ROORYCKUniversity College Ghent, Belgium

Abstract: This paper discusses the English translation of one of

the Enlightenments main works of materialist philosophy, Julien

Offray de La Mettries Lhomme machine (1747). Radicalizing the

mechanical metaphor that Descartes had applied to animals, La

Mettries work states that the human body and the human soul areinstances of the same substance. This early emancipatory expres-

sion in favour of a scientific study of the human being took issue

with the contemporary theological doxa, revealing the changes

and mutations that were taking place in the field of knowledge. The

English translation, Man a Machine, appeared in 1749. Drawing

on the Bourdieuan concepts of field and habitus and the opposition

between ethos and doxa (Maingueneau 2002), this article con-

textualizes the subversive impact of the original text and offers an

analysis of its paratexts, including the reception of the translationin the British periodical press. This is followed by an examination

of the translators textual interventions to reveal how the translation

either makes the materialist claims of the original more explicit or

polarizes its assumed communicative purpose vis--vis the doxa.

While Lhomme machine could only communicate its dissent in

elusive terms, the translation highlights the polemical character

of the text and communicates its radical ideas more forcefully to a

nation that was considered the most liberal of its time.

Keywords: Materialism, Eighteenth-century Philosophy, La Mettrie,Lhommemachine, Pierre Bourdieu, Grard Genette, paratexts, explicitation.

In his most famous work,Lhomme machine(1747), the French philosopherLa Mettrie1applies to the human constitution the mechanical metaphor

1 Julien Offray de La Mettrie was born at Saint-Malo in 1709. After studying medicine inParis and Reims, he went on to study at Leiden under the renowned botanist and physician

Herman Boerhaave, whose work he would later translate into French. He took up medicalpractice in the Saint-Malo region and later at Paris, and was also appointed physician tothe French army. His publications, both philosophical and medical, brought immediatereprisals from the orthodox-minded (Vartanian 1960:5). This forced him into exile at thecourt of Frederick II in Berlin, where La Mettrie continued to publish polemical works

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The Freedom of Expressing Ones Ideas234

that Descartes had reserved for animals. His treatise develops the audaciousmaterialist hypothesis that human beings intellectual powers result from thefunctioning of their organic faculties. La Mettries medical training and experi-ence as a physician had convinced him that psychic phenomena were directlyrelated to organic changes in the brain.Lhomme machines main dictum there-foreposits that body and soul are instances of one and the same substance, thesoul being but a modality of matter. Wellman, who thoroughly reassessed therole that La Mettrie played in the Enlightenment integration of medicine and

philosophy, concludes that he was avant-garde in his recognition of the rolephysiology would play in the social sciences (1992:284; see also Gougeaud-Arnaudeau 2008, Thomson 2008). This paper will first trace the impact of LaMettries ideas in their original French context, before exploring whether theEnglish translation,Man a Machine, published as soon as a year after the ori-ginal text, reproduces or possibly reinforces the radical materialist stance.

Contemporary attitudes to knowledge in the West commonly demarcatereligious questions from scientific preoccupations. Stephen Jay Gouldsacronym NOMA, or Non Overlapping Magisteria (Gould 1999), gives con-densed expression to this postulate. A biologist, Gould however contests thewidespread view of an alleged conflict between religion and reason, which heconsiders a phony war of dichotomies (2003:85) invented in the 19th century.

Nevertheless, theology did for many centuries assume control of scientific ex-ploration. When applied to the expression of new scientific ideas, this controlcan be defined as authority [that] comes to language from outside (Bourdieu1991:109). As a result, burgeoning scientific discourse in Catholic countries,

particularly in France, was targeted by vigilant censure, closely monitoringwhether the discourse respected the habitus2of a class that held the keys toknowledge conforming to the Auctoritas of the Church.

When Anselm of Canterbury observed non quaero intelligere ut credam,sed credo ut intelligam (I do not seek to understand in order to believe, butI believe so that I may understand) in his Proslogion(1078), he poignantly

summed up the temporarily peaceful rapport to which the West confined anyintellectual endeavour for a long period in its history. The rationalism of theAncients, rediscovered gradually from the end of the 11th century, was thusintegrated into the habitusof religious thought.

The balance of power between the religious and the scientific field of in-quiry would only slowly be adjusted, moving through stages of Humanism,Rationalism and Enlightenment. Science would subject faith to increasinglycritical questioning. In a convulsive attempt before the final rupture, a genera-

until his premature death from food poisoning in 1751. For a detailed bio-bibliographicaloverview, see Christensen (1996), Leme (1954), Thomson (in La Mettrie 1996), Vartanian(1960) and Wellmann (1992).2See, for example, Bourdieu (1990:54): The habitus, a product of history, produces indi-vidual and collective practices more history in accordance with the schemes generatedby history. Amossy (2006) develops a similar concept.. Amossy (2006) develops a similar concept.

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Lieve Jooken and Guy Rooryck 235

tion of scholars would try to demonstrate that the two perspectives showedperfect overlap rather than antagonism. Malebranche, for example, still de-fended a universal reason not distinct from God himself inDe la recherche dela vrit(In Search of Truth, 1678). Samuel Clarke, the disciple and translatorof Newton, tried to adduce rational arguments for the existence of God in A

Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God (1704). With even greaterresonance Leibniz developed his thesis of the best of all possible worlds intheEssais de Thodice (Theodicy, 1710), its preface being explicitly entitled

Discours de conformit de la foi avec la raison (Preliminary Discourse onthe Conformity of Faith and Reason). In choosing this title, Leibniz engagedin a polemic with the French Protestant Pierre Bayle, who had ironicallyobserved that a theology which develops rational arguments distances itselffrom the initial mystery of faith in Commentaire philosophique sur ces parolesde Jsus-Christ: Contrains-les dentrer (A Philosophical Commentary onthese Words of Jesus-Christ: Compel them to Come In, 1686).

