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GANDHI AS A FOIL An Analysis 1915 - 1922

cAL ORGANISER Crpai : in India .1

of Ii cal and National

O1k --,ca(Q;

University of Bradford Postgraduate *c School of Studies in Peeve.. A` S1-,?ob Overt' I its Fn. D

1982

MISSING PRINT

, BSTRACT Bob Overy C, GANDHI AS A FOLrrICr. L UF. i. 1I0r'H: and National University By examining the on his Gandhi two Campaigns of Bradford, as a political interpretations of nonviolence in the in India, in E. nalysis ' to of local PhD Thesis, 4 bridge focuses

191rr-1922,

December 1932. organiser of his it

may be possible -the

gap between propagation

importance

one which

"as a way of life", "as

him as a pioneer Gandhi

use of nonviolence

a conflict

which treats othertechnique. "

Between "satyagraha". his philosophy his method of action, and named in he emerged as the organiser local 1915 and 1922 campaigns satyagraha of to leadership He moved quickly, however, Gujarat. of further Bihar and in 1919 in particular the hoxlatt level, Satyagraha at a national struggles and Noncooperation series period At the through the with of five level, eighteen months from later. The thesis his explores, through a a as he moved over

case studies,

how Gandhi years

of about national

'levelotied local to national to take to

methods scale.

Gandhi founded

failed

India

by storm his

he had hoped as like alliances movement follow

organisations

by himself

propagate

principles forged

Satyagraha political Indian

Sabha and the figures Rational from

Swadeshi. 6abha. other perspectives who nonetheless Gandhi

He therefore within the

and the his

Congress

hilafat to were prepared for "masses"

direction.

A principal between people of the the short work. nation's of This

means which educated

developed and the

generating and for

solidarity mobilising leadership Presentation aspect of

"classes"

civil is

disobedience, particularly movement. in the the West,

was the clear

promotion planning

of campaigns and

of constructive

in his

Noncooperation action

of nonviolent satyagraha and its in Gandhi's application

by overstressing

the

"conflict"

and neglecting method

"constructive".

has been one-sided. of constructive of nonbetween

The importance programme violent the

as an organiser suggests

of a concept that

in practice should look

advocates at the

action

as a technique in his

more closely

balance

two aspects

approach. with which a review'of have the rules in and stages the in Gandhi's

The thesis satyagraha

concludes campaigns

been proposed

of Joan Bondurant. work

CONT PUNTS

Introduction

I. 1.

CASE STUDIZ Champaran, Struggle 1917: Notes on a "Classic" Satyagraha 1

2.3.

Peasants and Workers Take Up Satyagraha, Gujarat: 1915-1918Gujarat: 1918-1920 A Base for-National Leadership,

28 68

II. 4.

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS The Place of Constructive ProZi-amore in Local National Campaigns of Satyagraha CASE STUDIES Six Stepping-Stones to All-India 1917-1919 (i) The Gujarat Sabha (ii) The Satyagraha Sabha Six Stepping-Stones to All-India 1919-1920 (iii) The Swadeshi Sabha (iv) The Khilafat Movement Leadership and

1o9

III. 5.

130r

6.

Leadership

185

7.

Six Stepping-Stones to n11-India Leadership 1920-1922 (v) The All-India Home Rule League, or the Swarajya Sabha (vi) The Indian National Congress

265

8.

Congress and Noncooperation, CONCLUDING LYSIS ANIGandhi's Method as a Political

1920-1922

308

IV.9.

Organiser

333369

Bibliography

.+ 1

ACKMIu'LErcr ,, "U3

Dr 'Nigel Young, Reader in Peace Studies, come to Bradford with a special

first

su

to run the CormonwwealCollection, We agreed that emphasis on Gandhi.

ested that I a small library 1 should take

in conducting rV research of the resources in the Collection advantage in the School of Peace Studies. His knowledge of the literature of nonviolence has been a great support. Jarres O'Connell who helped me

I am also much indebted

to Professor

narrow dorm the scope of the project Others who have helped in all advice and criticism, to. giving Adam Curie, ' Vivien services, Geoffrey Ostergaard, r1arj orie -Sykes. I owe much to Christine very little tim. sorts

to rnanaa eable proportions. of capacities from offering

--

library and providing me personal support -- include Rex Arrbler, Dixon, Baruch Hirson, David O'Flanerty, su&; esting refernces, Devi Pr asad, Andrew Fiigby, Ruth, and

Overy who did an excellent

typing

job in

Fina11S*, . am grateful to the School of Peace Studies Long Dent: iind for financial support.

and to the

., t "

ORGANISER: An Analysis GANDHI AS -AN in India, Introduction Historians in recent 1915-1922

of Local

and National

Campaigns

years have been at pains national hero, "the

to cut the cult

which surrounds A wealth magnifying utterancein

India's

Mahatma", down to size. 1920 in India and outside

of material

has been published a politician

since

Gandhi into is worthy

and saint attention.was going

of genius whose every This has tended to get

of reverentwhat

the way of understanding the first world

on in

India place

in the years in it.

after

war and what

was Gandhi's

With the publication British studies or failed possible influence

of Gandhi's

Collected

Works, the release and also that

of

documents relating now being undertaken to play

to the period of the part national picture

the systematic areas played

many local it

in the Indian

struggle,

has been role and

to gain a much clearer actually was.

of what Gandhi's

Historians

like'Judith with

Brown have begun'to which probably those gathered in Melbourne, to study of the

examine the Gandhian era in India few Indians would want to ardopt. 1

a detachment notably

Others,

around D. A. Low at the School of South Asian Studies and linking period up with Indian scholars, 2 have brought

a variety

of perspectives.

These have not got in the way of mythology" In

the main task,

which has been to dig beneath "nationalist going on during of the Indian by authors

and uncover what was actually my view, the best accounts written

the Gandhi years. struggle with

national

are still

the broad studies

who identify 3

the national

movement and even with predominantly and speculative Gandhi.

Gandhi himself. scholars,

But the newer wort, a wealth of new facts of

by western

has provided

arguments which must be reflected

in new studies

Introduction: The object

page 2 of this study is not to develop Rather, particularly indebted it the work of these historians, drawing on some of their

nor to duplicate specific

or summarise them. aid insights,

information.

the work of Judith is to go back to Gandhi

Brown - to whom I am especially hiaself and to re-examine

the basis

on which he was able to present national movement and

his novel doctrine to win widespread standing actuallypractice organise impact

of satyagraha acceptance

to the Indian

of it.

The aim is to add to cur underin detail at what Gandhi andto

of Gandhian nonviolence

by looking

did in the years 1915 to 1922.of satyagraha political on Indian evolve in those

How did the theoryyears which as Gandhi would

sought

and social society?

movements

have a major

Most non biographical on his philosophy

studies

of Gandhi have tended to focus Interpreters two camps:

either of

or on his method of action. have tended to fall into

Gandhian nonviolence embrace or describe insist its that

those who. and

the whole Gandhian philosophy

of satyagraha

Gandhian nonviolent in his religious

roots

be understood from action can only 4 and those who wish to beliefs; and moral action from its philosophical in the political unquestionably not at It was that

separate

the practice

of nonviolent purely 5

background and to look at it sphere for engaging in conflict. group --

as a technique My own bias'is study

towards the first Gandhi's

but in this

I want to look philosophy. contemporaries

philosophy,

but at how he applied organiser

his

as a more effective

than any of his

Gandhi was able to capture Congress in 1920.

the leadership

of the Indian

National

Introduction: Part of Gandhi's

Page 3 appeal was as an expert practitioner in a technique of

ccntl, Lt which was well movement found itself had been simply action,point

suited

to the conditions

in which the Indian world war. troops histhat

national Gandhi

at the time of the first

But if

a "general"

able to command civilian on to revealin India is

in nonviolent Thecontext

he would never have been calledabout Gandhian in nonviolent sections action of

skills.a political elite

to be created groups action of the

which

the Indian

political to

large and

rural

and urban withhis

"masses" under

were ready Gandhi's,and

take

up nonviolent Gandhi did not make

and experimentbetween then ability/to

it

guidance.organise

a" distinction and his ship of

direct

to plan ability ih Str,,.jit thenG Although

political , likened of

campaigns his leader-

he frequently

he did

in nonviolent to the generalship civilians resistance 14'xPC>( (CJ1 atw.l"wwlit"uty spKUes1) V4 bZtwejtA

an army,

not

differentiate life. For

clearly Gandhi,

and economic

between/these and. the conduct n all of these were interlinked.

of

social meant

This

not only thatpolitical the which concern action.

