10/10/2002 FedSat-II 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BigBig JinnJinn inin a smalla small bottle. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . oror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mega Science byby a microa micro Satellite. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .

AASSTTRRAALL:: AAll-sky ll-sky SSpace pace TTelescope to elescope to RRecord ecord AAfterglow fterglow LLocationsocations

G. Tsarevsky1,2, G. Bisnovaty-Kogan3, A. Pozanenko3 , G. Popov4 et al. 1. Australia Telescope National Facility, CSIRO, Sydney

2. Astro Space Centre, RAS, Moscow 3. Space Research Institute, Moscow 4. Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, Ukraine 10/10/2002 FedSat-II

A b s t r a c t:

ASTRAL is a project incorporating wide-field optical telescopes on board a small satellite dedicated to the whole-sky detection of a variety of rapid astronomical phenomena, particularly optical flashes associated with gamma ray bursts (GRB). Those flashes only visible optically (so called "orphans"), as well as those preceding associated GRBs, cannot be detected in the current triggering mode of the world wide GRB Coordinates Network (GCN). Hence ASTRAL would have a unique opportunity to trigger a follow-up multi-frequency study via GCN. ASTRAL consists of a set of 13 wide-field cameras (each with FOV = 70o) equipped with 4096x4096 CCDs. The detection method is based on the Digital Blink Comparator mode, with a template of a complete sample of ~2 million stars down to 12m, precisely measured in the HIPPARCOS and TYCHO-2 missions. Supernovae, novae and nova-like explosions, fast variable AGNs, flare stars, and even new comets would be promptly detected as well. Monitoring of Near-Earth objects (NEO) is of special interest. Thus ASTRAL would be an original working prototype of the prospective major space mission to monitor on-line all the sky down to 25m - a high priority instrument of 21st century astrophysics.

The GRB Coordinates Network (GCN) to be triggered by ASTRAL

CCONTENTSONTENTS: Part I: MOTIVATIONS & SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES

Part II: PAYLOAD DESCRIPTION - OPTICAL DESIGN: ‘A HEDGEHOG’ - METHOD OF DETECTION - OBSERVATION MODES - PAYLOAD SPECIFICATION

4

MOTIVATION No.1:MOTIVATION No.1:

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) remain one of the great mysteries in

astrophysics. Although there have been measurements of the energetics of some bursts through redshift determination

(e.g., Kulkarni et al. 1998), there is little firm knowledge of how the energy is produced. In fact, the total energy production is still

uncertain by approximately 2 or 3 orders of magnitude because of the unknown level of postulated collimated jets. Additionally,

the total number of GRBs studied optically remains small. 6

MOTIVATION No.1:MOTIVATION No.1: Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) remain one of the great mysteries in

astrophysics. Although there have been measurements of the energetics of some bursts through redshift determination

(e.g., Kulkarni et al. 1998), there is little firm knowledge of how the energy is produced. In fact, the total production is still uncertain by approximately 2 or 3 orders of magnitude because of the unknown level of postulated collimated jets. Additionally,

the total number of GRBs studied optically remains small. B. Paczynski (Prinston University): “There is only one detection, the only positive result of several man-

centuries of effort: the truly spectacular optical flash detected by the ROTSE team (Akerlof et al., 1999). “

↓ see illustrationsee illustration 7

`̀

Compare time resolution in gamma [pretty good] and in optics [very bad] .

`̀GRB 990123: A unique detection by BATSE + ROTSE missions: Delay 22 sec. Initial detection: V = 11.7m

Maximum: V = 8.9m Power law decline down to limit: V = 14.3m .Thus we have the only case of registered optical flashassociated with GRB. Another 32 are with upper limits only.NB: A catch of optical transient (OT) at ~12m by ROTSE: ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

Compare time resolution in gamma [pretty good] and in optics [very bad] .

MOTIVATION No. 2:MOTIVATION No. 2: Gamma-ray bursts are believed to emit

synchrotron or inverse Compton radiation from material moving at ultrarelativistic velocities. The resultant strong Lorentz beaming of the emission will decrease as the shocked material

slows down. If the ultrarelativistic bulk flow is a collimated jet, radiation at wavelengths longer than gamma rays, believed to be produced by this slower material, will be emitted through a larger solid angle (Rhoads 1998).