The pioneering French advocate of the new science, Ren Descartes, hadstill carefully construed an ethos complying with the collective Christiandoxa, which in France remained part and parcel of royal power and the es-tablished order.3His philosophical position aimed at avoiding overt conflict.Ultimately, the Discours de la mthode (Discourse on the Method, 1637)would be published anonymously at Leiden, with the entire sixth part of thework justifying the discourse in retrospect and staging a speaker anxious to

pursue his own ideas while at the same time submitting to the guardians ofdominant thought. The labour of enunciation (Bourdieu 1991:129) seeksthe approval of a doxawhich is nonetheless flawed by the discourse itself,conscious as it is of its own heresy.

When La Mettrie poses as a materialist a century after Descartes, heinstantly enters a debate that necessarily regards his theses as sacrilege. Theenunciation developed inLhomme machineis as ambivalent as that of Des-cartes, yet it distances itself very explicitly from the theological doxa, affirming

that it does not affect our peace of mind whether matter is eternal or wascreated and whether there is or is not a God (La Mettrie 1996:23).

1. Lhomme machineand its controversial succs de scandale

The opening lines ofLhomme machine define the expressive act of the textas a courageous and risky undertaking (La Mettrie 1996:3):

3The terms ethosand doxashould be understood in the sense attributed to them by theo-

ries of discourse analysis.Ethosimplies the self-representation of the speaker in terms ofbeing a character of his or her own discourse. Doxa can be defined as the set of rules andnorms established by the socio-historical context in which the text is set. See, for example,Maingueneau (1990, 2002), Amossy (2006) and Bourdieu (1998), who defines the doxaof a field as the point of view of the dominant, which presents and imposes itself as athe point of view of the dominant, which presents and imposes itself as auniversal point of view (ibid.:57).

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for a wise man, it is not enough to study nature and the truth; he mustdare to proclaim it for the benefit of the small number of those whoare willing and able to think.

La Mettrie intends to speak as a sage, as a physician who is obliged to ob-serve Nature, but he knows that his discourse will not be received as suchand that it will violate the established order. This awareness of transgressionleaves argumentative traces within the core of the text proper, but also in the

paratexts that encompass the work and stage what Darnton (1991) has calledits dition andsdition.

The controversy around La Mettrie had erupted a few years earlier. His firstphilosophical treatise,Histoire naturelle de lme(The Natural History of the

Soul, 1745), conflating body and mind, was condemned by the Court of theParlementof Paris, because in its view the text undermined the foundationsof all religion and virtue (Corpus1987:131-33; our translation). La Mettriefled France to find refuge at Leiden, where he met the liberal Protestant ElieLuzac (1721-1796), a young publisher known for disseminating novel En-lightenment ideas. This descendant of an migrHuguenot family4published

Lhomme machineanonymously in 1747 (1748 being the official date on thetitle page). Yet even in Leiden, in the reputedly free country that was the DutchRepublic, censure struck hard. Both the consistoireof the glise Wallonne

and the States of Holland intervened. Luzacs advertisement to introduce thepublication had caused a considerable scandal (Luzac 2003:16). In response,the printer eventually issued two anonymous treatises to defend his actions:the first a refutation of La Mettries materialism, published anonymously un-der the titleLhomme plus que machine(ManMore than a Machine, 1748),the second anEssai sur la libert de produire ses sentiments (An Essay on

Freedom of Expression, 1749). La Mettrie meanwhile was obliged to flee toBerlin, where he firmly established his reputation as Europes most notori-ous atheist (Israel 2006:800). At the time, Berlin was known as the European

capital where authors were free to think and write what they wanted. FrederickII, himself a reputed atheist, was known to welcome to his court scholars and

philosophers who were persecuted elsewhere (Badinter 2002:15).ThetitleLhomme machine, a seditious change from an earlier less con-

spicuous version entitled Essais sur lhomme, was bound to create a stir,explicitly invoking as it did the authority of Descartes.La Mettrie adopts the

4The French Huguenots who went into exile after the 1685 revocation of the Edict of

Nantes, commonly referred to as le Refuge, especially those working in the Dutch Republic,played a pivotal role in the propagation of new ideas. Thinkers like Bayle and Jurieu, butalso translators, publishers and librarians, many of them polyglots, constituted essentiallinks in the dense intellectual network of a rapidly changing Europe. For a discussion ofthe role of thisRefuge network in the French translation of John LockesEssay ConcerningHuman Understanding (1689), see Jooken & Rooryck (2010).

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mechanical metaphor that Descartes applied to animals and takes it a step fur-ther, developing the claim that the human thinking process is an integral partof organized matter. By the same token, the next bold step, he suggests, isto look upon human beings as automata and to call animals machines almostas perfect as ourselves (La Mettrie 1996:19).

As Amossy has shown in her studies of argumentation in discourse (e.g.Amossy 2006), a speakers discourse necessarily echoes the discourse ofthe other and the rumor of the time (2009:265). The discourse ofLhommemachine fundamentally questions the conceptual structures that modelledcontemporary society. An important part of the argumentation in the text isassumed by a speaker who is conscious of exposing himself to a doxathatrejects his discourse and is able to enforce that rejection by coercive measures.

In their effort to fight this powerful adversary openly as well as indirectly, LaMettrie and his editor adopt a position of inadmissability both on the level ofdiscourse and of peritext5(pritexte).