Gandhi'sin

task as an organiser,which it the in Indian nonviolent satyagraha, economic was not just national

included,

work to creategive

ahim

climate

movement would But

opportunity

to lead in

struggle.

the very also

method his

he employed

struggle, social,

itself-expressed

to reorganise as pursued

and political-life. a conflict technique.

Nonviolent Simult-

by Gandhi

aneously, conditions.

it

was a ,tool

for

transforming conflict-and

social,

economic and political were combined. E

The two aspects,

transformation,

Thus a principal

thesis

of

this

study

is

that

attempts

to

abstract

from Gandhi's

activity

in India called

(and South Africa) action or made it

a technique

of the

engaging in conflict rest large of his activity

nonviolent

to leave and

aside

have eliminated

hard to comprehend if.

areas of his practice.

These need to be included .

Introductions

4 page

we want to understand positively,

how Gandhi was effective.

To put it

pare ideas

Gandhi was an organiser

of genius who had firm social

on how to conduct political His success as an organiser dependent on a certain is worth us trying the opportunity of conflict, to argue that conflict

campaigns and build of political

movements.

and social

movements was which it him with

set of principles

and objectives

to understand. with

This success provided nonviolent it action

to experiment and vice Gandhi's versa. dramatic

in the field

Certainly,

would be misleading nonviolent impressed and

successes in leading

were not the springboard

which encouraged those larger social

to accept his leadership political programmes. values,

and to take up his Nonetheless, as this

study will

show, social

and religious

his

idea of how society

should be ordered, civil

were always uppermost resistance campaigns.

in Gandhi's

mind as he planned his

It like

was,

for

example, boycott

out that For

of his

opposition formulated

to

a nonviolent his concept

tactic and plan - wherethe a of

economic

Gandhi

of Noncooperation. economic campaign boycott withdrew

Gandhi,

Noncooperation because not into those

was positive who supported but the into

was negative their support

bitterness To him, alternative of the

movement to build the movement, the

alternative drive,

institutions.? those

heart positive

was to build 1924 the

institutions, programme nonviolence

after and

promotion to him than

constructive of

became more important as a conflict,

the

development

technique.

The key factors Gandhi is often

here are order,. described

discipline

and self-reliance. anarchist because he

as a philosophical

Introduction:

page S

favoured political

fundamental workers

decentralisation

of society

and wished

to abandon representative Nevertheless,

democracy at the centre he was in favour the most In order of

go to work in the villages. and a moral order of society

where those who were morally and exercised and social older,

advanced accepted to achieve political this drive

responsibility

authority.

new political

where the focus of

was not at the centres and with

of power - as under the Raj specific cultural changesamong

but in the villageswere needed. the people

the "masses",politics to villages

The emphasis to develop individuals their

of his

was on organising solve their

capacity

own problems, to see

encouraging

and whole

and districts

themselves In order necessary themselves a capacity

as models of social to create a climate

responsibility where this

for

others it

to emulate. was

was possible, workers

to develop daily a

in the political a notion

in the "masses" and and

discipline,

of "good housekeeping",

to make sacrifices, out their lives

which would sustain and be assimilated

and then fill

them personally 8 by others.

This effort the political in their India.

to Work a social revolution

revolution,

which was more important

than

and was based in individuals

making changes

own lives,

became fundamental

to the Gandhian movement in the Indian NationalI

Whenever Gandhi was invited nonviolent conflict, the social in conflict

to lead

Congress into

he always placed prograune

great

emphasis if

on the need to develop nonviolent constructive working Gandhi. discipline

of nonviolence

was to be sustained. a new social

Thus the by

programme - building

order directly goal for an immediate struggle.

among the people - was not only Constructive work was also,

a long-teas view,

in his

requirement particular, it

in preparing

the movement for precondition

nonviolent for

In

was an essential

a mass nonviolent

Introduction:

6 Lage in no

civil

disobedience

campaign

where tens discipline,

of thousands might

t`f people,

way answerable nonviolent

to military

be expected repression

to maintain or

discipline

under. conditions

of severe

provocation.

9

In practical programme.

terms,

there

are broadly emphasised

two ways of looking

at constructive and perhaps

The first,

by those

who 'have 'studied

embraced Gandhi's imperative life this

philosophical

approach

to politics,

is a moral to live a way of

on individuals with

and groups

who are concerned

consistent approach,

the values

nonviolence. of of their

People

who have adopted commitment to the

as a demonstration

disinterested useful tasks

good of the structive steps public, with

community,

engage in socially

known as "conconstructive

programme". a view

"Has the movement undertaken services to the to its

positive,

to providing

and to the own members asks Joan Bondurant,

and even in some cases that constructive

opponent? ", in this

emphasising of proper

programme 10

is an "earmark" sense

Gandi. an satyagraha.

A second use of the in India devised issue its by Gandhi.

term refers

to a specific comprised important

set

of campaigns

launched

The "programme"

list a social

initiatives of questions. Each

by Gandhi to meet a number of was.. attacked by his supporters

as a nationwide there were targets date.

had campaign which for achievement the number expanded. cloths,

own organisation;

frequently

which had to be achieved of these campaigns the

by a particular

Over the years

in the constructive chief

programme was gradually

In the 1920s, on Hindu-Muslim of liquor-selling 1940s,

emphasis was on production and on abolition

of Indian-made

unity

of untouchability,

but prohibition By the

and the uplift

of women were soon added. of 18 items.

the programme consisted

Introduction:

page 7 to reveal in detail how Gandhi for me to

Unfortunately, made his pursue analysis

the ambition

of this

study,

decisions

as an organ-iser, of his eight theory activities from

has made it in India

impossible

the history of the the

beyond 1922.

Even so, that Gandhi

years

1915 to 1922 demonstrates of constructive to setbacks

was evolving

and practice

in both programme and difficulties level. intensive he

the above senses as a specific experienced Gandhi's period in pursuing his

response satyagraha years a specific integrate civil

campaigns confirm

at a national that in this

own conclusions of struggle

in later

he developed to

understanding

and viewpoint, and economic against the

which was of the necessity transformation Raj. After into 1924, his this

a programme of social resistance strategy campaigns

nonviolent part

of Gandhi's

came to be known byP

the titleagated the*term misleading of'national

the of/constructiveunder to this cover

programme.the which

But it

was not seriouslyAs a result

propmy use of to be

name until projects

1930s and 1940s. took place -before for

1924 may appear the

in places. schools constitute

These campaigns and arbitration strictly the

example, the

establishment wheel programme.x't

courts, origins

or again of the

spinning

campaign --

constructive

It

would be misleading, in systematic early

however, fashion period. of this

to suggest the origins

that

this

thesis

has attempted

to describe

of Gandhi's case-material political evolution

constructive does demonfor

programme in this strate example, out

Some of the side of Gandhi's

the beginnings the

work in,

Swadeshi Sabha of 1919 and in the Sabha.

of Noncooperation is not to Rather

of the programme of the early indications

But the aim of the thesis constructive

describe it that all

of Gandhi' s later

campaigns.

is to demonstrate, in this his period

as an explanation he discovered campiagns

of Gandhi's

method as an organiser, and consolidate

the necessity

to complement with

"negative"

of nonviolent

protest

"positive"

Introductions

8 page improve

campaigns

to

social

life.

It

is

the is

balance the

between

conflict thesis.

and construction I thus generic use the concept

in Gandhi's term

method which

concern

of this

"constructive combinesis

programme" the two practicalconcept

in a third

sense as a mentionedsatyagraha greater political authorities social

which

meaningsGandhian to promote from of

above.

Constructive theory harmony campaigns which

programme can

a broad to'distinguish of central

within efforts

be used

and higher against

standards acts of

popular

self-reliance

authority.