10

MOTIVATION No. 2:MOTIVATION No. 2: Gamma-ray bursts are believed to emit synchrotron

or inverse Compton radiation from material moving at ultrarelativistic velocities. The resultant strong Lorentz beaming of the emission will decrease as the shocked material slows down. If the ultrarelativistic bulk flow is a collimated jet, radiation at wavelengths longer than gamma rays, believed to be produced by this slower material, will be emitted through a larger solid angle (Rhodes 1998).

This suggests a population of o r p h a n optical bursts with timescales similar to GRBs but more frequent and with no gamma-raywith no gamma-ray signaturesignature.

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MOTIVATION No.3:MOTIVATION No.3:B. Paczynski’s prediction: “Optical flashes preceding GRBs” [ ! ] (astro-ph/0108522):

“A search for optical flashes independent of GRB triggers would

provide important diagnostics for the GRBs and their environments”.

See also a basic theoretical consideration by A. Beloborodov, ApJ 565, 808, 2001 with the following conclusion:with the following conclusion: “GRB afterglows should start in optical and evolve fast (< 1 min) to a normal X-ray afterglow”.

↓

MOTIVATION No.3 MOTIVATION No.3 (cont.)(cont.)::B. Paczynski’s prediction: “Optical flashes preceding GRBs”

(atro-ph/9908522), and his suggestion to build up corresponding detection system: “The only way to learn about such phenomena is by developing

an all-sky optical monitoring system with CCD detectors, ~1 minute time resolution, real time data processing with instant recognition of a rapid variability, the on-line verification of the event with larger robotic instrument”.

It looks like a brief description of the It looks like a brief description of the AASSTTRRAALL project ! project !

Technical problems to be solvedTechnical problems to be solved::1)1)    How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope into the FedSat-II payload provided ? into the FedSat-II payload provided ?

Technical problems to be solvedTechnical problems to be solved::1)1)    How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope into the FedSat-II payload provided ? into the FedSat-II payload provided ?22))    How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of reasonable sensitivity ? reasonable sensitivity ?

Technical problems to be solvedTechnical problems to be solved::1)1)    How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope into the FedSat-II payload provided ? into the FedSat-II payload provided ?22))    How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of reasonable sensitivity ? reasonable sensitivity ?33))    How to record all the sky with a CCD ?How to record all the sky with a CCD ? and and 4)4) How to process it on-line at the rate of 1 Sky/min ?How to process it on-line at the rate of 1 Sky/min ?

Technical problems to be solvedTechnical problems to be solved::1)1)    How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope into the FedSat-II payload provided ? into the FedSat-II payload provided ?22))    How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of reasonable sensitivity ? reasonable sensitivity ?33))    How to record all the sky with a CCD ?How to record all the sky with a CCD ? and and 4) How to process it on-line at the rate of 1 Sky/min ?4) How to process it on-line at the rate of 1 Sky/min ?55))    How to recognize rapid variability in real time in one of millionsHow to recognize rapid variability in real time in one of millions of objects around the sky ? of objects around the sky ?

Technical problems to be solvedTechnical problems to be solved::1)1)    How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope into the FedSat-II payload provided ? into the FedSat-II payload provided ?22))    How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of reasonable sensitivity ? reasonable sensitivity ?33))    How to record all the sky with a CCD ?How to record all the sky with a CCD ? and and 4) How to process it on-line at the rate of 1 Sky/min ?4) How to process it on-line at the rate of 1 Sky/min ?55))    How to recognize rapid variability in real time in one of millionsHow to recognize rapid variability in real time in one of millions of objects around the sky ? of objects around the sky ?6)6) How to deliver that recognition to a larger robotic instrumentHow to deliver that recognition to a larger robotic instrument for its instant verification ? for its instant verification ?7)7) How to guide the telescope and maintain its monitoring mode ? How to guide the telescope and maintain its monitoring mode ?

Technical problems to be solvedTechnical problems to be solved::1)1)    How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope How to squeeze a sensitive all- sky optical telescope into the FedSat-II payload provided ? into the FedSat-II payload provided ?22))    How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of How to get 1 min time resolution with a small telescope of reasonable sensitivity ? reasonable sensitivity ?33))    How to record all the sky with a CCD ?How to record all the sky with a CCD ? and and 4) How to process it on-line at the rate of 1 Sky/min ?4) How to process it on-line at the rate of 1 Sky/min ?55))    How to recognize rapid variability in real time in one of millionsHow to recognize rapid variability in real time in one of millions of objects around the sky ? of objects around the sky ?6) How to deliver that recognition to a larger robotic instrument6) How to deliver that recognition to a larger robotic instrument for its instant verification ? for its instant verification ?7) How to guide the telescope and maintain its monitoring mode ?7) How to guide the telescope and maintain its monitoring mode ?