A number of paratextual elements postpone the enunciation of the text:the epigraph an extract from a letter by Voltaire on the title page , anAver-tissement de limprimeur (Advertisement by the Priner), and a dedication

Monsieur Haller professeur en Mdecine Goettingue. The avertissementby the publisher (Luzac) and the dedication act as a buffer to the reception ofthe message through their essentially ambiguous character. The printer inter-

venes as the first enunciating body in a prefatory text of the type that Genettecalls allographic (allographe), i.e. not assumed by the author (1997:263).The word avertissement is used in its most direct sense here: the publisherwarns the reader that the views he is about to read are anti-religious. Yet, hecontinues by saying that printing these views makes it all the more convenientto counter them.6He suggests that the authors arguments against religion areso feeble that theology will be left even more victorious by the publication.By giving non-believers or even atheists, like the author, the opportunityto speak, their arguments can be exposed and discarded, which would not be

possible if they were forced to remain silent. At face value, this avertissementtherefore relieves the printer of all responsibility.

Still, while disqualifying the topic by presumably rejecting the authorspoint of view, Luzac also triggers the readers curiosity. His so-called defenceof authority is mere pretence. By pretending to warn the reader in advance,Luzac intends to defuse the subversive character of the publication whichthe title and the dedication may seem to conjure up. On the threshold of thetext, the first voice addressing the reader appears to reject what is to follow

5Genette (1997:4-5) uses the term peritext to refer to the paratextual spatial category ofelements within the same volume, such as the title or the preface and sometimes elementsinserted into the interstices of the text, such as chapter titles or certain notes.6According to Assoun, this avertissement is an artifice that enables La Mettrie to mitigatethe effect of the expected scandal (La Mettrie 1748/1981:217).

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as not in accordance with the doxa. Yet anticipating a counter-discourse thatwill invalidate the text is actually an intricate tool to prepare the scene for adiscourse of controversy.

After the printers intervention, the authors voice is first introduced in hiscapacity of dedicator. The dedication is a fourteen-page text which justifieswhat on the surface looks like homage offered to Albrecht von Haller.7Accord-ing to Genette (1997:136), the dedicatee is always in some way responsiblefor the work that is dedicated to him and to which he brings, willy-nilly, a littleof his support and therefore participation. Here, the respectable and piousscientist is made to support a discourse that praises la sublime volupt deltude (the sublime voluptuousness of study, La Mettrie 1981:134) and seeshis name associated with a work that develops a materialist perspective on thehuman being, the complete opposite of his own spiritualist convictions.

Haller embodies the doxa, the conformity with established faith and reason,and attaching his name to Lhomme machine might also have convenientlymisled censors. Strictly speaking, the dedication therefore serves as a locus, atopos(Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca 1958:112 ff.) that allows the writer todirect his arguments to an invoked authority before opening his own discourse.What could be read as an argument by an authority, in this case seems to beused as an act to scorn that authority. Dedication and text are incompatible andcan only be dovetailed according to the conversational principle of coopera-

tion (Grice 1975) when the presence of parody or mockery is assumed.In the introductory peritexts, the polyphonic presence of printer and dedica-tor confuses thefield,8oscillating between the habitus of the established orderand that of the dissenting voice. The text that follows takes a bold position,

but by stressing its own powerlessness pretends to render better service to re-ligion. Thus, in expressing its rejection of the doxa, the discourse integrates a

position that allows it to escape prosecution by the authorities but nonethelessconfirms its seditious nature in doing so.

2. Man a Machine: materialism in translation and paratextual framing

LHomme machine was translated into English by an anonymous and so farunidentified translator within a year of its original publication.9 The first

7The Swiss born physiologist and writer Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) was one of themost renowned anatomists of his era. Like La Mettrie, he studied at Leiden as a discipleof Boerhaave, whose works he edited and annotated. La Mettrie aroused the scholarsenmity when he integrated Hallers arguments in Histoire naturelle de lme without

acknowledging their author.8Amossy (2006) has explored the discursive situation inherent in Bourdieus notion offield,pointing, for example, to the strategies of preservation and subversion that a speaker/writeruses to define his or her position within a given institutional space.9This was not common practice: Denis DiderotsLettre sur les aveugles(1749), for example,was only translated into English (A Letter on Blindness) in 1770.

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translations into other European languages, such as German and Italian, alldate from the 19th century.10The English version,Man a Machine, ran throughthree successive editions: the first edition was published simultaneously, itseems at Dublin and London in 1749; the second and the third edition bothappeared in London in 1750.11In addition to these translations, only one otherwork by La Mettrie appeared in English in the 18th century: Lart de jouir(1751) was published under the title The Reign of Pleasurein 1757 as an at-tachment to an alleged translation of another French work, The Revolutionsof Modesty.12

Our discussion of the translation of Lhomme machine first focuses inthis section on the reception of La Mettries work in contemporary reviews,which can be considered part of the paratextual frame mediating the text to

the reader;13

Genette uses the term allographic epitext (1997:348) for suchliminal instances of critical reflection on a text. The analysis then considersthe peritextual elements within the published translation, i.e. its title, subtitle,reference to authorship and preface.