A number

have followed as one branch demonstrate

Gandhi of the that this

in presenting satyagraha

constructive method. lli

programme The thesis

in this

way,

sets

out to part of the

"constructive" his method during

concept

was an integral

way Gandhi developed which was applied in later years.

the years

up to 1922 --

a concept

and consolidated

in a specific

programme of campaigns

Thus we argue, interpreters viewed

first,

that

the now well-established nonviolence -over whether

division

between should be5

of Gandhian

nonviolence --

as a philosophy

of life

or as a conflict of social

technique and political

can be bridged movements. that we

by looking This begin focus

at Gandhi as an organiser on his work as an organiser his with broad political

does not mean, however, objectives and end.

by examining

by assessing of getting from.

what he achieved, A to B. on the Gandhi's other,

an analysis

in between on the

of his

methods

political

philosophy, discussed focuses goals

one hand,

and his

achievements indirectly From only situation.

have been widely of this thesis

elsewhere entirely

and are onljr on his are methods.

the concern the point in so far

which

of view of the organiser; as they can be realised

and ideals

interesting

and made practical is his pragmatic his high

in a concrete spirit ideals

The Genius of Gandhi as an organizer which enabled him time and again

and inspiration is practical

to locate

Introduction:

8A page

forms taken

of action

which It

were accessible'to is this is process the

vast

numbers of people

and were his ideals

up by them.

of visualising of this enabled his

and shaping study. his

in practical of Gandhi's through that ends, is,

proposals choice of

which issues

concern

The cleverness to shine

and of methods Through discover examining

ideals

again his

and again. means, we shall which

methods as an organiser, goals, his

in large

measure what his theory that

were --

is a good test

of Gandhi's

ends and means

are coincident!.

It

is also, one.

in any case, Organising continually wits,

misleading is above all to

to

see the

process art

of organising which requires

as a that Gandhi

linear

a responsive constantly his broad

the organiser lived by his

adjust

changing initiatives, social end3.

situations. frequently

calculating to build for

and pitching and sustain

improvising, could attempt

in order to direct which

movements which Through the and

he

social

and political of this thesis,

case-studies evolving in this principal can better for social

form the bulk certain

him applying we see patterns or rules then, for

certain process focus

formulae,

consistent Elucidating Our aim is

enga4ng

of organising. of the thesis.

these

rules,

is the action movements

to show that

nonviolent

be seen in a broad change than narrowly

perspective

as a method of organising in conflict.

as a method of engaging

This is to

same approach

has also

governed the

our second aim, "constructive" constructive

already

mentioned, in itself.

'Which

show the balance method.

between

and "obstructive" programme in

Gandhi's

We are not at Gandhis

studying social

We are not looking developed to apply this

programme as an ideal Hind Swaraj, how far

prescription, he then tried in

in South Africa in India. It is

and when he wrote not our aim to is

which

evaluate

he succeeded of

endeavour.

Our intention

to look

at how far

programmes

Introduction:

8B page to be necessary that is, to his and indeed instrumental indispensable purpose to his

constructive

work proved

method as an organiser, and sustaining process, constructive rather social than

of building method or of

movements. aim or content,

Thus we are again when we emphasise in Gandhian

discussing the place action.

programme as a concept

nonviolent

Two flxlher that

broad

themes also

emerge in the thesis. necessarily Scale because 80,000 tens is

One is adjusted

the

observation

Gandhi's

methods

as an organiser scale actions. novement, touches to reach

as he moved factor inl1

from local the for

to national

an important

organising confronting from

of any social an issue those

approaches people are

and techniques inevitably As we shall

which

different see,

employed

of millions.

there'is

a surprising level. for

consistency are also

between Gandhi's some significant

methods at a local differences. in the emergence hein

and national of the reasons province

But there focusing is

One

on Gandhi's

emergence as a leader importance

of Gujarat leaderon not his

to emphasise

the crucial in his

to his

as a nationalwas to adap3ting rely

of localisedonly at in achieving

support

home region.but

Thisalso

national scale.

leadership,

methods

the

national

A further

theme-of

the thesis approach

derives,

practically, two all-India

out of a comparison satyagrahas, It the is civil adventures

between Gandhi's Rowlatt Satyagraha

to organising

of 1919 and Noncooperation in an assessment

1920 to 1922. of of the balance between

expressed, resistance in nonviolent

theoretically, and constructive struggle. on the

programme in these Our conclusion constructive to heavily side is of that

two extraordinary Gandhi

drawn to place was because of his suggests

so much emphasis difficulties

satyagraha

when he relied

on civil

resistance.

This

Introduction:

8C page through

that

the long,

slow build-up

of mobilisation

constructive

action

in Gandhi's action

method has been neglected

in theoretical

accounts

of nonviolent disobedience.

which focus arbitrarily

on the symbolic

impact of civil

It

is

tempting

to dismiss of their

the

relevance

of Gandhi's in the Indian

experiments context

with and in Hindu in

satyagraha thought. politics

because

background

The moralistic is foreign

and religiousbasis

of Gandhi's It

intervention

to many of us in the west. movement,

intellectually seems on the principle well-dff 12 to

unsophisticated of the unity identify words, linked erous with the

to base a political of all that lives

as Gandhi did, who are them. action

and the duty fellows universe,

of those and to

the poorest of a single scale

of their moral

serve

In other by anyone is

idea

where every else,

on a cosmic or irrelevant

to the

welfare

of everyone 13_

may seem prepost-

to the. business

of politics.

None-

Introduction: the-less, authority institutions the military

page 9 Gandhi's and social attempt to find another basis for political

power - not based in control democracy,

of the central

of representative and the police

not based in command of It was

needs to be understood. authority and socialthat

because he had a view of politicalwhich was different from most of his 14

responsibilityhe made the,

contemporaries

political initiate adopted, nonviolent

choices controlled

which he did. nonviolent

With this

view,

he was able to

struggles

and mass campaigns which degree,

and succeeded in maintaining discipline.

to an astonishing

But it strictly

is important ccording

not to present to religious

Gandhi as a moralist and refusing

living to bend them

principles

no matter

what the circumstances

or the emergency.

This is a mistake and who

which has been made by some who look have then taken over his personal them in their own lives

on Gandhi as a moralist

principles

and sought to apply What

and in the groups to which they belong. that, with his view that

is so remarkable

about Gandhi-'is

there was

only one human nature all

and one shared system of values, present reality.

he was willing He was a the

the time to make compromises with

pragmatist, agreement, progress. hidden

happy to make any accommodation as long as, within was some principle His view of progress which meant there was. like Plato's be moral would the ideal -

was

somewhere, but we could dimly

see its

shadow and we should

move towards that.

Introduction: It

Page 10 flexibility,to what

because of this was

his

determination

to gear even hisachievable, politician that in to

most idealistic Gandhi was able pre-Independence develop hundredo examine example,

campaigns to operate India. If

was realistically successful

as a remarkably we want

to understand

how he was able

a mass following of thousands into

for

nonviolence nonviolent his

and how he was able struggle, it is important

to draw to for Or

carefully were the

how he planned objectives for

campaigns.

On what

basis,

political

struggles

selected^s

what considerationspersuadedfigures who did not share his

him to seek alliancesreligiously-based

withpolitical

other

political

principles?

The greater

part

of

this

thesis

is

given

of the principal1922. Champaran,

in which Gandhi lengaged between 1915 and campaign.-,his first satyae aha struggle in India, took place

over was

to

a detailed

examination

in 1917, when he was far-awayfirst because it

from his

base in Gujarat.campaign particularly are

It

is

treated

was so much an isolated The later ata struggles, level,

and relatively as Gandhi to moved

self-contained. towards one from in rganisin; another. place

national

much harder campaigns of

separate in Gujarat

Thus the Ahmedabad and Heda simultaneously leadership directly and within of the

1918 took

30 miles

each other.

They assured Gujarat

Gandhi's

nationalist next initiatives

movement in which were to

and contributed

to his

orGanise

satyagraha

on a national

scale.

Champaran, opportunity satyagrahaA

because

it

is

a self-contained a framework for later

case-study, analysis campaigns the of

gives

me the

to construct struggles. also, issues

organised tend to merge material a different

However, in

the

into

each other; and the

some instances, have

historical dictate

available

raised

seemed to

structure.

-

Therefore,

I have not followed

this

framework

rigidly.

