FutureTeachersasPeacebuildersinBanda

Aceh,Indonesia

FutureTeachersasPeacebuildersinBanda

Aceh,Indonesia

MScInternationalDevelopmentStudiesThesis09/12/2016Student:FaryaalZamanStudentNumber:11181567Supervisor:DrM.T.ALopesCardozoSecondReader:Ms.E.J.T.MaberWordCount:25,821

PhotoCredit:UNICEFIndonesia,2014http://unicefindonesia.blogspot.nl/2014/12/the-emergency-volunteers-who-stayed-to.html

2

AcknowledgementsMytimeinAcehwasoneofthemostrewardingperiodsofmylife,andforthistherearemanypeoplethatdeservecredit.Firstly,Ithankmysupervisor,DrMiekeLopesCardozo,whosegenuinepassionforthisregionandsubjectiscontagious,whichhasmadethethesiswritingprocessalittleeasier.IwouldalsoliketothankLizzieMaberforagreeingtotakeonthetaskofbeingmysecondreader.Tomymum,dadandbrothers,andmyfriendsbackintheUK–theymightnotalwaysunderstandwhyIchoosetoleavehomeforsuchlongperiodsoftime,yetarealwaysunwaveringintheirsupport,forwhichIamgrateful.IalsoowemanythankstomyIDSfamilyhereinAmsterdam.Ican’timaginethisyearwithoutallthelaughs,tearsandendlesshoursspentinthelibrarytogetherinsolidarity.AbigterimakasihisnecessarytoeveryoneImetinAcehandmademytimetheresounforgettable.SpecialthanksgotoallthefantasticallywelcomingpeopleatICAIOSformakingmefeelsoathome,especiallymylocalsupervisorProfessorEkaSrimulyani,aswellasKakEra,KakCut,KakUli,Asrul,Tito…thelistgoeson!Lastly,thisthesiswouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutFarahHanum,mywonderfultranslator,researchcompanionandaboveall,myfriend.Iameternallygratefultoherforsupplyingmewitheverythingfromasteadystreamofwillingresearchparticipants,todelicioussurprisebreakfastsofrotiselai.Herinsatiableappetiteforknowledgeandambitiontoconstantlyadvanceherpositionwillcontinuetoinspiremeinfutureyears.Ilookforwardtomeetingagain,Insha’Allah!Terimakasih!

3

AbstractHavingexperiencedmorethantenyearsofpeaceaftertheendofabloodycivilwarlasting30years,theprovinceofAceh,Indonesiaisoftencelebratedasararecaseofsuccessfulconflictresolution.TheaimofthisstudyistoprovideinsightintotheunderstudiededucationsystemsofAcehandhoweducationalactorsaresituatedinitspost-conflictsetting.Morespecifically,thisstudyexplorestheextenttowhichAcehneseteachereducationsystemsfacilitatepracticabilityofsustainablepeacebuildingamongstfutureteachersinthecontextofanobserved‘fragile’peace.LocatedinAceh’suniquelyIslamic,post-conflictandpost-tsunamicontext,findingsfromthisstudyweredeterminedusingaqualitativedatacollectionprocessinwhichthemajorityofrespondentswerepre-serviceteachersenrolledinEducationprogramsinBandaAceh.Applyingamulti-scalarcombinationoftheoreticalframeworks,theresearchanalyseshowtheagencyoffutureteachersinbeingabletopracticesustainablepeacebuildingrelatestoawiderangeofcontextual,structuralconstraints,includingcurricula,teachertrainers,andsocio-cultural,politicalandeconomicfactors;italsorevealsthelimitedextenttowhichelementsofsustainablepeacebuilding,namelyredistribution,recognition,representationandreconciliation,arepresentwithinAcehneseteachertrainingsystems.

Keywords:teachereducation,agency,peacebuilding,Islam,gender

4

ContentsAcknowledgements……………………………………….…………………………………………………………………2Abstract……………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………..3GlossaryandAbbreviations…………………….…………………………………………………………………….…6Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..7Researchpurpose,relevanceandmotivation……………………………………………………………….………9Researchquestions……………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..10Descriptionofresearchlocation.………………………………………………………………………………………..11Researchcontext…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……12 TheConflict.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………12 TheTsunamiandEndoftheConflict……………………………………………………………………….12 TheAftermathandPeacebuildingefforts………………………………………………………………..13 Education………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..13 Gender……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15Theoreticalframework……………………………………………………………………………………………………17CriticalCulturalPoliticalEconomyofEducation(CCPEE).……………………………………………………18StrategicRelationalAnalysis(SRA)andFutureTeacherAgency……………………………………….…19PeacebuildingEducationforFutureTeachers…………………………………………………………………….21Matrifocality…………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………….….22ConceptualScheme…………….……………………………………………………………………………………………..24ResearchApproach…………………………………………………………………………………………………………25Methodology.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….26DataAnalysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………27ScopeandLimitations…………………………………………………………………………………………………………27EthicalConsiderations…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……29FindingsChapter1:………………………………………….………………………………………………………..……30“PeacebuildingEducation?Wedon’thaveaclassforthat”(BIT1-F)………………………………….31The‘Islamisation’ofLocalContent–AMissedOpportunity………………………………………….……32Wedon’ttalkaboutthatintheclassroom”(FEL2-F)……………………………………………………..…..33CivicEducation……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………35 Democracy……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..35 HumanRights…………………………………………………………………………………………………………37 ImplicitPeacebuildingEducation?…………………………………….……………………………………38TeachingFutureTeachers:Lecturer’sMotivationsandStrategies……………………….……….……39ParticipatoryOpportunities……………………………………………………………………………………..…………42FindingsChapter1:ConcludingReflections.……………………………………………………………………….44

5

FindingsChapter2:.………………………………………….……………………………………………………….……46PerceptionsofTeacherEducation………………………………………………………………………….…………..47The‘SoundofGuns’:ConflictExperiences………………………………..……………………………………..…49PerceptionsoftheCurrentStateofPeace………………………………………………………………………….50PerceptionsonPeacebuildingEducation…………………………………………………………………………….52‘TheNobleProfession’–StudentMotivationsandReflectionsontheRoleofTeachers…….54FindingsChapter2:ConcludingReflections.………………………………………………………………….……56FindingsChapter3:.………………………………………….…………………………………………………………….57TeachingandMotherhood.………………………………………………………………………………………………..58MalePrivilegewithinAcehneseTeacherEducation……………………………………………………………61FutureFemaleTeachers–AgencyandSpaceforManoeuvre……………………………………………63FindingsChapter3:ConcludingReflections.……………………………………………………………………….64Discussionoffindings……………………………………….……………………….……………………………………66TheoreticalReflections………………………………………………………………….……………………………………68RecommendationsforFutureResearch…………………..…………………………………………………………69References………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………….70Appendices……………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………..78

6

GlossaryandAbbreviations4Rs–TheoreticalFrameworkforSustainablePeacebuilding

BahasaIndonesia–NationalIndonesialanguage

CCPEE–CriticalCulturalPoliticalEconomyofEducation

CDA–CriticalDiscourseAnalysis

Dayah–typeofIslamicboardingschool

DinMinimi–Acehnesecriminalgroupformedbyex-GAMcombatants

GAM–GerakanAcehMerdekaorFreeAcehMovement

HRE–HumanRightsEducation

Ibuism–Indonesianideologicalconstructionofwomanhood

ICAIOS–InternationalCentreforAcehandIndianOceanStudies

LoGA–LawonGoverningAceh

LCC–LocalContentCurriculum(a1994nationallawtoincludelocalcontentineducation)

Madrasah–Islamicdayschool

MoU–MemorandumofUnderstanding(Acehnesepeaceagreementsignedin2005)

Pancasila–UnifyingIndonesianstateideology

Pesantren-typeofIslamicboardingschool

PPL-ProgramPengalamanLapanganorFieldExperienceProgramfortraineeteachers

Qanun–Acehneseregionalbylaw

Sekolah–Dayschool

Shari’aLaw–Islamiclaw

SRA–StrategicRelationalApproach

Ulama–bodyofIslamicscholarswithreligiousauthority

Wahabi–orthodoxbranchofSunniIslam

Zakat–charitabledonationsrequiredbyIslam

7

Introduction

Photograph1:Afinal-yeareducationstudentontheirpracticalfieldplacement(PPL),takeninaschoolinAcehBesar.Credit:FarahHanum

8

“Iwanttochangetheviewsofsociety,thatistheroleofateacher.ButifIdependtoomuchonthelecturersorfaculty,Iwon’thaveabigeffect.IfIwanttodothis,Ihavetodomyself.”TheabovereflectioncamefromayoungmanstudyingtobecomeaCivicEducationteacherinBandaAceh,Indonesia.AnautonomousregionoccupyingthenorthernmosttipofSumatraislandinIndonesia,Acehhasbeenthesiteofsignificantcivilconflictanddisasterinrecentyears.Withthemostrecentcivilwarendingin2005,thepost-conflictperiodhasbeencharacterisedbyanormalisingofrelationshipsbetweenpreviouslyconflictinggroups,thereintegrationofex-combatantsintosociety,andprogressinhumandevelopmentindicators(UNDP,2010).However,overtenyearsonfromtheendoftheconflict,thiscurrentstateof‘peace’isarguablyfragileduetoacontinuedlackofgovernmentalinterestinaddressingpastinjustices(AmnestyInternational,2015),andoccasionaloutbreaksofviolence(BBC,2015).Inlightofthis,variousperceptionsabouthowtoachieveatrulypeacefulsocietycanariseamongsttheyoungergenerationstaskedwithsustainingitinthefuture,asreflectedbythestudent’sthoughtsabove.ConflictinAcehhasstemmedfromthefactthatAcehhashistoricallybeenmoredevoutlyanduniquelyIslamicthantherestofIndonesia(Milallos,2007).IndefenceoftheirstrongIslamicidentity,Acehhashadalongstandingresistancetothepresenceofexternalauthority,firstagainstDutchcolonialpowersandthenagainstaJavanese-centredIndonesianstate(Burke,2008).ThemostrecentexampleofhostilitybetweentheAcehneseandthestatecameintheformofaviolentcivilconflictthatlastednearly30years,betweenIndonesiannationalforcesandGAM(GerakanAcehMerdakaorFreeAcehMovement).Furtherdisasterstruckonthe26thDecember2004intheformofahugeearthquakeintheIndianOceanofftheWesterncoastofSumatra,causingahugetsunamithatresultedinthedeathanddisplacementofhundredsofthousandsofpeopleinAceh.Withthetsunamibeingacknowledgedasacatalysttoencouragepeacetalks(Burke,2008;Gaillardetal.,2008)thecivilconflictformallyendedin2005throughthesigningofaMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU)inHelsinki.Despitethis,thewarwaslargelyignoredbyinternationalactorsonthegroundinpost-tsunamiAceh–aidwasheavilyconcentratedonreconstructionworkratherthanconflict-sensitiveandpeacebuildinginitiatives,withanyexamplesofthelatterbeingcompletelyphasedoutby2011(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014).Intheabsenceofanylastingpeaceinitiatives,thereisalackofrecentinformationaboutthecurrentstateof‘peace’intheprovince,andhowitcontinuestopersist.TheAcehneseeducationsystemhasalsobeenshapedbythecivilwarandthedevoutIslamicidentityassociatedwiththeprovince.Duringthe30-yearconflict,schoolswereburneddownandmanyteacherskilled,havinglong-lastingtraumaticeffectsonstudents,teachersandothereducationalstakeholders(Srimulyani,2013).SinceAcehwasgrantedspecialautonomyaftertheconflict,itwasabletoimplementalocalcurriculumthatfocusedonlearningIslamicteachings(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014).Withthisinmind,thereislimitedinsightintothestructureoftheAcehneseeducationsystem,despiteitbeingwell-establishedforcenturies(Srimulyani,2013).Furthermore,educationstructuresareargued

9

tobeabletosignificantlycontributetobuildingpeaceandsocialcohesioninpost-conflictcontexts(BushandSaltarelli,2000).Consideringthatitisteacherswhospecificallyholdthepowertopromotepeaceandsocietalchangewithinthesestructures(LopesCardozo,2011;Kirk,2004;Vongalis-Macrow,2006),thereisaknowledgegapinunderstandinghowtheAcehneseteachereducationsystemtrainsfutureteachersinthecontextofaseeminglyfragile,sustainedpeace.ResearchPurpose,RelevanceandMotivationTherehasbeenariseinpoliticalIslaminrecentdecadesglobally,increasingtheprominenceofsomeextremistreligiousconceptssuchasmilitantandjihadicIslam,whichhavebecomeembeddedinsomeglobaldiscoursesaboutconflicts(Othman,2006;Milallos,2007).DespiteitsIslamicconservatism,thecurrentstateofpeaceinAcehiscelebratedasararecaseofsuccessfullyimplementinghumanitarian,developmentandsecurityaidinapost-conflictenvironment(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014),eventhoughitisclearthatthefullimplicationsofthecivilwarhavestillnotbeenaddressed.Acehisfurtherworthyofstudybecauseofits“perceivedbreak”(ibid:5)fromculturalandpoliticalconflictsinthepast,inanefforttoremakeitselfafteraviolentandtragichistory.TherearealsorelativelyfewstudiesavailableonIndonesiaandtheinternalconflictsithasexperienced,eventhoughitishometothelargestMuslimpopulationintheworld.Therefore,thisresearchhopestomakeasmallcontributiontowardsunderstandingthecircumstantialnuancesandlogisticswhichshapenotionsofpeacebuildinginIslamic,post-conflictcontexts.Teacherscanbeseenasstrategicpoliticalactorsthatdirectlycontributetoandinfluencetheperceptionsoffuturegenerationsaboutdifferentgroupsofpeople(LopesCardozo,2011).Thus,futureteacherscanbeseenascrucialcomponentswithinthenotionofsustainablepeacebuildingeducationbecauseoftheirpotentialtobecomecriticalagentsoftransformationinpost-conflictsettings(Vongalis-Macrow,2006).LittleresearchhasbeenundertakenpreviouslyinAcehprovinceduetothelackofinternationalpresencebeforetheconflict,withAcehneseeducationsystemsbeingespeciallyunderstudied(Schultz,2008;Srimulyani,2013).ThereisvirtuallynoliteratureonhowAcehnesepre-serviceteachersareformallytrainedtodeliveraneducationthatiscomplimentarytothesustainedstateofpeace,inthecontextofpost-conflictandpost-disasterrecovery,aswellasstrongIslamicconservatism.Therefore,thisresearchalsoaimstobuildonwiderdebatesaboutthesocietalandpoliticalrolesofteachereducationinpost-conflictcontexts.Furthermore,thediscussionofgenderrolesinIslamiccontextstypicallyassociateswomenwithnegativeconnotationsofoppression(NowakandCaulfield,2008).GenderrolesinAcehdonotfullyfitthispattern,aswomenareoftensubjecttotheconstraintsofapatriarchalsociety,yetarealsoawardedmatrifocalstatus,havingprominentroleswithinthehomeandschools.However,generalstudiesofeducationintheIslamicworldhavenotfocusedontheexistenceofwomenwithinthesestructures(Srimulyani,2012).Duringthecivilconflict,Acehnesewomenhadawidevarietyofexperiences;manyenduredvarious

10

formsofgenderedsufferingsuchasrape,whileothersactivelyfoughtaspartoftherebelarmy(Lee-Koo,2012).Despitethesignificanceoftheirexperiencesandcontributions,theywerelargelyexcludedfromthepeaceprocess(ibid.).Followingthis,thereislittleunderstandingofhowfemalestudentsandteacherscurrentlyoperatewithinAcehneseeducationsystems,theconstructionofgenderrolesandidentitiesinthesesystems,andhowsuchnotionsmightrelatetosustainablepeacebuildinginpost-conflictAceh.ResearchQuestionsMymainresearchquestionwasformulatedasfollows:TowhatextentcanAcehneseteachertrainingfacilitatepracticabilityofsustainablepeacebuildingamongstfutureteachers?Byteachertraininginstitutes,thisresearchreferstotheformalpre-serviceeducationsystemforAcehnesefutureteachers.Inrespondingtothemainresearchquestion,Idivideditintofourcorrespondingsub-questionsasspecifiedbelow:TowhatextentareaspectsofsustainablepeacebuildingeducationincorporatedintoAcehneseteachertrainingcurricula?HowdoAcehneseteachertrainers’perceptionsabouttheconflict,presentstateofpeaceandtheirroleineducatingfutureteachersaffectteachereducationinpractice?HowdoAcehnesefutureteachersperceivetheirtraining,thepreviousconflictandpresentstateofpeace?Howdoesthisinfluencetheiroutlookontheteachingprofessionandsustainablepeacebuilding?Howaregenderedrolesestablishedthroughteachertraining,andhowdoesthisaffectnotionsofsustainablepeacebuildinginteachereducation?Followingtheformationofthesesub-questions,thisthesisproceedsbyofferingadescriptionoftheresearchlocationandanoverviewofkeycontextualfeaturesassociatedwithit–namelytherecentconflict,tsunami,peace,educationandgender.Thenextchapterpresentsthetheoreticallensesemployedtoframethisresearch,followedbythedetailsofresearchmethodologyused.FindingsChapters1,2and3subsequentlypresenttheoutcomesofthedataanalysisusedtoanswerthefoursub-questions.Lastly,thisthesiswillrelatebacktothemainresearchquestioninthefinaldiscussionchapterbyreflectingonthekeyfindings.

11

DescriptionofResearchLocationThisresearchwascarriedoutintheRepublicofIndonesia,anarchipelagicislandnationinSoutheastAsialyingbetweentheIndianandPacificOceans.Asof2014,thepopulationwasmeasuredat254millionpeoplewithaGDPpercapitaof$3,360,classifyingitasalowermiddleincomecountry(WorldBank,2016).ThoughBahasaIndonesiaistheofficiallanguage,inrealitytherearethousandsofethnicgroupsspeakinghundredsoflanguagesanddialects(Drakeley,2005).Historically,Indonesia’sinhabitantshavebeendividedacrossawidearrayofterritories,includingkingdomsinneighbouringcountriessuchasMalaysia;thishasmeantthatIndonesia’sbiggestchallengesinceindependencein1945hasbeenconstructingaunifiednationalidentity(ibid.).Islamisthemajorityfaithwitharound88%ofthepopulationfollowingthereligion(PewResearchCentre,2011).Morespecifically,theresearchwasundertakeninBandaAceh,thecapitalofthesemi-autonomousAcehProvincewhichoccupiesthenorthernmosttipofSumatraIsland.InadditiontoBahasaIndonesia,manyoftheresidentsspeakthelocallanguageknownasAcehnese.Historically,asthewesternmostpointinthenationAcehwasafirstpointofcontactforArabandIndiantraderswithIndonesia,andthefirstsignificantconversionstotheIslamicfaithinthecountrytookplacehere(Aspinall,2007)–itisknownasthe“VerandaofMecca”orSerambiMekkahbecauseofthis,andalsoduetoithistoricallybeingthemaindeparturepointforthoseleavingforpilgrimage(Lingga,2007).TheIslamicfaithiscentraltotheidentityofAcehnesepeople(aroundfourmillionintotal),withestimatesofMuslimsmakingupbetween90and99%ofresidentsintheprovince(Jauhola,2013),andawidespreadbeliefthat“beingAcehneseisinseparablefrombeingMuslim”(Aspinall,2007:247).ThisstrongreligiousidentityisfurtherevidentinthefactthatAcehistheonlyprovinceinIndonesiathathasimplementedpartialShari’aLaw(Vaswani,2009).

MapSource:http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/indonesia605/autonomy.html#map

12

ResearchContextGiventhatthenatureofthisresearchrequiresgoingintofurtherdetailsabouttheAcehnesecontext,thissectionwillbuildontheinformationoutlinedpreviouslytogivemorein-depthoverviewsofdifferentaspectsofAcehneseculture,historyandsociety.TheConflictAcehprovincehasalonghistoryofconflictandIslamicmilitancy,goingasfarbackasthelate19thcenturywhentherewasarevoltagainsttheincreasedcolonialexpansionoftheDutch,ledbytheulama(religiousscholars)(Aspinall,2007).Similarly,duringthe1950s,afterIndonesiadeclaredindependence,theAcehneserevoltedagainstthegovernmentduetoabrokenpromiseofgrantingautonomytotheregion.In1971,thediscoveryofnaturalgasreservesinAcehledtothearrivalofforeigncompaniessuchasMobilintheprovince.ProfitsfromthisdiscoveryandotherresourcespresentinAceh(includingtimberandminerals)weresiphonedawayfromthelocalareatobenefittheforeigncorporationsaswellaseliteofficialsinJakarta;only5%ofsuchprofitsremainedinAceh(WorldWatchInstitute,2013).Grievanceswerefurthermagnifiedduringthistimeduetothe“perceivedJavanisationofnationalculture”(BarronandBurke,2008:5)bySuharto’s‘NewOrder’regime.TensionsculminatedinthecreationofGAM(GerakanAcehMerdekaortheFreeAcehMovement)in1976byHasandiTiro,whofoundedthemovementinresponsetothevariousongoinginjusticeswithinAcehprovince.Laterthatyear,asmalluprisingfromGAMwasquicklycrushedbytheIndonesianmilitary,sparkingacivilwarthatwastolastforthreedecades(WorldWatchInstitute,2013).Duringthisperiod,theconflictwascharacterisedbymasskillingsofcivilians,massarrestsofGAMmembers,theassassinationofseveralhumanrightsadvocates,aswellasmanydemonstrationsandinsurgencycampaignsagainstthenationalgovernment(ibid.).Thoughvariouspeaceagreementswereattemptedthroughoutthe1990sandearly2000sthroughfacilitatedtalksbetweenthenationalgovernmentandGAMleaders,noneofthemlasted(Lingga,2007).Aftermartiallawwasintroducedin2003,theconflictintensifiedandAcehexperiencedevenmorehumanrightsabusessuchasforceddisappearances,arbitrarydetentionsandextrajudicialkillings(HumanRightsWatch,2003).Thetotalamountofcasualties,includingcivilians,resultingfromthecivilwaroverthefull30-yearperiodisestimatedtobecloseto30,000(Aspinall,2009b),andthemajorityofperpetrators(whethertheywereGAMinsurgentsorgovernmentforces)wereneverbroughtbeforeanindependentIndonesiancourtoflaw(AmnestyInternational,2013).Thecivilconflictfinallycametoanendin2005,lessthanayearafterthe2004BoxingDaytsunamiwhichwillbediscussedfurtherbelow.TheTsunamiandtheEndoftheConflictOn26thDecember2004Indonesiawasstruckbyatsunamitriggeredbyamassive9.2magnitudeearthquakeintheIndianOcean,withitsepicentrelocatedaround100milesoffthecoastofNorthernSumatra.Acehwasamongthehardest-hitregionsaffectedbythis

13

disaster,withanestimated164,000peoplekilledintheprovinceandafurther500,000madehomelessordisplaced(Burke,2008).Previously,theimpositionofmartiallawhasbeenusedtorestrictinternationalhumanitarianorganisationsandmediaoutletsfromhavingaccesstotheregion,effectivelyclosingoffAcehfromtheinternationalcommunity(Lee-Koo,2012).Thischangedintheaftermathofthetsunami–suddenlytherewasahugeinfluxofinternationalactorsincludingaidagencies,multilaterals,foreigntroopsandmediaagencies.ThetsunamiandtheglobalattentiononAcehinitsaftermathhadasignificantroleinpavingthewayforarelativelyswiftpeaceprocess;byAugust2005GAMandtheIndonesiangovernmenthadsignedaninternationally-brokeredMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU)inHelsinki,whichgrantedtheregionsemi-autonomousstatus.BytheendoftheyearAcehhadwitnessedthesuccessfuldemilitarisationofGAMandthewithdrawalofthemajorityofgovernmentforcesfromtheprovince(WorldWatchInstitute,2013).TheAftermathandPeacebuildingEffortsWiththerushofaidintoAcehafterthetsunamitherewasaboominbuildingandreconstructionefforts(Aspinall,2009a),andtheMoUwaspraisedasaperceivedsuccessfulimplementationofpeacebuildingbyinternationalactorsinanIslamicregion(Burke,2008).However,inrealityAcehhadnotbeenwidelyknownasaconflict-affectedareapreviouslyamongsttheinternationalcommunity,duetoalackofmediaattention.Internationalsupportandfundingforpeacebuildinghadinsteadbeengenerallygearedtowardsmorepoliticallysignificant,vulnerablestatessuchasIraqandAfghanistan(Burke,2008).InternationalorganisationspresentinthereliefeffortwerethereforeunabletograspthelongstandinganimositybetweenAcehnesecitizensandthestate,andwhereawarenessoftheconflictwaspresent,practicalconstraintsexistedintermsofstaffnotpossessingconflict-sensitiveexpertise,orbeingpreoccupiedwithmeetingmoreachievabletargetsinreconstruction(ibid.).Asaresultofthistherewasaclearprioritisationofdisasterreliefoverconflictreliefandby2011,themajorityoftheveryfewconflict-sensitiveinitiativesandpeacebuildingprogramsthathadbeenimplementedwerephasedout(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014).Withthemajorityofinjusticesexperiencedduringtheconflictseeminglystillunaddressed(AmnestyInternational,2013),thepresentstateofstabilityandpeaceintheregionappearssomewhatsuperficialfromanoutsideperspective,furtherincreasingthecaseforresearch.Indeed,anysenseofpeaceisunderminedbyregularflaresofviolenceamidincreasingIslamicconservatismintheregion–arecentexampleofthiswastheburningdownoftwochurchesinAceh(BBC,2015).EducationThereisanextremelylimitedamountofwrittenorEnglishtranslatedworkabouttheoveralleducationsysteminAceh,becauseoftherestrictedaccesstoWesternersduringtheconflictperiod(Schultz,2008).Incontemporaryconflictsschoolsoftenbecometargets(BushandSaltarelli,2000),andthiswasunfortunatelythecaseinAcehduringthecivilwar.Estimatessuggestthataround4,379or66%ofschoolsinAcehweredamagedordestroyedduringthe

