From Clone to Boneassets.cambridge.org/97811070/03262/index/9781107003262_index.pdfarchosaur, 2,...

Index

aardvark, 39

acanthodian, 182

scales, 153

Acanthoracida, 193

Acanthostega, 314

polydactyly, 305, 317

Acanthothoraci, 194

Achoania, 195

acipenserid. See Acipenseridae

polyploidy, 157

scales, 153

Acipenseridae, 154

actinopterygian, 4, 9, 135, 154.

See Actinopterygii

basal forms, 142

dentition, 185, 190, 199

replacement, 195

dermal denticles, 198

ectodysplasin signalling in, 138

fins, 149

pectoral, 137

relationships with other vertebrates, 38

scale development, 153

Actinopterygii, 2, 185

actualism, 9, 136

adapisoriculid, 51

and affinities of Afrodon, 51

Adapisoriculus, 51

adaptation

rate of, 83

adaptive landscape, 84

adaptive radiation, 60, 62

Afrodon, 51

Afrosoricida, 55, 57

afrosoricidan. See Afrosoricida

Afrotheria, 39, 48

apomorphies of, 51

relationships of, 39

afrotherian. See Afrotheria


Afrotherian

thoracolumbar count, 241

agnathan, 11, 169, 183

derivation of jaws, 183

pharyngeal denticles, 183

pharyngeal teeth, 139

Akmonistion, 180, 182

Alcinonyx, 241

algae, 125

alligator. See Alligator mississippiensis

Alligator mississippiensis, 343

allometry, 106

in mammal dentary, 211

allotherian


Ambondro mahabo, 49, 58

Amia, 195

amniote, 26, 27, 28

atlas/axis complex, 245

caudal vertebrae, 243, 247

conserved body plan, 280, 292

digit reduction, 343

embryonic pharyngeal pouches, 292

limb development, 261, 262

polydactyly, 305

prepollex/prehallux, 307


relationships with other vertebrates, 2–4, 38

ribs, 279, 282, 283

scapula, 286

vertebral number, 147

Wolffian ridge, 289

amphibian, 2, 4, 25

body elongation, 144

dentition, 177


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Anas

domestica, 353

platyrhynchos, 343, 353

Anaspida, 169

Andreolepis, 192

Andreyevichthys, 196

angiosperm, 25

Anguilliformes, 152

anlagen, 302, 305

of avian digits, 304

of dentary, 213

of turtle carapace, 281, 289, 293

of turtle scapula, 287

anteater. See Tamandua tetradactyla

Antiarchi, 193, 194

anuran, 306

limb development, 270

ape, 5

Aphanius anatoliae, 152

Apical Ectodermal Ridge (AER), 349

in the marsupial forelimb, 261, 262–4

in the marsupial hindlimb, 264


resemblance to carapacial ridge, 289

apoptosis, 315

in chickens, 146

in limb patterning, 310, 311

in marsupial limbs, 264

Apteryx, 354

australis, 354

owenii, 354

archaeocete, 243

Archaeopteryx lithographica, 338, 352


phalangeal formula, 352

archosaur, 2, 340, 347. See Archosauria


digits, 353

relationship to turtles, 279

Archosauria, 340

Arthrodira, 193, 194

arthrodiran. See Arthrodira

dentition, 193

dentition development, 195

arthropod, 247

molecular clock, 55

species selection in, 127

artiodactyl, 39


Australidelphia, 50

australidelphian. See Australidelphia

dispersal into Australia, 53

Australosomus, 154

australosphenidan, 44

Aves, 9, 26, 27

cell-labelling studies, 285

dermal skeletal elements, 285

digit identity, 311

wing development. See avian wing

avian hindlimb

metatarsals II-IV, 340

tarsometatarsus, 340

avian wing, 138, 328–55

anterior necrotic zone, 347

apical ridge. See Apical Ectodermal Ridge

(AER)