AAll these questions have been positively answered in the proposalll these questions have been positively answered in the proposal [ [except of except of Q6Q6 and and Q7Q7, to be resolved by the FedSat specialists, to be resolved by the FedSat specialists].].

In brief, In brief, the scientific objectivesthe scientific objectives of ASTRAL of ASTRAL are to detect promptly and monitor in the whole sky a wide variety of rapid astronomical phenomenarapid astronomical phenomena:: = = fast transientsfast transients == optical outbursts optical outbursts

that last from less than a day to as short as a secondthat last from less than a day to as short as a second..

↓↓

Go to the list of objects achievable byGo to the list of objects achievable by

ASTRALASTRAL

SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (complete list):SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (complete list):

  GGamma-ray burstsamma-ray bursts (GRB): (GRB):     GRB afterglows GRB afterglows     GRBs visible only in optics (‘orphans’)GRBs visible only in optics (‘orphans’) [ [NBNB: : Impossible to detect in current ALERT mode of GCNImpossible to detect in current ALERT mode of GCN]]   ‘Pre-glows’, ‘Pre-glows’, i.e. optical flashes preceding the GRB event i.e. optical flashes preceding the GRB event [ [NBNB: : Impossible to detect in current ALERT mode of GCNImpossible to detect in current ALERT mode of GCN]] GRB afterglows accompanied with associated SN bursts GRB afterglows accompanied with associated SN bursts   

↓ ↓ 2222 ..

SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)

SSupernova explosionsupernova explosions (SN):(SN):     SN in our GalaxySN in our Galaxy [ [NBNB: : at least 10 have been missed since Kepler’s SN 1604at least 10 have been missed since Kepler’s SN 1604] ]     SN in the nearest galaxies, e.g., in Magellanic Clouds SN in the nearest galaxies, e.g., in Magellanic Clouds     SN in distant galaxiesSN in distant galaxies   Novae and nova-like starsNovae and nova-like stars (N):(N):

    N in our Galaxy N in our Galaxy     N in Magellanic CloudsN in Magellanic Clouds

   ↓↓ 2323

SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)

  Flare starsFlare stars::   F  Flares of the UV Ceti, U Gem and RS CVn lares of the UV Ceti, U Gem and RS CVn type variables. type variables.

↓↓ See exampleSee example

  

        2424

  

Flare starsFlare stars::      flare of the UV Ceti as a representative exampleflare of the UV Ceti as a representative example

Bernard LOWELL et al., ‘Large flare on the red dwarf star UV Ceti’, Nature, vol. 250, p. 124, 1974

NNote a sharp leading optical flare (still not adequately resolved):

  

      

SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)

Active galactic nucleiActive galactic nuclei (AGN): (AGN):

 Fast violent variability of the BL Lac related sources  Fast violent variability of the BL Lac related sources (like SDSS J124602.5+011318.8) (like SDSS J124602.5+011318.8)

↓↓

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SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)

In the Solar SystemIn the Solar System:: 1)  D 1)  Detection of new etection of new comets comets (as well as their bursts) (as well as their bursts)

↓ ↓ see example   

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In the Solar SystemIn the Solar System: : SSee spectacular burst of cometee spectacular burst of comet

↓ ↓   

SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES (cont.)

In the Solar SystemIn the Solar System:: 1)  D 1)  Detection of new etection of new cometscomets 2) 2) FireballsFireballs (at the low orbit of perigee) (at the low orbit of perigee) 3) Monitoring of approaching 3) Monitoring of approaching near-Earth asteroidsnear-Earth asteroids (to be coordinated with the Spaceguard [ (to be coordinated with the Spaceguard [NEONEO] Program)] Program)

4) Experimental 4) Experimental Satellite TrackingSatellite Tracking     2929

Part II. PAYLOAD DESCRIPTIONPart II. PAYLOAD DESCRIPTION: :

WHAT IT IS and HOW IT WORKS

Part II. PAYLOAD DESCRIPTIONPart II. PAYLOAD DESCRIPTION:: 1. Detection concept 2. Optical system design 3. Optical unit 3.1. Wide-field camera 3.2. CCD unit 4. Modes of observations 5. Limiting magnitude 6. Timing resolution 7. Orbit 8. Stabilisation/Pointing 9. On-board computer 10. Software required11. Telemetry 12. Power budget13. Weight budget 14. Cost15. Synergy

