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Chapter 2 Foundations of Individual Behavior

MULTIPLE CHOICE

Ability 1. Which of the following statements is true about the term “ability”, as it is used in the field of

organizational behavior? a. It refers to an individual’s willingness to perform various tasks b. It is a current assessment of what an individual can do c. It refers exclusively to intellectual skills d. It refers exclusively to physical skills e. It is a prediction of future aptitude based on current attitudes

(b; Moderate; p. 14) 2. Which one of the following words is the best synonym for “ability”, as the term is used in

organizational behavior? a. motivation b. capacity c. experience d. intellect e. wisdom

(b; Challenging; p. 14) 3. Research has found that tests that measure specific dimensions of intelligence are strong predictors

of which of the following? a. job satisfaction b. turnover c. job performance d. ability to work with others e. absenteeism

(c; Challenging; p. 14) 4. What is the correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction?

a. strongly negative b. slightly negative c. about zero d. slightly positive e. strongly positive

(e; Moderate; p. 15) 5. An employee has abilities that far exceed the requirements of the job. Which of the following

predictions about that employee is most likely to be true? a. The employee’s performance may be adequate, but accompanied by declines in job satisfaction. b. The employee’s performance is likely to be far above what is required. c. The employee’s job satisfaction is likely to be low. d. The employee’s job satisfaction is likely to be high. e. The employee’s abilities will deteriorate until they match what is required for the job.

(a; Moderate; p. 15)


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6. You are the new human resources manager for a design and manufacturing firm. Overall, job performance is adequate, but the company has experienced high rates of turnover. A high percentage of employees have quit and taken other jobs. In the exit interviews, you find the most common complaint is that they are frustrated in their jobs. This scenario gives rise to the suspicion that there are problems in this firm with _____.

a. ability-job fit b. negative reinforcement c. adequate reinforcement d. disciplinary measures e. training

(a; Easy; p. 15) 7. You are the new human resources manager for a design and manufacturing firm. Overall, job

performance is adequate, but the company has experienced high rates of turnover. A high percentage of employees have quit and taken other jobs. In the exit interviews, you find the most common complaint is that they are frustrated in their jobs. After looking into the situation more, you find that the highest turnover is in the circuit-board manufacturing area. The employees in this area are required to have at least a two-year college degree. While there are many different jobs in this area, the majority involve loading automatic machines with parts to be placed on the circuit boards. Which of the following is most likely to be true about the employees in this area?

a. They need better manual dexterity skills b. They are over-qualified, dissatisfied, and paid more than necessary c. They are underpaid and resentful d. They are incompetent e. They are under-qualified

(b; Moderate; p. 15) Attitudes 8. Which of the following is the best definition of attitude? a. Attitudes indicate how one will react to a given event. b. Attitudes are the yardstick by which one measures one’s actions. c. Attitudes are the emotional part of an evaluation of some person, object or event. d. Attitudes are evaluative statements of what one believes about something or someone. e. Attitudes are a measure of how the worth of an object, person or event is evaluated.

(d; Moderate; p. 15) 9. The belief that “violence is wrong” is an evaluative statement. Such an opinion constitutes the _____

component of an attitude. a. cognitive b. affective c. reflective d. behavioral e. reactive

(a; Moderate; p. 16) 10. The _____ component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling component of that attitude.

a. affective b. cognitive c. behavioral d. evaluative e. reaffective

(a; Easy; p. 16)


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11. Jan is a security officer. Jan believes that it is important to know exactly who is in the office at any given time. She notices that some employees do not sign out of the office when they take lunch, which makes it impossible to keep track of who is actually in the office. Jan becomes frustrated with those employees. She makes note of them and reports them to their supervisors.

In the above scenario, what is the behavioral component of Jan’s attitude to the employees who did

not sign out of the office? a. Jan believes that it is important that she know exactly who is in the office at any given time. b. Jan notices that some employees do not sign out of the office when they take lunch. c. Jan finds it impossible to keep track of who is actually in the office. d. Jan becomes frustrated with those employees who do not sign out of the office.

e. Jan notes which employees leave the office without signing out, and reports them to their supervisors.

(e; Challenging; p. 16) 12. Which of the following is an example of an attitude? a. Satisfaction with a job well done. b. The observation that most dogs have four legs. c. The opinion that it is never acceptable to steal. d. Anger at being unfairly accused of a wrongdoing. e. The avoidance of a restaurant where one once received bad service.