Introduction: The first case-studies Kheda.

page 11 section of the thesis local (Section I) focuses principally on

of three

satyagrahas in Champaran, Ahmedabad and a general survey leader. in his of Gandhi's And it activities emergence too,

But it

also attempts Gujarati part Gujarat

as the principal the important leader.

nationalist was to play

outlines,

as a national

The other principal

main section satyagraha level,

(Section

III

contains period

case-studies

of the

campaigns in this the Rowlatt

which Gandhi conducted of 1919 and Noncooperation

at a national

Satyagraha

from 1920 to 1922. activities most useful organisations the Gujarat Satyagraha

However, to make sense of the range of political in up to 1922, I have found it in chapters or founded. describing successive

which Gandhi was involved to arrange the material joined

which he either

Thus we move from the Rowlatt

Sabha to the Satyagraha`Sabha, in 1919:

which conducted

then from the Swadeshi. Sabha to the Xhilafat Noncooperation in August 1920;

Movement which planned and launched finally, from the All-India National it

Home Rule League (renaune,1 the Swarajya Congress. in alliance The Congress took over with the Khilafat movement

Sabha) to the Indian Noncooperation

and conducted

from 1920 to 1922.

The case-studies for analysis with

of the local the difficulties

satyagrahas

(in

Section

1) are combined from his Satya-

which Gandhi experienced on a national scale the Rowlatt II)

Gujarat

base of co-ordinating

graha in 1919. the circumstances constructive national

This enables me to examine (in which led Gandhi to insist

Section

some of of

on the development organising at a

as a component of his programme

level.

Introduction: Section Gandhi's level.

page 12 analysis of the thesis, at a local a broader compares

IV, the concluding techniques It

as an organiser to construct

and at a national definition of the

also attempts

satyagraha it

method than is usually

made in the west. resistance

In particular, and constructive

shows how Gandhi promoted both civil of satyagraha,

programme, the two sides techniques.

by the same organising

Missing to all

from this the other

study forces

is a full and actors

attempt present

to place

Gandhi relative There is economic, the First

at the time. and even chaotic during for and after

no detailed social

presentation

of the changing in India

and political

conditions

World War. leader

These created

the possibility

a new type of political Gandhi's historical career perspective sources o

to emerge and, without quite

such a combination, A fuller

would have evolved on this period,

differently.

however,

can be gained from many other

A more particular

omission

from this

study

is discussion

the response of both

'which Gandhi as an organiser the educated and uneducated. before by social scientists

evoked from the Indian At a general and historians level,

people, this

has been done the topic which

who have explored

of charisma

and also

the religious link

themes from Hindu mythology with the peasantry. however, 16 In a

Gandhi employed in making his specific

study of Gandhi as an organizer, examination of, for example,

there

ought to

be detailed peasantry A

those groups in the Champaran in 1917. Or how far

which responded to Gandhi's

appeal

Gandhi managed to reach and change the behaviour during his championship of the Iilafat it issue

of Muslim peasants Again, in

in 1920.

the study sections

of Noncooperation,

would be interesting

to know which

of the educated classes

and which groups among the peasantry

Introductions in which parts hand-spinning

page 13 of the subcontinent in 1921.1 took up the campaign to learn such questions to others,

must leave

however, with greater 17anthropology.

knowledge of Indian social

history

and

OA9 riles

de)tlope. 6 by C{c, ulu

'vr

C15attiS/Ng

Scci

t

- Ito v*IOQe 1ev%h.

The emphasis of this he made his

study will

he be on, for cxwnpte, chose issues,

how

judgements

ca what was politically his

wise or expedient, the with in views -

and how he managed to balance initiative his for his side while also

campaigns between maintaining respectful dialogue the position

sustaining

opponents. politics

We will

see how he achieved

Indian

which enabled him to project The focus, his then,

his unconventional

to stich a wide audience. not exploring centrating special back into the context picking that especially

is on Gandhi as an organiser nor conWith this i have fallen figure from By

philosophy

and his principles, /

in particular attention the trap

on his

4 emp5i^9 methods it

to Gandhi himself, of isolating

may seem that

Gandhi as a remarkable In some respects ch,..racter and role personal this

in which he operated.

is true. I am judging interesting

out Gandhi as a particular viewpoint

to study,

he had a special

which makehim qualities, It

and even unique. remarkable

It{ is not his

though,

as they were,

which occupy me.

is the way he was able political ideas of

to take a set of unconventional which his political satyagraha life

and controversial

creed and method always was - to the centre

in India.

References:

Introduction:

14 pace 1915-1922, Politics, Civil Disobedience: Press, versity

Rise to Power: Indi Brown, Gandhis 1. Judith 1972, and Gan hi a Press, Cambridge University Cambx The Mahatma in Indian Politics, , _1928-

Facets of the Indian 2. See D. A. Low (Ed), Congress and the Rajs 1 1947, Heinemann, 1977 and Soundi s in Modern South Struggle, Ed. 1968; and R. Kurar Press, Carolina History, University Asian of Eatyagraha The Rowlatt of 1919, Oxford Gandhi. "- politics: Essays on Essays in the D. A. Low, Lion R, 1971. Press, University Also -viipant: London: Cass, 1973. Imperialism, Study of British Strums 3. Seer'for example, Subhag Chandra Bose, The Indian Yajnik, Gandhi as I Know Him , 1920-34, Withart & Co, 1935: Indulal Mahatma: Life G. G. Bhat, 1933; D. G. Tendulkar, of Alohandas Karamchand 1951; and B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi: Gandhi, Government of India, Allen and Unwin, 1958 A Biography, 4. full Gandhi's The outstanding philosophical presenting work Thouoht of The Moral and Political is Iyer, RaghavanN., position 1973. University Press, Also important Mahatma Gandhi, oxford of Gandhi's V The Philosophy is Indira Rothernund, of Restraint: 1963. See also Prakashan, Indian Politics, Bombay: Popular Strategy and jivan, Mahatma Ga:. Philosorhy hawarWGopinath, The Political ndhi, _ INava, of 1957. " Also useful is R. R. Diwakar, Satyr and aha: Its Technique 1946. Hind Kitabs, Histor Bombay: ,

in some ways the is still from this perspective 5. The first study War 1Jithozit Violence, Krishnalal, Shridharani, most stimulating, Bombays Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, 1962. See also Gene Sharp, Gandhi as

1979, and The Po itics Bostons Porter Sargent, Strategist, Political A Wonviolent 197. Works which do look at Porter Sargent, Action, of his but only in so far as it explains Gandhi's philosophical approach, by include technique, development studies of nonviolence as a conflict Conquest of Violence: of Joan Bondurant, The Gandhian Philosophy 1965 and Richard Gregg, The University Conflict, Press, ofCalifornia Even N. K. Bose London: James Clarke & Co. Ltd. 1960. Power of Nonviolence, in his outstanding of Gandhi's comprehensive presentation and focus on nonviolence for this programme still opts finally narrower in Gandhism, Indian technique, Bose, N. K., Studies see as a conflict Company, 1947. Publishing Associated

6.

disobedience 285: "Gandhi envisaged both civil Iyer, op cit, p. as well conflicts means of resolving and noncooperation as nonviolent in social and devices for producing positive changes as peaceful life. In either case, he was more concerned to affect political particular prevailing attitudes and values than with obstructing this fact would force us to regard the A failureto policies. grasp doctrine rationalisation of satyzgraha ... merely as an extravagnt immediate ends. He in the attainment of political expediency of felt that his life dedicated to the spread of the clearly was teaching of non-retaliation by showing its relevance to the religious handling of political and to the constructive and social conflicts transformation pp306-307 of the political and social order. " See also.,

Introduction:

references:

page 15

in Collected Swadeshi? ", Young India, January 14,1920, 7. See "Is Boycott Nava ivan, December 7,9, Works, vol 16, pp 480-482 and "Punjab Letter", id PP 322-323.8. Iyer, op cit, 6, -' d Chapter "The Purification Chapter 3, idual Conscience and Heroism Constructive 1945.. 43. p of Politics", in Society", Its Meaning pp 37-61 pp 113-148. and and

9. See M. K. Gandhi, Navajivan, Ahmedabad: 10. Bondurant, op cit,

11. See Gandhi, Constructive Prasad, R., Constructive pro ramme, op cit; 1942. The most Programme: SOme Suggestions, Ahmedabad, Navajivan, in English I have seen comprehensive which account of constructive programme is in Chapters 4 to 6 of Kaushik, The Congress Ideology P. D., and Programme 1920-1947: Ideological Nationalism During the Foundations Indian of Gandhian Era, Allied Publishers Private See also Rao, R. V., The Ltd, 1964. Gandhian Insititutions of Wardha, Bombay: Thacker and Co Ltd, 1947. 47-48, 11A. Diwakar, as the least cit, op pp sees constructive p: ogramme demanding at the lowest level of .three psychologically of confrontation branches of the satyagraha method -- namely, constructive programme, selfIyer, denying and purificatory op cit, activities, actions. and aggressive See also ibid pp 306-307 and p 301, adopts a similar classifiaction. Dhawan, op cit pp 126-127,190ff.