1.1. Basic Detection ConceptBasic Detection Concept:: An automated digital version of classic An automated digital version of classic Blink ComparatorBlink Comparator (BC), (BC), a powerful tool to find variable objects in crowded field.a powerful tool to find variable objects in crowded field. Optical flare appears in the digital BC mode as a new or considerably Optical flare appears in the digital BC mode as a new or considerably brightened source above the noise limited level, NLL (~0 brightened source above the noise limited level, NLL (~0mm.5). All other.5). All other (constant) sources in the field will be suppressed (i.e. deducted against the (constant) sources in the field will be suppressed (i.e. deducted against the templatetemplate provided). provided).

TemplateTemplate: : A sample of the objects in the whole sky down to a certain threshold A sample of the objects in the whole sky down to a certain threshold magnitude. magnitude. Must be: complete;: complete; precision photometry provisioned; precision photometry provisioned; variable stars content to be very well known; variable stars content to be very well known; compatible with compatible with optical unitoptical unit (by FoV + CCD), see below. (by FoV + CCD), see below.

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11. . Detection ConceptDetection Concept (cont.) (cont.)::An adequate An adequate templatetemplate already exists as already exists as the the All Sky Compiled CatalogueAll Sky Compiled Catalogue ((ASCC-2.5ASCC-2.5) ) [ I/280 in CDS ]: conconsists ofs of 2,041,518 2,041,518 stars as stars as a compilation of the a compilation of the HIPPARCOS, TYCHO-2HIPPARCOS, TYCHO-2, , and other space and ground missions; and other space and ground missions; cocompletelete to V = 12 to V = 12mm.0.0 ;;

capacity: 200 Mb (i.e. ~20 Mb per each : 200 Mb (i.e. ~20 Mb per each Optical UnitOptical Unit, see below);, see below); average average on-sky density: : 1 star per 60 sq. arcmin, 1 star per 60 sq. arcmin, or < 1 star per 5 sq. arcmin in a crowded field (e.g., Milky Way). or < 1 star per 5 sq. arcmin in a crowded field (e.g., Milky Way).

Hence Hence 1' 1' resolution of resolution of ASTRALASTRAL seems to be an adequate solution. seems to be an adequate solution. Such coordinate precision is good enough to identify Such coordinate precision is good enough to identify ASTRAL’ASTRAL’ss detection detection in the triggered follow-up. It is considerably better than the error boxes of the current in the triggered follow-up. It is considerably better than the error boxes of the current high energy triggers (like HETE-2). high energy triggers (like HETE-2).

The The templatetemplate will probably be will probably be steadily improvedsteadily improved in limiting magnitude (up to 13-14 in limiting magnitude (up to 13-14mm) ) via further astrometryvia further astrometry//photometry studies, along ground based missions like photometry studies, along ground based missions like ASASASAS, , and, possibly, space missions like and, possibly, space missions like FAME, GAIAFAME, GAIA or or DIVADIVA..

3333

2. Optical System design: 2. Optical System design: A set of 13 optical units (OUs) to cover a whole sky (a ‘hedgehog’ like design).

Each OU consists of a wide–field camera (see Sec. 3.1) and a CCD unit as recording device (see Sec. 3.2). Blind spot on the sky: 50o wide, possibly directed to the Sun (hence only 5% of the sky not covered at the time of observation). Illumination from the Earth/Moon to be prevented mechanically/electronically. 34

10/10/2002 FedSat-II 35

ROTSE’s ‘hedgehog’-like design as a prototypeROTSE’s ‘hedgehog’-like design as a prototype

Another hedgehog like design Another hedgehog like design

prototype:prototype:

The all-sky 7-cameraThe all-sky 7-camera patrol of patrol of

the Odessa University the Odessa University

Observatory, UkraineObservatory, Ukraine Very primitive and extremely Very primitive and extremely effective instrumentation for the effective instrumentation for the variable star study covering 30 variable star study covering 30 deg. wide belt on the sky from deg. wide belt on the sky from Dec = -30 deg. to zenith.Dec = -30 deg. to zenith.