2.1 Epitextualframing:Man a Machinein the English periodical press

La Mettrie knew that his work had been translated in England. In Le petithomme longue queue(The Little Man with the Long Tail, 1751), he applauds

the uncensored reception of his ideas: Il ny a que les Anglais qui aient fait cet ouvrage lhonneur de le traduire, sans le rfuter (Only the English havedone this work the honour of translating it without refuting it; Corpus 5/61987:192; our translation). In the wake of Voltaires Lettres philosophiques(1733), Britain was indeed considered the most liberal nation of the modernage. Elie Luzac called the English the protectors of the truthin hisEssai surla libert de produire ses sentiments (1749) and praised their commitment tofreedom of expression: unseen among you is a Descartes outlawed, a Baylewithout support! Fortunate people! May others admire you! May it pleaseFortunate people! May others admire you! May it pleaseMay it please

10For a list of all translations recorded to date, see Christensen (1996:278-80) and Vartanian(1960:251-52).11Vartanian (1960:251) does not list the Dublin edition, but Christensen (1996:279) does.The English translation ofLhomme plus que machine (1748) was published in 1752 underthe titleMan More than a Machine.12The Revolutions of Modesty. To which is added, The Reign of Pleasure, London: Cooper,1757. As far as we were able to establish, this translation has not yet been recorded by LaMettrie scholars; neither Christensen (1996), Thomson (1996) nor Vartanian (1960) make

any mention of it. We presented our analysis of this text, The Reign of Pleasure (1757) LaMettriesLart de jouir(1751) in English translation, at the British Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies conference on Emotions (Oxford, 5-7 January 2011).13Tahir-Gralar defines paratexts as presentational materials accompanying translated

texts and the text-specific meta-discourses formed directly around them (Tahir-Gralar

2002:44).

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them to imitate you! (Luzac 2003:38). If Hollandwas the main refuge forintellectuals, where publications were less closely scrutinized than in France,Britain was a true publishers paradise, for nowhere was freer as regardscensorship laws and procedures (Israel 2001:144).

With the lapse in 1695 of the Licensing Act, the last of the censorship actsin Britain, the government could no longer arbitrarily prevent any publication.For the first time printers were able to set up in provincial towns, and the outputof the printing press in London boomed accordingly (Butler 1993:121). Threeimportant periodicals made the steady stream of new publications known toan avid readership (Donoghue 1995): TheGentlemans Magazine (1731-),The Monthly Review(1749-), and TheCritical Review(1756-). A referencetoMan a Machine occurs in two of these journals shortly after its publication.TheGentlemans Magazinelists the book as the second item in its Registerof Books under the category Miscellaneous: 2. Man a machine; translatedfrom the Fr. of M. dArgens. 1s. 6d. Owen (Anon. 1749a:288). The Monthly

Review (MR) published an anonymous review, signed R, in June of the sameyear (Anon 1749b).14The title of the review categorizesMan a Machineas a

pamphlet of 87 pages (ibid.:123), pamphlet standing for a booklet, leafletin this case, not necessarily for a controversial tract. The nine-page reviewquotes at length from the translated text without always using quotationmarks: it extracts a passage from the translators preface and uses his termin-

ology (Anon 1749b), e.g., in referring to the discussion of the different states ofthe soul being co-relative to states of the body, and of the springs that movethe human machine. It also lifts the final conclusion from the text verbatim.At the same time, however, the reviewer passes a scathing judgement on thevalue of the work, which he deems a motly performance, wherein there isscarce a shadow of argument or reasoning (ibid.:123). La Mettries viewthat it is of no consequence to the happiness of mankind whether the universeis governed by a supreme being is particularly dismissed as sunk not only

below censure, but even below contempt (ibid.:130). An author who defends

such blasphemy can only be perverted (ibid.) and is evidently subversiveof the interests of society (ibid.:124).The review ends with a footnote on the identity of the author of Man a

Machine. The note (ibid.:131) appears as an attachment to the journals indexand discloses La Mettries name, which the first edition of the translation itselfdoes not. It reveals what biographical information had made its way to theRepublic of Letters in Britain at that stage and attracts the reader by hintingat the scandal attached to the name of the eminent doctor of medicine:

a very celebrated physician named M. de la Mettrie, actually nowrefuged at the court of Berlin, being obliged to fly his country (France)

14Information on periodical reviews was gleaned from the digitalized database BritishPeriodicals II(ProQuest).

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on account of a persecution there raised against himself, as a pantheist,and his works, which were both condemned to be burnt.

TheMonthly Reviewalso later included a reference toMan More than a Ma-chinein its Monthly Catalogue of recent publications in the April 1752 issue.The work is subsumed under the category Controversial and the nutshellreview (Anon 1752:313) calls it a very sensible answer to a wicked andatheistical treatise, entitled Man a Machine.

In short, the reviews epitextual framing presents La Mettries ideas to thereader as subversive and wicked, an outspoken condemnation which might

be interpreted as voicing the position of the traditionalfield. However, at thesame time, such reviewing serves to whet the readers appetite: the lengthyexcerpt from the translation in theMonthly Reviewof 1749 makes availablea detailed sample of the malignant ideas it seeks to denounce.

2.2 Peritextual framing: mediating La Mettries position for the English

reader

The text of Man a Machineis preceded by four peritextual elements: title,subtitle (only in editions 2 and 3), reference to authorship,and the translators

preface (only in editions 1 and 3). A number of the originals peritextual sec-

tions were not kept in the English translation: the advertising preface by theprinter, the dedication to Albrecht von Haller, and the fragment from a verseepistle by Voltaire, serving as the motto of the text.

All three editions of the English translation carry the titleMan a Machine.The translator could have opted for a nominal compound to continue thegrammatical structure of the French Lhomme machine, as the most recenttranslation by Ann Thomson does (La Mettrie 1996).Instead, the eighteenth-century translator uses a structure which can be interpreted as an ellipticalcopula clause. This syntactic change has repercussions for the scope of mean-

ing suggested by the title. While the French compound suggests mechanicalcharacteristics are one part of the human beings constitution (besides others),the English predicate is a categorical statement that effectively identifies thehuman being as a machine.