12. Indira Rothermund, The llhilosonhy Strategy and Indian Politics, Bombay: 30-36.

Mahatma Gandhi's Restraint: or Popular Prakashan, 1963t PP Xii-xivt

13. Gandhi is linked with Tolstoy in his belief in absolute moral values See Iyer the dominant western theory of relative as against moral values.

Chapter 3, "The Purification Chapter 4, "The NEED cit of Politics" and ter Absolute Values and for Vows", pp 40-87. pf A marvellous vindication is in-R. V. Sampson, Equality the Tolstoyan position and Power, London: HEINEMann, 1965.

14. See Iyer, op cit, pp 53-57,252-260. See also Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, Boston: porter Sargent, 1973, Part One, "Power and nagle. "15. See especially, Brown, J., Gandhi's Rise To 1 ower, o, cit. +

16. See especially Lloyd T adition, University of of Roots Charisma"; also Rothermund op cit, Chapter

I. Rudolph and S. H. Rudolph, The .: ODERNITYof CHICAGO Press, 1967, Part Two, "The Traditional Iyer op cit esp. Chapter 6, pp 114-148 and 3, P767-77-3.

17. An outstanding D., "The Crisis example of such a study is Hardiman, of theLesser Patidars: Gujarat, in heda District, Peasant Agitations in Low, D. A., Congress and the :i,; J, Londons Heinemann,, 1967.. 1917-34",

CHAy ER1 CHAMPARAN,19171 NOTES ON A "CLASSIC" SATYAGNAHASTRUGGLE

It's

bommonfor

commentators on Gandhi, earlyit as

allowing

hindsight

to colour politicalhim.

their

descriptionsleader his

of his

years,were, took the is

to presentcomplete, people

him as a nationalhis destiny'before his

who emerged,

Nonviolence presence and "sell brought

message and method, to him. to the

by storm;

charismatic

drew all his ideas

The reality nation. attention This --

different.

Gandhi local

had to promote campaigns which

was done through but also just

him to

national

as significantly province

by his of, the

development

of a reputation Presidency. Gandhi's success level.

and organisation There is no work in

in the &iglish

Gujarat of

Bombay surveys his a'national

which

I am aware-which in Gujarat, initiatives'at for using

achievement there Yet

as an organiser from

specifically he launched logical

as a platform

which makea

such a theme would

framework

a'survey

of

his

whole career.

It's

also

common for there in

surveys

of

Gandhi's

nonviolent his

campaigns organising

to

present

his at

method a local

as if level

were no difference a. limited larger geographical scale the

between area the scale

of campaigns which It

and those whole of of

struggles India. Indian

were

attempted self-evident posed

on a vastly that

across vast

seems

mobilising'on

the

subcontinent so acute in

immense problems-for

Gandhi,

problems

which

were not

struggles

confined

to a limited

area.

These are this thesis:

broad his to

themes

which of

will

be explored

in

the local

first

two sections the which level to a

of

promotion of his from

satyagraha

through

campaigns;. difficulties

importance experienced

Gandhi

base-in organising

Gujarat; at

and the

he

in moving

a local

and regional

national patterns

level. in his

We shall organising

also hope to disoover method.

of the consistent some

Ctlaprer

t-

P"2

IA

When Gandhi arrived spent twenty organiser he realised the rights withHis

back in India

the age of 46 in 1915, he had at legal as a advocate and political 1907, when

years in South Africa of the Indian

on behalf that

there. community

After

the British

Crown could

not be relied

upon to protect

of Indians

in South Africa, resistance"brought him to

he had begun to experiment which he calledthe attention

methods of "passiveachievements there

"satya. graha".of from the the nationalist government

movement at home in of India, he British

India Raj.

and earned

some approval

Back in India,

Gandhi received movement.

guarded welcome from the British a To them he was an unknown quantity; educated he was scarcely

and

from the nationalist while outside first

the circles years-back,

of 'ndia's

known. -,

For hisactivity

he was under a vow not to engage in politicalto building an ashram of

himself primarily and he restricted Ct,4;u.cwr neat Ahwteccw%A

his

personal

followers,

:invited

to address

public

meetings

in differ-

ent parts

of the country trips

on the position

of Indians

in South Africa His of a

he used his

as an opportunity given

to learn

about India.

appearance at receptions

in his as'did

honour in the clothes his insistence rather eighteen

peasant caused some controversy occasions on speaking in Gujarati during

on some than English. months - an His

or Hindi, his first

main political activity

achievement

which did not break the terms of his vow - was to press for the ending of the system of indentured labour under to

successfully which Indians slavery. 1

were sent to South Africa

to work on terms close

Chapter li Gandhi's

Page 18 in the spectrum of Indian and uncertain.political leader South leader of the Africa with of

position

nationalist himself

politics a disciple

at this of Gokhale,

time was precariousthe great "Moderate" principal

He called

who had died Indian to National

in 1915. Congress

G. K. Gokhale for nearly there. spread with of the a He

had been the decade

and had visited

support

Gandhi's causes

struggles

was particularly education "Extremists" and the

identified abolition had left over

progressive child marriage. and the

such as the split

The great Moderates at

which

Gokhale the

the helm of Congress B. G. Tilak, terrorism Gokhale the sorts of, to

in 1907 was principally the most prominent

question leaders, from

of political had openly Gandhi approach gradually shared

methods. advocated sided with

of the the the Britain

Extremist British

as a means of on this issue

ejecting and with between

India.

Modera. tes''general and India reform. change He also

of having on all active

relationship issues promote Tilak through social often

incremental reform in

their

concern like however,

Indian

society,

causes

which the the

traditionalists Moderates, limits

opposed.

Where Gandhi First, their

differed

from that

was on two issues. activity together their cultural were set with their

acceptance

of political by the Raj,

by the

constitutional to risk

procedures popular for the the

established campaigning. economic

unwillingness with British linked

Second, and

identification activity.

standards up with

development as a populist of India

Gandhi nationalist

Extremists civilisation

and as a cultural that of the west.

who preferred

to

What was he to

do?

The Extremists the which initiative gripped to

had returned from the this

to the in

Congress the

fold

in and popular

1916 and had seized political turmoil

Moderates time.

economic the sax

India agitate

at for

Gandhi

movements they in the

had founded

Home Rule making years; yet

strong

progress

Bombay Presidency

and elsewhere

in these

he hated.

Chapter

1: page 1C

the opportunism

and stridency

as he saw it

of their

agitations.

When Gandhi arrived

in the proximity

of Champaran, a district

of

CHAPTE, 1. iSC Bihar

Page ?. India, part in April of Bihar 1917, none of the nationalist knew he was coming and none of them on which he chose to makediscovering the from a hurriedly of to this the peasants

in northern in that

activists

was campaigninga stand. grouped forced Within gathering to

politicallyhours, of

on the issuehowever, lawyers the district, of his about

local in

conditions

grow indigo there.

he had decided

spend up to group of

two years lawyers

And within

days he had organised who worked with

into

a band of helpers

him for

the

seven

months that

his work actuallyto- aikar

took.