(d; Moderate; p.16) 13. The following are possible actions that an individual may take if they behave in a way that is

inconsistent with an attitude that they hold: I: change the behavior II: change the attitude III: rationalize the behavior IV: ignore the inconstancy Which of these actions are the most likely to be taken? a. Either I, or II b. Either III or IV c. One of I, II or III d. One of I, III or IV e. One of II, III or IV

(c; Moderate; p. 17) 14. Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes results in _____. a. organizational dissonance b. cognitive dissonance c. attitudinal clarification d. values clarification e. affective reactance

(b; Moderate; p. 17) 15. The theory of cognitive dissonance was proposed by _____. a. Maslow b. Festinger c. Hofstede d. Skinner e. Pavlov

(b; Easy; p. 17)


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16. “Dissonance” means _____. a. reactance b. constance c. resistance d. consistency e. inconsistency

(e; Moderate; p. 17) 17. Festinger argued that dissonance is _____.

a. monotonous b. confounding c. physically painful d. exhausting e. uncomfortable

(e; Challenging; p. 17)

18. Jo is a courier, delivering parcels throughout the metropolitan area. Although she considers herself

law abiding, she often breaks the speed limit while making her deliveries. Which of the following statements does not reflect a likely response to the conflict between her attitude and her behavior?

a. “It’s not a problem that I speed a little bit, it’s not much over the limit, and everyone else speeds some.”

b. “The speed limits are just too low around here; anyone driving at a reasonable speed will break them.”

c. “This speeding is irresponsible. From now on I am observing the speed limits.” d. “I’ve got to drive fast sometimes, otherwise I will not make all my deliveries and I’ll lose clients.” e. “It’s wrong to break even minor laws, but I’ll probably keep speeding anyway.”

(e: Challenging; p.17)

19. According to Festinger, people will seek a (an) _____.

a. variable state with variable dissonance b. stable state with maximal dissonance c. unstable state with maximal dissonance d. unstable state with minimal dissonance e. stable state with minimal dissonance

(e; Moderate; p. 17) 20. Mrs. Jonas believes strongly that it is important that worker’s rights be respected, and that one of the

more important ways of doing this is to ensure that all workers be properly documented. She is supervising a contracting company that is building a new warehouse for her company. While doing this she discovers that many of the workers employed by the contractor are undocumented aliens working for well below minimum wage.

Mrs. Jonas is likely experiencing _____. a. cognitive dissonance b. unresolved anger c. ethical evasion d. uncertainty avoidance e. social pressure

(a; Moderate; p.17)


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21. Mrs. Jonas believes strongly that it is important that worker’s rights be respected, and that one of the more important ways of doing this is to ensure that all workers be properly documented. She is supervising a contracting company that is building a new warehouse for her company. While doing this she discovers that many of the workers employed by the contractor are undocumented aliens working for well below minimum wage

In this situation Mrs. Jonas has a/an _____ that is in conflict with a/an _____. a. behavior; behavior b. attitude; attitude c. social need; social interest d. social need; social need e. behavior; attitude

(e; Moderate; p. 17)

22. Mrs. Jonas believes strongly that it is important that worker’s rights be respected, and that one of the

more important ways of doing this is to ensure that all workers be properly documented. She is supervising a contracting company that is building a new warehouse for her company. While doing this she discovers that many of the workers employed by the contractor are undocumented aliens working for well below minimum wage

It is safe to say that this wouldn’t be a problem if Mrs. Jones was _____. a. a worker rather than a supervisor b. working for the construction company c. more of an ethical character d. an undocumented worker e. indifferent to workers’ rights

(e; Moderate; p. 17) 23. Mrs. Jonas believes strongly that it is important that worker’s rights be respected, and that one of the


Mrs. Jonas comes to you for an explanation of why she is so uncomfortable. You might refer her to the theories of _____.

a. Hofstede b. Maslow c. Skinner d. Festinger e. Surber

(d; Moderate; p. 17) 24. Mrs. Jonas believes strongly that it is important that worker’s rights be respected, and that one of the


Mrs. Jonas can be expected to relieve the discomfort she is experiencing by _____. a. deciding this issue is unimportant b. rationalizing that it is not her problem since she is not the contractor c. attempting to stop the contractor using undocumented workers d. coming to accept that using undocumented workers does not harm workers’ rights e. any of the above

(e; Moderate; p. 17-18)


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25. Festinger proposed that the desire to reduce dissonance is determined by three factors including the _____. a. values of the elements creating the dissonance b. degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements c. degree of positive affect the person has toward the behavior d. fact that values and attitudes will vary over the short term

e. awareness that dissonance exists

(b; Challenging; p. 18)

26. The primary organizational implication of cognitive dissonance theory is that it helps to predict _____.

a. overall job satisfaction for employees b. the likelihood of a given employee engaging in impression management c. the overall level to which the workforce will accept gender, racial or other types of bias d. the willingness of the workforce to accept company rules and work practices e. the inclination towards attitude and behavioral change of the workforce

(e; Moderate; p. 18) Does Behavior Always Follow From Attitudes? 27. Which of the following is not a moderating variable of the A-B relationship?

a. direct experience b. consistency c. specificity d. accessibility e. importance

(b; Moderate; p. 18)

28. The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if the attitude_____.

a. refers to something that the individual has direct personal experience with b. must be defended against the attitudes of society at large c. is perceived to be of little importance d. is related to organizational structure e. is not regularly discussed and examined