The two editions that appear in 1750 complement the main title Man aMachine with a long subtitleintroduced by wherein, which supplementsthe original by drawing the potential readers attention to six highlights of the

present work. This content summary runs more or less parallel to the extractspublished in The Monthly Review of June 1749 (La Mettrie 1750a, 1750b,

title page):

Wherein the several systems of philosophers, in respect to the soulof man, are examined; the different states of the soul are shewn to beco-relative to those of the body; the diversity between men and other

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animals, is proved to arise from the different quantity and quality ofbrains; the law of nature is explained, as relative to the whole animalcreation; the immateriality of an inward principle is by experimentsand observations exploded, and a full detail is given of the several

springs which move the human machine.

Adding this extended thematic title (Genette 1997:81) to the original seemsintended to entice the target public and may also suggest that the topics listedwere no longer completely new by the time of the second and third editions.Moreover, by using exploded, which does not occur in the translation itself,whoever composed the title perhaps the publisher? implies that the Englishtext sides with the claims made by the original author.

All three editions explicitly identify the text presented as a translation: thereference to the source text author is preceded by the line translated from theFrench of. The first two editions attribute the authorshipofMan a Machineto a well-known French aristocrat: translated from the French of the Mar-quiss DArgens (La Mettrie 1749a, 1749b, title page). Jean-Baptiste Boyer,marquis dArgens (1704-1771), a reputed free-thinker, was the alleged authorof Thrse Philosophe (1748), a pornographic best-seller of the era (Darnton1995:89). The translator may have mistakenly or consciously introducedthis illustrious figure as the author because the printers advertisement in the

original ended with a reference to dArgens (La Mettrie 1981:132-33). Theauthorship of dArgens is appealed to as a commendable argument for thebook (La Mettrie 1749a, 1749b, 1750b, Preface): it had for its author no lessa person than the marquiss DArgens, the known favourite of the court, thedarling of the ladies, the terror of bigots, and the delight of men of sense. Thecourt is most probablythat of Frederick II. DArgens name is thus linkedfrom the start to thefield of revolt (sdition) and the scandal surrounding the

philosophes.Unlike the first, the second and third editions (La Mettrie 1750a, 1750b) do

identify Mons. de La Mettrie as the author on their title page. He is praisedas a celebrated physician of the faculty of Paris, and author of Penelope, orthe Machiavel in Physic. The appeal to authority, staging a physician of thefaculty of Paris, again has a dubious ring given that it associates the writerwith a work which, as the name Machiavel suggests, paints a perfidious imageof the medical world.15

The preface, finally, is the major peritextual intervention by the translator.The text is clearly voiced by someone distinct from the author and can there-fore be defined as allographic. The writer identifies himself as the translatorin the final lines of his preface, wishing that [the reader] may reap as much

15The Ouvrage de Pnlope, ou Machiavel en mdecine(3 vols, Berlin 1748-50), a workdedicated to the doctors of Paris, was the last and most poignant of La Mettries medicalsatires.

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pleasure in reading, as we have had in translating [the book]. The volumethat the reader holds in his or her hands is sufficient proof that the scandal pro-voked by the original work has not been an impediment to publication, ratherthe contrary. But the translator further casts the assumed reader in the role ofa free-thinking supporter of liberal expression, against prejudiced bigots.Compare the epithet given to the Marquis dArgens, the terror of bigots,and the reference to the opponents ofLhomme machine abroad, from whomthe translator and his assumed reader, joined by the pronoun us, are taken todistance themselves (La Mettrie 1749a, 1749b, 1750b,Preface):

a particular set of men, who seem to have an interest in opposingwhatever encourages us to shake off the manacles with which custom,

prejudice and education, have fettered human reason.

The preface continues the register of the title and subtitles. It serves as a pos-sible selling point for a popular read, a book that is now as well known inforeign parts as any book in Europe (ibid.) and which promises to containelements that subvert all order, encourage every vice, and in a word, destroythe essence of virtue itself (ibid.), qualifications that the preface puts in themouth of the censors of the book and that thus commend the text even more

strongly. The translators text functions as an implicit rhetorical antiparastasishere, refuting the object of condemnation by showing that it is commendable:the suggested faults of the text serve as enticements for the assumed reader.

In addition to marketing the book, the preface also anticipates the tenorof the content that is to follow. Unlike the indirect or furtive criticism of thetraditional doxaimplied in the original, the English Man a Machine funda-mentally assumes the position of a head-on defence of the scientific study ofnature. The introductory text points the reader to the truth exposed by thework and its support of reason and experience. Stylistically this is achieved

by adopting the rhetorical figure ofpraeteritio,16i.e. by emphasizing what haspurportedly been omitted (ibid.):

We intended to have given the reader a brief account of the authorsdesign, to have pointed out a few instances of the surprising force ofhis reasoning, and in a word, to have shewn, that whatever construc-tions may be put upon his words, yet his intention is, to render man,inquisitive after truth, fearful of error, and suspicious of every thingthat will not bear the test of reason and experience. But if we should

16The use of praeteritio, preterition, in the opening pages of a text is not exceptional.Genette (1997:234) calls it the art of writing a preface by explaining that one is not goingto write it, or by conjuring up all the prefaces one could have written.

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now undertake such a task, it would only anticipate the pleasure ofthe reader .

This kind of preterition underlines the gravity of the enunciation, for by pre-tending to omit it, the speaker stresses the message and its implications.

3. Intervention in the text: explicitating La Mettries materialist

position

The translators prefatorial praise of the authors surprising force of rea-soning is mirrored in the adaptations introduced in the translated text itself.