14

30yearsofwar(AmnestyInternational,2013;LopesCardozoandShah,2016a).Afterthe2004tsunamitherewassignificantinvestmentfromforeigndonorstorebuildtheeducationsystem,reconstructfacilitiesandhirenewteachers(Schultz,2008).Asaresultofthis,alongwithanAcehneseculturalpreferenceforeducationatalllevels,inrecentyearstheprovincehasoutperformedothersintermsofschoolparticipationrates(UNDP,2010).ThepeaceagreementthatgrantedAcehitssemi-autonomyalsoallowedregionalgovernmentstohavegreatercontrol,includingovereducation,throughtheLawofGoverningofAceh(LoGA).AlthoughconsiderableattentionhasbeenpaidtoreconstructionoftheschoolingsystemandimprovingequitableaccesstoeducationthroughLoGA,patriarchalideasaboutgenderrolescontinuetoaffectthecontentofeducation(Srimulyani,2012).Pancasila,aunifyingstateideologypromotingasinglenationalidentitythroughvariousIslamicvalues(Baidhawy,2007)issupposedtobeincorporatedintoAcehnesecurriculum,butinrealitythisisunderminedbyLoGAandaLocalContentCurriculum(LCC)program,whichemphasisesconservativeIslamicteachingsandauniqueAcehneseidentityratherthanfocusingonnationalunity(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014).LawsrelatingtothenationaleducationsystemofIndonesiadictatethatthosewishingtopursueteachingmustgothroughacertificationprocessinvolvingcompletinganUndergraduatedegreeinaFacultyofEducationatuniversity(normallylastingfouryears),withteachereducationconsistingoffourcompetencies:pedagogic,personality,socialandprofessional(Changetal.,2013;FirmanandTola,2008).InBandaAcehtherearethreeuniversities:UINAr-Raniry(UniversitasIslamNegeriAr-Raniry,orStateIslamicUniversityofAr-Raniry),UniversitasSyiahKuala,andUniversitasSerambiMekkah,thelastofwhichisaprivateuniversity.UINAr-RaniryandSyiahKualaUniversityarethelargestwiththemostextensiveEducationFaculties;allparticipantsinthisresearchwerefromthesetwoinstitutions.TheFacultyofEducationinbothuniversitiesissplitintodepartmentsbysubject,offeringdifferentcontentaccordingtotheteachingsubjectstudentswillspecialisein.SyiahKualaUniversityoffersadiversechoiceofteachingprograms,fromCivicEducationtoCounsellingEducation,whiletheEducationdegreeofferingatUINAr-RaniryismostlylimitedtotraditionalsubjectssuchasEnglish,MathsandtheSciences;themorereligiousfocusoftheuniversityisalsoevidentinthatitoffersEducationprogramsinArabicandIslamicStudies,whicharenotavailableatSyiahKuala.AdmissionstoUINAr-RaniryandSyiahKualaoccuronthebasisofperformanceinnationalisedentranceexams,possiblyfollowedbymoresubject-specificexamsdependentontheexactEducationprogramthestudentwishestofollow.Thoughcurriculanaturallydifferincontentacrossthevarioussubjectdegrees,thereisacoreteachingcurriculuminbothuniversitiesthatallstudentswithintheEducationFacultiesmustfollow.Mostofitisdeterminedbynationalstandardsforteachereducation,andincludescompulsorycoursessuchasTeachingMethodologyandCivicEducation,aswellaspracticalaspectssuchasmockteachingclasses(knownas‘Microteaching’)andaschoolplacementinthefinalyearofstudy.

15

ThereareanumberofdifferentschooltypeswithinwhichAcehnesetraineeteacherswilleventuallyoperate.TheprovincialeducationsystemismadeupofSekolah(publicdayschoolsthatdedicateafewhoursweeklytoreligiouseducation),Madrasah(religiousschoolswhichfollowthenationalcurriculum),andDayahorPesantren(religiousboardingschoolsthatdonotfollowthenationalcurriculumandlargelyfocusonreligiouseducation).ManyPesantrenarefundedbyIslamicorganisationsornationssuchasSaudiaArabiawhichencourageaconservativeWahabiinterpretationofthefaith,resultingintheschoolsoccasionallybeingassociatedwithextremism(ShahandLopezCardozo,2014).However,inpracticemanypromotethestudyofsecularstudiesalongsidereligiousones,andsomehaveevenbeendocumentedholdingworkshopsthatdiscusscontemporaryIslamicissuessuchasterrorismanddomesticviolence(Srimulyani,2012).Additionally,thoughanyexplicitpeaceeducationinitiativeswerelimitedtoafewschoolsintheprovince,someinstructorshavebeentrainedtodeliverpeaceeducationandincorporatetextbooksfromsuchinitiativesintoteaching(Srimulyani,2013).GenderAcehnesesocietyrevolvesaroundtraditionalroles,withthewoman'splaceusuallyseenasresidinginthehome–Kamaruzzamannotesthat,inmoreconservativeareas,evenifwomenparticipateinagriculturalwork,theyareperceivedtobesimplyassistingtheirhusbands(2000).Despitethis,Acehisalsoamatrifocalsociety,meaningthatwomenoftenownthefamilyhousesandtheland(NowakandCaulfield,2008).ThisconnectswiththestatenotionofIbuism,anideologicalconceptionofmotherhoodthatextendsbeyondthesimplematernaldutiestoincludeanation-buildingaspect(Srimulyani,2012).However,AcehneseandIndonesiansocietyoverallispatriarchalinthatwomen’sroles,appearancesandparticipationinthepublicsphereisconstrainedbytheroleofIslam,Shari’alawandtheinfluenceoftheulama(NowakandCaulfield,2008).EducationinAcehhasalsoplayedaroleinestablishingunequalgenderrelations;forexample,certaintextbooksusedinreligiousPesantrenschoolshavebeendocumentedpromotingpatriarchalideassuchaspermittinghusbandstobeattheirwives(Srimulyani,2007).Thecivilwaraffectedgenderrolesinnumerousways.Thousandsofwomenwerewidowedduringtheconflict,andmanybecamesoleprovidersforhouseholdsandcommunitieswhentheirhusbandswereforcedtoflee(Kamaruzzaman,2000;Lee-Koo,2012).Asystemofgenderedviolencehasalsobeenwelldocumentedintermsofrapeandothersexualcrimesagainstwomen(AmnestyInternational,2013;Lee-Koo,2012);suchexperiencesofwomenduringthewarhavenotbeenfullyacknowledgedinthepost-conflictcontextduetoassociatedstigmasandshame(Lee-Koo,2012).Thoughitwaswomen’sgroupsthathadmadesomeofthefirstpre-tsunamiorganisedeffortstowardspromotingpeaceinAceh(Kamaruzzaman,2000),theywereexcludedfrompeace-makingprocesses(Lee-Koo,2012)–forexamplenowomenwereinvolvedoneithersideduringtheHelsinkitalks,despitetheclearexistenceoffemalecombatantsinGAM.Thisarguablyledtoamasculineformationofpeaceenabledbyan“elitistmasculineagenda”(ibid.:101).Silencesurroundingwomen’s

16

experiencesincontributingtotheconflictandtheirpeacebuildinginitiatives,aswellastheirexclusionfromformalpeacebuildingprocesseshasarguablyreinforcedgenderstereotypesofsubmissivenessandvulnerability,andunderminestheirpost-conflict-agency(ibid.).Italsodiminishestheopportunityforarobustandlastingpeaceintheprovince.Withthecontextualbackgroundoftheresearchoutlined,thenextstepistoestablishthelensesbestsuitedtoframeananalysiswithinthisparticularcontext.Thefollowingsectionwillthereforeexplainthetheoreticalframeworksusedinthisresearch.

17

TheoreticalFramework

Photograph2:InsidetheBaiturrahmanGrandMosqueinBandaAceh,takenafterthe

TarawiheveningprayersduringRamadan

18

Thisresearchwasconductedfromacriticalrealistperspective,anontologythatcontendsthatinquiriesintosocialphenomenacannotbejudgedsolelybyourexperiencesofthem(RobertsonandDale,2015).Inreality,backgroundcontextsandevenseeminglyabstractconceptsmustalsobeexaminedinordertogaindeeperunderstandingsofresearchcontexts;criticalrealismholdstotheexistenceofunderlyingstructuresandmechanismsthatcanaffecttheexperienceswestudyinavarietyofways(ReesandGatenby,2014).Basedonthisontologicalframework,thisresearchwasinterpretedthroughaCriticalCulturalPoliticalEconomyofEducationanalysis(RobertsonandDale,2015)andtheStrategicRelationalApproach(Jessop2005;Hay2002),mirroringLopesCardozoandShah’s(2014,2016a)combinationofthetwoapproaches.Theadvantageincombiningthetwoapproachesisthatitenablesamulti-scalarunderstandingofthecomplexrelationshipsbetweeneducationandsocial,cultural,politicalandeconomicstructures,institutionsandactorsinconflict-affectedorpost-conflictcontexts(ibid.),helpingtoexposeclashesbetweenagendasandpowerrelationsinthearenasofdevelopment,educationandpeacebuilding.Thenotionofsustainablepeacebuildingeducationisexaminedthroughthe4R’sanalyticalframework(Novelli,LopesCardozoandSmith,2015),toassesshowAceh’sspecificpost-conflictandpost-disastercontextaffectsfactorsofredistribution,recognition,representationandreconciliationwithintheteachereducationsystem.Finally,theaboveframeworksareviewedalongsideatheoreticallensofmatrifocality,inordertocriticallyexamineconstructionsofgenderroleswithintheinterlinkedspheresofeducation,futureteacheragencyandsustainablepeacebuilding.CriticalCulturalPoliticalEconomyofEducation(CCPEE)TheuseofaCCPEElensinthisresearchiscomplementarytothecriticalrealistperspectiveinthatitpresentseducationintheformofanensemblethatiscloselyinterlinkedwithacomplexarrayofactors,institutionsandlocalcontextsthatdetermineitscurrentroleandfunctioninginpost-conflictsituations(RobertsonandDale,2015).DrawingfurtherontheinterpretationofLopesCardozoandShah(2016a),asaconceptualframework,CCPEEcanprovideausefultooltoinvestigatehoweducationmanifestsitselfthroughcultural,economicandpoliticalprocessesandfactorsinpost-conflictsettingstoworktowardstransformativegoals(ibid.).TheCCPEEapproachisadvantageousinthatitfacilitatesmovingawayfromstate-centricconceptionsofeducationandpeacebuildingtoalsoincludetheinfluenceofsocialandculturalpractices,alongwithpoliticalandeconomicstructures(ibid.).Giventhattherearevariousstratawithinaneducationensemble,somemaybeunobservablebuttheymaystillhavestrongeffectsoncurrentexperiencesandobservations(RobertsonandDale,2015).InIndonesia,ateacher-centricapproachtoclassroomteachingisdeeplyembeddedineducationstructures,resultingfromyearsofinstitutionalisedpolicies,decentralisation(Zulfikar,2010)andaningrainedcultureofobedience(Bjork,2005).Furthermore,withinAcehespecially,theeffectoneducationfromitsstrongIslamicidentitycannotbeseparatedfrompasthistorical,economicandculturalevents–suchastherecentconflict-thatcontinuetoinfluenceallaspectsoflife(LopesCardozoandShah,2016a).

19

Inpost-conflictcontextssuchasAceh,therole,status,andperceptionsofeducationsystemscanbesubjecttochangeanddisruption(LopesCardozoandShah,2016a).Changingbeliefsandvaluesplaceduponeducationarecentralindeterminingitspotentialforbuildingpeace.CCPEEanalysiscansupplyacomprehensiveframeworkforcriticallyunderstandinghowthesemightchangeovertime,andisabletosituatethesenewconceptsintothecurrentcontext.ThistheoreticallensthereforeallowsforanalysisintohowtheeffectsoftheoverlappingAcehnesecultural,politicalandeconomicrealmscreatescontextualisededucationandnotionsofpeacebuilding,inparticularrevealinghow:“1)therelationshipbetweeneducationandpeacebuildingisarticulateddiscursivelyandmateriallythroughsocialrelations,experiences,andpractices(thecultural);(2)thewaysinwhicheducationandpeacebuildingfitintorelationsofproduction,distributionandexchangeinsociety(theeconomic);and(3)thefashioninwhichanagendapromotingeducation’slinkstopeacebuildinghasbeendeterminedandsubsequentlygoverned(thepolitical).”(LopesCardozoandShah,2016a:529)PositioningtheAcehneseteachertrainingsystemwithinthespheresoflocalculture,economicsandpoliticshelpstolocateitwithintheoverarchingpost-conflictcontext,inturndetermininghownotionsofsustainablepeacebuildingcanorcannotbepotentiallyformedwithintheseconnectedrealms(seeFigure1).StrategicRelationalApproach(SRA)andFutureTeacherAgencyLinkingwithcriticalrealismandCCPEE,theSRAanalysisenablesamulti-layeredunderstandingofstructuresandagentswithincertaincontexts.Thoughthereisseparationbetweenthem,actionsandstructuresareexaminedinrelationtoeachother,therefore,throughanalysis,structuresbecomestrategicallyselectiveintheirform,whileactionsperformedbyagentscanbeperceivedasstructuredaswellasstructuring(Jessop,2001).Duringparticularspatio-temporalperiods,thepresenceofstablestructurescannaturallyencouragecertainactivities,behavioursandstrategiesofactors,aswellasdiscourageotherpractices(LopesCardozoandShah,2016a).However,intheconstantlychangingenvironmentofpost-conflictsettings,actionsandstrategiesmustadapttostructuresthatdonotremainstatic(ibid.).Whenstructuresarenotfixed,theyaremoreeasilyaffectedbytheactionstakenbyactorswithinthem–thismeansthattheagencyofthoseactorscanbecomeresponsiblefortheoveralloutcomesseeninobservation(Hay,2002).SRAcanbeusedinaneducationalcontexttounderstandteacheragency,orforthisresearchspecifically,theagencyoffutureteachers.WithintheSRAframework,actionsandmanoeuvrabilityarealwaysunderlinedbyactors’reflectionsonthelimitsandstructuresof

20

theirlocalenvironment;theinteractionofsocial,economicandpoliticalspherescanpresentactorswithanunevendistributionofroomformanoeuvre(Hay,2002).IntheIndonesianeducationsystem,reformsintheformofTeachingLawsprovideacomprehensiveoverviewofteacherstandards,competencies,developmentandtheroleofeducationalgoverningbodies(Changetal.,2013)–traineeteachersandlecturersmustoperatewithinthesestructures.Inthecontextofthisresearch,thecurriculaandteachertrainersassociatedwithAcehneseteachereducationformpartofthestrategicallyselectivecontext,whiletraineeteachersarestrategicactorswhoexerciseagencyinrelationtopracticingsustainablepeacebuilding(seeFigure1).Itisalsoimportanttonotethatteachertraininginstitutesthemselvesarelocatedinthestrategicallyselectivecontextoflocalcommunities(LopesCardozo,2011),andteachertrainersarethemselvesactorswithagency.Whilethestrategicactionsofactorscanhaveatransformativeeffectontheirstrategiccontexts(Hay,2002)thefactthatinthisresearchcase,teachertrainersinthestructureareagentswhocaninfluencethecontextthemselves,impliesthattheagencyoffutureteachersisalsodependentontheagencyoftheirtrainers.Inpractice,SRAshouldhighlighttheinterplaybetweenallofthesevariables;Acehnesefutureteachersconstantlynavigatebetweentheboundariesoftheireducationalcurriculumsandlecturers,andothercontextualfactorsassociatedwiththeIslamic,post-conflict,post-disasterenvironment,todeliveraneducationsystemthatisconducivetothepresentstateofpeaceintheregion.Therefore,futureteacheragencytopracticesustainablepeacebuildingcanbeunderstoodinrelationtotheirpotentialcapacitiestoinfluencethispost-conflictcontext(SayedandNovelli,2016).TeachersareseenbyGiroux(2003)astransformativeintellectualswiththepotentialtodelivernewwaysofteaching,andthisisalsorelevanttofutureteacherscurrentlyundergoingtheirtraining.Theideaoftransformativeintellectualsreferstothosewhoareabletoeducatetheirstudentsaboutgoodcitizenshipthroughtheirownreflectionandintellectualexperiencesandpractices(Giroux,2003).Ratherthanbeingsimpleagentsofimplementation,theymusthavetheabilitytoraisequestionsaboutwhatisbeingtaught;futureteachersastransformativeintellectualsandpossibleagentsofpeacemusthavesomeagencyoutsideofthescopeoftheirtrainingcontextinordertocarrysuchideasintotheirfuturecareers.Thisbecomesverydifficultiffutureteachersarenotabletocriticallyengagewiththeboundariesoftheirowneducation(Giroux,2003),whichreiteratesthesignificanceoftheirinteractionswith,andtheroleof,theirtrainers.Additionally,thecapacityforAcehnesefutureteacherstoengagewiththeireducationalboundariesisuncleargivenIndonesiannationalistagendaspresentineducation.Forexample,inpre-independenceEastTimor,whichlikeAceh,hasalonghistoryofcolonisationandconflict,imposedIndonesianeducationwasseenasaninstrumentofoppressionbyTimoreseteachersthatlimitedtheiragencyintermsofbeingabletoteachabouttheirownculture(Arenas,1998;MilloandBarnett,2004).

21

SustainablePeacebuildingEducationforFutureTeachersEducationasastructureandinstitutionhaswidelybeenacknowledgedashavingmultiplefacesduringconflictsandafterthem(BushandSaltarelli,2000;Davies,2010).Witheducationinconflictnowbeinganestablishedfieldofresearch,ithasdemonstrablybeenusedinconflicts-affectedcontextsasaweapon,utilisedtoincitehatredagainstcertaingroupsorpromoteunequalopportunitiesthroughselectiveprovision(BushandSaltarelli,2000).Conversely,educationduringandafterconflictalsohasthepotentialtofacilitatetherebuildingofpeacebypromotingvaluesoftolerance,equalityandmutualdialogue(BushandSaltarelli,2000;MillerandRamos,2000).Whiletheterm‘teachereducation’canalsoreferto‘in-serviceeducation’(i.e.professionaldevelopmentforqualifiedteachers),forthepurposeofthisresearchIchosetospecificallyconcentrateon‘pre-serviceeducation’(thetrainingprocesstobecomeaqualifiedteacher).Sincepre-serviceteachertraininginstitutesarewherefuturegenerationsofeducatorsaretrained,theyarecrucialtoeducationalandsubsequently,societalchange(LopesCardozo,2011).Thetrainingoffutureteachersiscentraltothewaysocietalvaluesaresustainedanddisseminatedintheschoolsystemfurtherdowntheline;transformativeteachereducationlinksthelearningofteacherstothelearningofcommunities(MillerandRamos,2000).Therefore,whileinpost-conflictAceh,teachertrainingcouldpotentiallybecentraltobuildingandsustainingnotionsofpeaceintheeducationsystemandlocalcommunity,itisalsoconceivablethattheycouldbeusedtoreproducevaluesandperspectivesthathinderthepeacebuildingprocess.ThepromotionofpeaceintheAcehneseteachertrainingsystemwillbeexaminedfromtheperspectiveofthe4Rs,whicharepresentedasananalyticalframeworkwithwhichsustainable,positivepeacecanbeachievedthrougheducationinapost-conflictcontext(Novelli,LopesCardozoandSmith,2015).TheframeworkbuildsonGaltung’s(1969)distinctionbetweenpositivepeace(socialjustice,intermsofanabsenceofstructuralviolenceandinjustices)andnegativepeace(simplyanabsenceofviolence),recognisingthatworkingtowardstheformerisnecessaryinorderforpeacetobetrulysustainable.‘Peaceeducation’isalsomadedistinctfrom‘peacebuilding’and‘peacebuildingeducation’inthiscontext;peaceeducationassumesthatacquiringcriticaleducationalandlifeskillswillfacilitateabehaviouralchangethatpromoteshumandevelopmentratherthanviolence,whilepeacebuildingactivelyaddressestherootcausesofconflict,notonlyintermsofthesocialrealm,butalsoincultural,politicalandeconomicstructures(SayedandNovelli,2016).Italsoimportantheretodistinguishbetween‘explicit’and‘implicit’formsofpeace/peacebuildingeducation,withtheformerreferringtoactivitiessuchaspeacebuildingtrainingforteachers,andanyinitiativesspecificallyintroducedinconflict-affectedcontextstoaddressthelegaciesofconflict(Smith,DatzbergerandMcCully,2016).Thelattersignifiesanypoliciesorprogramsthatarenotintroducedtospecificallybuildpeace,butindirectlyencouragesprocessesofsocietaltransformationconducivetosustainablepeacebuilding(ibid.).

22

Accordingtothe4Rsframework,thefourinterconnectededucationalelementsthatarecentraltosustainablepeacebuildingareasfollows:

1. Redistribution:educationalaccessafterconflictmustaimtoaddressinequalities,andthereforemustbenon-discriminatoryinthewayitisallocated,aswellasinthewayitcreatesopportunitiesforlearners.

2. Recognition:educationalcurriculumshouldrespectdiversityamongreligious,ethnic

andculturaldifferences.Apluralisticformofidentityshouldbeacknowledgedthroughteaching.

3. Representation:equitableparticipationofallpossibleeducationalstakeholders

shouldbeencouragedindecision-making.

4. Reconciliation:injusticesinthepast,presentandfuturemustbeacknowledgedandaddressedthroughdialogue,thereforeallowingnewrelationshipsoftrusttobebuilt(Novellietal.,2015).