(a; Moderate; p. 18) 29. The theory that attitudes are used, after the fact, to make sense out of action that has already

occurred is best explained by _____. a. cognitive dissonance b. escalation of commitment c. self perception theory d. uncertainty avoidance e. organizational commitment

(c; Moderate; p. 19) 30. Which of the following statements are best explained by self-perception theory? a. “I think it’s wrong to steal, so I never have taken as much as a paper-clip home from the office.” b. “I wouldn’t want an office job, all my life I’ve worked outdoors, even as a child growing up on a

farm.” c. “I may have cut a few corners when I wrote that new contract, but it was more important to get it in

on time than worry about a few typos.” d. “I am a deeply religious person, so I do not want to work on any of the holy days my faith holds

dear.” e. “It is important to be truthful, but not so much that you cause unnecessary offense.”

(b; Hard; p. 19)


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31. The E.M. Foster quote, “How can I know what I think ‘til I see what I say?” reflects the notions captured by _____ theory.

a. cognitive dissonance b. escalation of commitment c. self perception d. uncertainty avoidance e. social affirmation

(c; Moderate; p. 19)

32. The degree to which a person identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her performance as being important to self-worth is _____.

a. job satisfaction b. job involvement c. job stability d. organizational commitment e. social embeddedness

(b; Moderate; p. 20) 33. _____ refers to an individual’s general attitude toward his or her job. a. Job satisfaction b. Job involvement c. Job stability d. Organizational commitment e. Social investment

(a; Moderate; p. 20) 34. Which of the following statements would have been most likely made by an employee with a high

degree of job involvement? a. “My skills make me exceptionally valuable to the company.” b. “I’m a harder worker than most of my colleagues, even to the degree I am carrying some of the

lazier ones.” c. “It felt great to get promoted; I guess the guys upstairs really did appreciate the way I had been

running things.” d. “I love my job, it is engaging, well-paid, and low pressure enough that I don’t have to be always

worrying about it in my time off.” e. “I enjoy working with my hands, so much so that on the days when my job requires me to actually

physically build something time flies by without me even noticing it.”

(c; Challenging; p. 20) 35. In her work in the publishing industry, Vera seeks out new authors who she considers promising. In

the past two years she has found a number of new writers whose work she thought was exceptional, and immersed herself in the task of helping them shape their manuscripts for submission to her managers for publishing. Although she was extremely proud of the results, none of the authors she worked with were chosen for publication. Vera believes that the decision not to publish these authors was based on personal rivalries within management, rather than the quality of her writers’ work. She is extremely frustrated, dreads coming into work each morning and is seriously thinking of resigning.

How can Vera’s job attitudes best be described? a. low job satisfaction and low job involvement b. low job satisfaction and high job involvement c. high job satisfaction and low job involvement d. high job satisfaction and high job involvement e. low organizational commitment



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36. Job satisfaction is best described as _____. a. a result b. a value c. an attitude d. causing high performance e. a valued discipline

(c; Moderate; p. 20) 37. The following answer choices are quotes from employees about their job at Healthy Eating, a chain of

health food stores. Which quote most probably comes from an employee who has a great deal of organizational commitment?

a. “I am a great believer in the importance of a healthy diet, so I’m glad I am working for a company that is trying to make simple, healthy food available to all.”

b. “I like the fact that in my role as a buyer for Healthy Eating I get to make choices about which food is good enough for us to sell.”

c. “Even though I only work in the produce department for now, it’s good to know that the suggestions I make about how the store could be improved are heard and considered by my managers.”

d. “The challenging nature of the work and the thoughtful and generous way they treat their staff has made Healthy Eating the best place I have ever worked.”

e. “With the benefits it provides, it is vital for me to keep my job. In fact, I will stay with Healthy Eating for as long as I possibly can.”

(a; Challenging; p. 20)

38. Organizational commitment is defined as _____.

a. the degree to which an employee identifies with the organization they work for and its goals b. an employee’s belief that the organization they work for will go to considerable lengths to ensure

that its employees are treated fairly c. the degree to which an employee’s sense of fulfillment and self worth is related to their job d. the amount of effort an employee will make in order to keep or advance their position in an

organization e. the degree to which an employee believes their work impacts their organization


39. Of the following, the best predictor of turnover is _____. a. job satisfaction b. job involvement c. organizational commitment d. cognitive dissonance e. affective dissonance

(c; Challenging; p. 20) 40. Which of the following is true regarding the relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism? a. There is a consistent positive relationship between the two. b. There is a consistent negative relationship between the two. c. There is a curvilinear relationship between the two. d. When fairness is controlled for, there is a direct relationship between the two. e. No relationship can be established between the two.