carpometacarpus, 338, 340

carpus, 328, 329–34

distal carpus, 334–8

metacarpals, 334–8

proximal carpus, 335

cell death, 347–8

chondrogenic foci, 355

claws, 340, 348, 351

comparison with hindlimb, 340

digit, 314, 328

digitus alulae manus, 329, 346

digitus majoris manus, 329

digitus minoris manus, 329, 343

ectopic digit, 344

digit homology, 304–5, 339–54

digit phenotype, 340, 348–54

digit position, 339


by claw loss, 352

by phalangeal loss, 352

by size reduction, 352

comparison with non-avians, 346

element X, 339

embryonic hexadactyly, 345

embryonic pentadactyly, 345

frame shift, 305, 343, 355

364 Index






handplate, 348

intercalary element, 348

mesopodium, 329

metacarpals, 338, 346

nomenclature, 330–5

os carpi radiale, 335

os carpi ulnare, 335

phalangeal formula, 352–4

phalanx-forming region, 355

pisiform, 335

postminimus, 346

pre-axial polydactyly, 344

prepollex, 346

primary axis, 343–4

processus extensorius, 346

processus pisiformis, 339

radiale, 335

radius, 328

rescue of digit I, 344

ulna, 328, 335

ulnare, 335

ungual, 349

wrist, 328. See mesopodium

Zone of Polarizing Activity, 348

axial skeleton, 95

of mammals, 8, 230–48

of Saurichthys, 10, 159

axolotl, 177

basilosaurid, 243

bat, 68, 230, 257

limbs, 301

forelimb development, 268

wing, 138

bear, 122

Belonidae, 150

bichir, 144. See polypterid

bird, 100, 311, 329, 352. See Aves

beaks, 151

conservation of odontogenic signalling

pathways, 167


evolutionary rate, 97

feather development, 178

feather patterning, 179

flight, 97

genome

chromosome type, 27

repetitive elements in, 26

size of, 25–6

molecular clock, 55

relationship to theropod dinosaurs, 9


relationships with other vertebrates,

2–4

sacrum, 245

secondary cartilages, 212

wing development, 9. See avian wing

Birgeria

stensioi, 144, 147

bivalve, 91

bony fish, 2, 4

boreosphenidan, 44

Bothriolepis, 193

Bradypus, 237

Branchiostoma, 2

Bustylus, 51

butterfly fish, freshwater. See Pantodon

buchholzi

caecilian, 2


Cairina moschata, 353

Calchides, 347

Callichthyidae, 154

Callorhinchus. See chimaera

Caperea, 237

marginata, 239

Capromys pilorides, 57

capybara. See Hydrochoerus

Carcharinidae, 180

Carnivora, 38, 152

face length, 151, 159


carnivoran. See Carnivora

carnivore

prehallux, 306

prepollex, 306


carp

scales, 152, 157, 159

carpalia, 331

Index 365






carpus

of birds, 329–34

of urodeles, 330

cartilaginous fish, 2, 4

Cassuarius cassuarius, 354

catfish, 152

catfish, armoured, 154

catshark, 150

cave bear. See Ursus spelaeus

Caviidae, 347

centrale, 331

Cercopithecus, 243

Cetacea

absence of pelves, 233

origin of, 64

cetacean. See Cetacea

body size, 62

caudal vertebrae, 243

fluke, 243

increased lumbar count, 242

polydactyly, 305

rate of molecular evolution, 55

Cetartiodactyla, 39, 48

apomorphies of, 50

Chalcides chalcides, 343, 352

chicken, 10, 27, 328, 344, 353. See Gallus

apoptosis, 146

BAMBI expression, 352

chick

Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 262

axial skeleton, 148

dentition, 171, 197

jaw articulation, 207


limb position, 149


tooth restoration in, 167

dentary, 224

distal carpus, 338

ectopic digit, 344

element X, 339

foot, 349

frame shift, 343

genetic mechanisms, 136

induction of phalanges, 351

limb position, 149

necrotic zones of limb, 347, 348

pisiform, 347

primary axis, 343

talpid3 (ta3) mutant, 310

wing development, 305, 328, 355

chimaera, 138

Chinese soft-shelled turtle. See Pelodiscus

sinensis

chiropteran

os falciforme, 309

prepollex, 306

Chlamydoselache, 182

Chlorurus, 124

Choloepus, 237

didactylus, 347

hoffmanni, 237, 347

chondrichthyan

dental lamina, 182, 189

dentition, 179, 193

dermal denticles, 177, 179, 198

ectodysplasin signalling in, 138

heterodont dentition, 169


placoid denticles, 173

scale patterning, 198

scale replacement, 179

tooth development, 167

Chondrichthyes, 2, 193

chondrification

in limb development, 304, 310

chordate, 2, 8


chrysochlorid, 47

cichlid, 10, 169, 171

dentition, 192, 197

development, 184, 186

diversity of, 171

pharyngeal, 176, 183

jaws, 151

tooth shape diversity, 185

cingulate, 47

clam, 92

claws

in birds, 340, 352

in crocodilians, 352

in fossil birds, 352

366 Index






in hoatzin, 353

in Neornithines, 352

in talpid moles, 311

coelacanth, 2

Coelodonta antiquitatis, 20

condylarth, 46, 47

conodont, 169. See Conodonta

dentition, 193, 194

pharyngeal denticle co-option, 198

odontodes, 169

Conodonta, 169, 183, 193

coral, 121, 125

Craniata, 311

craniate. See Craniata

crinoid, 119

crocodile. See crocodilian

dermal ossification of the trunk, 283


crocodilian, 27


manus, 340

primary axis, 343

crocodylomorph, 100, 101

Cryptotis parva, 310, 316, 317

Cuvier, Georges, 234

cyclostome, 4

cynodont

coronoid bone, 222

double jaw joint, 208

cypriniform, 190

Cyprinus carpio, 157

Dactylopsila trivirgata, 215

darwin (unit), 93, 94

Darwin, Charles, 4, 90, 91, 98, 135, 151, 159

Dasypus, 243

Date-A-Clade, 18

Deccanolestes, 46, 51, 54

delphinoid, 244

dermal armour, 280

dermal skeletal elements, 10

denticles, 199

in birds, 285

in dentition, 167

in Saurichthys, 142

in the turtle shell, 281

in vertebrates, 283

desman, 307

swimming, 307

tibial sesamoid, 313

deuterostome, 4, 67

developmental bias

in mammal axial skeleton, 231

developmental constraints, 305, 346

and pleiotropy, 106

in birds, 97

in mammal axial skeleton, 231, 232

in marsupial limbs, 260, 271, 273

in the notochord, 106

in turtle shell evolution, 280

developmental genetics, 8, 9, 304

Diabolepis, 196

Diacodexis, 50

diapsid, 2, 26

dentary, 224


Didelphis, 92

digits, 9

development, 310

in marsupials, 264

homology in birds, 339–54

mouse, 343

of horses, 338

prepollux/prehallux, 306

reduction in ungulates, 345

Dilambdogale gheerbranti, 47

dinosaur, 26, 136

extinction, 61

generation time, 94

genome size, 25

interrelationships with birds and

theropods, 9

dipnoan, 25

divergence times, 104, 108

estimation of, 18, 85–9

in mammals, 38–70

limitations of molecular data, 104

multiple calibration points, 88, 89

rate heterogeneity, 85, 86, 88

using morphological data, 104–6

fossil calibration, 40, 85, 87, 88, 105

fossil data

Index 367






divergence times (cont.)

