In a 1974 interview, Bernard Malamud observed, "I've been'influenced' by Hawthorne. . ." (Leviant 49), later adding,"I believe that the link with Hawthorne exists. . ." (Leviant
52). Indeed, as a result of his use of a dark, often sombermorality and leanings toward allegory, he has been referred to asthe "Jewish Hawthorne" (Shechner 69). In this essay I willexplore the parameters of this link in two stories, both of whichuse garden settings to illustrate their concern with thecomplexities of morality, here enmeshed in biblical and mytho-logical contexts. The tales contain Adam and Eve motifs, Edenicparallels, themes of the Fall and redemption and, in "The Ladyof the Lake" (1958), issues involving Jewish identity and theHolocaust. Both authors are passionate about morality andwhether Eden is achievable in their respective mid-nineteenth-and twentieth-century worlds. The conclusions they reach aresurprisingly similar given their different periods and back-grounds.
The garden in each tale is isolated from the real world andhumanity. Both provide implications for the heroes' perceptionsof the heroines, with the beauty of the poisonous plants in Rap-paccini's garden—in particular a shrub "that bore a profusion of
purple blossoms, each of which had the luster and richness of agem. . ." (Hawthorne, Stories 258) luring Giovanni—whileIsola del Dongo is "lush, wilder, exotic birds flying around"(Malamud 108) and has "luxuriant vegetation . . . daring,voluptuous. . . , all bathed in intoxicating floral fragrance"(110-11). Isola del Dongo rises in terraces, supporting Levin/Freeman's desire to rise, as earher he fears "sinking to thebottom, striving fruitlessly to reach the top" (109) of the lake.His first meeting with Isabella is on the top terrace. The gardensslow the male protagonists' progress toward their desiredwomen, as Giovanni must approach Beatrice "forcing himselfthrough the entanglement of a shrub that wreathed its tendrilsover the hidden entrance. . ." (266), and Levin/Freeman findsIsabella "after wandering through proftisions of flowers . . . "(120). Both gardens have marble fountains at their centers,gushing life-giving water, yet neither proves life-giving to themale protagonists.
Each garden is Edenic in its appeal and serves as a testingplace controlled by a morally dubious ruler: Dr. Rappacciniraises his daughter in accordance with a scientific experiment,and in "The Lady of the Lake" the del Dongo family has a"perfidious history and was known for its deceit and trickery"(117). Both authors deliver their male protagonists into worldsfor which they are ill-prepared emotionally and intellectually,bringing to bear the weight of religion and history. The femaleprotagonists have been exploited by individuals and socialforces, and have developed greater sensitivity to human needs.
In "Rappaccini's Daughter" (1844), Giovanni Guascontiarrives in the northern city of Padua from Naples, and it isthrough his viewpoint that we initially see the garden and itspeople. He is displaced, has little money, and his choice of lodg-ing is typical of Havi^orne's foreshadowing of moral issues. Aswith the del Dongo family, the former occupants of Giovanni'sdwelling are morally questionable, a noble family, one of whosemembers had been "pictured by Dante as a partaker of the
"Rappaccini's Daughter" and "The Lady of the Lake" 29
immortal agonies of his inferno" (257). In "The Lady of theLake," Isabella gives Levin/Freeman a tour of the palazzo,showing him the del Dongo tapestries, and hurrying past one onwhich a "tiger killed the unicorn," shades of her experience as aJew with the Nazis. There is also an entire room devoted to"tapestries of somber scenes from the Inferno'' (123). Bothfamihes' associations with Dante's nether world overlay thesettings with a gloom that foreshadows the outcome of eachtale.
"Guasconti had not a deep heart. . ." (263) and does notgrasp Beatrice Rappaccini's complexity, which combines beautyand poisonousness, which he sees as good and evil inextricablyintertwined. He wonders "whether there were those dreadfulpeculiarities in her physical nature which could not be supposedto exist without some corresponding monstrosity of soul"(272). Despite his familiarity with Dante and his great work, hedoes not consider that "Beatrice is Dante's ideal woman wholeads him through the gates of paradise. It is Giovanni who linksher with the Lnferno rather than with Faradiso. . ." (Fryer 41).Her soul, however, is morally unpolluted and resists the poison,her nature remaining pure. This could be perceived by a moresensitive individual, but as Hyatt H. Waggoner observes, "Gio-vanni's 'mistake' was like that of young Goodman Brown: hehad not the wit to see her as other than simply good or simplybad" (109).