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41. Which of the following is NOT generally found in businesses whose employees have high-average levels of engagement? a. higher levels of customer satisfaction b. higher levels of productivity c. higher profits d. higher turnover e. lower accident rates

(d; Moderate; p.21) 42. “It is suggested that with a weakening of the loyalty of employers to employees (and vice-versa) in

today’s workplace, organizational commitment may be replaced with _____ commitment.” a. family b. occupational c. hierarchical d. department e. socially stratified

(b; Moderate; p. 21) Job Satisfaction 43. Which of the following statements is not a finding from independent studies conducted among

workers in the U.S. and other developed countries over the past 30 years? a. most workers are satisfied with their jobs overall b. U.S. trends are generally applicable to other developed countries c. employees tend to be most satisfied by the work itself d. rate of pay is strongly correlated with job satisfaction for almost all workers e. employees tend to be least satisfied with pay and promotion opportunities

(d; Challenging; p. 22) 44. In which facet of job satisfaction are people least satisfied?

a. work itself b. pay and promotion opportunities c. job overall d. supervisor e. coworkers

(b: Moderate; p.22) 45. Which of the following is not generally true? a. Satisfied workers are productive workers. b. Productive workers are satisfied workers. c. Satisfaction is the major determinant of a worker’s OCB. d. Satisfaction comes down to fairness of outcomes, treatments or procedures. e. Enterprises with a greater percentage of satisfied workers are more effective than those with a

smaller percentage of satisfied workers.

(c; Moderate; p. 23-24) 46. Early studies of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) assumed that it was closely linked with

satisfaction. More recent evidence suggests that satisfaction influences OCB, but through perceptions of _____.

a. fairness b. consistency c. productivity d. leadership ability e. out marketing



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47. The following statements are about the relationship between job satisfaction and customer satisfaction for frontline employees who have regular customer contact:

I. employee satisfaction is positively correlated to customer satisfaction II. employee satisfaction has no correlation to customer satisfaction III. satisfied customers tend to raise employee satisfaction Which of these statements are true? a. I only b. II only c. III only d. I and III e. II and III

(d; Easy; p. 25-26) 48. Which of the following statements is not true?

a. Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. b. Dissatisfied customers can increase an employee’s job dissatisfaction. c. In service organizations, customer retention and defection are highly dependent on how front-line

employees deal with customers. d. Satisfied employees are likely to be more productive. e. The most effective way to improve job satisfaction is a raise in pay.

(e; Moderate; p. 25-26) 49. An important moderator of the satisfaction-turnover relationship is the _____.

a. employee’s level of performance b. organization’s culture c. management’s style d. employee’s values and attitudes e. employee’s level of workplace deviance

(a; Challenging; p. 26) Learning 50. Which of the following indicates that learning has taken place? a. The ability to perform well on exams b. A change in motivation c. A change in behavior d. A high I.Q. score e. An increase in experience

(c; Easy; p. 27) 51. Learning has not taken place in which of the following cases? a. A farm worker makes sure that she always wears a hat after she was badly sunburned. b. A salesman watches a training video and then uses some of the techniques in that video. c. An athlete trains rigorously, until he can run a mile in less than 4 minutes. d. A warehouseman avoids working by staying in areas of the warehouse where he has observed

that the foreman does not enter. e. A manager only completes an important project by working through the night.

(e; Moderate; p. 27) 52. All of the following are true about learning except that it _____. a. involves change b. can have a very short duration c. requires a change in behavior d. requires some form of experience e. can be a bad behavior



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53. Operant conditioning argues that _____. a. behavior is reflexive b. behavior is unlearned c. behavior is a function of its consequences d. the tendency to repeat a behavior is very strong e. the tendency to repeat a behavior is instinctual

(c; Moderate; p. 27) 54. Which of the following researchers thought that reinforcement was the central factor involved in

behavioral change? a. Pavlov b. Fayol c. Skinner d. Deming e. Surber

(c; Moderate; p. 27) 55. Your boss does not follow through on her promise to pay you double for overtime hours worked.

When asked again to work overtime, you decline. This is an application of _____ conditioning. a. classical b. operant c. sensory d. association e. disappointment-weighted

(b; Challenging; p. 27-28) 56. According to operant conditioning, when a behavior is not reinforced, what happens to the probability

of that behavior occurring again? a. it increases b. it declines c. it remains unchanged d. it becomes zero e. it may increase or decrease based on other factors

(b; Easy; p. 27-28) 57. A cashier starts greeting her customers with a simple “Hello” rather than following the company policy

of greeting them with the standard greeting “Thank you for shopping with us”, since she found saying the latter slightly embarrassing. In this case, what is the experience that has led to learning?

a. The feeling of embarrassment when she uses the standard company greeting. b. The direction of the company to use the standard greeting. c. The decision not to use the company greeting. d. Her use of the informal greeting of “Hello”. e. The decision of the company to adopt the standard greeting.