assumptions of, 40–54

in crown-placental mammals, 6

molecular clock, 54–8

local clock, 57, 67

rate constancy, 87

relaxed clock, 57, 67

molecular data


of hominines, 5

of Laurasiatheria-Euarchontoglires, 5

diversification rate, 7, 117

and morphological disparity, 92

Djarthia murgonensis, 50

DNA, 6

ancient DNA, 6, 18, 20–1

limitations of, 22

cDNA, 171

chromosome, 26, 27, 28

22qii deletion, 219

7q36, 309

autosome, 27

macrochromosome, 27

microchromosome, 27

sex chromosome, 7

sex chromosomes, 27

copy error, 83

epigenetic gene regulation, 21

exons, 21

introns, 21, 25

linkage disequilibrium, 16

long interspersed nuclear element, 26

mitochondrial, 19–20, 55, 66

point mutation, 83

polymorphism, 16

recombination, 16, 83

repetitive elements, 25, 26

reverse transcriptase, 25, 26

sequencing, 6

direct multiplex sequencing, 21

single molecule sequencing, 21

short interspersed nuclear element, 26

single nucleotide polymorphisms, 21

substitution rate, 86

dog, 306

polydactyly, 313

Doliodus, 182

dolphin

hyperphalangy, 302, 349

Dromaius novae-hollandae, 354

Drosophila, 140, 146

dryolestoid, 47

duck, 328. See Anas

wing, 353

Dugong, 242

Echimydae, 57

ectopic gene regulation

in turtles, 280, 283

edentate

prehallux, 306

prepollex, 306

elephant, 22, 309

elephant shrews. See Macroscelididae

endochondral skeletal elements


Eohippus, 91

Eomaia, 49

scansoria, 59

epigenetic effects, 84

and phenotypic plasticity, 83

in fish scale development, 154

on morphology of the dentary, 213

Equus quagga


Eremitalpa granti, 347

Eritherium azzouzorum, 48

Erpetoichthys calabaricus, 145

Erythrozootes, 47

Euarchonta, 51

euarchontan. See Euarchonta


and affinities of Purgatorius, 52

Euarchontoglires, 5, 39, 65

Eulipotyphla, 307

Eutheria, 46

earliest members, 49

eutherian, 39, 237. See Eutheria

and affinities of Ambondro, 49

and affinities of Deccanolestes, 51

Cretaceous forms, 45

early memmbers, 50

368 Index






Gondwanan forms, 46

origin of, 59

South American forms, 47

tribospheny, 44

evo-devo, 158, 225, 328, 330. See evolutionary

development

evolution

predictability of, 139–41

evolutionary canalization

in sesamoid development, 309

evolutionary development, 7

evolutionary rate, 83–108

directional selection, 98, 99, 100

evolutionary constraint, 99

extinction, 87

extinction rate, 89

in mammals, 92

genotype-phenotype correlation, 97

in bivalves, 91

in horses, 92

in mammals, 91

molecular clock, 85, 100, 105

local clock, 89

rate heterogeneity, 88

relaxed clock, 89

molecular data, 98

molecular evolution, 84, 85

measuring rate of, 85–9, 90

morphological clock, 108

morphological data, 98

morphological evolution, 84, 85, 100, 108

darwin (unit), 93, 94

disparity analysis, 96

divergence time estimation, 104–6

felsen (unit), 94

haldane (unit), 93

measuring rate of, 89–97

patristic dissimilarity, 94

patristic distance analysis, 94

patristic methodology, 95, 96, 105

stochasticity in, 98–104, 105, 107

nearly neutral model, 99, 101

neutral model, 98, 100, 104

phenotypic change, 84

rate heterogeneity, 107

speciation rate, 87, 89, 93

stabilizing selection, 98, 99, 107

stochasticity in, 83, 84, 85, 86, 104, 108

extant phylogenetic bracket, 23, 137

in Saurichthys reconstruction, 157, 158

extinction, 16, 116, 161

in species selection, 117

K/T event, 40

rate of, 7, 83

fascia palmaris, 306

Fayum fauna, 47

Felidae, 38

felsen (unit), 94

ferret, 171

fibulare, 340

fin to limb transition, 9, 301

Fisher, R. A., 98

fissiped

os falciforme, 309

frog, 2

autopodium, 313

prepollex, 307

Galloanserae, 329

Gallus, 27

gallus, 328

Ganungulatum xincunliense, 48, 50

gars. See Lepisosteidae

Gasterosteidae, 154

Gegenbaur

Carl, 330

genetic drift, 83

genetic mechanisms, 9, 136, 139, 140

in Drosophila

shaven baby/ovo, 140

in mammal axial skeleton

Hox, 8

in pectoral fin development

Hox, 137

in Saurichthys, 10, 158

calmodulin, 159

caudal, 146

cdx, 145

ectodysplasin, 157, 159

ectodysplasin signalling, 154, 157

Eda, 10

Index 369






genetic mechanisms (cont.)

FGF, 10

Fgf signalling, 146, 154, 157, 159

Hox, 10, 159

pleiotropy, 157

retinoic acid, 10, 145, 159

runt, 159

Tbx, 10

Wnt signalling, 146

in Saurichthys body elongation, 148

in Saurichthys fin position, 148–50

in Saurichthys jaw elongation, 150–2

in Saurichthys scales, 152–8

of (marsupial) limb development

Fgf8, 263

of avian wing development

BAMBI, 352

fgf8, 349

Hox, 348

hoxa13, 329

hoxd13, 329

pitx1, 344

Sox9, 345

wnt14, 349

of feather development

BMPs, 178

Fgf-4, 178

follastatin, 178

Ptc, 178

Shh, 178

of fish scale development

bmp2b, 179

Eda, 179

Edar, 179

ephA4, 179

Runx, 179

shh, 179

of hair development

BMP, 178

ectodyplasin, 178

Edar, 178

of jaw development

Hox, 183

of jaw elongation

Bmp4, 151

calmodulin, 151

Runx2, 152

of limb development

BAMBI, 351

BMP, 310

BMP signalling, 352

Fgf4, 262

Fgf8, 262, 270

Gli3, 348

Hox, 352

Hoxa13, 315

hoxd, 352

HoxD, 314

Hoxd10, 315

hoxd11, 344

Hoxd12, 305, 315

Hoxd13, 305, 315

Msx, 310

in AER formation, 310

in bone development, 310

Msx1, 310

Msx2, 310

in digit separation, 311

retinoic acid, 313

Shh, 310, 313, 315

sonic hedgehog signalling, 348

of mammal axial skeleton

Hox, 231

homeotic variation in, 235

Hox10, 246

Hox11, 246

of mammal axial skeleton Hox, 232

and cervical ribs, 237

regionalization of the vertebral column,

246

of mammal dentary, 216–20

Alk2, 218

cre-recombinase system, 218

Dlx5, 218, 219, 222

EDA, 220

Gsc, 220

MyoD, 219

Pax9, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224

Prx1, 219

PTHrP, 221, 224

Runx2, 213, 216, 220

Sox9, 218

370 Index






Tbx1, 219, 222, 223

TCOF1, 220

Tgf b 2, 216, 217

Tgfb signalling, 218, 221

Tgfb2, 218, 221, 224

Tgfbr2, 217, 218, 220

Tgf-b signaling, 222

Tgf-b2 signalling, 223type II collagen, 216

Wnt1, 219

of marsupial limb development

Fgf8, 268

Gli3, 268

Hand2, 268

Hoxd9, 268

Pitx1, 267

Tbx4, 267

Tbx5, 267

of median fin position

Hoxd10, 150

Hoxd12, 150

Hoxd9, 150

Tbx18, 150

of mouse limb development

HoxC10, 267

Tbx4, 267

Tbx5, 267

of paired appendage position

Gdf11, 149

Hox, 149

hoxc10a, 149

retinoic acid, 149

Wnt signalling, 149

of pelvic fins

pitx1, 149

Tbx4, 149

of somite development

cdx, 148

Fgf, 148

Fgf signalling, 148

nodal, 148

retinoic acid, 148

t-box, 148

Wnt, 148

Wnt signalling, 148

of talpid mole limb development

Fgf8, 311, 317

Hox, 315

Msx, 311

Msx2, 311, 317

Shh, 311

Sox9, 310, 314, 316, 317

of turtle shell development

APCDD1, 289

BMP signalling, 283

Hox, 281

Lbx-1, 287

Lef-1, 289

Pax3, 287

Sp5, 289

Wnt, 289

Wnt signalling, 289

of vertebrate axial skeleton

Hox, 147

Hox12a, 148

Hoxc10a, 148

of vertebrate dentition

Barx1, 167

BMP signalling, 185, 187,

191

bmp2, 180, 186, 189

bmp4, 180, 181, 186, 189, 190

Bmp4, 185, 187

BMP4, 167, 187

dlx, 190

dlx1a, 190

dlx2, 180, 186, 190

dlx6b, 190

ectodin, 191

ectodysplasin, 186, 191

eda, 178, 180, 186, 189

Eda, 187, 191

Eda signalling, 185

edar, 180, 186, 189

ephA4, 176

FGF signalling, 185, 187, 190

Fgf-10, 181

Fgf-3, 181

fgf8, 189

FGF8, 167

Fgfr1b, 181

Fgfr2b, 181

Index 371






genetic mechanisms (cont.)