3. Optical Unit (OU) 3. Optical Unit (OU) 3.1. Wide-field camera:3.1. Wide-field camera:

Optical design: Super-Schmidt camera, simplified (not fully achromatic). Aperture: Ø 100 mm Flat field: angular 70o ; linear 60 x 60 mm Part of the sky covered by each camera: ~1/10 Overlap with the neighboring camera: ~10o (which means an overlap of 20% of the sky area). Number of stars above 12m in the field of the unit: ~250,000 (stored as a template in the on-board unit’s memory). Angular resolution: 5 arcsec in optics; 1 arcmin on CCD (depending of number of pixels, and of pixel size). Weight: Optics 1.0 kg (net) [foam glass to be used] Framework 1.3 kg Total: 2.3 kg

3.2. CCD unit3.2. CCD unit (as a part of Optical Unit, Sec. 3.1):

CCD device: Lockheed-Martin 4096x4096, low DC, low blemished (16 mln pixels; ~1 arcmin/px at the focal plane, >10 pxs per star) Pixel size: 15 x 15 m Die size: 60 x 60 mm QE: 60-80% around 550-800 nm Cooling: Passive, 100 K (of outer space) Prototype: LNA cooling system of ‘Radioastron’.Wavelength Range: 400 – 900 nm Filter: Unfiltered Dynamic Range: 104 - 105

Readout time: 1 s Unit weight: 0.4 kg Number of units: 13

4. Modes of Observations:4. Modes of Observations: Detection mode: An early detection of various optical flares above 12m around the sky, ( = basic ALERT mode) Post-detection mode: On-source, with possibly better time resolution (to be chosen automatically depending of the detected source brightness) Monitoring mode: Continuous on-source monitoring, with better sensitivity/time resolution. Fireball-like detection mode of moving object. 39

5. Limiting Magnitude5. Limiting Magnitude::

Detection mode: 12m (due to the template provisioned). To be steadily improved along further photometric/astrometric studies.Post-detection mode: Variable (depending of integration time).

Monitoring mode: ~19m in 30 min integration.

40

6. Timing Resolution6. Timing Resolution: Detection mode: 30 s Post-detection mode: up to 1 s (to be chosen automatically depending on brightness of the detected source) Monitoring mode: arbitrary

41

7. O r b i t (7. O r b i t (preliminarypreliminary)):

A variety of orbits to be considered, e.g.: - eccentric, with a major axis directed from the Sun; - polar, circular ~1000 km.

Easy launchable orbit to be chosen if required by technical circumstances.

Example: Perigee altitude: 350 km Apogee altitude: 2000 – 40000 km Period of revolution: 24 h (and more)

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8. Stabilisation/PointingStabilisation/Pointing:

Calibrated pointing knowledge: 6-10 arcsec ( 1-σ ) Re-pointing Rate: Nil !

9. 9. On-board computerOn-board computer: CPU, with a direct access via telemetry.

13 microprocessors, one per each Optical Unit (in parallel).Memory:

CPU: 2 Gb Mcp Unit: 64 Mb

Re-programming and template updating (via telemetry).

43

10. Software requiredSoftware required: Modeling a Blink Comparator mode.

Burst localization. ALERT mode.

Post-detection mode (an adaptive algorithm of the variable time resolution).

Monitoring mode (in a small field around the source specified). Fireball-like detection mode (moving object in the field of view).

Two way data exchange between CPU and CCD units. Re-programming (template Star Catalogue updating, etc). Pointing system routine.

44

11. TelemetryTelemetry: Uplink: Command line. Rate : 4 kb/s Schedule: ≥ 12 min/day, once per day

Downink: Low rate ALERT mode: 4 kb/s Schedule: switch-on by the inner ALERT command Data transfer: 1.0 Mb/s Schedule: ≥ 12 min/day, once per day

Possible regime: To be incorporated into and supported by the GCNetwork GTS location: main – Adelaide. Mobile tracking antenna – Sydney (AAO/ATNF/TIP site), or elsewhere in campaign mode.

45

12. Power budgetPower budget::

Optical Unit microprocessor system: ~1 Wt Total for MCP units: ~15 Wt

Payload, total: Low ( < 20 Wt ) NB: Huge power saving due to absence of re-pointings.