Fromtheexistingliterature,itseemsthatsomeofthesehaveatatleastbeenpartiallyaddressedinAcehneseeducation–forexample,aredistributionofresourcesachievedthroughreconstructionandreliefeffortsthatpouredinafterthe2004tsunami(Aspinall,2009a;Burke,2008).However,thisisnotacompletepicture;redistributionalsocontainsanelementofequalparticipationandopportunities,whichhavebeenhinderedbyadecentralisationofeducationinAceh(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014).Furthermore,thereareseriousissuesregardinglackofrecognitionofinjusticesduringtheconflict(AmnestyInternational,2013;Lee-Koo,2012)whichlinkstoalackofreconciliatoryaspectsinpost-conflicteducation(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014),aswellasmis-representationofeducationalstakeholdersthroughacultureof“patronagepolitics”(ibid.:11).CriticallyexaminingdifferentfeaturesoftheAcehneseteachertrainingsystemusingthe4Rswilluncovertheextenttowhichelementsofthemarepresentornot,providinganoverallpicturewhichcanbeusedtoassessthefeasibilityofsustainablepeacebuildingbeingpracticedbyfutureteachers.MatrifocalityAgenderedaspectofthetheoreticalframeworkwasimplementedintothisresearchduetothepresenceofadeeplypatriarchalsocietyinAcehandacrossIndonesia,legaciesofgenderedviolenceduringthecivilconflict,andanecdotalevidencethatmostteachingjobsaretakenupbywomen.Linkingwiththecultural,political,economicaspectsoftheCCPEEframework(seeFigure1),genderisexaminedfromthepointofviewofconstructionsofwomanhoodwithinAceh,namelymatrifocality,inordertoobservetheeffectsofthisongenderroleswithinteachereducation,futureteacheragencyandpracticabilityofsustainablepeace.Indefiningmatrifocality,NancyTanner(1974)buildsontheconceptof

23

motherhoodtoinclude“twoconstructs:(1)kinshipsystemsinwhich(a)theroleofmotherisstructurally,culturally,andaffectivelycentraland(b)thismultidimensionalcentralityislegitimate;and(2)thesocietiesinwhichthesefeaturecoexist,where(a)therelationshipbetweenthesexesisrelativelyegalitarianand(b)bothwomenandmenareimportantactorsintheeconomicsectors”(Tanner,1974:132).Structurallycentralisdefinedashavingsomecontroloverthefamilyresourcesandbeinginvolvedindecision-makingprocesses,whileculturallycentralreferstothevaluationandsocietalimportanceoftheposition(Tanner,1974).Thoughmatrifocalitycanexistinawiderangeofsocialandeconomicsettings-inIndonesiaitlinkscloselywiththestateculturalideologyofIbuism,whichinAcehspecificallymanifestsitselfasareligiouslyinspiredglorificationofmotherhood(Srimulyani,2010).Womeninthiswaycanbeseenasmarkersofculturalidentityandacentralaspectofstateeffortstopursuecertainpoliticalandeconomicagendas(Charrad,2011).WhileTanner’sinterpretationofmatrifocalityfocusesonwomenasbeingbotheconomicallyandculturallysignificantinthefamily,inrealitytheriseofIslamicIbuisminIndonesia,withitsassociatedreligious,politicalandgenderdiscourses,includingJavanese-centredidealsaboutwomanhood,havearguablyresultedinimposedviewsaboutgenderrelations(Othman,2006;Srimulyani,2012).Thesedominantideologiesaboutgenderrelationscansubsequentlycausegendervulnerabilitytobecomeembeddedinsocialarrangements(NowakandCaulfield,2008).Therefore,inthecontextofAceh,anygenderanalysisandadvocacyalsorequiresknowledgeofIslamandShari’alaw(Jauhola,2010).ItisimportanttonoteherethatidealsassociatedwithwomanhoodvarygreatlyacrosstheIslamicworld,withIslamsimplyactingasanoverarching“umbrellaidentity”(Charrad,2011:420)toconnecttheseinaculturalidiomofunity(ibid.).InAcehneseeducationspecifically,especiallyinreligiousschools,theconceptofIndonesianandMuslimwomanhoodisonethatviewseducationasawayofpreparingwomentodealwiththeirfuturematernalduties,includingbeingamorallyandreligiouslygoodwife(Srimulyani,2007).Arguablythisformofmatrifocalitycandisadvantagewomenthrougheconomicinsecurity,intensifiedbywomen’sassumedresponsibilityforthefamily(NowakandCaulfield,2008).Alternatively,IndonesianIbuismcanextendtopositioningfemaleteachersasrolemodelswithinthecommunitywhogainstatusandrespect,aswellaseconomicimportance(Kirk,2004).Whenconsideringthisalongsidefutureteachersbeingpossibleagentsoftransformationandpeace,thisraisesthequestionofwhetheranormalisingoftraditionalgenderrelationsandmatrifocalvaluesthrougheducationhasimplicationsfortheagencyoffuturefemaleteachers,andthecurrentstateoffragilepeaceintheprovince.

24

ConceptualScheme

Figure1:ConceptualSchemeTheconceptualschemeaboveaimstosituatethemainaspectsofthetheoreticalframeworkwithintheactualcontextoftheresearch.TheouterboxrepresentsthewiderstructureofAcehneseSociety,withinwhichthesmallerAcehneseEducationandTeacherTrainingstructuresaresubsequentlylocated.Matrifocality,whichframesthegenderedaspectofthisresearch,isshowntobeembeddedinAcehnesesocietyinallthreeCultural,PoliticalandEconomicrealms,withtheAcehneseEducationandTeacherTrainingsystemsthereforealsobeinglocatedwithinthiscontextualframeworkassociatedwiththewidersocietalstructure.AtthecentreofthisareFutureTeachers,whoseAgencyintheEducationstructuresismoreimmediatelydeterminedbytheinteractionsbetweenCurriculaandTeacherTrainers,aswellasthewiderstructures,altogethermakingupthestrategicallyselectivecontextinwhichFutureTeacheract.SustainablePeacebuildingEducationisachievedthroughacombinationofFutureTeacherAgencyandelementsofReconciliation,Recognition,RepresentationandRedistributionbeingembeddedinAcehneseEducationstructures.

25

ResearchApproach

Photograph3:Theremainsofabridgedestroyedbythe2004BoxingDaytsunami,nearAlueNagaBeach,BandaAceh

26

MethodologyAsoutlinedpreviouslyintheTheoreticalFrameworkchapter,thisresearchwasundertakenwithacriticalrealistontologicalperspective.Theroleofcriticalrealisminthisresearchwastoestablishalinkbetweenthesubjectiveunderstandingsofmyresearchparticipants,andthestructuralpositionsinwhichthoseindividualswerelocated(ReesandGatenby,2014).Astheresearcher,thisontologicalpositioningentailedacceptingtheexistenceofanexternalrealitythatcouldaffectthesestructuresbutcouldalsobeoutsideofmyobservations.Giventhenatureofmyresearchquestionsandthetheoreticalframeworksused,aqualitativeapproachusingsemi-structuredinterviews,focusgroupsandcriticaldiscourseanalysis(CDA)werethemostappropriatechoicesfortheresearchmethodology.MainunitsofanalysisincludedmaleandfemaletraineeteachersfromUINAr-RaniryandSyiahKualauniversities,lecturersintheEducationFacultiesattheseuniversitiesandcurriculummaterialintheformofaCivicEducationtextbook.Semi-structuredinterviewsservedasatooltogatherin-depthdatafromthelecturers,including,butnotlimitedtotheirmotivations,strategies,perceptionsaboutpeaceintheregion,andwhethertherewereanyperceivedlinksbetweenpeacebuildingandteachereducation.WhileIwasalsoabletoindividuallyinterviewasmallnumberofstudentrespondentsinthisway,themajorityofthemparticipatedinfocusgroups;Ioftenfoundthatstudentsweremorecomfortablespeakingingroups,especiallyaboutmoresensitivetopicssuchasconflictexperiencesandgenderroles.Focusgroupsalsoencourageddiscussionsamongsteachother,allowingmetogainaricherunderstandingofyouthperceptionsandinteractionsinthecontextofAcehneseuniversities.Unfortunately,duetothetimingoftheresearch,Icouldonlytakepartinoneclassroomobservation,whichwillbefurtherexplainedinthe‘ScopeandLimitations’sectionofthischapter.However,thiswasstillusefulinprovidinginsightintoteachingpracticesandwhatwereconsideredtobe‘goodteaching’methodsintheteachereducationsystem.Findingwillingstudentparticipantswasmadeeasywiththehelpofmytranslator,anEnglishEducationstudentherself,whothereforehadanextensivenetworkoffriendsandcontactsfromtheEducationFacultiesatbothUINandSyiahKuala.Thesamplingprocessthuswasa‘snowballing’one,withtheresultinggroupofstudentparticipantsresemblinganextendedsocialnetwork(Small,2009).A‘snowballing’strategywasalsousedtointerviewlecturersandseniorFacultymembersfromtheEducationdepartments,withcolleaguesatICAIOSusingtheircontactstohelpsetupinitialconnectionswithpotentialparticipants.Purposivesamplingwasintroducedmidwaythroughtheresearchperiodinordertoincreasethevarietyofparticipants(Bryman,2012)intermsofgenderanduniversity–upuntilthenthemajorityofmyrespondentshadbeenfemalestudentsfromUINAr-Raniry.ThoughinitiallyIhadintendedtointerviewanequalnumberofmaleandfemaleparticipants,intheendmalerespondentswereoutnumberedbyfemaleones.However,IfeelthatthiswasrepresentativeoftheactualratioofmaletofemalestudentsintheEducationFaculties.Similarly,mostofthelecturersIinterviewedwerefemale,whilethemostseniorlecturer

27

participantsweremale,reflectingtheactualgenderdynamicsamongAcehnesehighereducationstaff.AsIhadaccessaCivicEducationtextbookusedinAcehneseteachereducation,criticaldiscourseanalysis(CDA)wasusedtoexaminethisdatasource.CDAfocusesontherelationsbetweendiscourseandothersocialelementssuchasexistingcontextualideologies,institutionsandidentities,whichmakesitcomplimentarytothecriticalrealistontologyandanespeciallyusefultoolforanalysingaspectsofeducationpolicy(Fairclough,2013).ThoughIhadinitiallyhopedtohaveaccesstomoreofficialcurriculumdocuments,evenbeingabletocriticallyanalyseafewchaptersinthetextbookallowedmetomoredeeplyunderstandnationalcivicvaluesandaspectsofthePancasilaideologythatwereconsideredimportanttoinstilinuniversitystudents;CDAfurtherenabledviewingtheeducationaldiscourseinasemioticsenseaspartofanetworkofsocialpractices(ibid.)whichconstituteIndonesianteachereducation.DataAnalysisAllinterviewsandfocusgroupswererecordedafteraskingforpermissioninformally,followedbytranscribingassoonaspossible.Fortheclassroomobservation,detailednotesweremadeinstead.Alltranscriptions,translations,fieldworknotesandparticipantrecordswerebackeduponmycomputerandonaUSB,intheinterestofimprovingthe‘dependability’(Bryman,2012)ofthisresearch.Transcriptionswerethenuploadedontodedoose,anonlinecodingandanalysisprogramforqualitativedata.Datawasthencodedinvariousstages,atfirstusingnumerouscodescorrespondingwithindicatorsIhadoutlinedwhenoperationalisingmymainresearchconcepts(seeAppendix1),andfinishingbygroupingthesecodesintooverarchingsharedconceptsorotherthemes.BeforeIleftthefieldIpresentedmypreliminaryresearchfindingsinapublicdiscussionsessionattheICAIOSofficewhichwasattendedbymanycurrentstudentsfromtheEducationFacultyatUIN,includingacoupleofrespondents,thusenablingmetovalidatetheresearchthroughtheirfeedbackandquestions.SinceIwasonlyabletoborrowtheCivicEducationtextbook,Iphotocopiedthemostrelevantchapterstobringbackwithme.ThetextbookwaswritteninBahasaIndonesia,andduetolimitedtimeandresourcesIwasunabletotranslateeverything,sothemostrelevantsectionswereanalysed.ThiswascompletedthroughafairlytediousprocessofcopyingsectionsintoGoogleTranslate,followedbycriticallyanalysingtheEnglishtranslationoftheseparagraphs,usingsomeofthecodesfromtheinterviewdatatopickoutconceptsandthemes.ScopeandLimitationsThetimingandlengthoftheresearchperiodwerethemainlimitingfactorsduringfieldwork.RamadanendedaroundtendaysaftermyarrivalinBandaAceh,whichmeant

28

duringthatinitialperioditwasdifficulttoestablishcontactsasmostschoolswereclosedandofficeswereopenforalimitedtimeeachday.EvenafterRamadanendedinmid-July,formanyuniversitystudentsthetermdidnotproperlycommenceuntilSeptember,somanyofmytranslator’sfriendsandacquaintanceswerestillintheirhometownsoutsideBandaAceh.ThetimingofthefieldworkalsomeantthatIwasnotabletocarryoutmoreclassobservations–inparticularIwashopingtoobservefinalyearEducationstudentsontheirpracticalplacementsinschools,duringwhichtheyholdrealclassesforthefirsttime,puttingtheirtheoreticallearningsintopractice.Unfortunately,theplacementperiodstartedjustaftermyscheduleddeparturefromAcehattheendofAugust.Thescopeofmyresearchwasalsolimitedbythistimeconstraint;withmoretimeIcouldhavepotentiallytravelledtomoreruralareasoutsideBandaAceh,inordertoobservesuchparticipants,orevennewlyqualifiedteachers.ThoughItriedtoensure‘transferability’ofthisresearchbyprovidingasmuchspecificcontextualinformationaspossible(Bryman,2012)intheprevious‘Introduction’chapter,differentregionsintheprovinceexperiencedvaryingdegreesofviolenceduringthecivilconflict,meaningthateducatorsinruralareascouldhavedifferentperceptionsoftheconflictandpeacethantheirurbancounterparts.Therefore,asitstands,thisresearchisonlygeneralisabletoBandaAcehUsingatranslatorwasnecessaryforthemajorityofinterviewsandfocusgroupsheldduringthisfieldwork,whichmeantthattherewasariskofdatanotbeingproperlytranslatedbetweenthelanguages.Tominimisethis,Iworkedwiththetranslatorextensivelybeforetheinitialinterviews,goingthroughmyresearchproposalandeditingtheinterviewguidetogethertoensureshehadadeeperunderstandingofmyresearchaims.However,whentranslatingbetweentwolanguagesitisinevitablethatsometimesnuancedmeaningscanbelostordiminished;forexample,duringthefirstfewinterviewsitwasdifficulttogetrespondentstotalkaboutmyconceptualisationsoftopicssuchas‘peacebuilding’and‘gender’.Thisdidimproveovertime,thankstotheabilitiesofmytranslatorwhoquicklylearnedtoadapthowsheconveyedthesethemestostudentrespondents.Inthecaseofthetextbookanalysis,IhadtorelyonGoogleTranslateforinterpretation,whichhaspossiblyresultedinalowerstandardoftranslationforthisparticularaspectofmyresearch.However,theideasoutlinedinthetextareexpressedinformaldialogue,hopefullyreducingthechancesofanymistranslation.WhilstresearchingthistopicIhadthefairlyuniquepositionofbeingaWesternerbutalsoaMuslimwomanwithSouthAsianheritage.IfeelthatrevealingmyMuslimbackgroundtorespondentsencouragedasenseoffamiliaritywithrespondentsduringinterviewsandfocusgroups;theywereabletofreelytalkaboutIslamicconceptswithouthavingtoexplainthem,andIwouldoftenrecogniseandverballyacknowledgethesetermsbeingmentionedinArabicwhentheywerespeakinginBahasaIndonesiatomytranslator.Conversely,itcouldbearguedthatmyexistingpartialunderstandingoftheIslamiccontextinAcehdecreasedtheobjectivityofmypositionasanexternalresearcher.Nonetheless,ourmutualIslamicbackgroundsalsorevealedourdifferences–whenIinvitedrespondentstoaskmequestionsafterthesessions,studentsoftenaskedifIworeahijabathomeinEurope.WhenIsaidthat

29

Ididnot,somerespondentswerepuzzled,demonstratingthedevoutlyparticularunderstandingofIslamthatissoentrenchedinthisregion.However,IwasalwayscarefultoensurethatmyownpersonalreligiousinterpretationsandWestern-influencedculturalbeliefsdidnotshapeinterviews.EthicalConsiderationsTheuniquepost-conflictandpost-disastercontextofAcehnecessitatedusinganespeciallysensitiveapproachtoallaspectsoftheresearch.Thoughthecivilconflictofficiallyendedover10yearsago,politicaltensionsstillexist,andmemoriesofthewarwerestillfreshformanyresearchparticipants,whichmadeitimperativethatIwasawaremyresearchpotentiallymightnotbeviewedascompletelyneutralbyparticipants(Goodhand,2000).CulturalsensitivitywasalsorequiredduetothepresenceofShari’alawintheprovince–malestudentswereespeciallyselectiveinwheretheywantedtobeinterviewed,whichwasusuallyinbusycafesfrequentedbymanyotheryoungpeople.TherewerealsoethicalconsiderationsspecifictotheeducationalenvironmentoftheteachertrainingFaculties.AsinsomecasesIinterviewedlecturersandstudentsfromthesamedepartment,itwasappropriatetoguaranteeallstudentparticipantsthattheiridentities,theiropinions,oranyinformationabouttheirlearningswouldnotbesharedwiththeirimmediatesupervisors(Erickson,1985).Similarly,theidentityofandanyinformationsharedfromlecturerswasnotsharedwithstudents.Informedconsentisabasicrequirementforanyresearchinvolvingparticipants,andwasexplicitlyaskedaftergivingabriefexplanationoftheresearchgoalsatthestartofeachinterview,focusgroupandclassroomobservation.GiventhatanynotionofpeaceinAcehispoliticallysensitive,confidentialitywasanecessaryfurtherethicalmeasuretoprotecttheidentityofanyparticipants,soallrespondentswerecompletelyanonymisedinmytranscriptionsbycodingtheiridentities(seeAppendix2).Furthermore,withanyresearchtopicthatisevenremotelypoliticalinnaturecomestheissueofwhethertheresearchershouldtryandadoptacompletelyvalue-freestance,orwhethertheirpersonalandpoliticalconvictionsshouldinfluencetheresearchanddataanalysis(Riddell,1989).Finch(1986)arguesthatthereisalongtraditionofsocialresearch,especiallyqualitativemethods,recognisedasneverbeingentirelyvalue-free,butthatitispossibletoguardagainstbiasbybeingconstantlyreflexive,whichIdidbyensuringmypersonalbeliefsdidnotinfluencethedirectionofinterviews,asmentionedpreviously.Lastly,itwasimportanttobeawareofanypotentialpowerrelationsatworkwithintheresearch,byensuringthecollectionofdatadidnotobjectifyparticipants,whilemakingsuretheyfeltcomfortablewithmeastheinterviewer(Riddell,1989).AlthoughIfeltthiswassomewhatachievedbyconnectingthroughasharedIslamicbackground,itextendedtoswappingcontactdetailswithallrespondentsandfollowingupwiththemaftertheinterviewsandfocusgroups.

30

FindingsChapter1:

Photograph4:RicefieldsontheoutskirtsofBandaAceh

31

Thischapterexploreswhat,fromwhom,andhowfutureteachersacquireanddeveloptheirskills,motivationsandperceptionssurroundingeducationandpeacebuilding.The‘what’aspectofthisisdeterminedbyformalcurricula,whicharemainlydecidedatthenationallevelanddictatewhatcontentstudentsareexposedtoonaneverydaybasis.Linkingfutureteacherswiththeircurriculumalsonecessarilyinvolvesexaminingthelecturers,‘who’significantlyinfluencetheoutcomeoffutureteachers’professionalandpersonaldevelopment,themselvesoperatingwithinthestructuralcontextoftheeducationsystem.‘How’futureteacherslearnfromthecurriculumandtheirlecturersisthroughaparticipatoryaspectofpedagogy,whichinturnisdictatedbythecurriculum.Together,teachereducationcurriculaandteachertrainersformasignificantpartofthestrategicallyselectivecontextinwhichfutureteachersact.Inexploringthesecomponents,thefollowingresearchquestionswillbeaddressed:TowhatextentareaspectsofsustainablepeacebuildingeducationincorporatedintoAcehneseteachertrainingcurricula?HowdoAcehneseteachertrainers’perceptionsabouttheconflict,presentstateofpeaceandtheirroleineducatingfutureteachersaffectteachereducationinpractice?Byexaminingthecurriculum,thischapterexplorestheextenttowhichthecurrentstructureandcontentofteachereducationcanpotentiallyequipAcehnesefutureteacherswiththeskillsassociatedwithsustainablepeacebuilding.Fundamentalcurricularcomponentsofteachereducationareexaminedtodeterminehowconducivetheymayormaynotbetosustainablepeacebuilding,bylookingforevidenceofthekeyelementsoutlinedinthe4Rsframework,namelyredistribution,representation,recognitionandreconciliation.Featuresofteachereducationthatwereconsideredsignificantincludeanoticeablelackofexplicitpeacebuildingeducationinfavouroflocal,Islamiccontent,discourseusedinaCivicEducationtextbook,andtheparticipatoryaspectsoftraining.Meanwhile,exploringtheperceptions,practicesandstrategiesofthelecturers,inrelationtothestructuralrestraintsprovidedbythecurriculumandthepost-conflict,Islamicsocio-politicalcontext,isnecessarytounderstandhowtheythemselvescanaffectfutureteachers’agencyforfacilitatingsustainablepeacebuildinginAceh.“PeacebuildingEducation?Wedon’thaveaclassforthat”(BIT1-F)Afterbeinginvolvedinintractableconflict,theobjectiveofpeacebuildingeducationshouldinvolvefacilitatingreconciliatoryworldviews(Bar-Tal,RosenandNets-Zehngu,2009).Thisnecessarilyinvolvesaprocessofsocietalchange,duetothefactthatpopular,inflammatoryopinionspresentduringtheconflictcanlingerevenafteritends(ibid.).Althoughteachertrainingshouldequipfutureteacherswithpracticalskillsandtechniques,inpost-conflictsocietiesthereshouldarguablybegreaterfocusonempoweringteacherswiththetransformativeskillsneededtocarryoutthissocietalchange(Kirk,2004).ThereiscurrentlynosuchexplicitpeacebuildingmaterialwithinAcehneseteachereducationcurriculums,or

32

withinanydivisionofeducationthatIencountered.Thoughexistingliteraturehadalreadyindicatedthis,itwasconfirmedbynumerousstudentsandlecturersinnumerousinterviewsduringtheresearchprocess.AlimitednumberofexplicitpeaceeducationinitiativeshadbeenpreviouslyimplementedinAceh,withsomeexistingbeforetheconflictended–forexample,astudentduringonefocusgrouprecalledtakingpartinapeaceworkshopasayoungchild,whereshewasgivenabook“aboutconflictsaroundtheworldasmotivationtoshow[…]wehavethesamesituation”(BT5-F).However,anykindofconflict-sensitiveinitiativeshadbeencompletelyphasedoutby2011(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014).ACivicEducationlectureratSyiahKualauniversitytoldmehowhehadbeeninvolvedinagroupofscholarsthathadworkedoncreatingamorerecentpeacebuildingcurriculumtoberolledouttoschoolsthrough“spaceinthelocalcurriculum”,butithadbeendelayedindefinitelydueto“themoneyissue”(CEL1-M).FundingwasallegedlylimitedandhadbeenprioritisedtowardsimplementingothertopicsintothelocalcurriculumsuchasvariousIslamic-basedelectives,whichwillbefurtherexplainedbelow.The‘Islamisation’ofLocalContent–AMissedOpportunityIn1994,thenationalgovernmentintroducedaLocalContentCurriculum(LCC)intheeducationsystemtoallocate20%oflessontimetolocalsubjectmatter,asanattempttomakeschoolcontentmoreapplicabletothediversityoftheIndonesianarchipelago(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014).Followingthis,theLoGA(LawonGoverningAceh),initiatedaspartoftheMoUin2005,stipulatedthatwhiletheAcehneseeducationsystemwouldremaininlinewiththeexistingnationalsystem,locallyrelevantcontentsuchaslearningaboutIslam,readingtheQuranandlearningtopray(GovernmentofAceh,2007,inShahandLopesCardozo,2014)wouldalsobeincorporated.ThisreligiouscontenthasmainlybeenintroducedthroughthespaceallocatedbytheLCC(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014),withtheeffectsofthis“IslamisationofAcehneseeducation”(ibid.:15)evidenteveninteachertraining.APhysicsEducationlecturerrevealedthatelectivesofferedtostudentteachersinherdepartmentincludedclassessuchas“PhysicswithintheQuran”(PL1-F).Somerespondentsapprovedofsuchcontent–anotherlecturerwantedtointroducemoreIslamicelectives,ontopicssuchas“thehistoryofRasulullah(theProphet)”,sinceshethoughtstudentsdidnotknowenoughaboutIslam(EL1-F).Othersweremorecritical;thelecturerwhohadbeeninvolvedindraftingpeaceeducationlamenteditsexclusionfromEducationFacultycurricula,describinghowfutureteachers“willnotlearnfromthehistoryofwhathappenedinAceh[…]theyshouldknowthattheAcehneseexperiencedfightingwitheachother”(CEL1-M).Thus,educationalspaceallocatedbytheLCCcanbeseenasamissedopportunityfortheintegrationofexplicitpeaceeducation,sinceanyconflict-sensitivecontentorinitiativeshavebeendeprioritisedinfavourofreligiouscontent.ThemovetowardsmoreamoreIslamisededucationwithinlocalcontentisalsoconcerningbecauseofitspotentialtobeisolatingforotherminoritygroups.Exclusionofotherpossible