Hedgehog signalling, 185, 190

Hh signalling, 187

Hox, 183, 184

Lunatic fringe, 181

Msx, 187

Msx1, 167, 187

Msx2, 167

Notch, 181

odontode gene regulatory network, 178

Osr2, 187, 191

Otlx2, 167

pax9, 180, 186, 189, 192

Pax9, 167, 187

pitx2, 180, 181, 185, 186, 189

Pitx2, 167

Runt, 176

Runx, 176

Runx2, 176, 180, 186, 189

shh, 178, 180, 181, 185, 186, 189, 196

Shh, 187, 189, 191

TGFß signalling, 185, 190

Wnt signalling, 181, 185, 187, 190, 191

wnt7b, 178, 180, 186, 189

Rag-1, 4

SPAG17, 22

genome

duplication, 139

mitochondrial, 54

nuclear, 54

of elephant shark, 137

sequencing

in marsupials, 224

genomics, 6, 11, 16, 18, 29, 30

genome size, 7

directional evolutionary change, 25

inference of, 25–6

paleogenomics, 7, 16–31

genotype-phenotype map, 84, 85, 108

genotypic sex determination

evolution of, 27

giant panda, 309, 317

‘thumb’, 317

Gill, Theodore Nicholas, 2, 4

giraffe, 230

Glires, 39

Glyptodon, 283

gnathostome, 2, 4, 183, 185

appendage patterning, 311

dentition, 166, 181, 195, 199

ectodysplasin, 138


mandible, 207

oral teeth, 139



golden mole, 47

golden mole, Grant’s, 347

gonadal steroids, 315

gondwanatherian, 47


goose, 329

gorilla, 5

Gorilla, 309

Granada, Spain, 316

great ape, 5


guinea pig, 211

dentary, 214, 223, 224

Guiya, 195

Haeckel, Ernst, 2, 4, 279, 304

hagfish, 2

haldane (unit), 93

hallux, 306

haramiyidan


hedgehog, 307

Helarctos, 241

Hemiergis, 347, 348, 349, 352

hemoglobin, 5

molecular clock, 54

Herpetotheriidae, 92

heterochrony, 282

in dolphin hyperphalangy, 349


in marsupial syndactyly, 302

in whale hyperphalangy, 302

sequence heterochrony, 261

heterotachy, 22, 55, 64, 66, 69, 89

heterotopy


372 Index






in turtles, 280

in vertebrate dentition, 176

heterotropy, 169

hippopotamus, 191, 213

hoatzin. See Opisthcomos hoatzin

Holodipterus, 197

hominid, 55

hominine, 5

Homo

neanderthalensis, 22

sapiens, 22

horse, 5, 19, 91, 338

evolutionary rate, 92

human, 5, 8, 20, 22, 26, 257. See Homo sapiens

cervical ribs, 237

dentary, 223

divergence time, 5

hand, 303

hypodontia, 187

interbreeding with Neanderthals, 22

interrelationships of peoples, 22

Inuit, 22

limbs, 313

Native Americans, 22


prehistoric pacific islanders, 19

Saqqaq people, 22

temporo-mandibular joint, 207

Huoshanornis huji, 352

Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, 347

hyperphalangy, 349

in tetrapods, 302

in turtles, 302

in whales, 302

Hyracoidea, 62

ichthyosaur, 27

hyperdactyly, 302

Ichthyostega


posterior digits, 314

Ignacius graybullianus, 51

Insectivora, 39

insectivoran, 39

os falciforme, 309

prehallux, 306

prepollex, 306

intermedium, 331

invertebrate, 157

marine, 105

terrestrial, 105

Itaborai fauna, 47

Juramaia sinensis, 50, 59

K/T boundary, 6

K/T mass extinction, 40

kangaroo, 191, 257

Kharmerungulatum, 46, 54

killifish, 152

koala, 8. See Phascolarctos cinereus

labrid fish, 125, 126, 130

pharyngeal jaws, 124

lacunae, 25

lagomorph, 39

lamprey, 2, 183, 184

median fin, 150

unpaired fins, 149

lateral plate mesoderm, 248

in paired appendage development, 149

Laurasiatheria, 5, 39, 48, 65

lepidosaur, 92

Lepisosteidae, 150

Lepisosteus, 195

Lineatriton, 143

Lipotyphla, 39. See Eulipotyphla

lipotyphlan. See Eulipotyphlan

Lissodelphis, 242

living fossils, 92

lizard

dentition, 197

manus, 348

primary axis, 343

tooth replacement, 166, 189

lobe-finned fish, 2

Loganellia, 183

Lophosteus, 192

Loricariidae, 154

lungfish, 171, 178. See dipnoan

dentition, 10, 196–7

replacement, 195

Index 373






Macroscelidea, 39, 57

mammal, 5, 10, 25, 26, 27, 28, 41, 50.