(a; Moderate; p. 28) 58. What do we call the view that we can learn both through observation and direct experience? a. situational learning theory b. classical learning c. social learning theory d. hands-on learning experience e. the Pavlov principle

(c; Easy; p. 28)


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59. Social learning theory is an extension of _____. a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. shaping d. Pavlovian theory e. continuous reinforcement principles


60. Isadora observes that when her brother Mikey crosses the street without looking he is punished by

their parents. Based on this, she is careful to look before she crosses the street. Isadora has learned through what principle? a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. shaping d. extinction e. social learning theory

(e; Challenging; p. 28) 61. Social learning theory would best describe the learning in which of the following situations? a. an employee works through lunch several days in a row after being told by her boss that she will

receive extra pay. b. a man learns how to perform yoga by watching a videotape of a yoga teacher. c. a child always addresses his grandmother politely after he is given candy as a reward for his good

manners. d. a man stops wearing brightly colored shirts to work after being teased for doing so by his co-

workers. e. a postal worker’s pulse rate rises whenever she approaches a house where she has been bitten

by a dog before.


62. A manager in a workshop that reconditions used air conditioners finds that employees are avoiding

cleaning the air conditioners properly, since this is a dirty and difficult task. The manager decides to alter this behavior by docking the pay of employees who do not clean the air conditioners properly. Which of the following describes the method of shaping behavior in this situation? a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. punishment d. extinction e. counseling


63. Using operant conditioning, which of the following is not a method that can be used to change

behavior? a. negative reinforcement b. punishment c. counseling d. positive reinforcement e. shaping

(c; Easy; p. 29)


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64. What do we call the practice of reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior? a. modeling b. shaping c. classical conditioning d. social learning e. aping


65. You want to increase the productivity of an employee. Your goal is to have him produce 10 units per

day. On the first day he produces 5 units and you give him a reward. On the second day he produces 5 units and you don’t give him a reward. On the third day he produces 6 units and you give him a reward. Which method of behavioral change are you using?

a. modeling b. shaping c. classical conditioning d. social learning e. ego impairment


66. Which of the following is a method used in shaping behavior? a. positive reinforcement b. diminishment c. reaction d. manipulation e. unionization

(a; Easy; p. 29) 67. What is it called when a desired response is followed by the termination or withdrawal of something

unpleasant? a. negative reinforcement b. positive reinforcement c. manipulation d. elimination e. psychic withdrawal

(a; Moderate; p. 29) 68. Suspending an employee for dishonest behavior is an example of which method of shaping behavior? a. extinction b. negative reinforcement c. punishment d. poor planning e. reaction

(c; Moderate; p. 29) 69. Which of the following is an example of the use of extinction in shaping behavior? a. a teacher does not respond to any student who speaks before being called upon b. a workplace institutes a zero-tolerance policy for drug and alcohol use c. a manager docks the pay of all workers who arrive late d. a cat owner sprays his cat with water every time it tries to sit on the couch e. a soccer coach rewards his players with praise and small rewards if they prevent the other team

from scoring



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70. Which of the following statements about positive and negative reinforcement is not true? a. They both result in learning. b. They both strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. c. They tend to weaken behavior and decrease its subsequent frequency. d. They are effective shaping tools. e. They are often used in learning.

(c; Challenging; p. 29)

71. You are the first-line supervisor for a group of employees who make cheese slicers. Their job is not

terribly interesting or challenging and you have noticed that they are frequently tardy returning from

their breaks. You have studied the concept of shaping behavior and decide that you will try to apply it

to this situation. You praise Allen for returning on time from break. This is an example of _____. a. negative reinforcement b. positive reinforcement c. extinction d. social learning e. modeling

(b; Moderate; p. 29) 72. Sam is late coming back to work and you dock his pay. This is an example of _____. a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. punishment d. extinction e. classical conditioning


73. You want Allison to take an accounting course so that she can help with the bookkeeping. Allison

does not want to go to night school to take the course and has been resisting. You know that her least favorite duty is preparing payroll. You tell her that she will be given extra help with preparing payroll whenever she takes an accounting class. This is an example of _____.

a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. punishment d. extinction e. classical conditioning


74. You have decided to experiment with the relationship between reinforcement schedules and

maintaining desired employee behavior. You are interested in observing the differences between

continuous and intermittent reinforcement and between the various types of intermittent reinforcement

schedules. Veronica is paid $10.00 per dozen units that she produces. This is an example of _____

reinforcement. a. fixed ratio b. continuous c. intermittent, variable-interval d. negative e. none of the above

(a; Challenging; p. 29)


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75. Gerald is a staff accountant who is visited several times a year by the corporate auditor. These visits are unannounced. This is an example of _____reinforcement.

a. fixed ratio b. continuous c. intermittent, variable-interval d. negative e. reactive

(c; Challenging; p. 29) 76. John’s attendance has historically been unreliable and you have decided to use reinforcement and

compliment him when his attendance record shows improvement. The most effective schedule of reinforcement will probably be _____.

a. variable-interval b. fixed-interval c. continuous d. punishment-based e. shaped

(a; Challenging; p. 29) 77. You know that the reinforcement schedule that your firm chooses for compensation will have an

impact on the behavior of employees. Which of the following is not likely based on available research?

a. Continuous reinforcement schedules will lead to early satiation. b. Continuous reinforcement schedules are appropriate for newly emitted, unstable, or low-frequency

responses. c. Variable schedules do not clearly link performance and rewards. d. Fixed schedules will lead to higher performance than variable schedules. e. Variable schedules will be highly effective.