33

religiousidentitieswithintheteachertrainingcurriculumisnotconducivetobuildingasustainablepeace,asthisrequiresexplicitrecognitionofthesegroupswithintheeducationsystem(Novellietal.,2015).ConcentrationsolelyonIslamicmaterialsalsorunscontrarytothe2008AcehneseQanun(Law)onEducation,whichstatesinArticle9that“studentsatalllevelsofeducationinAcehhavetherighttobetaughtthesubjectofreligioninlinewiththeirfaith”(IDLO,2009:2).WhilethisaspectoftheQanunhasbeenseenasevidenceofrespectforreligiouspluralisminAcehneseeducation(ibid.),inthefieldthiswasdifficulttoverify,asIdidnotcomeacrossanynon-Muslimparticipantsduringmyresearch,andtherewereanecdotallyveryfewnon-MuslimstudentsintheuniversitiesIinvestigated.Wedon’ttalkaboutthatintheclassroom”(FEL2-F)Evenwithacompleteabsenceofexplicitpeacebuildingcontent,manylecturersIintervieweddidnotseeanyrequirementforittobeincorporatedintoeducation.Instead,promotingandsustainingpeaceinAcehwasassociatedwithcreatinganenvironmentofharmonyandtoleranceinclassrooms.“Howtocreatetogetherness”(DH1-M)intheclassroom–aphrasethatIheardoftenalsoduringstudentinterviews–wascitedbyoneseniorlecturerasanimportantskilltobeunderstoodbystudentsthroughthepracticalMicroteachingclasses.Adifferentlecturerfromthesameuniversityinterpretedtheconceptoftogethernessandpeaceeducationasteachingstudents“howtobeproudofbeingIndonesian”(EL1-F),alludingtothePancasilaideologythatwas,inpreviousyears,seenasculturallyignorantofIndonesiandiversity(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014),butwhichstillnowremainsattheheartoftheIndonesianeducationsystem.Hewentontoexplainthat“themostimportantpoint”inachievingtheaimoftogethernesswastoteachstudentsthat,asfutureeducatorstheyshouldnot“bringupissuesaboutdifferences,whethertheyarefromraces,orcultures.Theyshouldn’tbringthisupintheclass”(DH1-M).Whiletosomeextenttheideaofcreatingasenseoftogethernessisnecessaryformaintainingpeaceinpost-conflictsocieties,refusingtotalkaboutthedifferencesandvarietyofpeoplethatexistinsocietyisnotconducivetotherecognitionandreconciliationelementsrequiredfortrulysustainablepeace(Novellietal.,2015).AsDavies(2011)argues,issuesaboutdifferencesmustnotbeignored,butshouldbetackledwithapoliticisedapproach.Itisimportanttotalkaboutdifferenceswhenacommunityhasexperiencedsocialproblemssuchasdiscrimination,inequalityandlackofrepresentationinsociety(ibid.)–allissueswhichhavebeenassociatedwiththeAcehnesecivilwaranditsaftermath.Suchdiscussionswouldallowstudentstounderstandgreatersocietalproblems,ratherthaninterpretdifferencesasaseparatetopicthatcouldpotentiallytriggertensions.InthespecificcontextofAcehthisisdifficulttoaddresspracticallyforvariousreasons,themostprominentofwhicharediscussedhere.Onepossibleexplanationisthatmanydidnotseemtohavesignificantexperiencesoftheconflict,andthereforedidnotperceiveaneedforpeacebuildingeducation.MostlecturersIspoketowereoriginallyfromoutsideAceh,buthadspentthepeakconflictperiodteaching

34

inBandaAceh(whichescapedmuchoftheviolenceexperiencedelsewhere).ADeputyDeanfromUINrememberedfeeling“peaceful…andabletoteach”attheuniversitythroughoutthe1990s–hisreasoningwasthatuniversitiesinBandaAcehwerenevertargetedbyGAMbecause“theirchildrenwerethere”studyingalongsideotherstudents(ISD1-M).Whentheconflictcameclosetothecity,anotherlecturerrecalledminimaldisturbancestoteaching:“wecouldhearsomebombs,butalwaysawayfromhere.Ifweheardsomethingweusuallyjustignoreitandcarryon”(EL1-F).Aswillbeexploredinthenextdatachapter,thiscontrastsgreatlywiththethewaystudentsdescribedthisperiod,astheirmemoriesoftheconflictoverallseemedmuchmoretraumaticandfrightening.Anotherpotentialreasontoexplainthereluctanceoflecturersintroducingtopicsaroundpeace,conflictandsocietyintoclassroomsisthepoliticalsensitivityassociatedwiththecurrentstateof‘peace’inAceh.Afewlecturerswereopenlypositiveaboutpeacelastingintothefuture.Onebelievedina“greatintentionfromthecommunitytosustain”it(CEL1-M),usingarecentexampleofvillagersinruralAcehwhoreportedcommunitymembersbelongingtoDinMinimi-acriminalgroupformedfromex-combatants,thatsubsequentlysurrenderedtothenationalgovernmentandagreedtoanamnesty(TheJakartaPost,2015).Aseniorlecturerbelievedthat“mostoftheneedsoftheAcehnesepeoplearefulfillednowbythegovernment”(ISD1-M),reducingtheneedfordiscussionabouttheconflict.ThoughpoliticalachievementsgainedfromtheMoUwerenodoubtsymbolicformanyAcehnese,suchviewsshowafailuretoengagewiththetrueextentofpost-conflictissuesthatcontinuetoexist,thereforereducingthecapacitytobuildsustainablepeace.Dwyer(2012)notesthatthisattitudeiscommonplacewithinthepoliticalandprofessionalspheresinAceh,wheremovingonfromtheconflictissimplydemonstratedbypromotingpost-wardevelopmentandstabilitymadepossiblebytheMoU.Meanwhile,ordinarypeoplecontinuetosufferfromafter-effectsandareunabletomoveforward(ibid.).WithsomelecturersintheEducationFacultiesseemingdisconnectedfromtherealitiesofpost-conflicteffects,thelikelihoodofaddressingcrucialpeacebuildingelementswithineducationsuchasrecognitionofinequalitiesandreconciliationofpastinjustices(Novellietal.,2015)islessened.Otherlecturersweremorecriticallyperceptiveindiscussingthecurrentstateofpeace,butstilldidnotwanttobringrelatedtopicsintotheclassroom.AlecturerfromUINAr-Ranirythoughtthattheupcoming2017localelectionswasaperiodwhen“conflictcouldstartagain”because“sparksarestillthere”(EL1-F),withanotherlecturerfromSyiahKualaalsobelievingthat“theAcehnesearenotsafe”(PL1-F).Herinterpretationofthecurrentpeacewasthatitonlyexistedbecausethegovernmenthad“bribedGAM”andifthatweretostopthenwarwouldstartagain,asGAM“stillhavegunshiddensomewhere”(PL1-F).Acknowledgementofthese“uncertainconditions”(PL1-F)inAceh,withaperceivedpossibilityoffutureoutbreaksofviolenceechoesGaltung’s(1969)conceptofnegativepeace–simplyacurrentabsenceofviolence.Törnquist(2013)agreeswiththesentimentthatitisnegativepeacewhichexistsintheprovince,highlightingthatthepossibilityofviolenceduringfutureelectionsshowsthatAcehhasexperienceda“backsliding”(2013:4)intermsofincreasingcorruption,Islamisationofpoliticsandfailuretoimplementinclusive

35

governance(ibid.).Thesamelectureralsothoughtthatintermsofsocietalprogress,Acehhadstartedto“gobackwards”;beingawareoftheuncertain,politicallyunstableatmospheremadeherkeepheropinionstoherselfand“staysilent”(PL1-F).Thoughlecturerswereopentosharingtheirviewswithme,beingfearfulofthecurrentpoliticalclimatemeansitislesslikelythatteachereducationenvironmentsareconducivetoopenlydiscussingtheconflict,againreducingthelikelihoodofpeacebuildingaspectsofrecognitionandreconciliationexistinginteachertrainingclassrooms.Lastly,anotherexplanationforthelackofcontentaboutpeaceandconflictisthatstudentsandlecturersalikeequatedtheconceptofpeacebuildingeducationwithexistingmaterialinCivicEducationclasses(CT1-M,CT2-M,BIT1-F,DH1-M),whichwillbecriticallyexaminedinthefollowingsection.CivicEducationCitizenshipandciviceducationhavebeenacknowledgedasameansforstate-buildinginpost-conflictcontexts(Novellietal.,2015);indeed,fromwhatIgatheredduringthefieldworkperiod,thecontentinCivicEducationcourseswastheonlyaspectofteachereducationthatcameclosetoresemblingexplicitpeacebuildingmaterial.CivicEducationisacompulsorycomponentofallteachereducationprogramsatIndonesianuniversities,withthecontentdictatedbyanationalcurriculum,thoughanecdotalinformationhasimpliedthatmanydifferenttextbooksareavailable.Thespecifictextbookanalysedinthisresearchcamefrommytranslator,whohadreceiveditduringherfirstyearofstudyatUINAr-RaniryintheEnglishEducationprogram.Criticaldiscourseanalysis(CDA)wasusedtoexaminesomekeychaptersinthebook–namelychaptersonDemocracyandHumanRights.DemocracyChapterEightofthetextbookisdedicatedtotheconceptofDemokrasi(democracy)(Husen,n.d.).Beginningwiththeetymologyoftheword,thetextgoesontobrieflyoutlinetheteachingsofkeypoliticaltheoristsinthisfield,includingJosephSchumpeterandSidneyHook.ThisisfollowedbyadetailedhistoryofdemocracyintheWesternworld,withreferencestoarangeofimportantdevelopmentsfromtheMagnaCarta,tosocialcontracttheoryasabasisforthewelfarestate.Thereaderthereforegainsabrief,yetwide-rangingcontextualandWestern-centricunderstandingofdemocracy,beforecomingtoanoverviewofitsdevelopmentinIndonesia.ApreviousstudyonCivicEducationinIndonesianuniversitiessimilarlynoteshow“Islamicconceptsofthestateandcitizenshipareintegrated,invaryingdegrees,withWesternthoughtandpracticeoncivilsocietyanddemocraticpluralism”(JacksonandBahrissalim,2007:42).ThisisduetoasignificanttransitiontowardsamoreopenanddemocraticpoliticalcultureafterthefalloftheSuhartoregime,whichwascharacterisedbyanappropriationofthePancasilaideologytorestricttheboundariesofacceptablesocial,culturalandpoliticalbehaviour(ibid.).

36

Photograph5:AcopyofthetextbooksourceusedThechapterconcludeswithadiscussiononthecompatibilityofIslamanddemocracy.SeveralprominentWesternscholarswhohavespecialisedinthissubjectarereferenced,suchasSamuelHuntington(1997)andLarryDiamond(Diamond,PlattnerandBrumberg,2003),continuingthethemeofintroducingglobalperspectivesbeforelocalones.Markedly,thescholarsreferencedarecriticalofIslam’scompatibilitywithdemocracy;thetextcontainsdetailedexplanationsofsomecommonargumentsfortheincompatibilitybetweenthetwosystems:“Islamanddemocracyaretwodifferentpoliticalsystems.IslamcannotbecompatiblewithdemocracybecauseIslamisapoliticalsystemthatisself-contained.InthepoliticallanguageofMuslims,Islamasareligionistrue(pure),notonlyregulatingtheissueoffaithandworship,butratherregulateallaspectsofhumanlifeincludingthelifeofthestate[…]Islamisseenasanalternativepoliticalsystemtodemocracy.”(Husen,n.d.:120)IwassurprisedtofindsuchcriticismsopenlystatedinatextbookusedinanIslamicuniversity,inthedevoutlyIslamiccontextofAceh,eventhoughthematerialwasinlinewiththecurriculumrequirementsasstatedina2003EducationLaw1.Thatpotentially

1AMinistryofEducationDocument(translated)statesLaw20of2003statesthatNationalHigherEducationcurriculummustincludeReligiousEducation,CitizenshipandLanguages.http://luk.staff.ugm.ac.id/atur/SKDirjen43-DIKTI-Kep-2006.pdf

37

inflammatoryopinionsonIslamareincludedistestamenttotheoutward-looking,tolerantvaluesthatthenationalcurriculumhopestopromote.SincethisisthecoretextbookusedinCivicEducationcoursewithinUINEducationFaculty,futureteachersstudyingtherewouldpresumablybeexposedtotheseexternal,contrastingviewpointsintheirlearning.Thetextcontinuesbyapplyingtheargumentstoreality,acknowledgingthat“thepresenceofauthoritarianregimes(ratherthandemocracy)inanumberofMuslimcountriesisgenerallythedominanttrend”(Husen,n.d.:121).Thisisfollowedbypossibletheoreticalreasons,invitingthereadertocriticallythinkaboutIslamanditsrelationshipwithdemocracy,andapplythistocontextsoutsideIndonesia.Thisspecificaspectoftheteachertrainingcurriculumcanberegardedascompatiblewiththerecognitionandrepresentationelementsrequiredbythe4R’sframeworkforsustainablepeacebuilding,sincecriticalviewpointsareexpressedinarespectful,logicalmanner,exposingfutureteacherstodifferingviewpointsandsituationsthatexistoutsideofAceh,potentiallyallowingthemtonavigatetowardstheirownconclusionsaboutnationalandreligiousidentities.HumanRightsThenextchapteraddressestheconceptofhumanrights.Duetotheirsharedapproachesandmethodologies,HumanRightsEducation(HRE)canbehighlycompatiblewithexplicitpeaceeducation(TibbittsandFernekes,2011),whichmakesitawelcomeadditiontotheCivicEducationmaterialstudiedbyfutureteachersinAceh.Again,thetopicisfirstapproachedfromaWesternperspective,withhumanrightsbeingexplainedusingaLockeandefinitionasbeing“givendirectlybyGod”(Husen,n.d.:124).AhistoricaldevelopmentofhumanrightsisoutlinedinEuropeandfromtheUnitedNations,followedbyadetailedhistoryofitsdevelopmentinIndonesiaindifferentperiods.Thetextiscriticalofparticularperiods,suchasSuharto’sNewOrderperiod,whichisdescribedasatime“fraughtwithhumanrightsviolationscommittedbythestate”(Husen,n.d.:133).Otherphasesaredescribedmorepositively,withthepost-NewOderperioddepictedasaneraofreformwhichsawthegovernmentratifyseveralhumanrightsinstrumentsatbothaninternationalandnationallevel(Husen,n.d.).ThecontrastingrhetoricemphasisesIndonesiamovingtowardsincreasinglyglobalised,Western-centricstandardsoncivicissues,andindicatesadistancingfromideologiesassociatedwithpreviouseras,suchasthemilitarised,appropriatedanddelimitingversionofPancasilaincorporatedduringtheNewOrderperiod(Gunn,1979;JacksonandBahrissalim,2007).Humanrightsviolationsaredescribedindetaillaterinthechapter,withasignificantpartdevotedtovariousviolationsthatdefinegenocide.Notably,thetextpointsoutthat“violationofhumanrightscanbecommittedbythestateofficialsaswellascitizens”(Husen,n.d.:138).Thistypeofdiscoursecanbeseenasasignificantsteptowardsbuildingsustainablepeace;consideringthatthiscontentispartofnationalcurriculum,instatingsuchanadmissionthegovernmentisadmittingitcanbeheldaccountable.Thatthisisusedinaregionstillrecoveringfromcivilconflict,wherenumeroushumanrightsviolationstook

38

placefromthegovernmentsideaswellastherebels(AmnestyInternational,2013;Aspinall,2009b;WorldWatch,2013),theadmissioncanbeimplicitlyinterpretedasareconciliatoryelementwithinteachereducation,thereforefulfillinganecessaryconditionforbeingconducivetosustainablepeace(Novellietal.,2015).Whileitisnotanexplicitreconciliationinthiscontext–thiswouldrequirethegovernment’sunambiguousadmissionofitscommittedhumanrightsviolationsduringtheAcehneseconflict-itisarguablyastepintherightdirection.Yet,thesignificanceofincludingtheconceptofgovernmentaccountabilityinIndonesianHREissomewhatunderminedbycontinuingviolationsinotherpartsofthearchipelago,suchasPapuaandWestPapua(HumanRightsWatch,2016).ChapterNinealsoincludesanextendeddiscussiononHumanRightsinthecontextofIslamandGender.Inthissection,humanrightsaredefinedfromanIslamicperspectiveasgrantedbyGodandbelongingtoallpeopleindiscriminately,whichisreiterativeoftheLockeandefinitionmentionedearlier,highlightingaconciliationbetweenWesternandIslamicideals,arguablylegitimisingaglobalisedIndonesiancivicagenda.InthedeeplyIslamiccontextofAceh,wherepost-conflictpsychologicalandeconomiclegaciesstillexist(Waizenegger&Hyndman,2010),discussinghumanrightsfrombothWesternandIslamicperspectivescouldarguablyhelptobuildinclusionaryfeelingsofconnectionandsharedvalues.Inclusioninthiswaycanbeseeninareconciliatorysense,aswellascontainingaspectsofrecognitionandrepresentation,whichbooststhecurriculum’scapacityforsustainablepeacebuilding(Novellietal.,2015).EvidenceofthesekeyelementscanalsobeviewedinthegendereddiscussionofhumanrightsandIslaminthetextbook;thetextstatesthatthe“statusofmenandwomenareequalbeforeGod(Surah4:3)”(Husen,n.d.:143)anddescribesmalesuperiorityas“amereculturalproduct”(ibid.:142).Genderinequalityisalsodetailedinmanyformsincludingviolence,subordinationandstereotypingofandagainstwomen(ibid.)TheemphasisonmoreWestern-centricidealsofgenderequalityandagainstfemalediscriminationissignificantconsideringthepatriarchal,matrifocalstatusquoinAceh,andgenderedsufferingduringthewar(Lee-Koo,2012);prominentlyincludingissuesaroundsexisminadiscussionaboutcivicidealsdisplayselementsofallfouraspectsofredistribution,recognition,representationandreconciliationneededforsustainablepeacebuildingeducation.However,aswillbediscussedinthefollowingdatachapters,thisgenderequalitynotnecessarilyreflectedintherealityofAcehneseteachersystem.ImplicitPeacebuildingEducation?ThetopicsanalysedintheCivicEducationtextbookcanbearguedtocontainelementsof‘implicit’peacebuildingeducation,throughitsencouragingofsocialvaluesthatareconducivetosustainablepeacebuilding.However,thereisalackofcontentthatisspecificallyrelevanttoAceh–thishasalsobeenfoundtobethecaseinothersubjectssuchasHistory(Wenger,2014).Inthissense,despitethematerialpromotingidealsassociatedwithatrulypeacefulandjustsociety,thereisnorealsenseofreconciliationregardingtheviolentconflictexperiencedbytheAcehnese.AnexplicitacknowledgementandaddressingofthenumerouscivilconflictsexperiencedinIndonesiaoverrecentyearsisforegoneinfavourofunifyingrhetoricthatrelatesnationalcivicidealstoglobal,Western-centricideas.

39

TheCivicEducationcurriculumusedforteachereducationthereforecannotbetrulyrepresentativeoftheAcehnese,anddoesnotrecognisethediversityoftheirexperiences.Thisweakensthecurriculum’scapacitytoqualifyassustainablepeacebuildingeducationintermsofthe4Rsframework.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatwhilecompulsoryciviceducationshouldbeviewedasacrucialcomponentofteachereducation,itisalreadycompulsoryforallstudentsinIndonesianhighereducationinstitutions(JacksonandBahrissalim,2007).Therefore,initsgeneralisedform,thereisnosenseofhowfutureteacherscanspecificallyapplytheselearningstotheirpreciseroleineducatingfuturegenerations.Theeffectivenessofthecourseisalsoquestionableconsideringthatitisonlylimitedtoonesemesterinthefirstyearofstudy.Furthermore,thevalueandinfluenceofCivicEducationonsustainablepeacebuildingcannotbedeterminedsolelyfromtheanalysisofthisparticulartextbook.ThoughallCivicEducationtextbooksshould,intheory,containthesamenationalisedcontent,thereisevidencethatthiscandifferacrossuniversities;forexample,thosefollowingtheMuhammadiyahsystem–oneofIndonesia’slargest,mostprominentIslamicorganisations-havebeendocumentedusingCivicEducationtextbooksthataremoretailoredtotheorganisation’ssocial,politicalandeducationalaims,incorporatingacurriculumthatfocusesonthecreationofgoodMuslimcitizensspecifically(JacksonandBahrissalim,2007).Theroleoflecturersinciviceducationisalsocrucialindetermininghowthecurriculumaffectsfutureteachers–afterall,textbooksareonlyaseffectiveastheteachersthatusethem(Cole,2007),indicatingtheneedforgreaterresearchwithinthisareaofIndonesianeducation.Continuingthistheme,thenextsectionexploreshowthecurriculum,alongwithlecturers’perceptionsandmotivations,affectstheirstrategiesforteaching.TeachingFutureTeachers:Lecturer’sMotivationsandStrategiesThoughIspoketofarfewerlecturersthanstudentsintheEducationFacultiesatbothUINandSyiahKuala,Ifoundthatthelecturershadawidervarietyofmotivationsandreasonsforenteringtheirprofession.ThreelecturerscitedpassionfortheirsubjectastheirmotivationtoteachitwithintheEducationFaculty–anEnglishlectureratUINsimplytoldme“Iloveit(English)!”(EL1-F).Similarly,anEnglishlecturerfromSyiahKualatoldmeshehaddevelopedaloveforteachingEnglishaftergraduatingfromthesamedepartmentyearsago(EL2-F).Aswillbediscussedinthefollowingdatachapter,whereasmanystudentparticipantsexpressedtheirconflictexperiencesasinfluencingtheirmotivationstobecometeachers,thelecturersIspoketodidnotseemtohavesuchpoliticalsourcesofmotivation.TheonlycomparablereflectioncamefromaCivicEducationlecturerfromSyiahKualaUniversity,whowasmotivatedbythe“multiculturalismanddiversityinIndonesia”(CEL1-M).Hewentontodescribethepertinenceofhisroleas“integratingdifferentbackgroundsintooneIndonesia,andimprovingtolerance,becausethereissomuchmomentumherethatcantriggerconflict”(CEL1-M).