See Mammalia

adaptive radiation of, 62

body size, 62

cell proliferation, 268

Cretaceous forms, 62

dentition, 42, 169

dual molecular origin, 177

genetic mechanisms, 186–90

heterodonty, 169, 171

reduction of, 186

reiterative signalling cascade, 167

tooth position, 185

tooth replacement, 166, 181

tribospheny, 49

dentition development, 166, 171, 184

genetic mechanisms of, 185

dermal armour, 283

dermal ossification of the trunk, 283


dispersal of, 53

diversity of, 257

evolution

effect of marsupial constraint, 259

evolutionary rate, 91, 92, 97

extinction rates, 92

generation time, 94

genome

chromosome type, 27

repetitive elements in, 26

size of, 25–6

hair development, 178

heterotachy, 65

juvenile fossil material, 50

limb diversity, 257

limb evolution, 272

limb modularity, 260

mandible, 8

Mesozoic mammals, 100, 101

reduction lumbar ribs, 241

middle ear ossicles

homologues in tetrapods, 207


relationships of, 38–70

from molecular data, 39

from morphological data, 38, 39

relationships with other vertebrates,

2–4

sacrum, 245

tribospheny, 44

mammal axial skeleton, 8, 230–48

abaxial patterning, 231, 238, 239,

240, 248

abaxial structures, 231, 233

analogy with arthropods, 247

associational variation, 235

in caudal vertebrae, 243

caudal count, 243

caudal vertebrae, 230, 233

in cetaceans, 243

modular change in, 243–5

cervical vertebrae, 230, 233

atlas, 233

axis, 233

constraint, 237, 248

in humans, 237

in manatees, 239

in pygmy right whales, 239

in tree sloths, 237


cervicothoracic boundary, 233

column series definitions, 232–4

developmental constraint, 230, 231,

232

homeotic variation, 235

cervical ribs, 237


homologous variation

in cervical vertebrae, 247

ilium, 232, 233, 243

intercalation, 231, 239

lumbar vertebrae, 230, 233


lumbosacral boundary, 233, 243

meristic variation, 235

in caudal vertebrae, 243

modularity, 234–5, 248

homologous variation, 235

pelvic girdle, 233

presacral count, 241

primaxial patterning, 231

374 Index






primaxial structures, 231, 233

primaxial-abaxial shift, 238, 239

redivision, 231

sacral vertebrae, 230, 233

modular change in, 243

sacrum, 233, 243

segmentation clock, 231, 244

somite clock, 235

somitogenesis, 235

sternum, 232, 233, 241

thoracic vertebrae, 230, 233


thoracolumbar count

conservation of, 241

thoracolumbar differentiation, 241

transposition, 231

mammal dentary, 207

angular process, 209

in common shrews, 211

inflection in marsupials, 212, 213, 215

lack of in humans, 212

placental mammal, 213

changes during development, 213–16

condylar process, 209

coronoid process, 209

in guinea pigs, 211

in mice, 211

in rabbits, 211

in weasels, 211

reduced integration of, 221–2

development

in guinea pigs, 214

in mice, 213

DiGeorge syndrome, 219

ectotympanic, 213

effect of ecology on morphology

in carnivores, 223

in herbivores, 212

in humans, 213

in mice, 212

in omnivores, 212

in rats, 212


human syndromes, 220

in mice, 216–20, 221

jaw musculature, 221

marsupial neonate jaw articulation, 208

micrognathia, 219

modularity, 209–10

morphological units, 210

alveolar bones, 210


condylar process, 210

mandibular body, 210

mental/rostral process, 210

proximal coronoid, 210

secondary cartilages, 210

morphological variation of, 210–13

musculature, 208

neural crest, 218, 219

postdentary bones, 208, 222

hearing, 208

homologues in tetrapods, 207

rat, 221

secondary cartilages

in human, 212

in mice, 212

in rats, 212

sesamoid bones, 212

squamosal-dentary joint, 207

selection pressure, 208

unilateral occlusion, 208

Treacher Collins syndrome, 220

tympanic ring, 213

velocardialfacial syndrome, 219

X-linked Hypohidrotic ectodermal

dysplasia, 220

mammal divergence times, 38–70

and paleobiogeography, 53–4

crown-group diversification, 40

crown-group origin, 40

fossil data

apomorphy lag, 48, 52


character funnel, 43, 44

explosive model, 53, 65

gaps, 45–8

ghost lineage, 52

induction ratchet, 44, 45

long-fuse model, 67

morphological clock, 52

phylogenetics, 48–52

Index 375






mammal divergence times (cont.)

short-fuse model, 67

from morphological characters, 41–5

molecular data

and fossil calibration, 58–60


fossil calibration, 67, 68

local clock, 57, 67

molecular clock, 54–8, 68

neutral theory, 54

quality of, 67–70

relaxed clock, 57, 60, 67

molecular evolution

rate of, 55, 60–7

Mammalia, 49, 70

crown-group root, 50


divergence times, 40

mammaliaform, 53, 208. SeeMammaliaformes


Mammaliaformes, 43

mammoth. See Mammuthus

mammoth, woolly, 22. See Mammuthus

primigenius

Mammut americanum, 23

Mammuthus primigenius, 20

manatee. See Trichechus

cervical vertebrae, 239

maniraptoran, 96, 338

Manis tetradactyla, 243

manus

avian, 354

marine reptile, 27, 241

marsupial, 8, 10

American marsupials, 261, 264

angular process inflection, 212, 213, 215

Australian marsupials, 261, 264

divergence time, 49

diversity of, 257

epipubic bones, 43

genome, 224

morphological diversity, 257

neonate, 257, 271


os falciforme, 309

postcanines, 49

reproduction, 257

sexual dimorphism, 302

syndactyly, 302

tooth replacement, 51

marsupial limbs, 10, 257–72

development

anterior-posterior patterning, 268, 271


apoptosis, 264


chondrogenic events, 260

gene expression, 265–70, 271

independence of fore-/hindlimb

development, 260–5

prechondrogenic events, 260, 261

proximal-distal patterning, 268

developmental constraint, 260, 270, 271

forelimb, 258, 260–4

accelerated development, 261

Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 261, 268, 271

developmental constraint, 273

molecular AER, 263

physical AER, 262

hind limb, 264–5

Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 262, 264

delayed development, 264

in neonates, 260

microarray assay, 265–70

modularity, 260

pelvis, 257

reduced fore-/hind limb covariation, 259,

262, 264, 268, 270, 271

scapula, 257

selection pressures on, 259

shoulder girdle, 257, 258

mastodon. See Mammut americanum

maximum likelihood, 121

Meckel’s cartilage, 207

medaka, 138

dentition, 186

pattern, 179

tooth initiation, 190

scales, 154, 159

membranous bone, 282

Mephitis, 241

mesenchyme condensation

376 Index






in limb development, 304

mesoderm, 8

lateral plate mesoderm, 8

somitic mesoderm, 8

Metatheria

earliest members, 49

metatherian. See Metatheria

of South American, 47

Metazoa, 104

metazoan. See Metazoa

mice. See Mus

microarray, 10, 263

mineralization

in limb development, 304

minnow

scales, 152

minnow, naked, 154

mitochondria

endosymbiotic theory of, 18

genome of, 19, 20, 21

sequencing of, 19–20

moa, 20

modern synthesis, 91

mole, 9, 306, 307–16. See talpid mole

shrew mole, 307

Sox9 expression, 311

molecular clock, 5

early application of, 5

limitations of, 6

molecular mechanisms, 9, 135, 137, 159

in denticle development, 183

in marsupial limb development, 271

in Saurichthys, 135–59

in vertebrate dentition, 171, 187, 197

molecular reconstruction, 136–41

actualism, 136

in Saurichthys, 158

parsimony, 136

uniformitarianism, 136

molecular systematics

and species selection, 130

mole’s thumb, 9, 307–16

Hox gene expression, 315

mollusc


Monodelphis, 10, 224, 268

forelimb

Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 261, 262, 263,

271

hind limb


limb development

anterior-posterior patterning, 270, 271

apoptosis, 264


fore-/hind limb covariation, 268

gene expression, 265, 268

transcriptome, 273

Monodelphis domestica, 10, 224, 261, 271, 273

monotreme, 44, 47


divergence of, 50

limb covariation, 259

prehallux, 306


tibiale, 307

Morganucodon

double jaw joint, 208

MorphoBank, 42

Morse’s law, 346

mosasaur, 27

mouse, 10, 224, 311, 317

axial skeleton, 148

caudal-related genes, 146

dentary, 225


development of, 213


secondary cartilages, 212, 222

Tgf-b2 knockout, 217Tgfbr2 knockout, 218

dentition, 171, 176, 177, 224

replacement, 181

dentition development, 167, 169, 171, 184,

197

genetic mechanisms of, 180, 186–90, 191

digits, 343


gonadal steroids, 314

limb development, 305, 352

anterior-posterior patterning, 270

Apical Ectodermal Ridge, 262, 263

Index 377






mouse (cont.)