(d; Challenging; p. 29) 78. An employee is frequently late for work. Every time he is not tardy the manager compliments him for

being on time. What form of reinforcement schedule is the manager using? a. continuous schedule b. negative c. intermittent schedule d. repetitious e. repetitious negative

(a; Moderate; p. 29) 79. In which reinforcement schedule is a reward provided after a given number of responses?

a. variable-ratio b. fixed-ratio c. variable-interval d. fixed-interval e. viable

(b; Moderate; p. 30) 80. The corporate audit staff makes a series of randomly timed, unannounced visits to a company office.

On each visit they check the records to see that they are up to date and correct. These visits are an example of which of the following?

a. positive reinforcement b. variable-interval reinforcement schedule c. continuous reinforcement schedule d. fixed reinforcement schedule e. static response method



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81. According to research, which of the following is a schedule of reinforcement that promotes the greatest resistance to extinction?

a. continuous b. fixed interval c. variable interval d. fixed ratio e. negative

(c; Moderate; p. 30) 82. In general, _____ reinforcement schedules tend to lead to higher performance than _____

reinforcement schedules. a. variable; fixed b. fixed; intermittent c. fixed; variable d. variable; ratio e. fixed; static

(a; Moderate; p. 30) 83. Some of the problems with reinforcement theory include which of the following?

a. The power of reinforcements may not necessarily be due to operant conditioning. b. Thoughts and feelings immediately follow environmental stimuli. c. Compliments can be given without an intention of molding behavior. d. All stimuli are not motivated to obtain a particular response. e. All of the above.

(e; Challenging; p.31) Implications for Managers 84. Which of the following is not a means of achieving high levels of ability-job fit? a. an effective job selection process b. promotion and transfer decisions that reflect the abilities of candidates c. fine tuning the job to better fit the incumbent’s abilities d. designing self-analysis tools for high level managers e. being sensitive to employee needs

(d; Moderate, p. 31) 85. Managers should be interested in their employees’ attitudes because

a. attitudes give warnings of potential problems b. Attitudes influence behavior. c. Attitudes are rapidly changed. d. A and B e. None of the above.

(d; Challenging; p.31)

TRUE/FALSE Ability 86. Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of ability that make them relatively superior or

inferior to others in performing certain tasks or activities.

(True; Easy; p. 14) 87. Ability is the assessment of what one will do.

(False; Easy; p. 14)


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88. An individual’s overall abilities are essentially made up of three sets of factors: thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.

(False; Challenging; p. 15) 89. It is illegal in the U.S. for employers to use I.Q. tests for employment selection.

(False; Moderate; p. 15)

90. A high I.Q. is a good prerequisite for all jobs.

(False; Easy; p. 15) 91. Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability-job fit.

(True; Easy; p. 15)

Attitudes 92. Attitudes are evaluative statements.

(True; Easy; p. 15)

93. Attitudes are often concrete matters of fact.

(False; Easy; p. 15) 94. Attitudes and values are synonymous terms.

(False; Easy; p. 15) 95. There are three components of an attitude: cognition, affect, and behavior.

(True; Challenging; p. 16) 96. The intent to act in a certain way is the affective component of an attitude.

(False; Easy; p. 16) 97. It is often difficult to separate cognition, affect, and behavior.

(True; Moderate; p.16) 98. In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behavior.

(True; Moderate; p. 16) 99. Research has concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes but not between their

attitudes and behavior.


100. According to Festinger, people seek consistency among their attitudes.

(True; Easy; p. 17) 101. If dissonance arises over behavior that people are compelled to take, then their propensity to act to

reduce that dissonance is reduced.

(True; Moderate; p. 17)

102. According to Festinger, people seek consistency among their attitudes and their behaviors.

(True; Moderate; p. 17) 103. The theory of cognitive dissonance seeks to explain the linkage between values and attitudes.

(False; Moderate; p. 17) 104. Festinger argued that individuals will seek a stable state where there is a minimum of dissonance.

(True; Easy; p. 17)


286

105. If there is an inconsistency between an individual’s attitude on a specific issue and his or her behavior, there are only two courses of action available–alter the attitude or alter the behavior.

(False; Challenging; p. 17-18) 106. Cognitive dissonance explains the linkage between attitudes and behavior.

(True; Easy; p. 18) 107. The desire to reduce dissonance between attitude and behavior is in general not moderated by

outside factors.