40

Itwasinterestingtohearthatmanyrespondentshadnotevenintendedtohaveateachingcareeratall,letalonebecomealecturerintheFacultyofEducation.BothofthemostseniorlecturersIspoketohadseemedtojust‘endup’intheirpositionsthroughalongbut“naturalprocess”(ISD1-M)inacademiai.e.pursuinganundergraduatedegree,followedbyapostgraduateandthendoctoralprogramwithinthesameuniversity(ISD1-M,DH1-M).AfemalePhysicsEducationlectureradmittedthatshebecameateacher“bymistake”(PL1-F);aBachelor’sdegreeinPhysicsEducationhadbeenanarbitrarysecondchoiceforher,withherfirstchoicebeingMedicine.WhenshedidnotgettherequiredgradestostudyMedicine,shereflectedthatitwasthe“willofGod”andthatshewouldneverknowthe“lesson”behindthispath(PL1-F).Theselecturerswerenotcompletelyunenthusiasticintheirperspectivestowardsteaching–onthecontrarytheystillacknowledgedtheimportanceoftheirrole,withoneoftheseniorlecturerstellingmehewaspleasedto“giveacontribution”towardssocietyandthatheconsideredteachingtobe“noblework”becauseitwasthe“foundationforallprofessions”(ISD1-M).However,discoveringthatwithinmysmallrespondentgrouptherewerelecturerswhohadnotreallyaspiredtothiscareermeanstherearelikelytobeotherEducationFacultymembersinsimilarsituations.Somelecturerrespondentswereawareofandconcernedaboutdisparitiesbetweenteachermotivationlevels;selectingadegreewithintheEducationFacultyasa‘back-upoption’wasconfirmedascommonpracticeamongprospectivestudentsbyonelecturer,whonotedthatitcan“becomethesecondorthirdchoice”(CEL1-M)forstudentsduringtheapplicationprocess.Becauseofthis,theimportanceoftrulywantingtobeateacherwasemphasisedinmanyoftheconversationsIhadwithlecturers,withoneseniorFacultymemberatUINsuggestingthatthereshouldbeateachingskillstestandaninterviewforanyprospectivestudentapplyingtobecomeateacher(DH1-M).Onlyacceptingprospectivefutureteachersthatwereenthusiasticandmotivatedabouttherolewasseenasimportantforthemotivationoftheirfuturestudents(CEL1-M).Thisisalignedwithresearchthathasshownteacherenthusiasmhasapositiverelationwiththeintrinsicmotivationofstudentstolearnfromthem(Patrick,Hisley,andKempler,2000).Inapost-conflictcontextlikeAceh,itcouldthereforebearguedthatateacher’sgenuineenthusiasmwasnecessaryifattemptingtoeffectivelyincorporateanynotionsofsustainablepeacebuildingineducation.Thoughthisresearchaimedtoprimarilyfocusonthepotentialpeacebuildingagencyofstudentteachersinrelationtotheeducationalstructuresandcontextwithinwhichtheywerecontained,itseemedthattheirlecturersthemselvesalsohad,insomecases,muchlessspaceformanoeuvrethanIhadexpected.Onelecturerdescribedherselfasfeelingconstrainedbynumerous“restrictions”inherjob,rangingfromthephysicalintermsofwhatshewasexpectedtowear,toconstraintsinthewaylecturersweresupposedtothink,“especiallyrelatedtocultureandreligion”(PL1-F).EvenasafemalelecturerintheslightlymoresecularSyiahKualauniversity,shewasexpectedtowearskirts;herresponsewastowearjeansandtellherfemalestudentsthattheycouldalsowearjeans,becauseshedidnotwanttobeahypocrite(PL1-F).Herviewwasthataslongasstudentsbehavedandcompletedassignments,therewasnoneedtoimposeclothingrulesinclass,andthat

41

wearingparticularclothes“doesnotshowwhatisinside”(PL1-F).Heractionsrevealhow,despiteconstraints,somelecturerscantakecontroloftheirlearningenvironmenttoincorporatetheirownperceptionsintotheclassroomandsharethesewithstudents.Genderissuesbuildingonsimilarpatriarchalexpectationsofwomeninschoolswillbefurtherdiscussedinthefinaldatachapter.Whilediscussionaboutpost-conflictmattersdidnotseemtobeapriorityformostofthelecturersIspoketo,twoindividualsspokeaboutactivelyfindingwaystoencouragestudentstodiscusscontemporaryissues.AnEnglishEducationlecturertoldmehow,byfollowingcurriculumguidelinesonteachingdebatingskills,shehadorganisedadebateaboutLGBTrightsinAcehduringarecentclass,withthestudentssplitintotwoteamsforandagainstpromotingtheserights.Shetoldherstudents“nottobringQuranicverseintothedebate-thisisaboutcriticalthinking”(EL2-F).IwassurprisedtohearaboutsuchcontroversialandtabooissuesbeingdiscussedopenlyinclassroomswithinadeeplyIslamicsociety;thischoiceinteachingmethodseemedtobeboldandoutward-looking.Thoughchoosingthetopicwas“notaboutrightandwrong”(EL2-F)andwasapparentlychosenpurelytoassessspeakinganddebatingskills,thechoiceisstillsignificantintermsofcontributingtowardsanimplicitpeacebuildingeducation;suchactivitieswouldallowforfutureteachersinthatparticularclasstounderstandandrecognisetherightsofmarginalisedcommunitiesinAceh,potentiallysettingaprecedentforacknowledgingsocietalinequalitiesaspartofawidertransformativepeacebuildingprocess.Similarly,anotherEnglishlecturerdescribedadaptingherlessonstoincorporatecurrentaffairs,explainingthat“whenyouareteaching,communicatingwiththestudents,thewaywedeliverourspeech–youcandirectittowardscertainends”(EL1-F).Whileshebelievedthatonepersonwas“likeadropofwaterintheocean”intermsoftheirimpactonsustainingpeaceinAceh,sheacknowledgedthatteachershave“smallparticularroles”whenitcametomakingtheirstudentsawareofcurrentissues.Regardingconflictandpeace,inheropiniontherewasanobligationtoincludematerialsorarticlesonthesesubjectsinherlessonswheneverpossible(EL1-F).TheseindividualapproachesdemonstratethepossibilityforAcehneselecturersandteacherstostrategicallyshapeacurriculumaccordingtotheirowninterestsandpriorities-inthiscaseshapingacurriculumwithnoexplicitconflict-sensitivematerialintoonethatincludedrelevantandtopicaldiscussionsaroundthosethemesmoreimplicitly.Fortraineeteachers,thisisapositiveimplicationforbuildingsustainablepeace–insuchlessonstheyareexposedtocriticaldebatesanddiscussionsaboutwidersocietalissues,whichtheymayreplicateintheirownclassroomactivitiesinthefuture.Unfortunately,Irealisedthatmouldinglessonstoincorporatecertaintopicsanddiscussionswasprobablyonlypossiblewithinafewsubjectareas–thetwolecturersthatmentionedthiswerecoincidentallybothEnglishLecturers.HavinglessonplansthatofteninvolvereadingEnglisharticlesfromabroadfacilitatesexposuretocontentandviewpointsfromoutsideAceh,andthisisalsoanecdotallythecaseinCivicEducation.Conversely,whenI

42

spoketoaPhysicsEducationlectureraboutwhetheritwaspossibletoimplementsimilarstrategiesinherclasses,shefeltitwouldbeverydifficultto“integratesocialissues,because[…]thephysicsstudentsfeelthat,weshouldjustlearnphysics”(PL1-F).Therefore,suchbehavioursandteachingstrategiesarecompletelydependentonhowthelecturerperceivesandactswithinthestructuralconstraintsoftheirsubjectarea,highlightingtheneedforexplicitfocusonpeacebuildingmaterialstobeinitiatedatalllevelsacrossdifferentgroupsofactors,fromgovernmentpolicymakerstoschoolleaders(SayedandNovelli,2016).Atthemoment,itislikelythatonlyasmallnumberofoutward-lookinglecturersmaketheefforttoincludetopicalsubjectsoutsidethebasiccurriculum,meaningthatonlyalimitednumberoffutureteachersareexposedtosuchmaterials.Thiswasconfirmedelsewhere,asIwastoldbyonestudentthatsomeoftheirlecturersoccasionallydidbringupissuesaroundtheconflictandpeaceduringclasses,whileothersdidnot(BT2-F).Lastly,thoughIdidnotencounteranyevidenceofthiswithinAceh,intheabsenceofanyexplicitpeacebuildinginitiativesit’simportanttonotehowagencycanconverselybeusedbyteacherstoshapeeducationtowardsendslessconducivetopeace.ThisisdescribedbyBushandSaltarelli(2000)asoneofthe‘twofacesofeducation’inconflict-affectedsettings,whereteachersinsuchscenarioscanbeusedaspartofmoredivisivestrategiesinschooling.ParticipatoryOpportunitiesEducationcanbeseentocontributetothestrengthofcivilsocietybyteachingcitizenshowtoparticipateinit(Davies,2004).Thisisespeciallyimportantinpost-conflictcontexts,wherecivilsocietyandinstitutionsareweakenedornon-existent,andsimplyrebuildingeducationinstitutionsisprioritisedoverstructuralissuesofgovernance,qualityandaccess(Davies,2004;Novellietal.,2015).Iencounteredmanyexamplesofstudentparticipationattheuniversities,rangingfromextracurricularactivitiestocompulsorypracticalcomponentsoftheirstudyprogram;suchfeaturesconstituteanotheraspectofthestrategicallyselectivecontextinwhichfutureteachersact.Manyresearchparticipantstalkedaboutstudentassociations,whichexistedforeverysubjectdepartmentintheEducationFaculties,andservedasaformalwayforstudentrepresentativestocommunicatewithacademicstaff.ACivicEducationstudentfromSyiahKualatoldmeabouthisinvolvementinanationalstudent’sunionforallstudentsenrolledinthatparticularsubjectspecialisation:“Wehavespaceforcriticalthinkingandsharingopinions.MeandmyfriendsjoinedinanAssociationforCitizenshipEducationstudents.TheAssociationisforstudentsfromalloverIndonesiawhoaretakingthisCitizenshipteachingprogramatUniversity.EveryCitizenshipprogramineveryuniversityinIndonesiahassomedifferentsubjectsandslightlydifferentcurriculums,sowewanttounitealloftheCitizenshipprograms[…]Beforecurriculum-makersdecidetochangeanythingwiththecurriculum,thestudentshavetofirstagreetotheproposals”(CT1-M).

43

Allowingfutureteacherstodeterminetheirowneducationinthiswaycreatesachanneltoclearlyrecognisethediversityoftheircontributionsandrepresenttheirinterestspolitically.Italsoisdemonstrativeoffutureteachersactingtoshapethestructuralboundariesinwhichtheyarelocated.Thesefeaturesoftheteachereducationsystemcanarguablybeseenasconducivetosustainablepeacebuildingthroughcreatingarenasforcriticaldialogueandtransformativeideas(Novellietal.,2015).Despitethis,itwasunclearwhetherallteachingsubjectshadequallydevelopedchannelsofcommunicationbetweenstudents,lecturersandpolicymakers,andasthefollowingfindingschapterswillexplore,examplesofbarrierstoparticipationforwomenandlackofdialoguebetweenlecturersandstudentsportrayamorenegativepictureofparticipationwithinteachereducation.Allteachertrainingprogramsalsocontainedkeypracticalelementsdictatedbynationalrequirements–theseusuallyconsistofcompulsoryMicroteachingclassesandapracticalplacementperiod(PPL)inanallocatedschool.Iwasgrantedpermissiontositinduringatwo-hourEnglishMicroteachingclassattheUINFacultyofEducation,allowingmetoobservehowteachingskillsweretaughtinpractice,aswellastheinteractionsbetweenstudentsandthelecturer.Learningwasstudent-centric,withthemainactivityconsistingofindividuallychoosingtopicsfromtheboardtopreparealessonplan,withanemphasisonidentifyingtheagelevelandskillsassociatedwiththetopic.Studentswerethenrandomlypickedtopresenttheirmaterialby‘teaching’theirclassmatesinamockclassroomscenario,followedbycommentsandcriticismsfromtheirpeers.Theexchangeofideas,feedbackandcriticismsamongstthestudentsfurtherindicatedasenseofdialogue,enablingfutureteacherstodevelopreflectiveskillsinteaching(Kuswandono,2014).Byencouragingparticipationinthisway,italsofacilitatesateachingenvironmentthatisrepresentativeofthestudentsthemselves,andmoreconducivetobuildingsustainablepeace(Novellietal.,2015).Practicalplacements,knownasProgramPengalamanLapangan(PPL)ortheFieldExperienceProgram,arealsoanintegralpartoffutureteacher’seducation,involvingthestudentspendingtheirseventhsemester(thefirsthalfoftheirfinalyearofstudy)asateachingassistantinanallocatedschool.TheroleofPPListoimplementthetheoreticalandpracticalskillslearntpreviouslytodeveloplessonplansandexecutetheminrealclassrooms,aswellaslearningtofindtheirowncreative,personalteachingstyletomeeteverydaychallengesinschool(USAIDIndonesia,2016).AtUINuniversity,thelocationofpracticalplacementswasallocatedrandomly,withpostslocatedacrossalargeareaoftheprovince.TheallocationprocessoccurredjustbeforeIleftAceh;mytranslatorFarahwasplacedinaruralareaaroundanhourawayfromherhomeinAcehBesar.Herreflectionduringthistimewasthattheplacementwas“verychallenging”,butthatshewasgettingusedto“handlingthenaughtyanduncontrolledstudents”2.AsimilarsentimentwasalsoexpressedbyaCounsellingEducationstudentwhohadalreadycompletedherPPL–shenotedthatinconflict-affectedareas,sometimeschildrenwithex-GAMfamilymembers

2Reflectionssentbyemailafterleavingthefield.

44

wouldbullyothersandbeunrulyinclass,becausetheyfelt“morepowerandstrongerthanotherchildren”(CT1-F).Undoubtedlysuchexperiencesaredifficultlearningperiodsforfutureteachers,buttheyalsohighlightthevalueofPPL,notonlyinimprovingthepracticalskillsoffutureteachers,butalsoinaredistributivesense.Conflict-affectedruralareasinAceharelessexposedtooutsiders,educationalresourcesandthecosmopolitanbenefitsthatareassociatedwiththoselivinginurbanareaslikeBandaAceh.Therefore,childreninruralareasbenefitfromaredistributionofteachingresourcesthatcanaddressunderlyinginequalities,whichoftenexistevenduringstatesof‘negativepeace’,andcancontributetothere-emergenceofconflicts(Novellietal.,2015).Inturn,futureteachersareexposedtotherealityofpost-conflicteffectsstillpresentinschools,fromwhichtheycanlearntoadjusttheirteachingskillstoactivelyaddresssuchchallenges.FindingsChapter1-ConcludingReflectionsTowhatextentareaspectsofsustainablepeacebuildingeducationincorporatedintoAcehneseteachertrainingcurricula?HowdoAcehneseteachertrainers’perceptionsabouttheconflict,presentstateofpeaceandtheirroleineducatingfutureteachersaffectteachereducationinpractice?Inrespondingtotheabovesub-questions,thefindingsdemonstratethatfutureteachersoperateinacontextwherepoliticallychargedsubjectsofpeacebuilding,conflictandthecurrentstateofpeacearenotincludedformally.Iftheyareincluded,itisimplicitlyandatthediscretionofindividual,outward-lookinglecturers,whothemselvesformstrategiesforteachinginrelationtotheirownpoliticalperceptionsandconstraintsfromtheAcehnesecultural,politicalandeconomiccontext.Lecturers’agencytoshapesyllabuscontentinthiswayseemsmostfeasibleonlywithinanarrowscopeofteachereducationsubjectssuchasEnglishandCivicEducation,thereforereducingthelikelihoodoffutureteachersinothersubjectareasgainingexposuretomaterialoutsidetheircurricula.Findingsinthischapteralsoindicatethat,intheabsenceofanyexplicitpeacebuildingeducation,thecontentwithinCompulsoryCivicEducationseemstoimplicitlycontainaspectsofthereconciliatory,recognitionandrepresentationelementsfromthe4Rsframework.Thisismainlythroughpresentingbalancedandinformativediscussionsontopicssuchastheconceptofdemocracy,humanrights,andgenderissues.Limitationsarisewhenconsideringthatthevaluesembeddedinthetextaresimplypartofanationalisedcivicagenda,andcontainnolocalisedmaterialtoindicateAceh’sveryrecenthistoryofconflict;withoutspecificacknowledgementofpastconflictissues,thecontentcannotachievethetransitionaljusticeneededfortruereconciliation.Practicalandparticipatoryaspectsofteachereducationarerepresentativeofsome(butnotnecessarilyall)ofthestudents,andwhilethiscanencouragearedistributionofeducationresources,inthe

45

absenceofexplicitpeacebuildingmaterialtocomplimentthesefeatures,it’sunclearhoweffectivetheseprogramareinpromotingtrulysustainable,positivepeace.

FindingsChapter2:

Photograph6:DuskonthestreetsofBandaAceh

46

Havinganalysedthestrategicallyselectivecontextinwhichfutureteachersarelocated,thischapteraimstoestablishhowtheypositionthemselveswithinit,thereforedeterminingtheiragencywithregardstodevelopingideasaboutandpracticingformsofsustainablepeacebuilding.Findingsinthischapterthusrelatetothefollowingsub-question:HowdoAcehnesefutureteachersperceivetheirtraining,thepreviousconflictandpresentstateofpeace?Howdoesthisinfluencetheiroutlookontheteachingprofessionandsustainablepeacebuilding?Datarelatedtothischapterwasgathereddirectlyfromcurrentstudentteacherstakingpartinsemi-structuredinterviewsandfocusgroups;discussionscenteredaround,butwerenotlimitedtothetopicsofmotivations,perceptionsofteachereducation,conflictexperiencesandobservationsonthecurrentstateofpeace.Thetopicscoveredwereoftensimilartothosecoveredininterviewswithlecturers,enablingamulti-layeredunderstandingofhowthesamestrategicallyselectivearenas(providedbythecurriculumthepost-conflict,Islamicsocio-politicalcontextandadditionally,thelecturersthemselves)haveseparateimplicationsfortheagencyoffutureteachersinfacilitatingsustainablepeacebuilding.PerceptionsofTeacherEducationProcess“Thecourseandsubjectsarealreadygood,buttheimplementationofhowlecturersactuallyteachintheclassmustbeimproved.”(BIT1-F)Theabovereflectionsummarisesthemajorityoftherespondents’perceptionsregardingtheteachertrainingprogramsatbothuniversities.Moststudentsexpressedoverallsatisfactionwiththeiruniversitycourses,with“goodtheory”(IST1-F,ET1-F)beingusedasacommonphrasetodescribetheteachingmaterialsandprogramstructure.Theuniversityenvironmentwasseenasconducivetolearning,withSyiahKualaUniversitydescribedashaving“verygoodinfrastructure”(CT2-M)intermsofaccesstobooks,technologyandteachingspace.Onelecturerrevealedthatthespacious,modernteachertrainingcampusofSyiahKualahadbeenbuiltafterthetsunamibyUSAID(EL2-F)3.ThoughIdidnotreceivespecificinformationaboutUINAr-Raniry,wheretheEducationFacultybuildingswereslightlyshabbier,thestudentstherealsoexpressedsimilarlevelsofsatisfaction.Despitemoststudentsbeingsatisfiedwiththeirteachingstructure,Imadeapointduringeachintervieworfocusgrouptoaskiftherewereanyaspectsoftheireducationthatneededimprovement.Anyconstructivefeedbackthatwasgivenusuallycenteredaroundthepractical‘Microteaching’aspectofthetraining,withonestudentpointingoutthatpracticingteachingskillswithfriendsatuniversitywasnotcomparabletothe“reality”ofteachingchildrenbythemselves,admittingthat“notalltechniques…willworkwell”(BIT1-

3Ilaterspottedacommemorativeplaquewhichconfirmedthis

47

F).Giventheunpredictablenatureofteachinginareal-lifeclassroom,sheconcededperhapsaninitiallearningcurveistobeexpectedwhenmakingthetransitionfromtheorytopractice.Incontrasttothegenerallypositiveperceptionsoftheteachertrainingprocess,satisfactionwiththelecturersthemselveswasnoticeablyless.Overall,lecturerswerenotseenasrolemodelsor“goodexamples”(PT1-F,IST1-F)forthestudentstolearnfromthemselves.Themainreasonforthiswasaperceivedlackofprofessionalism;Iwastoldthatlecturerswereoften“notontime,theyarenotdisciplined,theyaresmoking”(AT2-M).Onestudentremarkedthattherehadbeentimeswhenlecturersdidnotturnuptoclasses(IST1-F).Thereseemedtobeadisparitybetweenhowateachershouldideallybehave,andthewaystudentsperceivedtheactualbehavioroftheirlecturersintheEducationFaculties,resultinginasituationwhere“whentheyteachstudents,theycannottrainthecharacterofstudents,becausetheyhaveabadcharacterthemselves”(AT1-M).Researchhasshowntheimportanceofperceived‘goodteaching’whenstudentsevaluatetheirlearningenvironment,withapositiveresponsetoteachingqualityassociatedwithstudentsadopting‘meaning-based’strategiesandoutcomesfromtheiracademiclearnings(Lizzio,WilsonandSimmons,2002).Thepresenceofseeminglydisinterestedlecturerscouldresultfromthefactthatmanydidnotoriginallyhavecareeraspirationsinthisfield,asdiscussedinthepreviousfindingschapter.Inthesensitiveandvulnerablepost-conflictcontextofAceh,whereteachersareoftenperceivedassocietalrolemodels,itisconcerningthatmanyofthestudentsinterviewedcouldnotseetheirmaineducatorsasgoodexamplesforthemselves.Anothernotablestudentperceptionontheteachingtrainingprocesswastheexistenceofa“socialrangebetweenstudentsandlecturers”(MT1-F).ObservationsfromthestudentsIinterviewedcreatedasenseofunapproachabilitysurroundingthelecturers;inparticular,thisperceived‘gap’separatingtraineeteachersfromtheirlecturerssuggestedthattheformerwereuncomfortableindirectlyapproachingthelatter.Beliefsthatlecturerswouldnottakestudents’opinionsseriouslywerecommon–whenIaskedaboutstudent-teacherdialogueanddiscussionwithinuniversity,inonefocusgroupIwastoldthat“somelecturerswillmaybeacceptourcritiquesandourcomments,butsomelecturerswouldsay‘Iamthedirector,youarejustastudent’”(ET1-F).Anotherstudentremarkedthat“therearesomelecturersthatcanacceptthecritiques,butthereareotherswhoacceptthecritiquesbutthenthescoresofthestudentsmightdecrease”(BIT1-F).Thoughtherewasgeneralacknowledgementthatnotalllecturerswerelikethat–“differentlecturershavedifferentcharacters”(ET1-F)–alearningenvironmentwherefutureteachersfeeldistancedanduncomfortableintermsofspeakingwiththeireducatorscannotbeconducivetosustainablepeacebuilding,wheredialogueiscritical.Thislackofdialogueandsenseofhierarchybetweenfutureteachersandtheirlecturerscouldbeexplainedbyculturalfactorswhichshapeperceptionsofsenioreducators.OnestudentIinterviewedexplainedthatinAceh,“theteacherforsocietyisthesameasthe

48

ulama”(CT2-M).WithcontemporaryAcehnesecultureandsocietybeingstronglyinfluencedbyits“judicialIslamicorientation”(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014:14),acomparisonofteacherstothedominantreligiousauthoritiesrevealstheauthorityandrespectthatteachersorlecturerscanyield,simplybybeinginaneducationalposition.GiventhattheulamainAcehhavehadaprominentguidingroleinsocietyfordecades(Alfian,1975;Aspinall,2009b),thisviewpointalsosuggestsasimilarvenerationforteachers,resultinginanunwillingnessofstudentstochallengetheirteachersonhierarchicalgrounds.Thoughperceptionssurroundingteacherswillbefurtherexploredlateroninthischapter,thisobservationdemonstrateshoweducationsystemscannotbeseparatedfromtheirlocalcontext(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014).ThecombinationoftheCCPEEandSRAframeworkisespeciallyusefulhereinhighlightinghowAcehnesesocietalnormsconcerningreligiousauthorityembedthemselvesintoeducationalstructures,whichcausestheactorswithin–inthiscase,futureteachers–toadheretostrategiesofobedienceandlimitedinteraction,astrategythatBjork(2005)notesisperceivedasthemosteffectivewaytosucceedinIndonesianeducationsystems.The‘SoundofGuns’:ConflictExperiencesThemajorityofstudentsIspoketowereoriginallyfromoutsideBandaAceh,soitwasunsurprisingthattheyrecountedawidearrayofconflictexperiences.AsmostofthestudentsIspoketowerearound20-21yearsold,thismeantthattheywerebornduringtheconflict,andwerestillveryyoungduringthepeakinviolenceintheearly2000s.Despitethis,theirmemoriesfromthistimeremainedvivid:“Istillrememberonenightwhenweheardthesoundofguns,sowehadtohideandmymotheraskedustogetdown,andwehadtosleeponthefloor”(ET1-F).Thesoundofconflict,especiallyhearingthenoiseofgunfire“everywhere”(GT1-F)wasalastingimpressionamongmanystudentsIinterviewed,withonedescribingitasatimewhereheconstantlyheard“boomboomboom”(ET2-M).Numerousstudentsalsorememberedcloseencounterswithsoldiers;onestudentrecalledherhousebeingsearchedbythemilitaryforherpolicemanfather,whohidinhergrandmother’shouse(IST1-F),whileanotherrememberedherfatherbeingarrestedbysoldiers,suspectedofbeingaGAMmilitantsimplybecauseofhis“physicalappearance”(PT1-F).Giventheseexperiences,itwasnotsurprisingthatanimositytowardssoldierswasoftenexpressedasamemoryfromperiod:“Iwasveryveryafraidofsoldiers.Whenyouseeauniform,wewerealwaysreallyscaredaboutthat”(CT2-M).Morelastingandfar-reachingeffectsoftheseconflictexperienceswereevidentwhensomestudentstalkedabouttheconsequencesontheirfamilies–onestudentnotedhow“sincethen,myfamilyfeltsotraumaticandreallyagainstanythingrelatingtoarmiesorsoldier,likewearebanningtomarryasoldierorwecannotbeapartofthearmy”(PT1-F).