Nothing of the original text is left out. On the whole, the translators inter-

vention illustrates a particular case of domesticating, which, as Burke andPo-Chia Hsia (2007:34) observe, generally dominated translation practice be-fore 1800.Man a Machine highlights the pamphleteering nature of the original,making its polemical position more explicit and palatable to a (supposedly)liberal-minded English reader, who will consequently come to see the origin-al French author as someone who boldly advocates physical experimentationagainst the traditional defenders of a spiritual perspective on the human being.The discourse of the translation can in this sense be regarded as an instance ofreported speech17in which the translator channels the readers understanding

and interpretation of the text through the textual framing he provides. WhatGenette (1997:10) calls the illocutionary force of the paratext, viz. its abilityto make known an intention, or an interpretationby the author and/or the

publisher (ibid.), may in our view beconsidered the most relevant feature ofthe translation discussed here a feature which only becomes apparent whensource and target texts are closely compared.

The translation ofLhomme machine consistently and frequently explici-tates (its interpretation of) the illocutionary point of the source text, i.e. the

basic purpose of the speaker/writer in making the utterance. The translator

emphasizes the authors assertion of his empirical, materialist philosophicalperspective by making it more explicit to the target reader. The interventionsvary between relatively neutral cases of specifying particular references, on theone hand, and cases in which he adopts a more polemical tone than the source,

by adding new images or rhetorically stronger words, thereby reinforcing thesubversive character of a text that attacks the doxa.

A pertinent example that illustrates this type of intervention occurs towardsthe end of the translation, where the translator takes considerable liberty

17 In his lecture Translating with attitude, or translation history as intertextuality andintervention at the international conference Between Cultures and Texts: Itineraries inTranslation History(Tallinn, 9-10 April 2010), Theo Hermans construed translation asreported speech, in which the act of reporting not only frames the discourse that is beingreported but insinuates itself into it (speakers abstract).

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in stressing the authors faith in the senses as the only trustworthy sourceof knowledge. He chooses expressions that add connotative and rhetoricalstrength to the original phrasing: compare the pairs nimaginons rien /letus not be carried away by the strength of fancy; ce que nous voyons /those things which are presented to our eyes; nos recherches / our pryingcuriosity in Example 1:18

Example 1

ST : Jugeons donc par ce que nous voyons, de ce qui se drobe lacuriosit de nos yeux et de nos recherches, et nimaginons rien au-del.(La Mettrie 1748/1981:211)TT: Let us not be carried away by the strength of fancy alone, but letus examine those things which are presented to our eyes, and by thiswe may form a judgment of others which are beyond our sight, andhidden from our prying curiosity. (La Mettrie 1749a:69)

Further examples of such adaptations are discussed below. In all, we wereable to identify around a hundred instances in which the translator explicitatesthe assumed purpose of the authors text. These are arranged according to atypology that discerns a gradation in illocutionary force, with the translatorsintervention moving from fairly neutral (I) to highly polemical (II). The second

category involves changes that do not just seek tomake the assumed originalintention explicit but to cast it within a strongly pamphleteering discourse thattakes issue with conventional ideas.

I changes that make the assumed communicative purpose explicit1 clarifying or specifying the meaning of a reference2 explicitating implied illocutionary or speech acts, and adding modality

II changes that polarize the assumed communicative purpose vis--vis

the doxa1 adding, replacing or omitting an element to generate a stronger conno-tative effect

2 adding hyperbole

3.1 Clarifying or specifying the meaning of a reference

Additions in this category, which range from single words to phrases andclauses, elaborate on the meaning of the proposition, making it more spe-

cific. Often references are added or more specific terminology is used whereanatomical facts or descriptions of intellectual faculties are concerned. Thetranslator seems to attach great importance to ensuring correct interpretation

18All italics in examples added by authors.

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of terminology in an empirical sense: for the French reference tosentiment(s)throughout the text, for example, the translation avoids an emotional reading,opting alternately for sensations, reason and sentiment, this inward reflec-tion and an inward principle.

Example 2

ST: Il est vrai que la mlancolie, la bile ... de chaque homme font unhomme diffrent. (La Mettrie 1748/1981:148)(La Mettrie 1748/1981:148)TT: It is true that melancholy, bile ... not only produce differences indifferent men, but also render every individual different from what hewas, before particular changes were induced in his fluids. (La Mettrie1749a:10)

Example 3ST: Elle [limagination] raisonne, juge, pntre, compare, approfondit.(La Mettrie 1748/1981:168)TT: The imaginationperceives, reasons, judges, penetrates, comparesand dives into things. (La Mettrie 1749a:27)

Example 4

ST: les dents dans leurs alvoles (La Mettrie 1748/1981:185)TT: the teeth, tho not visible to the naked eye, yet lodgd in theirsockets (La Mettrie 1749a:43)

Some additions lend greater stress to the authors experimental position, asin the following examples:

Example 5

ST :Les faits semblent le prouver. (La Mettrie 1748/1981:175-76)TT: ... which seems to be made evident by real facts. (La Mettrie1749a:34)

Example 6

ST: Il ne reste donc aucune ressource nos adversaires, si ce nestde nier mille et mille faits que chacun peut facilement vrifier. (La(LaMettrie 1748/1981:192)TT: Our antagonists then, can have nothing to lay hold of, unless

perhaps, they take upon them to deny the truth of numberless factswhich any one may easily see confirmed by experience. (La Mettrie1749a:50-51)

A striking instance of this type, recurring in seven cases altogether, is thetranslators consistent rendering of French animal/animaux as (an)otheranimal(s), thus putting the human being on a par with any animal, which isthe claim implied in La Mettries text:

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Example 7

ST: Il en est de mme des animaux, comme des hommes. (La Mettrie(La Mettrie1748/1981:177)TT: Thus it is with other animals as well as men. (La Mettrie

1749a:35)

3.2 Modality and explicitation of implied illocutionary acts

The addition of modal expressions is often accompanied by an explicitationof an implied illocutionary or speech act, such as admitting, asserting, orconcluding. In some cases, the effect is one of appealing to general consensus,including the reader among the supporters of the authors point of view.