(False; Moderate; p. 18) 108. If the elements creating dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to correct this imbalance

will be low.

(True; Easy; p. 18) 109. If individuals perceive the dissonance to be an uncontrollable result, they are less likely to be

receptive to attitude change.

(True, Challenging; p. 18) 110. Rewards can offset dissonance.


111. The more specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the link between the

two.

(True; Moderate; p. 18) 112. All the following are moderating variables in the attitude behavior relationship: importance of the

attitude, its applicability, its accessibility, social pressures, and direct experience.

(False; Challenging; p. 18-19) 113. Self-perception theory argues that attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out of an action that

has already occurred.

(True; Moderate; p. 19) 114. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the job.

(True; Easy; p. 20) 115. Job involvement refers to an individual’s general attitude toward his or her job.

(False; Moderate; p. 21) 116. High levels of job involvement are positively related to higher absences.

(False; Moderate; p. 21) 117. An organizational commitment to remain with a company because of moral or ethical obligations is

affective commitment.

(False; Challenging; p. 21) 118. Organizational commitment is a more global response to the organization than is job satisfaction.

(True; Challenging; p. 21)

119. Organizational commitment is a measure of the personal compatibility of a person and their position.

(False; Challenging; p. 21) 120. Organizational commitment is probably less important in predicting job satisfaction today than it was a

generation ago.



287

Job Satisfaction 121. Research has shown that people who have a negative personality are usually less satisfied with their

jobs.

(True; Moderate; p.23-24) 122. At the individual level, satisfaction generally leads to productivity.


123. The evidence indicates that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.

(True; Moderate; p. 25-26)

124. The propensity to quit a job tends to be inversely related to job satisfaction.

(True; Moderate; p. 26) 125. There is a strong negative relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism.

(False; Moderate; p.26) 126. Your supervisor is trying to assess the degree to which those working for her are satisfied with their

jobs. You are trying to gather information from your peers that might help her in her aim to improve job satisfaction. She will find that turnover and absenteeism are both negatively related to satisfaction, but the correlation is stronger for absenteeism than for turnover.

(False; Challenging; p.26-27) 127. Job satisfaction has greater influence on poor performers than superior performers as it relates to

turnover.

(True; Moderate; p. 26-27) Learning 128. Learning has occurred when there is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result

of experience.

(True; Easy; p. 27) 129. Classical conditioning grew out of the work of B.F. Skinner.

(False; Moderate; p. 27) 130. Operant conditioning can be used to explain why Christmas carols often bring back pleasant

memories of childhood.

(False; Challenging; p. 27) 131. Behaviorism argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

(True; Moderate; p.28) 132. Your supervisor has explained that he will reward those who take extra effort to see that their jobs are

done well. This tactic follows from research into operant conditioning.

(True; Easy; p. 28) 133. Rewards are most effective if they are delayed following the desired response.

(False; Moderate; p. 28) 134. Learning through both observation and direct experience is called operant conditioning.

(False; Easy; p. 28) 135. Shaping occurs when we mold individuals by using intensive training to change their behavior quickly.

(False; Easy; p. 29)


288

136. One method of shaping behavior is called positive reinforcement and occurs when a desired response is followed with something pleasant.

(True; Moderate; p. 29) 137. Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior is called punishment.

(False; Moderate; p. 29) 138. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning.

(True; Easy; p. 29) 139. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency.

(True; Challenging; p. 29) 140. Some type of reinforcement is necessary to produce a change in behavior.

(True; Easy; p. 29) 141. A continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behavior each time it is demonstrated.

(True; Easy; p. 29) 142. A piece-rate incentive plan is an example of a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement.

(False; Moderate; p. 30) 143. Salespeople on commission are examples of individuals on a variable-ratio schedule.

(True; Moderate; p. 30) Implications for Managers 144. Our knowledge about learning suggests that punishment is a more effective tool in shaping behavior

than positive reinforcement.


ESSAY QUESTIONS 145. What is ability? What is the significance of the ability-job fit?

Ability refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a given job. It is a

current assessment of what one can do. Employee performance is enhanced when an

employee and position are well matched (in ability-job fit). If we focus only on the employee’s

abilities or the ability requirements of the job, we ignore the fact that employee performance

depends on the interaction of the two. (Pages 14-15)

146. What prediction can you make for an organization where the ability-job fit is poor?

If employees lack the required abilities, they are likely to fail in their job performance. Abilities

significantly above those required can also reduce the employee’s job satisfaction when the

employee’s desire to use his or her abilities is particularly strong and is frustrated by the

limitations of the job. (Page 15)

147. Discuss the three components of an attitude.

The three components of an attitude are cognition, affect, and behavior. The cognitive

component is a value statement. Affect is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. The

behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward

someone or something. (Page 16)


289

148. Discuss cognitive dissonance theory and three ways in which individuals might alleviate dissonance.

Cognitive dissonance seeks to explain the linkage between attitudes and behavior.