49

Aswellashavingeffectsathome,theconflictseemedtopervademanyaspectsofthestudent’slives,includingschool.Lowschoolattendancewasawidelyreportedmemoryoftheconflictformanystudents:“Iremembereducationwasverydifficultatthistime,studentattendanceintheschoolswasverysmall.Theteachersfounditverydifficulttoteachbecauseoftheconditions.EvensomedaysIdidnotgotoschool”(ET1-M).Thoughmotivationsonbecomingateacherwillbefurtherexploredinabelowsection,thedifficultyofattendingschoolandreceivinganormaleducationduringtheconflictwasacommonincentiveIheardfromstudentsexplainingtheircareerchoice.Beingpreventedfromgoingtoschoolandbeing“forbiddentoleavethehouse”(BT3-F)createdapresent-dayemphasisontheimportanceofeducationinAceh.Onestudentexpressedherdesireto“keepincreasingeducationafterthisconflict”(AT3-M).Anotherstudentrememberedtheconflictasatimewhen,intermsofachievement,students“cannotgetanything”(BT3-F),butwantedtousethistoshowherfuturestudentsthatinthepresentday,“youcanstudyhard,youcangetabettereducation”.Aswellaspreventingstudentsfromgoingtoschool,onestudentexplainedhowtheconflictaffectedherday-todaylifeatschoolintermsofsocialexperiences:“Basedonmyexperience,Iwouldconsidermyselfavictimoftheconflict,becausemyfatherwasarrestedbysomeofGAM.WhenIwenttoschool,someofmyfriendsdidnotwanttobefriendswithmeanymore,soIwasbeingisolated.Butmyteacherduringthattimemademestrong”(BIT1-F).Theostracisationexperiencedbythisstudentrevealsoneofthemultitudeofwaysinwhichviolenceandwarcanmanifestintosmallerscaleconflictswithinsociety,particularlywithinaneducationalcontext(BushandSaltarelli,2000;Davies,2010).Thestudentelaboratedontheanecdotelateron,revealingthatbecauseoftheaccusationsagainstherfather,hermotherbecamedepressed,“soIcouldonlysharemyproblemswithmyteacher,theteacherprovidedaspacewhereIcouldshareanything”(BIT1-F).Inthiscasetheteacherbecameapositiveelementinanotherwiseisolatingsituation,highlightinghowteachersareableto“locatetheirworkwithinbroadersocialparametersandconstructtheirprofession[…]assomeonewhohassocialresponsibilities”(Vongalis-Macrow,2006:106).Thisanecdotealsointroducedtheideathatmemorableorsignificantconflictexperiencescaninfluencestudentsintermsoftheirdecisiontobecometeacherslateron–anotionthatwillbefurtherdiscussedlaterwithinthischapter.PerceptionsoftheCurrentStateofPeaceExamininghowfutureteachersperceivedthecurrentpost-conflictperiodinAcehhelpedmetounderstandhowtheyinterpretednotionsofpeace.Therefore,talkingaboutthe

50

students’conflictexperienceswasoftenfollowedbydiscussingtheaftermathoftheMoUandtheirperceptionsonthecurrentstateofAcehnesesociety.FormostofthetopicsIcoveredinstudentinterviews,includingconflictexperiences,therespondentsseemedwillingtosharetheirthoughts.However,whenpromptingadiscussionaboutthecurrentstateofpeaceorintroducingpeacebuildingeducationtoschools,studentsbecamenoticeablymorereservedintheiranswers.VerymuchstillapoliticaltopicinAceh,thesensitivityoftalkingaboutpeacewasevidentwhenonerespondentaskedifwecouldconducttheremainderoftheinterviewinEnglish,becausehedidnotwantotherpeopleinthecrowdedcoffeeshoptolistenandunderstandwhatweweretalkingabout(CT2-M).Despitethegeneralwarinesswithwhichthestudentsapproachedthesetopics,thereweresomesharedthemesandinterpretationsofthecurrentpeacethatarosefromtheparticipants’answers.Manystudents’attributedlastingpeaceinAcehtothepoweroftheMoU.AmaleCitizenshipEducationstudenttoldmethatthereasonGAMwerenowinactivewasbecausethey“respectthepromise”ofthesignedcontract,andthatthisagreementwas“stilltrusted”bythem(CT2-M).ReflectingontheeffectonAcehnesesociety,henotedhowtheprovincehadbecomeaplacewhere“thereislowcriminals,economicshasincreased,andpeoplearenotscaredanymore”–inhisviewthiswas“proofoftheMoU”anditspositiveeffects.Theviewthatpeoplehadbenefittedgreatlyfromthepeaceagreementwasrepeatedamongstotherstudents;echoingonelecturer’s(ISD1-M)sentimentsinthepreviousfindingschapter,aBahasaIndonesiaEducationstudenttoldme,“mostneedsoftheAcehnesegovernmentarenowfulfilledbythegovernment”,withherdefining“needs”as“specialisedpositions,ourrightsandauthority[…]ournaturalresources”giventoAcehaspartofthedeal(BIT1-F).Thatmanystudentparticipantsviewedpeacefromastronglypoliticalperspectivewasinteresting,especiallyconsideringthata2009studyoncommunityperceptionssurroundingtheMoUhadfoundthatrespondentswhospokepositivelyaboutthepeaceprocessweremainlyjustfocusedonthe“pragmaticandeverydaybenefitsofthepeaceratherthanthepolitics”(Grayman,2009).It’spossiblethatdifferentperspectivesarisefromthefactthattheuniversitystudentsIinterviewedwereexpectedtoreadandengagewithcurrentaffairsmore(asnotedinthepreviouschapter),givingthemmoreexposuretopoliticalissues.Otherstudents’interpretationofthecurrentstateofpeacewasmoreoutwardlooking,inthesensethattheysawpeaceinAcehbeingtheresultofamoreopen,changingsociety-“anewera”(CT2-M).AfutureEnglishteacherthoughtthatincreasedcommunicationwithnationalinstitutionsinJakartaandoutsideIndonesiahadbeenanimportantfactorinmaintainingpeaceinAceh(ET3-M).DuetothelackofmediaandinternationalpresenceinAcehduringtheconflict(Lee-Koo,2012),opencommunicationswerenotpossibleatthistime,resultinginanenvironmentthatfelt“tooclosed”accordingtoonestudent(ET1-F).Withoutthesamerestrictionsinthepresent,anotherexplainedthat“itiseasiertounderstandothers”,andthatsocietyhadlearnt“itisbettertocommunicateifwehaveproblemsratherthanfighting”(ET3-M).Consideringthisyounggenerationgrewupduring

51

thecreationofapeaceagreementfacilitatedbyanincreasinglypresent,post-tsunamiinternationalcommunity(Burke,2008;Gaillardetal.,2008;Waizenegger&Hyndman,2010),perhapssuchviewsareunexpected.Veryfewstudentstookanegativeviewofthecurrentstateofpeace,possiblylinkedtothegeneralreluctancetospeakaboutthesubject.TheCitizenshipEducationstudentwhohadbeenextremelypositiveregardingtheMoUanditseffectonpeacedidacknowledgethat,intermsofunderlyingsocietaltensions“maybethereisstillsomething”(CT2-M).Theproblemwasthattheywereoftenhidden–hetoldme“wedon’tknow”aboutthem(CT2-M).AfemalestudentshedmorelightonthisbyrevealingthatAcehwaslikean“iceberg”inherview,duetomanyproblemshiddenunderthesurface(CT1-F).Inheropinion,conflictinAcehwasongoingintheformofdisputesoverpeoplegaininginfluentialorpowerfulpositions.:“IntelligentpeopleofAceh,someofthemwentabroadduringtheconflictandstudied,sowhentheycomebacktoAceh,theycangethigherpositions…butGAMmembers,someofthemjustfinishedhighschool,howcantheybecometheleaderwhentheyonlyjustfinishedhighschool?Theydon’treallymasterasubjectlikeeconomicsorsomething.Intelligentpeoplewhoreallyknowabouteconomics,politics,justkeptsilent[…]becausemaybeiftheytakethesehigherpositionstheywilltriggersomeotherconflictswithGAMmembers.It’snotfair”(CT1-F).ThiswasperhapsthefrankestopinionIencounteredfromastudentaboutthecurrentpoliticalenvironmentinAceh;asaninsightintoyouthopiniononcurrentpoliticalhappenings,itrevealedcontinuedanimositytowardsex-GAMmembersalongsideahighlevelofstatusattachedtopeoplewhohaveachievedhigherlevelsofeducation.Thoughthesethemeswillbeexploredfurtherinthefinalsectionofthischapter,itisworthnotingthattosomeextenttheseviewsdoreflecttherealityofthepost-conflictperiod,withmanyelitemembersofGAMrisingtopoliticalprominenceafterthecivilwar(Aspinall,2009a;Barron,2008).PerceptionsonPeacebuildingEducationAfterdiscussingtheirexperiencesoftheconflictandperceptionsofthepost-conflictperiod,Iaskedstudentsabouttheiropinionsonbringingsuchtopicsexplicitlyintotheclassroom.Explicitpeacebuildinginitiativesinclassroomsarecrucialinbuildingpositivepeacebecausechildrenarearguablyattheirmostformativeperiodinbeingrelativelyopentodifferentworldviews,andschoolsareusuallytheonlyinstitutionwherepeaceeducationcanbeformallycarriedoutacrossacommunity(Bar-Taletal.,2009).Student’sopinionsonthistopicfellintooneofthreecategories;thefirstcategorywasmadeupofstudentswhosawtalkingaboutthesesubjectsasapotential“trigger”(FTD1-F),andwereextremelyreluctanttobringthesetopicsintoaschoolenvironment.Onestudentinthiscategorybelievedthattalkingabouttheconflictinschoolswould“triggeragainthetensionamongstudentsand

52

society”(FTD1-F),whileelsewhereitwasdescribedasavery“risky”(GT1-F)idea;ratherthantalkingaboutconflict,teachers“shouldforgetandmoveon”(ibid.).Anotherstudentfearedthat,intheeventofthosetopicsbeingdiscussedinclass,herfellowclassmateswouldquestionwhyshewaslivinghere,becauseherparentswerenotAcehnese(ET1-F).Thesecondcategoryofstudentsrecognisedtheimportanceofreflectingonconflictexperiences,butviewedthisasapersonalexerciseratherthanonetobesharedwithothersinclassrooms:“Weshouldnottalkabouttheconflictinteaching.Ithinkthat,weshouldkeeppoliticsoutofteaching.Welearnabouttheconflictathome,throughourownexperiences,knowledgeabouttheconflictisimportantbutweshouldkeepitoutoftheschools”(ET3-M).Similarly,anotherstudentsaidthatwhileteachersmustknowaboutconflict-sensitiveissues,therewassimply“noneedtohavearequiredsubject”(BIT1-F)aboutthetopicinschoolcurriculums.Theexistenceofperceptionsliketheseandthosefromthefirstcategoryamongststudentscouldpotentiallybeexplainedbyalingeringcultureoffearthatcontinuestoexistlongafterwar,encouragingpoliticalapathyandinactionacrosscivilsocieties(BushandSaltarelli,2000).Thiswouldmakesensegiventheconstantthreatsofpunishmentandviolencethatareexperiencedbysocietiesduringwar(ibid.),amongsttheothertraumaticconflictexperiencessufferedbymanyofthestudentsIinterviewed–memoriesoflifeatthistimemaycausethemtobecautiousinbringingupsuchpoliticallychargedtopicsinpublicspaces,evenyearslater.Thirdly,thefinalcategoryofrespondentsonthistopiccomprisedofindividualswhowereleastresponsivetothequestionsposed,andsawnoneedforconflict-sensitivematerialtobeimplementedintoschoolsduetoitsperceivedinsignificanceorirrelevance.Withlimitedteachinghoursinuniversity,onestudentquestionedwhytheyshouldbelearningaboutsuchtopics,whenothersubjectssuchasthecoreteachingmethodologywere“verymuchmoreimportant”(CT2-M).Anotherdidnotseemtothinkthatpost-conflictissuesstillexisted,claimingthatbecausetheAcehnese“alreadylivetogetherwithpeoplefromdifferentreligions”(BIT1-F),therewasnoneedtodiscussideasaboutpeaceandtogethernessintheclassroom.Whatwassurprisingaboutsuchviewpointswasthattheydidnotnecessarilycomefromstudentswithnosignificantexperiencesoftheconflict.Conversely,numerousstudentsinthiscategorydidthinkofthemselvesasconflictvictims.Onewayofexplainingtheseviewscouldbethattheintervieweesconsideredschool-basedpeacebuildingeducationtobeunimportantbecausetheydidnothaveaclear,distinctideaofwhatitentailed,eventhoughItriedmybesttoconveythisthroughthetranslator.Alackofunderstandingwouldbeunsurprisinggiventheextremelylimitednumberofconflict-sensitiveprogramsthatwereintroducedinAcehafterthe2004tsunamiand2005peaceagreement(ShahandLopesCardozo,2014).Interestingly,outof24studentsinterviewed,noneofthemthoughtitwasagoodideatoexplicitlydiscusstopicssuchaspeaceandconflictinschoolenvironments.Highlightinghowsociallyandpoliticallysensitivethese

53

topicsstillare,thisalsoemphasisestheneedtowidelypromoteeducationinpost-conflictsocietiesasapotential(yetnotunproblematic)keycomponentofpeacebuildingprocesses(Novellietal,2015).‘TheNobleProfession’–StudentMotivationsandReflectionsontheRoleofTeachersCareermotivationsofstudentsintheEducationFacultiesandtheirreflectionsonthesignificanceoftherolewereofteninterlinked,givinginsightintotheirpotentialcapacitytopracticesustainablepeacebuilding.Therewereafewstudentswhochoseteachingbecauseitwasseenasastablecareerpathwith“lesscompetitors”(BIT1-F);forthemajorityofstudentsIinterviewed,itseemedthattheirinsightsandmotivationssurroundingteachingweredirectlylinkedtotheirexperiencesandperceptionsofthepreviousconflict.MotivationstobecometeachersformanystudentsstemmedfromaviewthattheAcehnesepeoplehadbeensubjecttomanylimitationsandinjusticesduringthecivilwar,andthatteachershadaresponsibilitytorightsomeofthesepastwrongs:“Whenourrightsweretakenfromus,wedon’thavetosettle,wedon’thavetogiveup,wehavetotakebacktherightswhichhavebeentakenawayfromus.Theroleofeveryteacheristhatwehavetoteachthatweknowwhatisourrights,Iwanttodothisinmyteaching”(AT1-M).Usingteachingasawayofaddressingpastinjusticeswasrepeatedbyotherstudents-onefemalestudentnotedhowsomewomenwerepreventedfrompursuingeducationduringtheconflict,sohergoalwasto“continuestudyingashighaspossible”(BT1-F)andencourageherfuturestudentstoalsodothis.Thoughthegenderedimplicationsofthiswillbefurtherelaboratedinthefollowingfindingschapter,itisworthnotingherethatsuchsentimentsstronglyechotheredistributiveelementsoutlinedinNancyFraser’ssocialjusticetheory(2005)andthe4R’sframework(Novellietal.,2015).Therewasasensethatstudentswerelookingforabreakfromthepast,withMT3-Ftellingmethat“Idon’twantmychildreninfutureyearstofeellikeIdid”.Reflectingondifferencesbetweenthepastandpresent,andsubsequentlyusingthisasamotivationtoteachcanbeseenas“makingthepedagogicalmorepoliticalandthepoliticalmorepedagogical”(Giroux,2003).Futureteachersviewpursuingtheireducationasapoliticalact,withtheintentionofpassingthissentimentontotheirfuturestudents.Girouxarguesthatbeinga“reflectivepractitioner”inthiswayallowsteacherstobecome“transformativeintellectuals”withinsociety(2003),whichestablishesthepotentialforbuildingatrulypositivepeacebyaddressingstructuralcausesofconflict.However,consideringthelackofexposuretoexplicitmaterialsandideasaboutpeacebuildingintheireducationstructure,itisuncleartowhatextentfutureteachercanbeencouragedtoformsuch‘transformative’ideas.Itisnoteworthythatstudentsdidnotconnecttheredistributivetendenciesintheirmotivationswiththeideaofpeacebuildingeducation.Thoughgoingto

54

universitymighthavebeenviewedasapoliticalact,it’spossiblethattheeducationalstructureitselfwasnotviewedfromapoliticalperspective,asisevidentfromthestudent’sabsenceofcriticismandtheirunwillingnesstoincorporatepeacebuildingeducationintoit–perhapsfurtherindicationofthecultureofobediencethatpervadesIndonesianeducationsystems(Bjork,2005),arguablyfurtherlimitingtheirtransformativecapabilities.Perceptionssurroundingthestudents’widerrolesasfutureteacherswerealsooftenlinkedtomakingsocietalprogressaftertheconflict.Onestudenttoldmethat“aftertheconflict,themostimportantpointtoteachisrespectingothers”(ET3-M),withanotherexplainingthiswasneededinordertocreateanenvironmentinwhichteacherscan“implementthevaluesofbeingtogether”(BT1-F).Forteacherstoachievetheseaimsitwasnecessarytobebotha“rolemodel”(BIT1-F,IST1-F,ET3-M)anda“character-builder”(AT1-F,AT2-F,MT1-F)forsociety–twophrasesthatIheardnumeroustimesfromvariousstudents.Aswellassharingknowledge,ateacherwasexpectedtopracticegooddeedsandbeanexampletotheirownfamilymembers,inadditiontotheirstudents(AT2-F).Usingthelocalsocio-cultural,post-conflict(political)contexttostrategicallyframetheirperceptionsandobjectivessurroundingtheteachingroledemonstrateshowstudentscanaspiretoidealsassociatedwithbeingagoodteacher.Aswasdiscussedinthepreviouschapter,sincesomecurriculaareslightlyflexiblewithregardstoincorporatingthelecturer’sinput,thiscouldprovideopportunitiesforfutureteacherstointeractwiththesestructuresusingtheirownstrategies(Hay,2002;Vongalis-Macrow,2006),thoughitisalsoimportanttonotethatsuchstrategiesmaynotalwaysbesupportiveofsustainablepeacebuilding.Manystudentsweremotivatedtobecometeachersbecausetherolewasseenasvaluableinitself;teachinginAcehisseenasaselflessand“nobleprofession”(AT2-F)duetotheideathatteacher“givealltheyhavetoothers”(AT2-F),completely“dedicatingthemselvestosociety”(MT1-F).Expressingsimilarbeliefsinthevalueofteaching,threedifferentstudentsIspoketohadaspirationstoofferfreeschoolingforthepoorintheirhomevillagesafterbecomingqualified(BT5-F,MT1-F,MT3-F).Suchinitiativeswereseentobecomplementarytothenecessary“kindness”thatteachersshouldimplementintheirdailylives(MT1-F).Again,suchperspectiveshintatthepotentialtofulfillredistributivemeasuresneededinpost-conflicteducation(Novellietal.,2015),similarlytotherequiredPPLpracticalplacementoutlinedinthepreviouschapter.Initiatingsocialworkofthisnatureisalsolikelytobereligiouslymotivated:theimportanceofzakat(charity)wasoftenhighlightedduringconversationsaboutreligionwithbothfriendsandinterviewees.Teachingwasinterpretedbysomestudentsasapiousactivity,because“inIslamweshareeverythingwithothers,insteadofputtingyourselffirst”(MT2-F).Usingtheseperspectivestoinitiatesociallytransformativeprojectsdemonstrateshowfutureteachers’havethepotentialtoexpandtheirsocialagencybeyondtheboundariesofschool,intoasocial-politicalsphere(Vongalis-Macrow,2006).Afinalobservationontheperceptionsandmotivationsonteachingisasentimentthatwasrepeatedthroughoutmyresearchamongstthestudents-theviewthat“beinguneducated

55

isafactorofconflict”(MT3-F);inotherwords,therewasanexplicitassociationbetweenbeinguneducatedandbeingpartofGAM.Thoughinreality,manyofGAM’sseniorleadershadauniversityeducation(Schulze,2004)theprevailingviewamongstthestudentsIspoketowasthatGAM’sreasonsforcausingconflictarosebecausethevastmajorityofex-combatantswereuneducated.Alackofschoolingwasseentomakeit“easy[…]tobeengagedwithmilitants”(BT2-F)andtocreate“foolishstudentsthatwilltriggerconflict”(MT3-F).ThesomewhatunsympatheticviewofGAMmemberscouldpossiblybeexplainedbythefactthatmyresearchwasbasedinBandaAceh,whereGAMhadmuchlesssupportduringtheconflictcomparedtootherareasoftheprovince.Nevertheless,itshowsanunwillingnessonthepartofthestudentstofreelyengagewithasignificantgroupofactorsinvolvedintheconflict.Onestudentdidacknowledgehowthemilitantgrouphadsufferedafterthewar,reflectingthat“manyoftheex-GAMpeopleareunemployedrightnow[…]it’sourobligationtoeducateandcreateajobfieldforthesepeople.”Thoughsuchsentimentscouldbeseenasapositivesteptowardsthekeyreconciliatoryaspectsoutlinedinthe4R’sframework(Novellietal.,2015),theywerenotwidespreadamongststudents.FindingsChapter2:ConcludingReflectionsHowdoAcehnesefutureteachersperceivetheirtraining,thepreviousconflictandpresentstateofpeace?Howdoesthisinfluencetheiroutlookontheteachingprofessionandsustainablepeacebuilding?Inansweringtheabovesub-question,thefindingsinthischapterindicatethatfutureteachers’outlooksandstrategieswithineducation,liketheirlecturers,areinformedbypersonalperceptionsandexperiencesofthesocio-cultural,post-conflictcontextinwhichtheyoperate.Conflictexperiencesweredescribedmuchmorevividlythantheirlecturers,andappeartobemoreinfluential,motivatingfactorsintermsofchoosingtheteachingprofessionasacareer.EducationitselfisseenbymanyAcehnesefutureteachersasapoliticalact;pursuinghighereducationhighlightsthesocietalprogressachievedsincetheconflictperiod,whereasalackofeducationisassociatedwithGAMandviewedasapotentialcauseofconflict,diminishingthechanceforreconciliatory,positiverelationsassociatedwithsustainablepeacebuilding.Theseperceptions,alongwithaculturalrespectforteachersthatelevatestheirstatusas‘knowledgesharers’and‘rolemodels’withsocialresponsibilities,encouragesmanystudentstoframetheiraspirationsintermsofrecognisingthepotentialbenefittosociety;forsomethiswasinaredistributivesense,wherehelpingdisadvantagedcommunitieswasafuturegoal.Suchsentimentshavepositiveimplicationsforfutureteachersbeingabletoimplementaredistributionofeducationalresourcesandrecognitionofsocialinequalitiesneededforsustainablepeacebuilding(Novellietal.,2015).Moststudents,despitebeingawareofcurrentpoliticalaffairs,describedthepresentstateofpeaceinapositivesense,withlittlecriticalreflection–possiblyduetothesensitivityofthesubject,andlackofunderstandingaboutwhatconstitutespeacebuildingeducation.

56

TherewasthereforeawidespreadviewthatexplicitpeacebuildingmaterialshouldnotbeincorporatedintoAcehneseclassrooms;withreportedoverallsatisfactionwiththeeducationstructure,veryfewleadingexamplesoflecturersincludingsuchtopicsinclasses,andaculturalunwillingnesstochallengeeducationalhierarchies(Bjork,2005),itseemsunlikelythatstudents,asfutureteachers,wouldbeinclinedtoincorporateexplicitpeacebuildinginitiativesintotheirownclassrooms.Lastly,despitesomeparticipatorystudentopportunitiesoutlinedinthepreviousfindingschapter,inrealityitseemedthateverydaycommunicationsbetweenlecturersandstudentswerelimited,againduetoanunwillingnessfromthestudentstobreachsocio-culturaleducationalhierarchies.LackofdialogueandaperceivedunapproachabilityoflecturersthereforereducesthelikelihoodofAcehneseteachereducationbeingtrulyrepresentativeofstudentteachers,meaningthatthenecessaryrepresentationelementofsustainablepeacebuildingisunfulfilled.Itcouldalsobearguedthatfutureteachersarelikelytoreplicatethesamehierarchieswithintheirownclassrooms,furtherdiminishingthepotentialtopracticerepresentative,sustainablepeacebuildingeducationinfuture.