In the following reference to Descartes, emphasis is added through thedeontic modal must, and the illocutionary act of declaring or asserting isexplicitated:

Example 8

ST:Mais enfin il [Descartes] a connu la nature animale (La Mettrie(La Mettrie1748/1981:206)TT: but it must be owndthat he had a great knowledge in the animalnature (La Mettrie 1749a:63-64)

A similar instance involves explicitating the illocutionary act of concluding:

Example 9

ST:... serait-elle sans aucune rpugnance la vue de son semblabledchir ...? (La Mettrie 1748/1981:176)(La Mettrie 1748/1981:176)TT: can we help concluding that this being will feel an inwardhorror at the sight of any of its own species torn to pieces ...? (LaMettrie 1749a:35)

The addition of modals such as mustand canin Examples 8 and 9, togetherwith the explicitation of the relevant illocutionary acts, gives the impressionthat the discourse is directed at an imagined opposing voice, and thus makesit more polemical. A similar effect is achieved in the following examples,where the added modals draw attention to the novel terminology used to referto human physiology:

Example 10

ST: Cest ainsi que le cerveau, cette matrice de lesprit, se pervertit sa manire avec celle du corps. (La Mettrie 1748/1981:154)(La Mettrie 1748/1981:154)TT: Tis thus the brain, that matrix, if I may use the expression, of thesoul, is perverted after its manner, together with that of the body. (LaMettrie 1749a:15)

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Example 11

ST: voil une machine bien claire. (La Mettrie 1748/1981:189)(La Mettrie 1748/1981:189)TT: we may well call it an enlightened machine. (La Mettrie1749a:47)

Example 12

ST: Je ne me trompe point, le corps humain est une horloge. (La Met-(La Met-trie 1748/1981:204)TT:It can be no mistake if I supposethe body of a man to be a clock.(La Mettrie 1749a:62)

The tone of implied conflict is continued more poignantly in the next cat-egory of changes, which overtly aim at provoking confrontation.

3.3 Adding, replacing or omitting an element to generate a stronger

connotative effect

In this type of explicitation, which in terms of frequency stands out as a fa-voured strategy across the corpus of examples, the translator lends connotativestrength to the claims made in the text by adding, replacing or omitting ele-ments. The authors account is presented not just as an opinion or perspective,

but as thetruth.

Example 13

ST: Je rduis deux les systmes des philosophes sur lme delhomme. (La Mettrie 1748/1981:143)(La Mettrie 1748/1981:143)TT:The systems of philosophers in respect of the soul of man,arereducible to two. (La Mettrie 1749a:5)

Here, instead ofje rduisrduis(I reduce), the claim is presented as fact the sys-tems are reducible.

The assertiveness of the message is strengthened on a number of occasionsby the addition ofproofs, sometimes replacing words like expriences(experi-ences, Example 14), thus presenting the relevant proposition as irrefutableevidence, affirming its truth in the face of doubtful critics:

Example 14

ST: des expriences, qui achveront de les satisfaire. (La Mettrie(La Mettrie1748/1981:190)TT: stillstrongerproofsto satisfy their doubtful minds. (La Met-

trie 1749a:48)

Example 15

ST:Mais on a d voir que je ne me suis permis le raisonnement le plusvigoureux et le plus immdiatement tir, qu la suite dune multitude

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dobservations physiques quaucun savant ne contestera ... (La Mettrie(La Mettrie1748/1981:214)TT:But it may be observed that I have not made use of these proofs or

strong inferences, but as deductions immediately drawn from a number

of physical observations, the truth of whichno men of learning candispute ... (La Mettrie 1749a:72)

Similarly, qualifications that downplay the position and value of the ori-ginal claim are often omitted, as in this reference to animals that leaves outan equivalent of the French adverbialpresque (almost):

Example 16

ST: des machines presque aussi parfaites que nous (La Mettrie(La Mettrie

1748/1981:177)TT: who are as perfect machines as ourselves. (La Mettrie1749a:35)

Traditional, spiritualist ideas and their advocates are explicitly discarded asnarrow-minded in a register that verges on the offensive, using adjectives andnouns like bigots,gross, childish,pompous,slavish, ridiculousand mad.

Example 17

ST: sil y a une rvlation, elle nest point suffisamment d-montre par la seule autorit de lEglise et sans aucun examen de laraison, comme le prtendent tous ceux qui la craignent. (La Mettrie(La Mettrie1748/1981:146)TT: if there be a revelation, it is not sufficiently evinced by thesole authority of the church,19without the examination of reason, asall those bigots pretend who fear its light. (La Mettrie 1749a:8)

Example 18

ST: ils ont t au contraire entirement dtourns par des tu-des obscures, qui les ont conduits mille prjugs ... (La Mettrie(La Mettrie1748/1981:147)TT: from which they have always been diverted by dark idle studies,that have tinctured them with a thousandgross, childish prejudices(La Mettrie 1749a:8)

Example 19

ST:Voil o conduit labus des langues et lusage de ces grands mots,spiritualit, immatrialit, etc., placs tout hasard, sans tre entendusmme par des gens desprit. (La Mettrie 1748/1981:167)(La Mettrie 1748/1981:167)

19Religious institutions are consistently not capitalized in the translation, and neither isthe reference toDieu, which in the English text is rendered more often as a supreme being(La Mettrie 1749a:42) or adeity(ibid.:44) than as God.