Dissonance means an inconsistency. Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that

an individual might perceive between two or more of his or her attitudes, or between his or her

behavior and attitudes. Individuals will seek a stable state where there is a minimum of

dissonance. Individuals may change their behavior, reduce dissonance by concluding that

the dissonant behavior is not so important after all, or change their attitude. (Pages 16-17) 149. Define and discuss the theory of cognitive dissonance.

Cognitive dissonance was proposed in the late 1950s by Leon Festinger. This theory sought

to explain the linkage between attitudes and behavior. Dissonance means an inconsistency.

Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual might perceive between

the two or more of his or her attitudes, or between his or her behavior and attitudes.

Individuals will seek a stable state where there is a minimum of dissonance. (Page 17)

150. Explain self-perception theory.

Self-perception argues that attitudes are used, after the fact, to make sense out of an action

that has already occurred rather than as devices that precede and guide action. And contrary

to cognitive dissonance theory, attitudes are just casual verbal statements. When people are

asked about their attitudes, and they don’t have strong convictions or feelings, self-perception

theory says they tend to create plausible answers. (Page 18) 151. Most of the research in OB has been concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement,

and organizational commitment. Explain the difference between these attitudes.

Job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a

high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the job, while a person who is

dissatisfied with his or her job holds negative attitudes about the job. Job involvement

measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his or her job and

considers his or her perceived performance level important to self-worth. Employees with a

high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work they

do. Organizational commitment is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a

particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.

So high organizational commitment means identifying with one’s employing organization.

(Page 20) 152. What are the major causes of job satisfaction?

The major job satisfaction facets are the work itself, pay, advancement opportunities,

supervision, and coworkers. Enjoying the work itself is almost always the facet most strongly

correlated with high levels of overall job satisfaction. Most people prefer work that is

challenging and stimulating over work that is predictable and routine. For people who are poor

or who live in poor countries, pay does correlate with job satisfaction and with overall

happiness. But, once an individual reaches a level of comfortable living the relationship

virtually disappears. Personality also plays a role in job satisfaction. Research has shown that

people who have a negative personality (for example, those who tend to be grumpy, critical,

and negative) are usually less satisfied with their jobs. (Pages 23-24)


290

153. Discuss how job satisfaction can impact employee productivity, absenteeism and turnover.

At the individual level, the evidence suggests that productivity is likely to lead to satisfaction.

There is a consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism, but the

correlation is moderate. Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover, but the correlation

is stronger than what was found for absenteeism. An important moderator of the satisfaction-

turnover relationship is the employee’s level of performance. (Pages 24-27) 154. Discuss whether employee satisfaction is related to customer satisfaction.

The evidence indicates that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. In

service organizations, customer retention and defection are highly dependent on how front-

line employees deal with customers. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly,

upbeat, and responsive – which customers appreciate. And because satisfied employees are

less prone to turnover, customers are more likely to encounter familiar faces and receive

experienced service. These qualities build customer satisfaction and loyalty. Dissatisfied

customers can increase an employee’s job dissatisfaction. Employees who have regular

contact with customers report that rude, thoughtless, or unreasonably demanding customers

adversely effect the employees’ job satisfaction. (Page 25) 155. What is learning?

Leaning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of

experience. Learning involves change. The change must become ingrained. Some form of

experience is necessary for learning. (Page 27) 156. Identify and discuss operant conditioning and social learning. Be sure to specifically identify the key

elements of each of these theories by name.

Skinner, who discovered operant conditioning, argues that behavior is a function of its

consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they

don’t want. Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior in contrast to reflexive or

unlearned behavior. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by the reinforcement

or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behavior and can be

manipulated through positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, shaping,

and extinction. Social learning is the theory that we can learn through both observation and

direct experience. Social learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning; it assumes

that behavior is a function of consequences – it also acknowledges the existence of

observational learning and the importance of perception to learning. People respond to how

they perceive and define consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves.

(Pages 27-28) 157. How can managers shape employee behavior?

Managers can shape employee behavior by systematically reinforcing each successive step

that moves the individual closer to the desired response. Managers can mold individuals by

guiding their learning in graduated steps. Reinforcement increases as responses more closely

approximate the desired behavior. Managers may use positive reinforcement, negative

reinforcement, punishment, and extinction to promote this gradual shaping of employee

behavior. (Page 29)


291

158. Give an example of a fixed-ratio schedule for paying employees and an example of a variable-ratio schedule for payment.

In a fixed-ratio schedule, rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.

For example, a worker is rewarded with a piece rate system paying $10 for every 12 widgets

produced. Each dozen earns the worker another $10. A variable-ratio schedule provides

rewards at variable amounts of output. For example, a car salesman on commission is on a

variable-ratio schedule. Each potential customer does not necessarily result in a sale and thus

a commission. (Page 30)

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