apoptosis, 264


fore-/hind limb covariation, 268

gene expression, 265, 267, 271

limb position, 149

middle ear ossicles, 207

polydactyly, 310


mouse, beach, 140

mouse, pocket

melanism, 140

mRNA, 146

multituberculate, 58


muraena, 152

murid. See Muridae

dentition, 186

Muridae, 212

Murtoilestes abramovi, 59

Mus. See mouse

Mus musculus, 213, 224, 312. See mouse

development

anterior-posterior patterning, 271

limb development

apoptosis, 264


limb transcriptome, 273

Musculus abductor pollicis longus

in association with sesamoid, 309

in primates, 309

myocytes, 20

myotome, 282, 283

Neanderthal, 21, 22. See Homo neanderthalensis

nearest neighbour hypothesis, 179

needlefish. See Belonidae

Neoaves, 329

origin, 59

Neoceratodus, 178

forsteri, 196

Neoceratodus forsteri. See lungfish

neocete, 244

Neognathae, 328

Neornithe, 335, 352

neural crest, 310

as origin of turtle costal plates, 285–6

homology, 304

in dentary development, 218

in jaws, 183

elongation of, 151


in tooth development, 166

in vertebrate dentition, 177

odontogenic capacity, 177

neutral theory, 54, 97, 98

notochord, 145, 292

developmental constraint, 106

Numenius, 353

Odontochelys, 9, 290, 293

carapacial ridge, 290

neural plates, 282

scapula, 290

semitestacea, 9

serratus anterior, 290

odontode

homology, 178

Oncorhynchus mykiss, 189

Ophidiiformes, 152

Opisthcomos hoatzin, 353

opossum, 92

opossum, short-tailed, 224. See Monodelphis

domestica

oral teeth, 199

organogenesis

in turtles, 280

Osborn, H. F., 91

osetoglossomorph, 92

osteichthyan, 192

dentition, 196

development, 167

heterodonty, 169

pattern, 179

pharyngeal denticles, 183, 195

replacement, 195

postbranchial lamina, 195

osteoarthritis, 313

osteoderms

in pariesaurs, 283

in xenarthra, 47

Osteostraci, 169

378 Index






ostrich, 339, 353. See Struthio camelus

claws, 354

digit size reduction, 351

pseudoulnare complex, 339

oyster, 92

paddlefish. See polyodontid

paenungulate, 39

palaeanodont, 47

Palaeognathae, 329

Palaeospondylus, 136

Panderichthys, 314

Pantodon buchholzi, 92

Parageogale, 47

Parareptilia, 279

pareiasaur, 280

dermal armour, 283

relationship with turtles, 283

parrotfish, 124, 125

sexual dichromatism, 125

parsimony, 9

Patterson, Colin, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 169

pearlfish, 152

pectoral fins

in sarcopterygians, 314

Pedetes, 306

capensis, 306

Pelodiscus sinensis, 285, 290

penguin, 353

pentadactyl limb, 355

pentadactyl manus, 339, 340

pentadactyly constraint, 313

Perciformes, 152

Peristediidae, 154

phalangeal formula

in Archaeopteryx lithographica, 352

in birds, 353

in crocodilians, 352

in Huoshanornis huji, 352

in reptiles, 353


pharyngeal teeth, 199

Phascolarctos cinereus, 215

phenotypic plasticity, 83, 95

Phocoenoides, 242

phospho-histone H3, 265

Phoxinellus, 154

phylogenetic consensus, 4–5

phylogenetics

Bayesian methods, 23, 69, 86, 87, 88, 89, 101,

106, 107

from fossil data, 48–52

ghost lineages, 96

maximum-likelihood, 86, 87, 106, 107

parsimony, 86, 95, 99, 100, 105

stratigraphic debt, 96

temporal paradox, 95

phylogeography, 20

pika, 65

pipefish, 154

pisiform, 339, 346, 347

placental mammal. See Placentalia

adaptive radiation of, 62


divergence time, 45, 46, 70

explosive model, 44, 48

long-fuse model, 67

of crown, 6

short-fuse model, 67

diversity of, 257

heterotachy, 65

morphological diversity, 257

paleogeography, 45, 46

postcanines, 49

placental mammal limbs, 272

apoptosis, 264


development of

gene expression, 267

prechondrogenic events, 261

fore-/hind limb covariation, 259, 268, 270

forelimbs, 268

gene expressoin, 271

hind limb, 264

shoulder girdle, 257

placental mammal/marsupial split, 49

Placentalia, 40, 46, 52

initial differentiation, 53

placoderm. See Placodermi


dentition, 193–4, 195

replacement, 195

Index 379






placoderm. (cont.)



pharyngeal denticles co-option, 198


Placodermi, 10, 169, 193, 194, 195

placoid denticles, 173

plant


pleiotropy, 237, 305

constraint on development, 106

in Saurichthys, 157

plesiadapiform. See Plesiadapiformes

and affinities of adapisoriculids, 51

Plesiadapiformes, 51

Plotus, 353

polar bear, 20

polydactyly, 313

caused by gonadal steroids, 314

in dogs, 313

in humans, 309

polyodontid, 142

polypterid, 142, 144

Polypterus, 145, 198, 199

possum, 257

possum, striped. See Dactylopsila trivirgata

possum, Western Australian honey.