Giovanni does not understand the complexity of evil evenwhen he discovers that he has been tainted and his breath ispoisonous. He would then have to admit that evil lurked in hisheart. Hawthorne implies that this relationship may exist, statingthat "Again Giovanni sent forth a breath, deeper, longer, andimbued with a venomous feeling out of his heart: he knew notwhether he were wicked or only desperate" (272). UnlikeBeatrice's "heart," the implication is that Giovanni's was alreadytainted with evil, the poison being merely an outer manifestationof it. Indeed, at the close of the tale, the dying Beatrice asks
30 Studies in Short Fiction 37.1
him: "Oh, was there not, from the first, more poison in thynature than in mine?" (275); unlike the biblical story, here anEve blames an Adam for the Fall, and it is Giovanni who hastempted Beatrice with the deadly antidote. Thus, Hawthorneimplies the intricacy involved in understanding the nature of evilin oneself and others. There is even the implication that thepoison in the garden has made Beatrice and Giovanni morebeautifiil, illustrating fiirther evil's ambiguity.
This use of ambiguity, a central device for Hawthorne,derives from his attitude toward the human condition, where
his imagination was stimulated by the Calvinist dogma thatman sins necessarily and yet bears full responsibility for his sin.. . . With this Puritanism which Hawthorne could neitheraccept nor disavow, it is no wonder that he summoned upthe most frightening dilemmas of human existence and thenapparently withdrew into a rather conventional moral state-ment or an evasion, for he was unwilling to push his tragicvision of man's moral nature to its logical conclusion. . . .(Donohue1-2)
Giovanni, Rappaccini, and Baglioni each treat Beatrice with amoral carelessness that relates not merely to their human limita-tions, their desire for self aggrandizement, but also in theirdenial of Beatrice's humanity to evil. Rappaccini and Baglionihave committed Hawthorne's unpardonable sin, as elucidated in"Ethan Brand," of valuing the intellect over the heart. OnlyBeatrice acts purely, and that may show her as different from thehuman norm, certainly an "evasion": "The poison in Beatrice isunable to touch her spirit, but Giovanni is wholly destroyed. . . .But he is ordinary and breaks beneath an extraordinary ordeal;Beatrice is exceptional" (Fogle 98). While Giovanni's soul seemsstained, Hawthorne may be commenting on the nature of theworld: Beatrice's isolation has permitted her to retain her inno-cence, whereas Giovanni arrives in the garden with a stain "fromthe more southern region" (257), even more indelible than thatimbued by Dr. Rappaccini's plants.
"Rappaceini's Daughter" and "The Lady of the Lake" 31
While still writing the tale, Hawthorne himself was notentirely sure of Beatrice's nature. Julian Hawthorne points outthat the author read the still unfinished tale to his wife, whoasked "'But how is it to end? . . . [I]s Beatrice to be a demonor an angel?' 'I have no idea!' was Hawthorne's reply, spokenwith some emotion" (Evans 462). Eventually, Hawthorne optedfor Christian dualism: purity of soul but physical contamination.
Like Giovanni, Henry Levin in "The Lady of the Lake" isalso displaced, having left New York to travel in northern Italy,looking for romance and a new fiiture. Henry James's unsophi-sticated American travelers come to mind, but, because he isJewish, Henry Levin, who changes his name to Freeman, cannotachieve the innocence of a Christopher Newman, as there existfor him more deep-rooted moral and historical obligations. Hiswish to expunge his Jewish identity shows a lack of that nobilityof character that Newman is able to exercise in his relations withthe Bellegardes, an American new man compared to the corruptEuropean aristocracy. Levin/Freeman's attempts to exercise newworld freedoms in Europe become duplicitous—untrue tohimself and the memory of the Holocaust.
He would like to become an American Adam, starting afreshin the New World where humanity had been granted a secondchance after its failures in Europe.
[T]he hero of the new adventure: an individual emancipatedfrom history, happily bereft of ancestry, untouched andundefiled by the usual inheritances of family and race; anindividual standing alone, self-reliant and self-propelling. . . .Adam was the first, the archetypal, man. His moral positionwas prior to experience, and in his very newness he wasfundamentally innocent. (Lewis 5)
In the Old World Levin/Freeman cannot achieve this emanci-pation from his identity, despite his thinking that "a man's pastwas, it could safely be said, expendable" (126). His attempt atfreedom with Isabella illustrates that ancestry, family, and racecannot be erased, and he cannot stand alone and retain hismorality. He is not an Adam; he has a past.
32 Studies in Short Fiction 37.1
Of course, numerous Jews fled Europe for America, andLevin/Freeman's return to Europe is "an ironic reversal,somewhat comic and unreal, of their escape from the darkoppression of European history" (Goldman 158). Staying inStresa, he must battie in a rowboat a threatening lake that seemsto resist his presence, in order to explore Isola del Dongo wherehe meets a woman "whose dark, sharp Italian face had thatquality of beauty which holds the mark of history, the beauty ofpeople and civiUzation" (113). Ironically he never associatesthese attributes with the Jewish roots he wishes to discard.When she asks him, "Si e perduto?" ["Are you lost?"] (113) orif he is Jewish, he does not grasp that an admission of both isessential if he is to be made whole, redeemed. His denial of bothtells of his lack of self-knowledge. A character's forswearing hisidentity or past is a sign of moral lassitude for which he paysheavily, as Malamud believes, ironically, that "to be truly free isto be imprisoned in obligation and accountability" (Alter 173).Levin/Freeman, a Malamudian anti-hero, wishes to escape fromthese burdens.