57

FindingsChapter3:

Photograph7:AvillagefairinLhoknga,AcehBesar

58

Thischapterpresentsfindingsrelatedtogender,usinginterviewdatafrombothfutureteachersandtheirlecturers.AsdescribedintheIntroductionandTheoreticalFrameworkchapterspreviously,exploringagenderedaspectofpeacebuildingisnecessarybecauseoftheexclusionarypeaceprocessinAceh,inwhichgenderedaspectsofconflictwereignoredandmenwerethedominantactors(Lee-Koo,2012).Atapolicylevel,inmanypost-conflictrecoveryapproachesagender-neutralpositionistaken,whichisunrepresentativeofthevarietyofimpactsandexperiencesacrossallgroups,orwheretheexperiencesofmenaretakentoberepresentativeofthewholecommunity(NowakandCaulfield,2008).Meanwhile,notionsofwomenduringandafterwarareoften‘essentialised’,labellingthemwithahomogeneousidentityrelatedtomotherhoodwhichsupposedlymakesthemsuitableforpeacemaking(Väyrynen,2010).Itisimportanttoacknowledgethatwomenandmenexperience,perceiveandrespondtodisastersinunexpectedways(NowakandCaulfield,2008)whichcanthenhelptodeconstructsociallyembeddedideasinordertobetterunderstandtheprocessofpeacebuildinganditsgendereddynamics(Väyrynen,2010).Thischapterexploresthedeeply-rootedassociationsbetweentheteachingprofession,Acehnesematrifocalmotherhood,andapartriarchalsociety,showinghowtraditionalgenderexpectationsplaceduponfemalestudentteacherscanlimittheircapacitytoenacttransformativeelementsofpeacebuilding,whileforothers,trainingtobeateacherisempowering.Adiscussionofvariousobstaclesfacingwomeninteachereducationisalsoincluded,highlightinghowpatriarchalperceptionscanlimitwomen’sopportunitiesandagency.Thechapterendswithanassessmentofwomen’sspaceformanoeuverwithinteachertrainingstructures,drawinglinksbetweentheunderlyingeffectsoftheirlimitedagencyandandthesystem’spotentialforpromotingsustainablepeacebuilding.TeachingandMotherhoodMyconversationsanddiscussionsaboutgenderexpectationswithresearchparticipantsrevealedastrongassociationbetweenteachingandmotherhoodamongsttheAcehnesecommunity,bothonconceptualandpracticallevels.ThissomewhatexplainedwhytheEducationFacultyinbothuniversitieswasmadeupofanoverwhelminglyfemalestudentbody–upto90%incertainsubjects(PL1-F).Aperceived‘softness’ofcharacterwasthemainreasoncitedbystudentsforwomenbeingmostsuitedtoateachingrole.Forexample,whenIaskedstudentswhyitseemedthereweremorefemalestudentsthanmalesintheEducationFaculties,ET1-Ftoldmethatwomenhave“moresoftfeelings”towardschildrenthanmales,whichmadethem“morecaring”andthereforemoresuitablefortherole.AnotionthatwomenwerenaturallyfonderofchildrenthanmenwasthoughtbymanyintervieweestobethereasonformorefemalestudentsthanmalesintheEducationFaculties(IST1-F,CT2-M,ET3-M).Thiswassurprisinggiventhatveryfewfemaleintervieweeshadmentionedaloveofchildrenasoneoftheirmainmotivationsforchoosingtostudyateachingdegree,asisevidentfromthepreviouschapter.However,suchperceptionsareinlinewiththematrifocalculturepresentinAceh;thatwomenare,bytheir

59

ownnature,expectedtofulfilltheteachingrolebybeing“moresweet”(CT2-M)thanmen,alongsidetheiruniversal“love”(IST1-F)forchildren,isindicativeofthetraditionalgenderrolespresentinAcehnesesocietybeingperpetuatedbywhatJudithButler(1990)callsgenderperformativity.MotherhoodandteachingarealsovaluedinnationalisticdiscoursesaspartoftheIbuismideology,withthetermibubangsa(motherofnation)emphasisingtheresponsibilityplacedonwomentopreparethenextgeneration(Jauhola,2010).Futureteachers’perceptionsthatwomen’ssuitabilityforteachingarisesfromcharacteristicsassociatedwithmotherhoodarereflectedintheworkofSaraRuddick(1989).Shearguesthatwomen’smaternaltendenciesincludebeingcaringandprotectivetowardsallformsoflife,thereforemakingthemwellsuitedtopeacebuildingprocesses(Ruddick,1989).Inasensethisideawassharedbynumerousstudentandlecturerinterviewees,whosawteacherslinkedtopeacebuildingonlythroughameansoftheirroleincreatingharmonyandtogethernessintheclassroom(BT1-F,DH1-M).Suchperceptionsareproblematicbecause,inapost-conflictcontextwherethemajorityofcurrentandfutureteachersarefemale,thistypeofthinkingprovideslimitingandpigeonholedstereotypesofwomenalreadyintheprofession(Kirk,2004)andpostulateswomenasinherentlypacifist,inturnreinforcingmilitaristicmasculinestereotypes(Väyrynen,2010).Consideringthattherearenumerousinstancesofwomenhavingactiverolesintheconflict–forexample,InongBaleewasaprominentfemalecombatantwingofGAM(Lee-Koo,2012)-theseperceptionsarenotanaccuraterepresentationoftherealityofgenderrolesinAceh.Intermsofachievingsustainable,gender-justpeacethrougheducation,itisimperativetomovebeyondideasthatwomenarenaturalcarersandthereforeautomaticpeacemakersforsociety.AslightlymorepracticalinterpretationofthelinkbetweenwomenandteachingwasgivenbyamaleEnglishEducationstudent,whoreasonedthattheyweremoresuitable“becausetheyhavealreadyraisedbabies,they(women)arebetteratteaching,itisnaturalforthem”(ET3-M).Ontheotherhand,formenitwaslessnatural–“Sometimes[…]themaleteacherdoesnotknowwhattodo”(ET3-M).Oneseniorlecturer,havingobservedmanycolleaguesovertheyears,believedthatmanywomenchoseacareerineducationbecausetheyfeelableto“teachbothathomeandintheclassroom”(ISD1-M).Teaching,asopposedtoothercareers,wasgenerallyperceivedtobecompatiblewithfulfillingmaternalandfamilialdutiesinthehome;withmanyschoolschedulesfinishingintheearlyafternoon,somerespondentshighlightedthepossibilityforwomentofinishworkandthenattendtotheirfamilyfortherestoftheday(AT1-F,BT2-F,CT1-M).ThiscorrespondsagainwithmatrifocalrolesassignedtowomenintraditionalAcehnesesociety,wherewomenareexpectedtomanagethehouseholdandbearmostoftheresponsibilitiesassociatedwitheducatingchildren,whereasfathersdonothaveasmuchinteraction(Srimulyani,2010).Adifferentlecturerthoughtthatteachingwasasensiblecareerchoiceformarriedwomenbecauseitmeanttherewasguaranteedworkifthehusbandneededtomoveawayforanewjob(EL2-F).Whilefindingotherkindsofworkaftermovingwasassumedtobemuchmoredifficult,teachingwasasafechoicebecause“ineveryregencythere’sanopportunitytoteach”(EL2-

60

F).Thefactthatthiswasexpressedintermsofthehusbandhavingthefreedomtomovearound,ratherthanthewife,revealshowAcehnesematrifocalityencouragesadditionalfamilialandbehaviouralexpectationstobeplacedonfemaleteachers.Theassociationmotherhoodwithteachingdidhavesomemoreempoweringaspectsthatwereemphasisedduringtheresearchperiod.AmajorityoflecturersandfuturefemaleteachersIspoketoseemedgenuinelyhappytobepartoftheteachertrainingfaculty.ThoughseeinglargenumbersofyoungwomenintheEducationFacultieswasinitiallysurprising,itmadesensegiventhatAceh,unlikeotherimpoverishedregionsinIndonesiaandaroundtheworld,hasachievedequalschoolparticipationratesforbothsexesthroughtoseniorhighschool,withfemalesevenoutnumberingmalesatthetertiarylevel(UNDP,2010).Onereasonforthismayhaveareligiousgrounding–anEnglishstudentdescribedanArabicproverbthatdescribesmothersas“thefirstschool”(ET1-),connectedtothenationalIslamicideologyofmatrifocalIbuism.Viewedinthisway,teachingpresentsanopportunityforfemaleeducatorstogainstatusandrespect(Kirk,2004),especiallyincommunitiesthatmaybeotherwiseconservativeintheirattitudestowomen.Furthermore,accordingtosomestudents,becomingateacherandbeingeducatedtouniversitylevelweredesirablecharacteristicsinafemale,becausemenwantedtomarry“womenwithatitle”(BIT1-F).Pursuingteachingasacareermadesenseforwomeninotherwaystoo.Duringafocusgroupdiscussion,onefemaleBiologyEducationstudentrevealedhowhercareerchoicehadbeenstronglyencouragedbyhermotherasawayofachievingempowermentandindependence.Describingherselfascomingfroma“brokenhome”wherethemotherstruggledtomakeendsmeetafterdivorcingthefather,sheexplainedthereasoningbehindhercareerchoice:“It’sveryimportantforwomentobeeducatedandindependent,sothatshehasherownmoney,andshedoesnothavetorelyonherhusband.Ifsomethingbadhappensthenthewomancansupportherselfandherchildren.”(BT5-F).Inadditiontoqualifyingasateacher,thestudentwasdeterminedtopursueaMaster’sdegreeandPhD.Thestudent’sdecisionandhermother’sstrongencouragementtobecomeateacherinordertoachieveindependenceandagencycanbeseenasastrategicpursuitofpersonalgoals,demonstratinghowteachinghasthepotentialtobeatransformativeprocessforwomen(Kirk,2004).Inthisway,teachingcanalsobeseenasatransformativeopportunityformotherstoasserttheirownindependenceandagency,evenwhilstmanagingfamilydutiesathome.Thatfemalefutureteachersreadilyexpecttobeabletocontinueworkingwhentheyhavefamiliesisindicativeofaneducationsystemthatisredistributiveintermsofbeingabletooffermothersemploymentopportunities,aswellasparticipationineconomicstructures.Itisalsopotentiallyrepresentativeintermsofinclusivityandthechancetoparticipateinthetransformativepoliticsofeducation(Novellietal.,2015).

61

“Maleshavenolimits.Agentlemancandoanything”:MalePrivilegewithinAcehneseTeacherEducationWithawidely-heldbeliefinAcehabouttheunionbetweenteachingandmotherhood,andanoverwhelmingmajorityofstudentsintheEducationFacultiesbeingfemale(exceptforsmallnumberofsubjectssuchasEngineering),itwassomewhatsurprisingtofindthattheteachereducationsystemwasdominatedbymaleprivilegeanddiscourse.ItisnocoincidencethatoutofallthelecturersIinterviewed,thetwomostseniorparticipantsweremale,whileallexceptoneofthemorejuniorstaffwerefemale.Basedonanecdotalinformation,thevastmajorityofseniorandmanagementrolesintheEducationFacultiesofbothuniversitiesarefilledbymen.ThisisalsothecaseamongstudentswhowanttopursueaMaster’sorPhDafterundergraduatelevel–candidatesaremorelikelytobemale.WhenIraisedtheseissueswiththeseniormaleparticipants,theresponseswereinteresting.ArecentlyappointedDeputyDeanwithintheEducationFacultyatUINtoldmethatpersonallyhewould“lovetoseeanequalnumberofpositionsbetweenmalesandfemalesinthisuniversity”(ISD1-M).Thinkingaloud,healsoasked“Whydon’tmorewomenworkintheDeputyprograms?”(ISD1-M).Similarly,whilediscussinguniversityadmissionsprocedures,andthesituationofhavingdisproportionatelymoremalecandidatesforcertainsubjectsandMasters/PhDprograms,amaleHeadofDepartmentfromthesameuniversitysaidthat“Idon’tthinktoomuchaboutreferringtogender,Iwouldjustlikethosewhoarecompetenttobestudentsinmydepartment”(DH1-M).Thoughsuchstatementsprobablywerewell-meaning,theydisplayacleardisconnectbetweenseniormalesintheEducationFacultiesandtherealityofcareerobstaclesfacedbyAcehnesewomeninthesamedepartments,bothasstudentsandlecturers–theseobstacleswillsubsequentlybediscussedbelow.Alackofacknowledgementfromthemaleperspectiveabouttheseobstaclesmirrorsthesocietalabsenceofrecognitionofthegenderedsufferingexperiencedbythousandsofwomenduringthecivilwar(AmnestyInternational,2013;Lee-Koo,2012).Sinceoneofthekeycomponentsinthe4R’sframeworkforsustainablepeacebuildingspecifies“recognitionofinstitutionalizedculturalhierarchies”(Novellietal.,2015:13),thefailureofseniormalestafftorecognizetheexistenceofthesewithintheEducationFacultiesrendersAcehneseteachertraininglessconducivetobuildingatrulyinclusive,sustainableandgender-justpeace.IlistenedtomanyanecdotesfromstudentsandlecturersaboutvariousobstaclesfacedbywomenintheEducationFaculties,reiteratingthelackofunderstandingaboutgendereddisparitieswithineducationfromahigherlevel,asmadeevidentbytheseniormalelecturers.Fromthestudents’side,Ilistenedtoanecdotalevidenceaboutfemalestudentsnotbeingallowedtotakeseniororleadingpositionswithinstudentcommittees–aBahasaIndonesiaEducationstudentfromSyiahKualauniversitytoldmethat“sometimesafemalestudentcannotbeheadofanorganizationincampus”(BIT1-F).ThoughIwasnotabletoverifythis,evenifitwerenottruethefactthatfemalestudentsbelievedthisrevealspsychologicalbarrierstoprogressionfacedbyAcehnesewomenineducationstructures.Thatwomenfeeldiscriminatedinthiswayindicatesthepervasivenessofpatriarchal

62

attitudesthroughoutAcehnesesociety,whichhavepermeatedthroughtotheteachertrainingsystem.Iwasalsotoldaboutinstancesofdiscriminationagainstfemalelecturerswhopursuedpromotion.AfemaleEnglishlecturerfromUINuniversitytoldmeaboutacolleaguewhohadmissedoutononesuchopportunity:“Agirl,inoneexampleIknow,thereisachanceforhertobechosenformoreseniorrole.Theyhavethesamecapabilitiesasthemalecandidate,infactthewomanwasmoreseniorthanthemale.Andshehadveryfewweaknesses,butstillthemalecandidatewaschosen.Thathappens.Butthethingis,wefemalelecturers,wewouldliketochooseafemaleleader.With20-25females,and27meninthedepartment,theywillwin,becausethemalevotersaremorethangirlvoters[…]wecan’tforce,itdependsonthemembers,themoremalesthereare,themoreopportunityforamaleleadertobechosen.So,thisisstillaproblemintheacademicsituation,Ihaveseenthis.”(EL1-F).SuchanecdotesarealignedwithDrAsnaHusin’s(2015)observationsontheAcehneseEducationsystem;asacurrentprofessoratUINAr-Raniry,shenotesthatitisan“insignificant”(2015:327)numberofwomenthatprogresstobecomeDeansofacademicdepartments,andthattherearecurrentlynofemaleRectorsorevenRectorcandidatesinanyAcehneseuniversity(ibid.).WheneverIaskedstudentparticipantswhywomenwereoutnumberedbymeninthesecontexts,therewerenumerousanswers.Acommonthemewasthattheoverallstatusofmenwashigherthanthatofwomen,basedon“theprincipleofIslam”(BIT1-F).Accordingtothisprinciple,itwasarguedthat“femalescancompetewithmalesinsomepositions,butnotallofthem[…]somepositionsaremoresuitableformen.”(BIT1-F).ThefrequencyofencounteringstudentswithsimilarviewpointsduringthedatacollectionprocessdemonstratestheimportanceofIslaminshapingtheculturalcontextinAceh,whichinturnhasvisiblediscriminatoryeffectsagainstwomenintheteachertrainingsystem;theroleoflocalIslamiccultureishighlightedasa“constitutiveelementandcontingentfactor”(LopesCardozoandShah,2016a:528)intheactionsofthoseoperatingwithinteachereducation.ThoughtraditionalAcehnesematrifocalculturesometimescontradictsIslamicteachingsongenderroles(NowakandCaulfield,2008;Srimulyani,2010)-forexample,Islamdictatesthatmenareheadofthehousehold-inrecentyears,women’sroleshavearguablybeenfurtherconfinedwithinAcehnesesocietyduetothegrowingprominenceofIslamandtheulama’sinfluenceindetermininggenderroles(NowakandCaulfield,2008). Theunsuitabilityofwomenforcertainrolesintheworkplacewasalsoattributedtogeneralisedpersonalitytraits.Fromtheinterviews,itwasclearthatcertainperspectivesaboutwomenbeingmentallyincompetentandunsuitablefortheworkplaceexistedamongstsomemalerespondents.DuringonefocusgroupwithmaleEnglishEducationstudents,Iwastoldthattherearefewerwomeninsenioruniversitypositionsbecause“menhavemorewisdom[…]forhavinggeneralperspective[…]it’smoredifficultforthem(women)toseethebiggerpicture”(ET2-M).Similarly,aCitizenshipEducationstudentthoughtthatwomenhadaproblemofbeingtoo‘moody’,whichinterferedwiththeirjobs

63

(CT2-M).WhenIpointedoutthatmencouldalsobesubjectto‘moodiness’,headmittedthiswastrue,butthatthatmen“weresmartertocontrolthosemoods”(CT2-M).Inthisway,menwereseentohave“nolimits”–thisparticularparticipanttoldmethat“agentlemancandoanything”becauseoftheirsuperiorperceptionsandmindset(CT2-M).Thoughnotallmalerespondentssharedtheseviews–forexample,inanotherinterviewastudentexpressedthathethoughtwomenshouldbeequaltomeninsociety,andthatwomenaregenerallybetterat“thinkingtasks”(ET1-M)–theexistenceofsuchviewsisrepresentativeofknownpatriarchalviewpointsinAcehnesesociety.Widespreadbeliefsthatwomenareinferiorinsomewaystomenwillcontinuetomarginalizeandpreventthemfrombeingrepresentedathigherlevelswithintheeducationsystem.Alackoffemalerepresentationinthiswayisincompatiblewithbuildinganeducationsystemthatcanpromotesustainablepeacebuildinginthepost-conflictcontextofAceh;sincetheeducationsystemisakeystateinstitution,andoftenoneofthefirstcommunityorganisationstofunctionaftercrises,itisimperativetheysethighstandardsforgenderequalityinstaffing(Kirk,2004).FutureFemaleTeachers–AgencyandSpaceforManoeuvreOnasuperficiallevel,womeninAcehneseteachertrainingsystemsareperceivedtohavethesameopportunitiesasmen–manystudentsIspoketobelievedthat,withinhighereducationatleast,womenandmenhadthesameopportunities(ET1-F,AT1-M,AT2-M).However,thevariousobstaclesdiscussedinthischapterthatwomenfacewithintheteachereducationsystemarguablymeansthattheyhavelimitedspaceformanoeuvreintermsofagency,comparedtotheirmalecounterparts.Inadditiontotheirlimitingassociationswithmotherhoodandtheirperceivedinferiorpersonalitytraits,theyaresubjecttootherbehaviouralexpectations,arisingfromdominantpatriarchalviewsinsociety:Iencounteredaclearexampleofthiswhenthesubjectofinappropriateteacherbehaviorwasbroughtupamongststudentsduringafocusgroupdiscussion.Thoughitwasamixedfocusgroup,inappropriatebehaviorwasmainlydescribedintermsofactionsperceivedtobeinappropriatespecificallyforfemaleteachers.Examplesofthisincluded“dressinginappropriately,likeinshortskirtsorskinnyjeans”(AT2-F),“flirting”(AT1-M)and“sittingonthedesk”(AT2-M).Thatinappropriatebehaviorspecifictomaleteacherswasnotmentionedwasrevealing,highlighthowtheinfluenceofthepatriarchal,socio-culturalcontextonteachereducationaffectsexpectationsoffemaleteachers.LocatingAcehnesewomenintheteachereducationsysteminvolvestakingintoaccountthesebehaviouralexpectationsasconstraintsthatbindthemandshapetheconditionsunderwhichtheycanexerciseagency(LopesCardozoandShah,2016a).Thisunderlinesthestrategicallyselectivenatureofthestructural,educationalcontextinwhichtheyoperate,allowingonlycertainactionstocomeintoeffect(ibid.)–inthiscase,thisisreflectedbywomenbeingreluctanttoengagein“distastefulcompetition”(Husin,2015:327)withmenforimportantpositions,andaligningtheteachingroletofitalongsidetraditionalnotionsofmotherhood.

64

ThoughIencounteredsomeindividualswhoseemeddeterminedtochallengetheexpectationsplacedonthemasfemaleteachers,intermsofrebellingagainstdresscodes(PL1-F),oraimingtobefinanciallyindependent(BT5-F),aconstrainedspaceformanouevreforwomeninteachereducationhasimplicationsforthesystem’scompatibilitywithsustainablepeacebuilding.Limitedagencyintermsofbeingabletopursueleadershiproleswithinuniversitiesmeansthattheteachereducationsystemcannotberepresentativeiffemalestudentsandlecturesdonotpossessthefundamentalfreedomstobeinvolvedinkeydecision-makingprocesses(Novellietal.,2015).Italsomeansthatstructuralinequalitieswithinteachereducationcontinuetopersist,failingtofulfiltheneedforredistributionofpoweratthehigherlevel(ibid.).Withtheconstructionofeducationbeingcriticalinpost-conflictcontextsindeterminingitstransformativeabilitiesforsociety,contributionsareneededfrombothmenandwomen–womenneedtobegivenequallyimportantroleswithineducationasanimportantpartofreconstructivepeaceprocesses(Kirk,2004).Thus,thelimitedscopeforwomentoexercisetheiragencyinachievingmoreseniorpositionsmirrorstheirexclusionfromthepeaceprocesssurroundingtheMoU(Lee-Koo,2012),andreinforcesperceptionsthattheirsocietalrolemerelyrevolvesaroundthehousehold,orinalimitedcapacitywithinschools.FindingsChapter3:ConcludingReflectionsThefinalfindingschapterexploreddatarelatingtothefollowingsub-question:Howaregenderedrolesestablishedthroughteachertraining,andhowdoesthisaffectnotionsofsustainablepeacebuildinginteachereducation?ThefindingsrevealthatpatriarchalidealspresentthroughoutAcehnesesocietyarereproducedwithintheteachereducationsystem,shapedbythelocalcontextofconservativeIslamandmatrifocalitythathascultural,economic,politicalandagentialimplicationsforwomeninthesestructures.Teachingandmotherhoodarewidelyperceivedbystudentsandlecturersaliketobecompatiblelifechoices,duetoacommonbeliefthatwomenhave‘softer’personalitieswhichmakesthemsuitableforsuchroles,aswellasthefactthatthepracticaldemandsofateachingjobcanbebalancedalongsidefamilialduties.Suchperceptionsareproblematicintheirreinforcingofexpectationsplacedonwomeninteaching,aswellasemphasisingpeaceful,docilefemalestereotypes(Väyrynen,2010),whicharenotnecessarilyrepresentativeofreallifegenderrolesinAceh.Viewedfromanotherperspective,Acehneseteachereducationhasbeenrepresentativeandredistributiveintermsofaffordingwomengreatereconomicandsocialagency,statusandrespectthroughtheteachingprofession.Morestraightforwardoutcomescanbeseenfromtheexistenceofnumeroussocialandculturalbarrierstoprogressionforwomenwithinteachereducation.InAceh,higherlevelacademicrolesremaindominatedbymen,duetoacombinationofgenderedpolitics,lackofinterestfromseniorleadershipandconservativeinterpretationsofIslamthatprevents

65

womenfromfeelingableto‘compete’withmalecandidates.Additionally,consideringthecontinuedcirculationofpatriarchal,imposedbehaviouralexpectationsonfemaleteachersandassumptionsabouttheirinferiorcapacities,itisevidentthatfemalestudentsandlecturersinteachereducationstructureshavelessagencyandspaceformanouevrethantheirmalecounterparts.ThusAcehneseteachertrainingdoesnotfullyrecognizethecontributionofwomenaseducationalstakeholders,isnotrepresentativeofthemathigherlevelsandfailstoberedistributivebyofferingequalopportunities.Worryingly,withsuchideasbeingreproducedwithinAcehneseeducationandfewpeoplecontestingthem,theseperceptionsandlimitedspacesforfemalemaneouvremaycontinuetobereplicatedbyfutureteachers.Therefore,reconciliationintermsofacknowledginginjusticesagainstwomenandbuildingpositiverelationstomoveforwardalsocannotbeachieved,renderingsustainablepeacebuildingeducationinAcehneseteachertrainingunattainablefromagenderedperspective.