13. Weight budget:Weight budget: A set of 13 optical cameras: 30.0 kg [2.3 kg x 13] A set of 13 CCD units: 5.2 kg [0.4 kg x 13] ---------------------------------------------------- Total: ~35.0 kg

46

14. CostCost: Optical Unit: A$ 100 K CCD Unit : A$ 120 K ---------------------------------------------- Total per Unit: A$ 220 K ---------------------------------------------- Total per Optical System: A$ 2.9 M (13 units)Hardware Modeling & Software: A$ 4.0 M--------------------------------------------------------Total Cost of the payload (estimated): A$ 7.0 M

15. SynergySynergy: - - ASTRAL Mission accomplished with multi-mission GCNetwork already in action and steady development. - - ASTRAL to improve all over ability and scientific output of the GCN.

-- ASTRAL to catch other than GRB astrophysical phenomena, including early detection of Supernova in our Galaxy waited from 1604 Kepler’s SN.

Acknowledgements Acknowledgements I am very grateful to many colleagues for help, advice and encouragement. It is a pleasure to acknowledge Bruce Slee and Bob Duncan for multiple comments; G. Beskin and S. Bondar for the ground based prototyping of ASTRAL;ASTRAL; Francois Mignard for valuable comments; Nikolay Samus for the General Catalogue of Variable Stars statistics; Holger Pedersen for early GRB all-sky monitoring ideas; Roald Gershberg for discussion of the flare stars behavior; Raylee Stathakis for the SN data; Brian Embleton for providing the relevant FedSat satellite parameters; Andrew Parfitt for leading advice of some communication issues; Grzegorz Pojmanski and Grzegorz Wrochna for some ideas of ASTRAL ASTRAL development; Bohdan Pazcynski for discussion of basic issues of ASTRALASTRAL and stimulating enthusiasm.

R e f e r e n c e s R e f e r e n c e s : Akerlof C., et al. 1999, Nature 398, 400 (GRB 990123: A unique BATSE+ROTSE flash of OT V=9m) Barthelmy S. D., et al., GRB Coordinates Network Description [ http://gcn.gsfc.nasa.gov/gcn/ ] Beloborodov A. M. 2001, ApJ 565, 808 (First principles physics of GRBs) Connors A., et al. 1986, ApJ 303, 769 (Up to 200,000 flashes a year missing) Galama T., et al., 1998, Nature 395, 670 (Discovery of SN associated with GRB afterglow) Gamma-ray Burst Mystery Solved. In: CRCSS Space Industry News, No.94, 2002 (Editorial Review) Hessman F. V. Links to the Robotic Telescopes Projects (List of ASTRAL’s prototipes) [ http://www.uni-sw.gwdg.de/~hessman/MONET/links.html ] Greiner J., et al. 2000, A&A 353, 998 (X-ray bursts and GRB/flare stars connection) Kehoe R., et al. 2002, ApJ 577, 845 (ROTSE search for ‘orphans’) Kharchenko N. V. 2002, The All-Sky Compilation Catalog of 2.5 million stars (Template of ASTRAL) Kronk G.W. 1984. Comets: A Descriptive Catalog (Discovery magnitudes of comets) Kulkarni S., et al. 1998, Nature 393, 35 (Cosmological origin of GRB) Lowell B., et al. 1974, Nature 250, 124 (Optical flash of UV Ceti) Mikhelson N. N. 1995. Astronomical Optics (Wide-field camera design) Paczynski B. 2000, PASP 112, 1281 (Monitoring all sky for variability) Paczynski B. 2001, astro-ph/0108522 (Prediction of optical flashes preceding GRBs) Pozanenko A., et al. 2002. In: ADASS XII Conference (Synchronous optical and γ-ray observations) Rhodes J. 1998. In Gamma-Ray Bursts, 4th Huntsville Symp., 699 (Physics of ‘orphans’) Pojmanski G., ASAS: The All-Sky Automated Survey (A source of ASTRAL’s template development) [ http://www.astrouw.edu.pl/~gp/asas/ and AcA 47, 467, 1997 ] Tsarevsky G.S. 2002, Project ASTRALProject ASTRAL. In: An Australian Astronomical Payload for FedSat-II [ www.atnf.csiro.au/people/norris/fedsat & www.atnf.csiro.au/people/gregory.tsarevsky ] van Paradijs J., et al. 2000, ARAA 38, 379 (Review of the GRB afterglows) Wrochna G., et al. 2002, Project ’Project Pie of the Sky’’Project Pie of the Sky’ (ASTRAL’s ground based prototype ) [ http://hep.fuw.edu.pl/~wrochna/pi/ ]

ASTRAL mission: To be incorporated into the GCNetwork as a triggering component.