See Tarsipes rostratus


Price’s theorem, 117, 130

primate, 44, 51



molecular clock, 55

monophyly, 66

prehallux, 306

prepollex, 306

sesamoid, 309

primitive streak, 245

Proboscidea, 48

Prochrysochloris, 47

prosimid

prepollex, 306

protein sequencing, 5

Protenrec, 47

proteome

protein preservation, 22–3

protostome, 67

Protungulatum, 48

Psammobates geometricus, 347

Psarolepis, 195

pufferfish, 152

punctuated equilibrium, 118

Purgatorius, 52

pygmy right whale, 239. See Caperea

python, 171

quail, 224, 295

rabbit, 65, 92, 211, 223

radiale, 331

ragfish, 152

Ramapithecus, 5

raptor, 27

rat, 306

secondary cartilages of dentary, 212

ratite, 20

wing, 348

ray-finned fish. See Actinopterygii

Reichert, Karl, 207

relationships

of actinopterygians, 38

of Afrotheria, 39

of allotherians, 50

of amniotes, 38, 279

of archosaurs, 279

of birds, 9, 279

of crocodiles, 279

of diapsids, 38

of Equus, 19

of gnathostomes, 38

of gondwanatherians, 50

of haramiyids, 50

of mammals, 38–70

of monotremes, 50

of multituberculates, 50

of polar bear, 20

of rhinoceros, 20

of sarcopterygians, 38

of symmetrodonts, 50

of tetrapods, 38

of theropods, 9

380 Index






of triconodonts, 50

of turtles, 279–80

of vertebrates, 2–4

Remiculus, 51

reptile, 304. See Reptilia


dentary, 224

dentition, 177, 197, 199


pattern, 180

replacement, 166, 181, 186

feeding mechanism, 208

genome

chromosome type, 27

retroelements in, 26

size of, 26

jaw closure, 221


sex determination of, 27

Reptilia


Rhea

americana, 354

pennata, 354

rhinoceros. See Rhinocerotidae

rhinoceros, woolly. See Coelodonta

antiquitatis

Rhinocerotidae


RNA sequencing, 265

rodent, 2, 6, 39

body size, 62

clock-like clades, 57


dentition, 58, 186

necrotic zones of limb, 348

os falciforme, 309

prehallux, 306

prepollex, 306

presacral count, 241


tarsal navicular, 306

tibiale, 307

Rodentia


Romundina, 193

salamander, 2


salmon, 138, 197

sarcopterygian, 314

dentition

replacement, 195

digit homologues, 314

pectoral fins, 137


Sarcopterygii, 185

Sauria, 339

Saurichthyidae, 142

Saurichthys, 10, 135, 141

body elongation, 141, 148, 159

caudal vertebrae, 147

costasquamosus, 145, 150, 154

curionii, 145, 147, 150

dawaziensis, 145

deep scales, 154

dentition, 142

dermal bones, 142

diversification of, 142

elongate jaws, 159

fins

fulcra, 143

position, 141, 148–50, 159

segmentation fin rays, 143

jaw elongation, 142, 150–2

neural crest, 151

krambergeri, 145

macrocephalus, 145, 147, 150

madagascariensis, 143, 154

male copulatory organ, 142

molecular mechanisms in, 135–59

operculum, 143

paucitrichus, 145, 154

scales, 142, 143, 152–8, 159

anal loop, 147

sclerotic ring, 143

somites, 145

toxolepis, 145, 150

viviparity, 142

saurischian, 25, 26

sauropterygian, 27

Saurorhynchus brevirostris, 152

scales, deciduous, 152

Index 381






Scandentia, 39

scapula, 9

Scarus, 124

sciurid, 171

dentition, 186

Sciurus, 306

Scyliorhinus canicula, 176, 179

seahorse, 154

seal

dentition, 186

searobin, armoured, 154

segmentation, 143, 353

in Saurichthys, 145

semaphoront, 41, 42

semilunate

of birds, 339

of maniraptorans, 338

sexual dichromatism

in parrotfish, 125

sexual dimorphism, 27

in limb morphology, 302

sexual selection, 130

in parrotfish, 125

shark, 173


dentition, 173, 180

fossils, 180

pharangeal arches, 176

scale patterning, 179

unpaired fins, 149, 150

shark, dogfish. See Squalus

shark, elephant, 137

shark, Port Jackson, 169

shrew, 57, 307, 311, 312

dentition, 171, 224


shrew,NorthAmerican, 317. See Cryptotis parva

Siluriformes, 152

Simpson, G. G., 6, 91, 92, 93

Sinodelphys, 49

Sirenia

absence of pelves, 233

sirenian. See Sirenia

reduced lumbar count, 242


skink


frame shift, 343

phalangeal loss, 352


sloth, giant ground, 230

sloth, three-toed. See Bradypus

sloth, two-toed, 347. See Choloepus

snake, 241

dentition, 197

limb reduction, 261

limblessness, 301


Solenodon, 307

Somateria mollissima, 353

somites

in amniotes, 283

in mammals, 231

in Saurichthys, 145

in vertebrates, 148

somitic mesoderm

in paired appendage development, 149

somitogenesis, 10

clock, 145

in Saurichthys, 145, 146

sonic hedgehog, 343, 348

Sorex, 57

soricomorph, 310

speciation, 20, 67, 116

cladogenesis, 91

in species selection, 117

rate of, 7, 83

species selection, 7, 116–30

detection of, 121–4

diversification rates, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121,

122, 125, 126, 129

estimation of, 120

extinction, 116, 117, 118, 119

extinction rate, 122

measurement of, 120–1

frequency of, 127–9

group selection, 118

labrid fish, 124, 125, 129

molecular phylogenies, 124–7

parrotfish, 127

pharyngeal mill, 125, 129

sexual dichromatism, 125, 127

382 Index






Price’s theorem, 117, 120, 122, 124, 129

punctuated equilibrium, 118, 124

sexual selection, 125, 129

speciation, 116, 117, 118, 119

speciation rate, 122

measurement of, 120–1

species drift, 121

strength of, 127–9

Yule model, 119

Spheniscidae, 353

Sphenodon, 97

punctatus, 92

Sphyraenia

barracuda, 143

springhare. See Pedetes capensis

Squalus, 138

squamate, 2


limbless, 241

stickleback, 138, 154

fins, 149

pelvic fin, 149

scales, 152

stickleback, threespine, 157

strepsirrhine, 59

Struthio camelus, 338

sturgeon. See acipenserid

scutes, 153, 154

supernumerary digits. See tetrapod limb,

polydactyly

symmetrodont, 47


synapsid, 2

axial skeleton, 240

cervical vertebrae, 245

differentiation of, 245

hearing, 208

syndactyly, 302, 310

Syngnathidae, 154

Taeniopygia, 27

Talpa, 307, 309

occidentalis, 310, 311, 316, 317

Talpa occidentalis, 316

talpid mole, 9, 317

claws, 311

genitalia, 313

gonadal steroids

role in skeletogenesis, 313–14

Iberian mole, 310, 316, 317. See Talpa

occidentalis

limb development, 307–16

Fgf8 expression, 311

Sox9 expression in, 310–12

Musculus abductor pollicis longus, 309

Musculus palmaris longus, 309

os falciforme, 309, 317. See mole’s thumb

acropodial origin, 314

os radiale externum. See mole’s thumb

prehallux, 307, 309

prepollex, 307, 309. See mole’s thumb

radial sesamoid, 314, 315. See mole’s thumb

sesamoid bones, 309, 315, 317


tibial sesamoid, 307, 313, 315, 317

talpid3 mutant, 310

Talpidae, 307

Talpini, 313, 315

Tamandua tetradactyla, 347

Tarsipes rostratus, 212

teiid lizard, 351

teleost, 138, 157, 189


dentition, 10, 181, 190, 197

development, 195


fin position, 150

scale replacement, 179

Telestes, 157

tenrec, 47

tenrecoid, 47

testudine, 9

Testudo

campanulata, 347

gemoetrica, 347

graeca, 347

marginata, 347

Tetraodontiformes, 152

tetrapod, 4. See Tetrapoda

axial skeleton, 245

abaxial patterning, 245

dental lamina, 189

Index 383






tetrapod (cont.)