2

Gandhi had come/at the insistence Chanparan district Indian National

of a peasant leader

from the of the He to go to

who had met him at the annual session Congress held British quickly in Lucknow four

months earlier. intention

informed

the local

administration gathered that

of his

Champaran and pretty

he was not welcome there. with all 'speed so that were

This persuaded him to move into if he was arrested it

the district

would be in Champaran. had been agitation for

The British

worried

because there

decades by the ryots on their land by local and cub-let to the of

(peasants)

in Champaran forced The planters

to grow indigo leased

European planters. peasant cultivators.

whole villages

Since payments to the ryots sown with indigo, forced it

were on the basis

the number of acres interests giving

was in the planters' on their best land they

to have the peasants the highest yield. price

to grow indigo

This doubly penalised for other cash-crops

the ryots

since

could get a higher and maize.A

such as rice,

sugar-cane with

3

All

manner of quasi-legal land,

agreements had been struck of irrigation canals

the tenants roads;

about the use of their

and of

these agreements were often and if the tenants Indigo,

secured by threats

and physical

intimidation; taken to court

broke them they were frequently a vegetable dye used to colour

and fined.

CHAPTER 1.

Page 3

blue clothing,

was processed

by the planters

in their

local

factories.

Within

two days of arriving

in Champaran, Gandhi was served with that friends is, instructing

a notice

externing

him from the district, organisedon his inquiry

him to leave. a

Gnadhi hurriedlyteam to carry himself make the in

his

of lessin

than a week into

into

conditions speech we would and did

Champaran and offered the right to

court.

He made a defiant and insisting that this

demanding not not leave

inquiry

voluntarily. to do because The local

The magistrate he did not want

had not to jail

expected Gandhi,

know what judgement.

so he postponed

Champaran administration for moving so precipitately; himself,

then was sevemiy rebuked by the Bihar and Bihar who was worried in India was encouraged by direct about while Indian British national troops

government attentions opinion were fully

from the Viceroy

being roused against stretched

the British

in the War in Europe.

The case against

Gandhi was dropped.

In the teeth verging organised

of fierce

political

opposition

from the planters, Gandhi then involved

and unease

on hostility

from the local

administration, which

a survey of peasant statements

grievances,

the recording

of 10,000 legal Champaran before authority

by the ryots. destroyed built

Pressure

to get Gandhi out of position and the

he had totally

the planters'

of the local

administration

up so much that

the Bihar

government began to think Bihar capital

about externing

him and summoned him to the

to the south in Ranchi where he met the Lieutenant from the Government of India, a commission of inquiry Gandhi as one of its into the Lieutenant the conditions

Governor.

'Under pressure to appoint

Governor decided of the tenants

in Ghamparan with

members.

CHAPTER 1.

Page 4

Gandhi was permitted ryots' finally behalf while

to act as an advocate also serving

within

the inquiry

on the He

as a member of the commission. the planters

managed to negotiate of the inquiryThis report into agreement which

an agreement with

through

the processgrievances. unanimous enacted

which met most of the tenant:formed a part of the

main

Commission's government and

was accepted a year later.

by the Bihar

legislation

Gandhi fighting

then

went back

to his

ashr

,

but of

immediately textile

got

involved

in

a labour a civil

dispute

on behalf

workers high

in Ahmedabad taxes in

and leading

disobedience

campaign

against

theda (Paira)leading

a rural

area of Gujrat.drive to

Withinrecruit

a" year he was alsosoldiers to fight with

a markedly

unsuccessful

the British leading

EMpire in Europe and sinulta. neously fighter and two Muslim leaders

canpaigning released

to get a from

home rule

in ternrient. How Gandhi Organised Su-,port.(i) The First Days arrived in Patna en route for Champaran, he was in the

When Gandhi

company of the peasant representative had none of the connections himself in the area. fron

of the ryots

from Champaran who he was to establi

which Gandhi melt he needed if

Eventually,

he remembered by chance to look up an old member of the Indian

acquantance

lair school

in London who was now a prominent together

Muslim League, and this citizens decided to describe immediately

man gathered

a group of prominent

the situation

in Champaran to Gandhi.

Gandhi then The in He had

to go to Champaran and make an investigation. deploring the situation

Lucknow Congress had passed a resolution Champaran, a resolution declined

which Gandhi had been asked to move. of knowledge and this

on grounds of lack inquiry.

gave him loge authority

to begin his

CHAPTER 1.

Page 5.

Gandhi was given a contact

in Muzaffarpur, him. Gandhi. planter

the nearest

large

town to another directly administration

Champaran, and went to stay with group to discuss from the situation that this Champaran with of effective

This man brought -The latter control

together

recognised

of the local

was a situation

which would probably

lead to a nonviolent conscious(ii) and that

campaign to correctthat if (i)

the injustice.

Gandhi was apparentlyof the the situation, administration of

he had no first engage in

hand knowledge Satyagraha identified case; against with (iii)

he was to

he would and have,

need to be thoroughly an indisputably rested in the

the

cause the

the peasants of

established support of

that for

power

satyagraha (iv) and that

the peasants

what he was doing

to find support

out exactly for his

what was happening on their. behalf

among the peasants

and to build

up

struggle

he would need a group of full-time

assistants.

Gandhi straight

a; ay asked the group gathered

with

in Nuzaffurour him was no small their one

to

help him, aid a number of them agreed. because it meant abandoning law practices for

The request period

an indefinite

families capacity

and established as clerks that taking

and going

to werk: in a subordinate told

down, statements.

Gandhi also

the vakils-(lawyers)

they should be prepared

to go to jail.

None of them agreed to this about the question to prosperous disobedience of

but they did agree to work with jail

him and to think

which must have seemed absolutely profession,

outrageous what civil

members of the legal

wondering

Gandhi offered no payment for their would mean for their legal careers. 5 Presumably he was successful in persuading a number of them services. to agree to go with 48: (ii) him: (i) because he was a, relatively, senior man, at, at the (iii) successful

because the issue National

of Chainparan had been raised. nationally Gandhi had come as a-direct as a national result;

Indian

Congress-and

because he had a reputation

hero because of his

CHAPTER 1. Page 6.

struggles Ginhi's to jail at all

in similar obvious

situations

in South Africa;

(iv)

because of go in the area

sincerity

and his

courage in being willingto with no roots

on thq issue

when he was an outsider

(v) because this and of Indian political

was a time in India figures

when changes in the as the British thus thereif it

alignments

were increasing political reform;to

showed themselvessome jockeying for

amenable to limitedfuture power

was

and some openness

experiment

looked promising.The next district impression there spot. day Gandhi went to inform the Commissioner He very to enter for quickly the neighbouring the to g

to Champaran of his that he would not

intentions. be allowed so that are not if

got

Champaran - and decided it would the

as quickly His

as possible here

he was arrested but would there clearly

be on the

intentions

recorded: the area

government's than preventing the

embarrassment him going

in removing partly

him from because his

be greater would

there,

arrest

pin-point

peasant grievances peasant opposition.

nationally

and partly

because it

would help

to focus local.

Gandhi had barely

started

his

investigations from the local decided

from the town of Itotihari magistrate it instructing and prepared` in his'

in him

Champaran when he got an order to leave the area. for

He immediately

to"disobey

instructions absence.

his-assistants

of less

than'a

week to follow

Fron the start, the legalA

Gandhi had fundamentally the "tinkathia"

two objectives: system,

(i)

to secure tenants for To from their

abolition'f

where peasant of their factories.

were obliged landlords

to grow indigo

on the best portions the indigo

land (ii)

the planters

who operated a spirit

encourage in-the re-establishing

peasants their grip

which would prevent 6

the planters

on the area.

I

CHAPTER 1. (ii)

Page 7. Organised His Assistants

How Gandhi

As we have seen, Gandhi chose educated, assistants; men. better he also made a point on the view that

professional

men to be his that is, local had a

of choosing Biharis, they knew the local grievances,

(Presumably general

dialects,

knowledge of the area and its to local peasants,

would perhaps out

be more acceptable the work ifagitators. reputation ment of from the )

would be better vulnerable

able to carry to attack

he was removed, would be lessThe fact as legal that

as outside

the men were local, on behalf politics of

however,

meant their and the to involvecriticism

advocates

the peasants

some of-them planters

in Home Rule local

made them subject as biased charge

and the Gandhi's of

administration to this simply

men and wellthese men

known agitators. were for

response this inquiry

was that

the purposes

interpreters

and clerks

taking if

down statements, that

that

they were e;itirely

responsible

to him and that way,, he

he felt

any of them were acting dismiss them.?

in an irresponsible

would instantly

This assertion literally true.

that

he was master

in his

to have been own camp seems his-co-workers so that they

Gandhi set about organising (or pragmatic) followers

became convinced personal strategies

of satyagraha

and of his them This

and techniques.