66

DiscussionofFindings

Photograph8:Anotherscenetakenduringastudent’spracticalfieldplacement(PPL),ina

primaryschoolinAcehBesar.Credit:FarahHanum

67

Thisfinalsectionaimstoaddressthemainresearchquestion:TowhatextentcanAcehneseteachertrainingfacilitatepracticabilityofsustainablepeacebuildingamongstfutureteachers?Recognisingtherolethateducationcanplayinsustainablepeacebuilding,thegoalofthisresearchhasbeentocontributetowiderunderstandingsoftheimportanceofteachersinpost-conflictcontexts,buildingonworkreflectedbySayedandNovelli(2016)aspartoftheResearchConsortiumofEducationandPeacebuilding,aswellascontributingtoknowledgeabouttheroleofteachertraininginstitutesindrivingsocietalchange(LopesCardozo,2011).Inconcludingthisspecificresearchanditsgeneralfindings,itisusefultoreturntothewordsofthestudentquotedattheverybeginning:“Iwanttochangetheviewsofsociety,thatistheroleofateacher.ButifIdependtoomuchonthelecturersorfaculty,Iwon’thaveabigeffect.IfIwanttodothis,Ihavetodomyself.”(CT1-M).Overall,thefindingsfromthisresearchhaveindicatedthatAcehneseteachereducationinitscurrentformisunlikelytofacilitatethepracticeofsustainablepeacebuildingamongstfutureteachersinanexplicitsense.TheCivicEducationstudentquotedhereseemstohaveunderstoodthat,asafutureteacher,hisimmediateeducationalinfluences–hisprogramandhislecturers–havelimitedcontributionstohisagencytoacttowardssocietalchange.WithlocalisedcurriculumonlyexistingintheformofIslamic-basededucationratherthanspecificpeacebuildingmaterial,andteachertrainersgenerallyreluctanttogobeyondtheconstraintsoftheircurriculumtointroducepost-conflictcontentintoclassroomsintoclassrooms,intermsofhypotheticalnextstepsforimplementingsuchtopicsintoAcehneseeducation,itwouldneedtobeintroducedfromapolicymakinglevel.Asdecisionsconcerningcurricularcontentaremadebothnationallyandlocally,itisdecisionmakersattheselevelswhowouldneedtoaddressthis.Withoutacomprehensiveunderstandingandendorsementofexplicitpeacebuildingeducationatthecurricularlevelandamongstlecturers,studentsareunlikelytoinitiateitinthefuturethemselves.BuildingontheworkofLopesCardozoandShah(2016b),whoarguedthatduringtheAcehneseconflictteachers’agencywasconstrainedbycultural,politicalandeconomicfactorsresultingfrombeingpositionedbetweennationalandAcehneseidentities,thisstudyhasshownthatlocalcontextualconstraintscontinuetobedeeplyembeddedinAcehneseeducationandaffecttheagencyofeducationalactors.Cultural,politicalandeconomicaspectsoftheAcehnesecontextareentrenchedintheteachereducationsystemthroughthecirculationofperceptions,beliefsandmotivationsamongstlecturersandstudents.Anunderlyingcultureofobedienceandreligiously-influenced,educationalhierarchiesgenerallydiscouragestheredistributionofresourcesintermsofstudent-representativedialoguebetweenlecturersandfutureteachers.Thisunderlyingcultureisfurtherevidentinfutureteachers’lackofcriticalreflectiononthecurrentstateofpeaceandtheirrelative

68

reluctancetodiscusstopicsrelatedtoexplicitpeacebuilding,whichhindersprocessesofreconciliationandrecognition.CulturalconstraintstotheagencyofbothfutureteachersandlecturersexistinAcehneseteachertraininginstitutesasaresultoftheIslamic,matrifocalsocietalcontext,reflectingthewiderinfluenceofIslamandmatrifocalityinAcehneseeducationashighlightedbySriumulyani(2010,2013).However,thisresearchadditionallysuggeststhatrestrictionsexistingintheformofgenderedinequalitiesandstereotypesareespeciallyprevalent,highlightingastrongpatriarchalinfluence,severelylimitingtheabilityforteachereducationtobeconducivetotherepresentative,redistributive,recognisingandreconciliatoryaspectsofsustainablepeacebuilding.ThisisdespiteCivicEducationmaterialsexplicitlyadvocatinggenderequalityfrombothaHumanRightsandIslamicperspective,asevidencedfromthediscourseanalysiscarriedoutinFindingsChapter1.Inthissense,itseemsinAcehculturalperceptionsaremoreinfluentialcomparedtotheWestern-centric,nationalisticvaluespromotedintheCivicEducationmaterial.Therefore,untilgenderdisparitiesandstereotypesarechallengedinAcehnesesocio-cultural,political,andeconomicrealms,femalefutureteacherswillcontinuetohaveverylimitedagencyandbeleftoutofdecision-makingprocesses,meaningthatAcehneseteachereducationwillremainunconducivetosustainablepeacebuilding.Morepositively,theAcehneseteachereducationsystemhasshowedpotentialtofacilitateimplicitnotionsofsustainablepeacebuilding.Whileitdoesnotconstituteexplicitpeacebuildingmaterial,discourseusedinCivicEducationimplicitlypromotesaspectsofthe4Rs,andcontentaboutuniversalisedconceptssuchasHumanRightsandgenderequalitycanprovideaquestioningofdeep-rootedsocietalnormsinAceh.Thereappeartobesomecontextualinfluences,suchasconflictexperiencesormorecriticalperceptionsonpeace,thathavenotableeffectsontheagencyofindividualfutureteachersandlecturerstotakeontransformativeroleswithinteaching.Individuallecturersmaycreatesomespaceformanoeuvreintermsofincludinglessoncontentbeyondthesetcurriculum,whilethepreviouslymentionedCivicEducationstudentnotedhiscapacityforsocialchangedependedonhimself(CT1-M).Indeed,numerousstudentsexpressedaverypersonaldesiretoexerciseagencytobenefitsociety–whetherbecomingrolemodelstobuildcharacters,orbyredistributingeducationtoimpoverishedcommunities.Intheabsenceofateachereducationsystemthatisexplicitlyconducivetosustainablepeacebuilding,personalmotivationscanwidentheagencyofindividualfutureteacherstopracticeitimplicitly.TheoreticalReflectionsReflectingonthe4Rsframeworkforsustainablepeacebuilding,itcouldbearguedthatthereisamissingnecessary,explicitelementofcriticalthinking.Thisresearchhasimpliedthatbarrierstosustainablepeacebuilding–including,butnotlimitedtopatriarchal-influencedgenderconstraints,aculturalsenseofobedience,andunwillingnesstodiscusspost-conflictissues–aretopicsrarelysubjectedtocriticalengagement.Withsuch

69

perceptionsembeddedintheAcehnesestatusquo,thereisanecessarystepinfirstlychallengingtheseviews,inordertogettoapositionwhereredistributive,recognising,representativeandreconciliatorymeasurescanactuallybeimplemented.Furthermore,asDavies(2008)notes,religious-basededucationhasthetendencytoteachcertainbeliefsaseternaltruths,whichcompromisestheabilitytothinkandquestioncritically.InthedevoutlyIslamiccontextofAceh,amoreexplicitfocusoncriticalthinkingwithinteachereducationcouldthereforehelptochallengethesocio-cultural,politicalandeconomicstatusquoandovercomesomeofthebarrierstosustainablepeacebuilding.Inpresentingagroupofactorsexercisingagencywithinaparticularcontext,theSRAanalysisdoesnotreflectthewholepictureofAcehneseteachertraining.ThoughJessop(2005)notesthatactorscan,overtime,reorganisestructuresovertimeaccordingtotheirselectivities,intheAcehneseteachereducationcontext,forfutureteacherssuchagencyalsodependsontheagencyoflecturers,revealingthattherecanbemultiplelevelsofagencywithinthesamestructure.Theselevelsofagencyamongactorgroupsarenotnecessarilyequallyconnected–inthefindingsofthisresearch,whilestudentsverymuchdependedontheagencyoftheirlecturerstobeexposedtocontentoutsidetheircurriculum,thelecturersthemselvesdidnotseemtobeveryinfluencedbytheagencyoffutureteachers.RecommendationsforFutureResearchOverthecourseofthisstudy,numerousresearchgapsemergedfromthedatacollectionandanalysisprocesses.Recommendationsforfutureresearcharesuggestedbelow:

• Afollow-upstudyexaminingtheagencyofnewlyqualifiedteachersintheirfirstofficialteachingplacements.

• AstudyfocusingontheProgramPengalamanLapangan(PPL)fieldplacementperiod:understandingthechallengesteachertraineesfaceduringthesepostsandthestrategiestheyusetotacklethem.

• AcomprehensivestudyontheeffectofdecentralizededucationonsustainingpeaceinAceh,withparticularattentiontotheIslamic-orientedlocalcontent.

• AcomprehensivestudyofCivicEducationclassesinAceh,withparticularattentiontohowthenationalisedmaterialistaughtandinterpretedwithinclassrooms.

70

ReferencesAlfian.(1975).TheulamainAcehnesesociety:apreliminaryobservation.SoutheastAsianJournalofSocialScience,27-41.http://www.jstor.org.proxy.uba.uva.nl:2048/stable/24489966AmnestyInternational.(2013).Timetofacethepast:JusticeforpastabusesinIndonesia’sAcehProvince.ExecutiveSummary.Retrievedfromhttp://www.refworld.org/pdfid/51767a2e4.pdfAmnestyInternational.(2015,August13)A‘lostdecade’forvictimsofIndonesia’sAcehconflict.Retrievedfromhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/08/a-lost-decade-for-victims-of-indonesias-aceh-conflict/Arenas,A.(1998).EducationandnationalisminEastTimor.SocialJustice,25(2)(72),131-148.Aspinall,E.(2007).FromIslamismtoNationalisminAceh,Indonesia.NationsandNationalism,13(2),245-263.Aspinall,E.(2009a).CombatantstoContractors:ThePoliticalEconomyofPeaceinAceh.Indonesia,(87),1-34.Aspinall,E.(2009b).Islamandnation:separatistrebellioninAceh,Indonesia.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.Baidhawy,Z.(2007).Buildingharmonyandpeacethroughmulticulturalisttheology-basedreligiouseducation:analternativeforcontemporaryIndonesia.BritishJournalofReligiousEducation,29(1),15-30.Barron,P.(2008).Managingtheresourcesforpeace:reconstructionandpeacebuildinginAceh.Reconfiguringpolitics:TheIndonesia–Acehpeaceprocess,58-61.Barron,P.,&Burke,A.(2008).SupportingPeaceinAceh:DevelopmentAgenciesandInternationalInvolvement,(47).InstituteofSoutheastAsianStudies.Burke,A.(2008).PeacebuildingandRebuildingatGroundLevel:PracticalConstraintsandPolicyObjectivesinAceh:Analysis.Conflict,Security&Development,8(1),47-69.Bar-Tal,D.,Rosen,Y.,Nets-Zehngu,R.(2009)PeaceEducationinSocietiesInvolvedinIntractableConflictsfrom:HandbookonPeaceEducationRoutledge.Retrievedfromhttps://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203837993.ch3

BBC.(2015,October14).ChurchesattackedandonemankilledinclashesinAceh,Indonesia.BBCNewsAsia.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-34524817

71

Bjork,C(2005).IndonesianEducation:Teachers,Schools,andCentralBureaucracy.NewYorkandLondon:RoutledgeBryman,A.(2012)SocialResearchMethods(4thed.).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Burke,A.(2008).PeacebuildingandRebuildingatGroundLevel:PracticalConstraintsandPolicyObjectivesinAceh:Analysis.Conflict,Security&Development,8(1),47-69.Bush,K.D.andSaltarelli,D.(2000).TheTwoFacesofEducationInEthnicConflict:TowardsaPeace-BuildingEducationforChildren.UNICEFInnocentiResearchCentre,Florence.Butler,J.(1990).Gendertrouble:Feminismandthesubversionofidentity.Routledge.Chang,M.C.,Al-Samarrai,S.,Ragatz,A.B.,Shaeffer,S.,DeRee,J.,&Stevenson,R.(2013).TeacherreforminIndonesia:Theroleofpoliticsandevidenceinpolicymaking.WorldBankPublications.Charrad,M.M.(2011).GenderintheMiddleEast:Islam,state,agency.AnnualReviewofSociology,(37),417-437.Cole,E.A.(2007).Transitionaljusticeandthereformofhistoryeducation.InternationalJournalofTransitionalJustice,1(1),115-137.Davies,L.(2004).Buildingacivicculturepost-conflict.LondonReviewofEducation,2(3),229-244.Davies,L.(2008).Educationagainstextremism.StokeonTrent,UK:TrenthamBooks.Davies,L.(2010).Thedifferentfacesofeducationinconflict.Development,53(4),491-497.Davies,L.(2011).Segregation,faithschoolsandthemythofequalvalue.Chapter3inEducatingAgainstExtremism(pp.63-98),TrenthamBooks,StokeonTrent,UK/Sterling,USA:TrenthamBooks.Diamond,L.J.,Plattner,M.F.,&Brumberg,D.(Eds.).(2003).IslamanddemocracyintheMiddleEast.Baltimore,MD:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.Drakeley,S.(2005).TheHistoryofIndonesia.Westport,CT:GreenwoodPress.Dwyer,L.(2012).‘Don’tdisturbthepeace’:post-conflictpoliticsinAceh,Indonesia.GlobalStudiesReview8(2,Summer2012).Retrievedfromhttp://www.globality-gmu.net/archives/3171Erickson,F.(1985).QualitativeMethodsinResearchonTeaching.OccasionalPaper(81).Fairclough,N.(2013).Criticaldiscourseanalysisandcriticalpolicystudies.CriticalPolicyStudies,7(2),177-197.Finch,J.(1986)QualitativeResearchandSocialPolicy:IssuesinEducationand

72

Welfare.Lewes:FalmerPress.Firman,H.,&Tola,B.(2008).ThefutureofschoolinginIndonesia.JournalofInternationalCooperationinEducation,11(1),71-84.Fraser,N.(2005).Reframingjusticeinaglobalizedworld,NewLeftReview36,79–88.Gaillard,J.C.,Clavé,E.,&Kelman,I.(2008).Waveofpeace?TsunamidisasterdiplomacyinAceh,Indonesia.Geoforum,39(1),511-526.Galtung,J.(1969).Violence,peace,andpeaceresearch.Journalofpeaceresearch,6(3),167-191.Giroux,H.(2003).Teachersastransformativeintellectuals.InA.S.CanestrariandB.A.Marlowe(Eds.),Educationalfoundations:Ananthologyofcriticalreadings(pp.205-212).London:Sage.Goodhand,J.(2000).Researchinconflictzones:ethicsandaccountability.ForcedMigrationReview,8(4),12-16.GovernmentofAceh.(2007).Educationpolicy,strategyandfinancingframework:NADEducationStrategicPlan.MajelisPendidikanDaerah,BandaAceh.Grayman,J.(2009)CommunityPerceptionsofthePeaceProcess.ElevenCaseStudiesfortheMulti-StakeholderReviewofPost-ConflictProgramminginAceh(MSR).Retrievedfromhttp://www.academia.edu/4487447/Community_Perceptions_of_the_Peace_Process_Eleven_Case_Studies_for_the_Multi-Stakeholder_Review_of_Post-Conflict_Programming_in_Aceh_MSR_Gunn,G.C.(1979).IdeologyandtheconceptofgovernmentintheIndonesianNewOrder.AsianSurvey,19(8),751-769.Hay,C.(2002).GlobalisationasaProblemofPoliticalAnalysis:RestoringAgentstoa‘ProcesswithoutaSubject'andPoliticstoaLogicofEconomicCompulsion.CambridgeReviewofInternationalAffairs,15(3),379-392.Huntington,S.P.(1997).Theclashofcivilizationsandtheremakingofworldorder.PenguinBooksIndia.HumanRightsWatch.(2003).AcehUnderMartialLaw:InsidetheSecretWar.Retrievedfromhttps://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/indonesia1203/5.htm#_Toc58915047HumanRightsWatch.(2016).IndonesiaEventsof2015.Retrievedfromhttps://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/indonesia#4a9b3dHusen,M.H.(undated).PendidikanKewarganegaraan(CivicEducation).TextbooksourcefromUniversitasIslamNegeriAr-Raniry,BandaAceh.

73

Husin,A.(2015).AcehneseWomenStruggleforPeaceandJustice:ChallengesandOpportunities.IslamandCivilisationalRenewal(ICR),6(3).InternationalDevelopmentLawOrganisation[IDLO].(2009).ABriefAccountontheQanunonEducationinAceh.Retrievedfromhttp://www.idlo.org/DocNews/308DOC.pdfJackson,E.,&Bahrissalim.(2007).Craftinganewdemocracy:CiviceducationinIndonesianIslamicuniversities.AsiaPacificJournalofEducation,27(1),41-54.TheJakartaPost.(2015,December29).GovttograntamnestytoDinMinimi-ledAceharmedgroup.http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/12/29/govt-grant-amnesty-din-minimi-led-aceh-armed-group.htmlJauhola,M.(2010).Buildingbackbetter?Negotiatingnormativeboundariesofgendermainstreamingandpost-tsunamireconstructioninNanggroeAcehDarussalam,Indonesia.ReviewofInternationalStudies,36(01),29-50.Jauhola,M.(2013).Post-tsunamiReconstructioninIndonesia:NegotiatingNormativityThroughGenderMainstreamingInitiativesinAceh.Routledge.Jessop,B.(2001).Institutionalre(turns)andthestrategic–relationalapproach.EnvironmentandPlanningA,33(7),1213-1235.Jessop,B.(2005).“CriticalRealismandtheStrategic-RelationalApproach.”NewFormations56,40–53.Kamaruzzaman,S.(2000).WomenandthewarinAceh.InsideIndonesia(64).Kirk,J.(2004).Promotingagender-justpeace:Therolesofwomenteachersinpeacebuildingandreconstruction.Gender&Development,12(3),50-59.Kuswandono,P.(2014).Universitymentors’viewsonreflectivepracticeinmicroteaching:buildingtrustandgenuinefeedback.ReflectivePractice,15(6),701-717.Lee-Koo,K.(2012).GenderattheCrossroadofConflict:TsunamiandPeaceinPost-2005Aceh.FeministReview,101(1),59-77.Lingga,A.S.M.(2007).TheAcehPeaceProcessandLessonsforMindanao.InstituteforAutonomyandGovernance.Lizzio,A.,Wilson,K.,&Simons,R.(2002).Universitystudents'perceptionsofthelearningenvironmentandacademicoutcomes:implicationsfortheoryandpractice.StudiesinHigherEducation,27(1),27-52.LopesCardozo,T.A.(2011).FutureteachersandsocialchangeinBolivia:Betweendecolonisationanddemonstration.Eburon.

74

LopesCardozo,M.T.,&Shah,R.(2016a).Aconceptualframeworktoanalysethemultiscalarpoliticsofeducationforsustainablepeacebuilding.ComparativeEducation,52(4),516-537.LopesCardozo,M.T.,&Shah,R.(2016b).‘Thefruitcaughtbetweentwostones’:theconflictedpositionofteacherswithinAceh'sindependencestruggle.Globalisation,SocietiesandEducation,14(3),331-344.Milallos,M.T.R.(2007).Muslimveilaspolitics:politicalautonomy,womenandSyariahIslaminAceh.ContemporaryIslam,1(3),289-301.Miller,V.,&Ramos,A.M.(2000).Transformativeteachereducationforacultureofpeace.EducationandSociety,18(1),5-24.Millo,Y.,&Barnett,J.(2004).EducationaldevelopmentinEastTimor.InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment,24(6),721-737.Novelli,M.,LopesCardozo,M.T.A.,&Smith,A.(2015).ATheoreticalFrameworkforAnalysingtheContributionofEducationtoSustainablePeacebuilding:4RsinConflict-AffectedContexts.UniversityofAmsterdam.Retrievedfromhttp://learningforpeace.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Theoretical-Framework-Jan15.pdfNowak,B.S.,&Caulfield,T.(2008).Womenandlivelihoodsinpost-tsunamiIndiaandAceh.AsiaResearchInstituteWorkingPaper(104).Othman,N.(2006).MuslimwomenandthechallengeofIslamicfundamentalism/extremism:AnoverviewofSoutheastAsianMuslimwomen'sstruggleforhumanrightsandgenderequality.Women'sStudiesInternationalForum,29(4),339-353.Patrick,B.C.,Hisley,J.,&Kempler,T.(2000).“What'severybodysoexcitedabout?”:Theeffectsofteacherenthusiasmonstudentintrinsicmotivationandvitality.TheJournalofExperimentalEducation,68(3),217-236.PewResearchCentre.(2011).Table:MuslimPopulationbyCountry.Retrievedfromhttp://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/table-muslim-population-by-countryRees,C.&Gatenby,M.(2014).Criticalrealismandethnography.InVincent,S.,O'Mahoney,J.,&Edwards,P.K.(Eds)StudyingOrganizationsUsingCriticalRealism:APracticalGuide.Oxford:OUPOxford.Riddell,S.(1989).Exploitingtheexploited?Theethicsoffeministeducationalresearch.InR.G.Burgess(Ed.)Theethicsofeducationalresearch,(pp.77-99).Robertson,S.L.,&Dale,R.(2015).Towardsa‘criticalculturalpoliticaleconomy’accountoftheglobalisingofeducation.Globalisation,SocietiesandEducation,13(1),149-170.Ruddick,S.(1989).MaternalPolitics:TowardsaPoliticsofPeace.Boston:Beacon.

75

Sayed,Y.,&Novelli,M.(2016).Theroleofteachersinpeacebuildingandsocialcohesion.SynthesisreportonfindingsfromMyanmar,Pakistan,SouthAfricaandUganda.UNICEF:NewYork.Retrievedfromhttps://educationanddevelopment.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/role-of-teachers-synthesis-report-final16.pdfShah,R.,&Cardozo,M.L.(2014).Educationandsocialchangeinpost-conflictandpost-disasterAceh,Indonesia.InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment,38,2-12.Schultz,K.(2008).Listeningacrossculturalandlinguisticborders:learningfromteachinginBandaAceh,Indonesiaafterthetsunami.JournalofEducationalChange,9(1),37-51.Schulze,K.E.(2004).Thefreeacehmovement(GAM):Anatomyofaseparatistorganization.Policystudies,(2),1.Small,M.L.(2009).HowmanycasesdoIneed?Onscienceandthelogicofcaseselectioninfield-basedresearch.Ethnography,10(1),5-38.Smith,A.,Datzberger,S.,&McCully,A.(2016).TheIntegrationofEducationandPeacebuilding.ASynthesisReportonFindingsfromMyanmar,Pakistan,SouthAfricaandUganda.UNICEF:NewYork.Srimulyani,E.(2007).MuslimWomenandEducationinIndonesia:Thepondokpesantrenexperience.AsiaPacificJournalofEducation,27(1),85-99.Srimulyani,E.(2010).Islam,Adat,andtheState:MatrifocalityinAcehRevisited.Al-Jami'ah:JournalofIslamicStudies,48(2),321-342.Srimulyani,E.(2012).WomenfromTraditionalIslamicEducationalInstitutionsinIndonesia:NegotiatingPublicSpaces.Amsterdam:UniversityofAmsterdamPress.Srimulyani,E.(2013).IslamicSchoolinginAceh:Change,Reform,andLocalContext.IndonesianJournalforIslamicStudies,20(3):467-489.Tanner,N.(1974).MatrifocalityinIndonesiaandamongblackAmericans.Woman,cultureandsociety(133),129-156.Tibbitts,F.,&Fernekes,W.R.(2011).Humanrightseducation.Teachingandstudyingsocialissues:Majorprogramsandapproaches,87-117.Törnquist,O.(2013).Aceh:verandahoflostopportunities.BuildingPeaceinAceh:Politics,ReintegrationandCommunities.Vaswani,K.(2009).OnPatrolwithAceh’sShariaPolice.BBC.Retrievedfromhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8302018.stmVäyrynen,T.(2010).Genderandpeacebuilding.InPalgraveAdvancesinPeacebuilding(pp.137-153).PalgraveMacmillanUK.

76

Vongalis-Macrow,A.(2006).Rebuildingregimesorrebuildingcommunity?Teachers'agencyforsocialreconstructioninIraq.Journalofpeaceeducation,3(1),99-113.Waizenegger,A.,&Hyndman,J.(2010).Twosolitudes:post-tsunamiandpost-conflictAceh.Disasters,34(3),787-808.Wenger,G.(2014).Policies,PerceptionsandPractices:TeachingtherecentconflictinsecondaryschoolhistoryclassesinpostconflictBandaAceh,Indonesia.UnpublishedMasterthesis,InternationalDevelopmentStudies,UniversityofAmsterdam.TheWorldBank.(2016).Data–Indonesia.Retrievedfromhttp://data.worldbank.org/country/indonesiaWorldWatch.(2013).ConflictandPeacemakinginAceh:AChronology.Retrievedfromhttp://www.worldwatch.org/node/3929UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram[UNDP].(2010).ProvincialHumanDevelopmentReport,Aceh.Retrievedfromhttp://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/nhdr_aceh_2010_english.pdfUSAIDIndonesia.(2016).PPLEquippingStudentTeachersfortheFuture.Retrievedfromhttp://www.prestasi-iief.org/id/component/content/category/22-featureZulfikar,T.(2010).ThemakingofIndonesianeducation:AnoverviewonempoweringIndonesianteachers.JournalofIndonesianSocialSciencesandHumanities,2,13-39.

77

AppendicesAppendix1:OperationalisationTableConcept Dimension Variables Indicators

FutureTeacherAgency

TeacherTraining

CurriculumContextofeducationinstituteParticipationineducationPersonalbackgroundSocialnetworksLectureragency

-Localcurriculum-Nationalcurriculum-Religiousaspectsofcurriculum-Location-Intakeandadmissionsprocess-Schoolstructure-Localculture,politics,economics-Opportunitiesforfeedbackonteachingmethodsandcurriculum-Opportunitiesforcriticalthinking-Perceptionsonteachereducation-practicalaspects-Socialbackground-Gender/age-Motivations-Religionandbeliefs-Perceptionsofgenderroles/previousconflict/peace/roleofteachers-Relationshipwithotherstudents-Relationshipswithsupervisors-Genderednetworks-Lecturerperceptionsandreflections-Lecturerteachingstrategiesandmethods,motivations

SustainablePeacebuildingEducation

TeacherTraining

RedistributionRecognition

-opencareeradmissionsprocess-Re-allocationofteachertrainingresourcestodisadvantaged/underrepresentedgroups-Discussionofconflict-sensitivematerialwithincurriculum-Acknowledgementofsocialinequalities-DiscussionofpluralityofIdentity-Acknowledgementofdifferentgenderroles

78

RepresentationReconciliation

-gendereddemographicsoftraineeteachersandlecturers-Presenceoforganisedsocietieswithininstitution-Existenceoffeedbackmechanisms-InclusionofIndonesiannationalism-Discussionofpost-conflictpeace-Acknowledgementofconflictandassociatedinjustices

Appendix2:TableofRespondents