dentition, 176, 180

development, 178

early tetrapods, 305, 314, 317

forelimbs, 138

gene knockout, 136

genome size, 26

head

as a morphological unit, 210


limb, 43

development, 264, 270

position, 148, 149

reduction, 261

limbless tetrapods, 302

mandible, 207

as a morphological unit, 210


stem-tetrapods, 307

tetrapod limb, 9. See also talpid mole, limb

development

acropodium, 302

developmental patterning, 310

evolutionary origin, 314

anatomy, 301

autopodium

developmental patterning, 310


carpal navicular, 306

carpus homology, 303

development

apoptosis, 310

mole’s thumb, 307–16

Msx expression, 310

digit homology, 303


diversity of, 301, 302, 303

fabella, 313

hyperphalangy, 302

hypodactyly, 302

mesopodium


mineralized tendon, 305, 309

morphology, 316

Musculus gastrocnemius, 313

os falciforme, 306, 309

os peroneium, 313

palmar aponeurosis. See fascia palmaris

polydactyly, 302, 305, 317

prehallux

homology, 305–7

prepollex, 309

homology, 305–7

primary axis, 304, 314

radial sesamoid, 306

scaphoid, 309. See tetrapod limb, carpal

navicular

sesamoid bones, 305, 309

homology of, 309

tarsal navicular, 306

tarsus homology, 303

tibial sesamoid, 307

trapezium, 309

Tetrapoda, 305

thelodont. See Thelodonti

dentition, 193, 194


pharyngeal whorls, 177

Thelodonti, 169, 175, 183, 193

therian mammal, 38, 259


cochlea, 41

diversity of, 257

fossil record, 45

origin, 40

premolar number, 41

South American forms, 47

theropod, 25, 100

digit homology, 304

digit reduction, 343, 351

feathers, 95

relationship to birds, 9

teeth, 95

Time Tree, 18

Tingamarra Local fauna, 46

tortoise


tribospheny, 49

Trichechus, 234, 237

absence of sacral vertebrae, 242

manatus, 239

triconodont

384 Index







trout, 171

trout, rainbow, 189. See Oncorhynchus mykiss

tuatara, 97

Tuatara. See Sphenodon punctatus

Tulerpeton

polydactyly, 305

TUNEL, 265

tunicate, 2

Tupaia

os falciforme, 309

turtle, 4, 290, 347

acromion process, 280

dermal armour, 280

embryo, 290, 293

hyperphalangy, 302

primary axis of limb, 343

relationship with pareiasaurs, 280, 283

relationships with other amniotes, 279–80,

283

turtle shell, 8, 279–93. See also Odontochelys

anatomy, 281

axial arrest of ribs, 290, 292, 293

carapace, 9, 281, 282, 283, 287, 290, 293

carapacial ridge, 9, 289–90, 292, 293

cell labelling studies, 285

costal plate origin, 283–6

cell lineage labelling, 283

from neural crest, 285–6

in dermatome, 283, 285

in rib perichondrium, 283

in rib periosteum, 283, 285

in sclerotome, 285

costal plates, 281, 282, 283

dermal skeletal elements, 281, 282, 283

dermal/endochondral derivation, 281–6

embryo

recapitulation, 291

endochondral skeletal elements, 282, 283

flabellate ribs, 289, 290

heterotopy, 282, 283

intercostal muscles, 292

neural crest, 286

neural plates, 281

in Odontochelys, 282

nuchal plates, 281

plastron, 9, 281, 290, 293

in Odontochelys, 293

pygial plates, 281

ribs, 281, 283, 293

scapula, 280

latissimus dorsi, 287

migrating muscle precursor, 287

pectoralis, 287

rhomboid/levator scapulae (RLS), 287

serratus anterior (SA), 287

scapula encapsulation, 286–90, 291, 292, 293

somites, 285

suprapygial plates, 281

turtle shell evolution, 290–4

developmental constraints, 280, 290–3

tympanic ring, 207

Tyrannosaurus rex, 23

ulnare, 331, 339, 340

ungulate, 47, 48, 345

uniformitarianism, 9

urodele

carpus, 330


Ursus spelaeus, 21

vertebrate, 25, 27, 225

axial locomotion, 241

axial skeleton, 8, 159, 245

comparative development, 303

dentition, 10–11

dermal skeletal elements, 282, 283

digits, 317

Fgf signalling, 157

fossil record, 90

genome duplication events, 138

homeotic regionalization, 147

jaws, 207


limb patterning, 313

molecular clock, 105

neural crest, 285

notochord, 292

paired appendages, 149

relationships of, 2–4, 38

segmentation, 147

Index 385






vertebrate (cont.)

terrestrial, 305

tooth evolution, 10

vertebrate dentition, 166–99

acquisition from dermal skeleton, 167–9,

173, 176–8, 193

acquisition from pharyngeal endoskeleton,

167–9, 175, 176–8, 184, 193

continuous tooth replacement, 189

co-option and molecular mechanisms,

184–6

co-option models, 182–4

dental lamina, 173, 175, 181–2, 189, 195

dermal denticles, 173, 175, 176, 178, 179, 182,

183, 184, 198

patterning of, 179

dermal scales, 168

development of, 166

reiterative signalling cascade, 167

enamel knot, 181

first dentition, 192–3


molecular modification of, 190–2

in early vertebrates, 169

lungfish dentition, 196–7

neural crest, 166, 177, 198

odontode, 168. See vertebrate dentition,

dermal denticles

gene regulatory network, 178

origin, 169

oral dentition, 192

origin

alternative hypotheses, 176–8

old hypotheses, 173–6

patterning, 177

‘dental pattern’, 175

gene networks, 168, 169

pattern induction, 180


pharyngeal denticles, 168, 169, 175, 179, 183,

192, 194, 195

pharyngeal patterning, 194–5

placoderm dentition, 193–4

placoid scales, 176, 177


region-specific tooth loss, 167

skin appendage patterning, 178–80

successional teeth, 187

supernumerary teeth, 187

tooth germs, 166, 167

tooth induction

order of, 175


tooth restoration in chick, 167

vertebrate limb


virus, 88

dengue, 105


viviparity, 27

in Saurichthys, 142

Weejasperaspis, 194, 195, 198

whale, 230, 257

dentition, 186

early, terrestrial, 39

hind limb development, 268

hyperphalangy, 302

limb, 301

reduction, 261

Widanelfarasia bowni, 47

Wolffian ridge

in amniotes, 289

Xenarthra, 47

xenarthran. See Xenarthran

apomorphies, 51

origin, 47

Youngolepis, 195

Yule model, 119

Yunnanolepis, 194

zalambdodonty, 47

zebra, 19

zebra finch, 27. See Taeniopygia

zebrafish, 10, 138

axial skeleton, 148

dentition, 171, 186

pattern, 179

pharyngeal, 177, 196


386 Index







fins, 149

pelvic fins, 149

jaw

articulation, 207

development, 151

scale, 153, 159, 179

reduction, 154, 157

Zone of Polarizing Activity (ZPA)


Index 387






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From Clone to Boneassets.cambridge.org/97811070/03262/index/9781107003262_index.pdfarchosaur, 2,...

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