The first

issue was to persuade , basis without money.

to come and work with him on a semi-permanent a number of them were persuaded to do.

second, he wanted them to agree to to jailed and to be prepared walked to than

over the work from him in the event of his being to go to jail the courta

themselves.

On the morning when Gandhi himself that he would go to jail two key workers

house in the conviction externment

rather said

accept his

from Champaran, his

they too "Now I brief but

were now ready to go to jail. know we shall intensive succeed". A third with

Gandhi is reported major achievement

to have said of Gandhi's life-style.

association

these men was in the area'of men who brought with

These were high-caste

professional

them their

CHAPTER 1. Page 8.

servants

and their

cooks.

This was obviously of westernised,

distasteful expensive labour

to Gandhi who living and who like a

had thrown off felt it

the trappings

his moral duty He sayer that on a pragmatic all

to engage in physical he "ridiculed" basis that

and to live their habits:

peasant. partly

the men for

arguing expenses.

they needed to reduce their

At any rate, who prepared of life-style,

the servants meals.

home and one cook only was kept were sent One important to dress too, aspect of course, of this simplification the gap

vegetarian

which extended

was that with

between Gandhi'sreduced. Fourth,

team and the peasantsGandhi, quitt si: aply

they were workingworked harder than

was

any of his

(or opponents) associates 8 constant initiative.

and overwhelmed them with

his

energy and

Gandhi also refused the struggle in their for

to allow

his

assistants saying

to identify that if

their

activity

with

Hone Rule in India,

they were successful Home Rule than any

campaign in Champaran, it agitation-9

would do more for

amount of rhetorical

(iii)

Gandhi's

Preparation

for

His

Court

Appearance

Men Gandhi heard that

he was toIappear

in court with

for his

disobeying

an order about what some of them

to leave Champaran, he began a discussion should be done and was later were willing to follow gratified

assistants

by the undert. ak; ng that He then devised a list

him to jail.

of names ofas

those who would take over the direction others to his were arrested. co-workers. He also wrote (See Appendix 'A')

of the campaign in succession out' a list of detailed instructions

He then spent the whole night

writing

letters

to newspaper editors,

Q3! PTtIM 1. Page 9.explaining unless what was happening He also and asking wrote them not to publish anything Indian council: he was

he was jailed. including himself

to a number of leading on the Viceroy's

politicians and addressed only back

one who served directly to

legislative that

the Viceroy, service only

complaining in Cha. iparan previously

interested a medal that

in doing

humanitarian

and sending for

he had been awarded in South Africa.

a year

humanitarian

work

He also prepareddisobeying the

a statementwhich

forread

the courtas follows

explaining(see

why he was'B').

order,

Appendix

(iv)

Gandhi's

Relations

with

the

Chasiuaron of

Peasants but by the that time this he was man was

Gandhi

was unknown to the into the

ryots district their

Champaran, word had got grievances

headed by train coming to

round

investigate/solve at the stations of

and numbers

of people

assembled Gandhi's villages appearance court house crowds.

to greet at from

him and get first

. apse of him. a gl go and visit a few court at the the

method

investigation depositions

was to

and take

peasants. a thousand

When news of his peasants on Gandhi assembled to control

cane through

more than

and the magistrate

had to rely

A major part grievances

of this

theory

of organising

was that

the peasant

would only disappear that this

when they had the courage to stand The presence own initiative tyranny of an Indian in the

up and insist district

be changed. of his

conducting

inquiry an that

was an encouragement and

to the peasants bias of the local

to believe

planter

the inactivity and and corrected.

administration

could be challenged

CIUPTM I.

PagelO. about his position of police to Gandhi or officers) was

Each man who gave a statement his assistants his his (often

in the presence

ccnfronting Gandhi build

own fear

of the planters; the planters.

and of course helping

case against

Ten thousand statementsThe people crowding

were taken by Gandhi'sGandhi's headquarters

assistants.in Motihari

10or Bettich

round

to give

their

statements local

may have been recruited

by another

level

of

assistants,

uneducated

men of some prominence

such as shopkeepers, in accounts by Gandhi

money-lenders, and his reports

and so on.

They are not mentioned

but by police of what happened, nor by the planters, ll When a particularly bad situation now available. was assistants in the land-holding assistants with their of one planter, Gandhi himself or

discovered some of his the planter

would go directly information.

to investigate

and confront of

This was not done in the spirit desire-to hear the other to the planters sideoz further

expose, however, the case. strengthened

so much as a genuine these direct

Naturally,

approaches

the reputation

of the inquiry,

which in some instances to resolve grievances.

led to

immediate and direct

negotiations

or proposals

Gandhi's

concern with

what he considered

the ignorance

and abject

helplessness

of the peasants, efforts

extended as far to improve Biharis

as work to found schools and personal in this This part within work, of his a few

in the area and direct hygiene. however, activities

sanitation

He was unable to find and had to recruit failed

to take part scale.

on an all-India however, 12

to take root, the district.

dissolved and

months of his

leaving

With his his

triumph

in the court-room, of planter

his

later

successes

in maintaining a

inquiry

in the teeth

opposition

and then securing

chapter provincial

1.

Page 11. government inquiry with the peasants on which he himself as some kind was to serve, Gandhi's

reputation established.was staying So Gandhi's darshan

of miracle-worker

became

Many of the peasantsto give assistants be given, ability statements arranged that to is, reach

who came to the house where heto leave times could of till the get they had seen him.

refused certain

day when Gandhi's a glimpse of him.

would

peasants

So the Mahatma's

the peasants

became established.

(v)

Gandhi's

Relations

with

the

Press

Throughout hisdocuments

tine

in Champaran, Gandhi issued a seriesof newspapers. These were not

of backgroundfor publication

to the

editors

but were sent with (i)

the object

of keeping

them fully ill-informed

informed stories;

so that (ii) in on whi

they would not be tempted to publish arrested, they night

the event of his being to base any editorials

they would have accurate write.

information

Through this- tactic

he was able

to keep thQ press at bay at a time when he did not want anti-planter stories inflaming opinion.

Hoer Gandhi (i)

Addressed

His

Opponents

and Protected

His

Objectives

The Planters

Before

entering

Champaran district, Association to do.

Gandhi went to see the secretary and told

of

the Bihar

Planters

(a group of Europeans)

him what consist-

he was intending ently throughout(ii)

By euch an approach, he: (i)his (iv) from

which he maintained his

the inquiry,forewarned trust; himself

confronted(iii)

opponents openlyhonest compromise;

and personally intentions (v) and indicated

opponents; implied the

suggested to

invited and by separating his

a willingness of his

security

supporters not only "I an

own self-confidence but also the "Buy me if credulity

and power you can". the

suggesting

my oim master"# approach stretches

such an open fearless (i) who knows that

of

opponent,

Chapter 1. Page 12. there are entrenched (ii) attitudes and does not readily to find understand this

flexibility; the distinct

is tempted to talk

(iii. ) has out more, and ran ceems ; his personal

impression

of omeone in command. This particular by Gandhi's Gandhi in his(He-later the whole

to have been unsettled willingnessspeak for his

courtesy, inquiry,wrote Planter

for

he stated

to assist

but said he could not ,to Gandhi, and told network buzzing him not with the

Association. and got

to go to Champaran,

13 ) news.

Gandhi's-principal tenants other develop from were obliged unjust in

objectives to grow

were to have indigo

the

legal

agreement

whereby

abolished,

to challenge imposed which on the

a number of tenants and to

or legally the peasant their

doubtful cultivators tyranny.

obligations a spirit

would

prevent

the -planters the

reimposing

He had a further

aim which

was to secure

willing for his

agreement of the planters aims of social improvement

to his

plans

and to invite

their and

support

in the area,

such as schools

sanitation.

Gandhi met with with their-full

representatives association

of the planters

on several -

occasions

and

twice.

When statements

from peasants

indicated

a particular write

injustice

or abuse, he would visit the complaints immediate and inviting

the planter his

concerned or In some

to him detailing he, offered denied that

comments.

instances a planter invited

proposals

for, remedies.

On, one. occasion. their arrangements

of his any _in

tenants'were

unhappy with

Gandhi, to meet them

his

company. - In Gandhi's against

presence,. large to his face arrange-

A

numbers of these tenants and Gandhi immediately

then complained organised

the planter for

them to take action

a more just

men .