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TT:See to what the abuse of language reducesus; and the use of thesepompouswords spirituality, immateriality. (La Mettrie 1749a:27)

Example 20

ST: cesIxions du christianismequi naiment Dieu et nembrassenttant de chimriques vertus que parce quils craignent lenfer. (La Met-(La Met-trie 1748/1981:182)TT: those Ixions of christianity who love God out of fear of hell,and thro thisslavish apprehensionembrace so many ridiculous tenets.(La Mettrie 1749a:41)

3.4 Adding hyperbole

Finally, the strategy of adding connotative strength to the claims of the treatisein the face of its adversaries is mirrored rhetorically in the frequent use ofhyperboles. These add a sensational quality, typical of pamphlets in the narrowsense of the word, and strengthen the polemical tone of the text:

Example 21

ST: au fanatisme qui ajoute encore leur ignorance dans le mca-nisme des corps. (La Mettrie 1748/1981:147)(La Mettrie 1748/1981:147)TT: and to say all in one word, have plunged them over head and

earsin fanaticism, which adds still to their ignorance in the mechanismof bodies. (La Mettrie 1749a:8-9)

Example 22

ST: o aller chercher celles [les causes] de la varit de tous lesesprits? (La Mettrie 1748/1981:158)(La Mettrie 1748/1981:158)TT: how shall we ever investigate the hidden causes of the endlessvariety of human minds? (La Mettrie 1749a:19)

Example 23

ST: de celle [cette femme] qui dans le mme tat [la grossesse]mangea son mari; de cette autre qui gorgeait les enfants. (La Mettrie(La Mettrie1748/1981:179)TT: such also as the woman in the same province,20who devouredher own husband; and that wretchwho murdered her own children.(La Mettrie 1749a:38)

In sum, the above comparison of the source text with its English translationsuggests that the translator was perfectly aware of the seditious aspect of the

text he had to translate. He clearly embraced Lhomme machines points of

20This is one of two translation errors that we spotted in the text. Besides mistaking thestate of pregnancy for a geographical tat, the translator translates nos facults organiques(La Mettrie 1748/1981:179) as our organized faculties(La Mettrie 1749a:40).

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view, clarified them to his readers, and intervened to reinforce their polemi-cal character.

4. ConclusionConclusion

Pensez tout haut, mais cachez-vous (La Mettrie, Discoursprliminaire)21

Forced into exile in Leiden, and later Berlin, Julien Offray de La Mettrie wasvery conscious of the danger involved in expounding a discourse that fun-damentally questioned the theses defended by the keepers of learning, whosought to strengthen faith with the tools of knowledge and grounded royal

authority in divine right. Bourdieu describesfieldsas places where permanentbattles start, the stakes of which are the monopoly of the legitimate violence which is characteristic of the field in question (Bourdieu 1993:76). LaMettrie rejected the field of official knowledge occupied by the defenders ofthe Christian faith and radically pursued the route mapped by Bayle in separat-ing religion from philosophy. The knowledge obtained from the observationof nature leads to materialism and has nothing to say about the origin of theworld or the existence of a creator. For La Mettrie (1996:149), philosophyis absolutely irreconcilable with morality, religion and politics, which are its

triumphant rivals in society. The ensuing heterodox discourse was blamedfor propagating spinozism (see, for example, Van Vliet 2005:70-71).

Yet for all the subversion of his claims, the author is unable to construe anethosby simply evading censure. He is also obliged to insert the discourse hecondemns within the core of his own text. His materialism speaks of the soul,of the existence of God, the very concepts it calls into question. The readeris thus confronted with a discourse in which the new views on knowledgehave not yet been detached from the concepts that they question. The original

paratexts inLhomme machine reflect these mutations within the field.The transfer of these paratextual elements to another culture reveals a differ-

ent environment of reception. In France, so-called livres philosophiquesweresynonymous in contemporary booksellers parlance to anything illicit, rangingfrom pornography to philosophy as we know it today (Darnton 1995:8). A

ban was often a strong selling point andphilosophical books fetched moreon the market than ordinary books. The persecution and scandal surrounding

Lhomme machinewere undoubtedly also a vector that encouraged the worksfast translation into English. As Burke and Po-Chia Hsia (2007:20) observe,

the choice of items for translation at any time may reflect the priorities ofthe recipient culture. The English peritexts, and the text of the translation

21La Mettrie (1987, I:46-47); Think out loud but hide ... (Preliminary Discourse, La Met-trie 1996:172).

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itself, expand on the seditious quality of La Mettries philosophical arguments.Instead of delaying the explosive discourse as the original paratexts did,they highlight the experiential foundation of the account, which to the liberalEnglish reader is tantamount to the truth.

The translator stresses the British philosophical heritage by expandingon a reference to Newton in the source text, adding we are indebted to SirIsaac Newton for rectifying our knowledge in many particulars (La Mettrie1749a:63). To some extent the translation can therefore be considered as a

paratext in its own right (Genette 1997:405), since it provides a frame for theoriginal message by insinuating itself into it and mediating its illocutionaryforce. The target reader is, however, necessarily unaware of this mediation andwill identify the text before him as the expressive equivalent of the original.

The bookseller Luzac, himself born into a family of Huguenot refugees,and therefore sensitive to the seizure of individual freedom by religious andpolitical authorities, could not but envy the situation of his English colleagues:Let the boldest and most penetrating minds, terrified by nothing, daring todisclose their opinions and express them, collect whatever is strongest, hedeclares (Luzac 2003:38). In saying this, no doubt he was defending a com-mitment to truth that knows no fear, but at the same time he was stressing theappeal of a danger that his English colleagues felt at great liberty to put onstage and confront.

LIEVE JOOKEN & GUY ROORYCKFaculty of Translation Studies, University College Ghent,45 Groot-Brittanilaan,

B-9000 Ghent, Belgium. [email protected]; [email protected]

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Freedom of Expressing One's Ideas (2011)

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