14 1 '1

1. CHAPTER

Page 13 created apoplexy among the planter available community in to them to disadminacross editorto the system

These activities

Champaran who used every typ ;. creditistrations India ialised; editor

of pressure

Gandhi and have him expelled.were saturated ted. press with

The local

and provincialassociations

complaints. pressure on the

European Viceroy; as well were that "time that

were activi, biased from

to put reports

newspapers as letters the tenure

were published, complaints since

planters.

The main in existence or

in Champaran had been not be challenged agitators;

immemorial" Gandhi

and so could in of

as unjust that

illegal;

had brought

Congress

Gandhi in

had established

a parallel

system

investigating authority; their lives

grievances and that from

Champaran which and their

was undermining families fires were started inquiry, in

legitimate fear in of indigo Gandhi

the planters peasants.

aroused

Two small

factories

were blamed

by the

planters

on Gandhi's

though

denied that

peasants

were involved-15

When the Bihar

Government appointed

its

Commission to investigate own of the major criticisms dis-

peasant grievances, planters

with Gandhi as a member, representatives to go along with

on the Commission were persuaded

of the old system and recommendations owned by other anxious it planters.

to change it

they were. later -

Gandhi and the Bihar

Government were, very

to achieve for

a unanimous, report

from the Commission so as. to make. reforming legislation to the planters'the courts loss for agreed to of the com-

possible

the Government to get, through made quitequestion costly that planters of

quickly.case,i

Gandhi thereforeparticularly In order Gandhi terns on the to

major concessionscompensation in should for the

revenues. peasants, pensation

avoid

litigation the report

was anxious for certain

detail

and agreed

reimbursements

CHAPTER 1.

Page 14

certain arguing certainly

tenants with

ofmoney already planters,

wrongly

paid.

After

much fierce which were almost

particular

terms were agreed,

generous to the planters. tinkathia

Gandhi was happy,

of abolishing

was established,

once the principle 16 to concede on lesser issues.

Gandhi It

was severely however,

criticised that within

by some of ten years

the

tenants

for

this all

'? compromise. the

appears,

of his

campaign,

planters

had left

Champaran.

(ii)

The Local. Administration

Gandhi made it the planters, if that failed public

clear then if

at one point that failed

that

his

strategy officials

was first

to persuade then and

the local

of the Raj,

the Bihar opinion all

Government, over india.

finally

then the Government of India 18

The local

officials a notice

worked closely to quit

with

the planters

and Gandhi was arrival.

served with

Champaran within refusing

two days of his

When Gandhi appeared in court, sense of public the court

to obey the ozder because of his but accepting any penalty

duty to remain with

the tenants,

might bestow on him, won his

the magistrate

did not know what to do. authority) by

Gandhi had already helping to control

respect

(and undermined his

the crowds round the courthouse. Gandhi without any recognisance to offer

He postponed his except his any money. word to

sentence and released appear when called,

because Gandhi refused

Later,

on the orders The Bihar

of the Lieutenant-Governor authorities were furious

of Bihar,

the case was that they

withdrawn.

because they felt

did not have a strong

enough case against

someone of Gandhi's

reputation

1. CHAPTER

Pate 15 done anything the local at that officers point except announce an their assistance

who had not actually inquiry. to Gandhi's

They instructed inquiry,

to offer done.

and this

was apparently

Gandhi

met regularly

with sending

the

local

f il- i als c{ of

infoxm_ ng them of . reports which

what he was doing, local officials

them copies to the

some of the government.

were sending making

the Bihar same

These were that

uniformly their

negative,

arguments and serious officials

as the planters, trouble marked

authority

was being letters

undermined from

seemed likely. "confidential"

When Gandhi

received

these

he refused with his

to accept assist^. nts,

them unless (When other civil

he was pernitted "confidential" service

to share the contents docu^ients arrived Gandhi, he refused 19 )

from sources

in the Indian

who supported openly.

to use them because they had not been acquired

Gandhi's

relations

with

the local

authorities

the whole to have seem on

.r. been courteous and even friendly.

(iii)After

The Bihar two months

Government of Gandhi's

and the inquiry,

Government pressure

of

ndia the planters local and

from

officials

grew so :intense that one of their

the Bihar senior

government members.

Gandhi to summoned

Patna to meet with dismiss inquiry. his his

This man asked Gandhi to to end his and

assistants

who he considered-to

be agitators

Gandhi refused. conclusions

The two then agreed that to government inquiry

Gandhi should submit and

preliminary modify

in the form of a report so that

slightly.4

the conduct of his for the taking

he, Gandhi., had most

responsibility

of the depositions.

Gandhi's

report

was produced

in a single

day.

in this

way he retained

CHAPTER 1:

Page 16

the initiative. local officials,

He sent copies

of it

to the planters eight

and to all

the

who were then given to the government. who now felt Gandhi's for

weeks to submit their angered the planters

comments on it local and that it

This further their

officials

power being usurped and argued had the blessing its of the own

appeared that

activities

government.Commission

They calledto replace

the Government to appointinquiry.

Gandhi's

When Gandhi

was summoned to Ranchs, a month not later,

the

capital

of Bihar, co-workers because the

to meet the thought it

Lieutenant-Governor, likely obviously report. take over that he might was not

he and his to all return the plans

be allowed to receive

government

waiting

comments on Gandhi's for 20 replacements to

They therefore the inquiry if

made contingency Gandhi

was arrested.

Apparently,

the Governor had become frightened a letter

of what was Yiappenin3 instructing The

in Champaran, but he had. received him to establish Viceroy fear a Commission with reasons" agitation

from the Viceroy

Gandhi as one of its appeasing Gandhi,

members. that is, his

had "all-India

for

of a major public in Europe. on three

while

the First

World liar was in for long

progress sessions

Gandhi met with days.

the Lieutenant-Governor that if

separate

He insisted

he were to be a

member of the Commission, he must retain on behalf of the peasants and also call and present witnesses.

the right

to act as advocate that his inquiry 21

the evidence

had gathered

This was agreed'. .

When the Commission was announced, they heard thatthey felt utterly his

the planters

delighted. were

When

Gandhi was a member of it,betrayed. being Gandhi to prepare then

ten days later, announcedended his inquiry, but for the

retained

team in

evidence

already

gathered

1. CHAPTER

Page 17 an advisory service to tenants. 22

Commission and to provide

The Comonission met in Ranchi, of the villages directly. Its

Patna, report It

Motihari

and Bettiah,

visiting

many

was argued over for supported

more than two

months but was finally the preliminary report

unanimous. that

in most particulars three months earlier.

Gandhi had prepared

Planter a billit

reaction closely

was predictably based on thisa year.

hostile,

but the Bihar the legislative

government piloted assembly and

report

through

became law within

SUh_... IMARY 1. Gandhi's aims were to abolish the "tinkathia" system tenant whereby

cultivators to build

were forced up a spirit

by their

planter

landlords

to grow indigo; the old In this

and

among the tenants them could

which would mean that

system of abuses against succeeded.2. This campaign, acting

not be re-established.

he

on a social an area

grievance of politics politicians.

and organising that had not

the been

peasantry, attempted

moved Gandhi by other

into

contemporary

Indian

3.

Gandhi was able to assemble a strong him, who made considerable methods and recognised his

team of local, sacraf5ce authority.

men to educated to adopt his

work with political 4.

personal decisive

Gandhi was able to reach the reasc. nts with (i) no =fndian figure of his standing

his. campaign because: to approach them

had tried

before; ' (ii) he publicly out-manouevred the attempt willingness by the local to go to jail; and conscientious, of

administration (iii) his

to expel him by his

inquiry thousands

method was exceedingly to make their

thorough

enabling

contribution

take the risk and

1. CHPTFR

PaCela

collectively

speaking

out;

(iv)

he stood up fearlessly when necessary; was simple differenthimself

to the planters-visiting

them

individually

(v) his life-style not to be vastly5. by: (:. ) The neutral in Champaran. (ii) did, (iii) all-India ('iv) By keeping so he could By his Gandhi protected

inexpensive and

and indicated

a desire

from theirs.and was protected from eovernsent suppression

objective

of his

mission

-

an inquiry

into

conditions

public not

officials be accused

fully of

informe


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