The gracious woman identifles herself as Isabella del Dongo,an "exotic Jewess . . . obviously out of Shakespeare by way ofScott" (Siegel 131). The complexity involves duplicity by bothcharacters, as Isabella lies about who she is, her name actuallybeing della Seta, a caretaker not a countess. She tells Levin/Freeman what "I thought you wanted to hear" (129), desiringto find out more about him and thinking that he would not beinterested in her if he knew her lowly position. However, sheretains her honor, desiring to remain true to her Jewish heritage.Malamud does not share Hawthorne's belief in innate sinfulness,and Isabella is judged solely on her responses to experience. Aswith Beatrice, her soul is pure; however her purity is a result ofher immersion in the brutality of worldly existence—Buchen-wald. This has strengthened her morally, and she "accepts herJewishness despite—indeed, because of—her own suffering"(Abramson 132), which highhghts the thinness of Levin/
"Rappaccini's Daughter" and "The Lady of the Lake" 3 3
Freeman's morality. Thus both women ' s souls remain pure , butas a result of very different experiences. However, neitherGiovanni nor Levin/Freeman has been isolated from the worldor experienced suffering sufficient to create what is the women'smoral centers.
The complexities of plot, theme, and character are developedin relation to the garden settings. Beatrice and Isabefla areisolated from humanity by their gardens: the former on accountof its poisonous nature, which precludes any outsiders entering,the latter by its island setting. This apartness mirrors their physi-cal isolation: Beatrice because of her infectious poisonousness;Isabella due to her concentration camp experiences, the outersign being the numbers on her breast. Each woman's outlookon life has been greatly affected by her physical deformity, herbeing outside society and a survivor with her character intact.
At first it appears that both women are in need of rescue andredemption, as they are leading lives that are hmited andcontrolled. However, it is Giovanni and Levin/Freeman whorequire redemption, with each being able to attain it through hisrespective woman if he was more insightful, sensitive, andpossessed greater morality. The allusion in Malamud's title toArthurian legends points toward the conclusion that Isabella isoffering Levin/Freeman an Excalibur that could reestablish hisidentity, thus granting him redemption; and Giovanni's soulcould be transformed by Beatrice's love and inner purity. How-ever, both men lose their opportunities, as they are incapable ofenlightenment, of seeing beyond their established ideas.
The minor male characters also lack sensitivity and morality.Rappaccini uses his daughter in a misplaced experiment thateventually destroys her. Also, he acts to lure Giovanni to provideher with a mate and ftirther his experiment. Crews correctly seesRappaccini as parodying God. He has "'created' the centralshrub in his new Eden, and he presides over everything thathappens between its Adam and Eve. . . . He is a parody ofdivinity . . . the God of a godless world" (133-34). BagUoni,
34 Studies in Short Fiction 37.1
having appeared to be Giovanni's friend and to have compassionfor Beatrice, is unable to suppress his pleasure at his rival's defeatwhen Beatrice dies. However, neither man is simply evil, andeach may be viewed as fearful and unable to cope wáth his limi-tations, leading to the destruction of Beatrice and Giovanni:
If Baglioni is unduly afraid of scientific advances, Rappacciniis too afraid of the world. Both fears stem from a conser-vative attitude; Baglioni fears the far-ranging activities of themind, and Rappaccini is equally suspicious of the wander-ings of the heart. However, Rappaccini does not discountthe needs of the heart. He has made his daughter poisonousto protect her. . . . (Uroff68)
Rappaccini's astonishment at his daughter's rejection of hisgift of power and strength seems oddly genuine, Hawthorneshowing how evil may emanate from a lack of perceptiveness, aswith Giovanni, as much as from wicked motives. There is moreambiguity in Baglioni's reaction to Beatrice's death, caused byhis antidote. His envy of Rappaccini, who is described as "thun-derstricken," is clear, expressed in a "tone of triumph"—avictory won over a rival. However, even Baglioni's response is"mixed witii horror" (276). This ambiguity of character is mir-rored in the tale, where "this duality is entirely appropriate tothe human condition: man is both good and evil" (Evans 461).(However, at least one critic has seen Rappaccini as God andBaglioni as Satan.i)
Hawthorne creates characters who are unnatural in that theyseem to possess God-like qualities: Rappaccini has created florathat do not exist in and may be inimical to nature; Baglioni isable to overcome natural poisons. However, both lack morality
Hcre the apple is the "fatal antidote supplied by the jealous, enviousSatan-Baglioni, who wishes to avenge himself upon the Rappaccini-God, whofar surpassed him in creating scicntiflc wonders" (Donohue 173).
"Rappaccini's Daughter" and "The Lady of the Lake" 3 5
in placing their own obsessions above Beatrice's humanity, ma-king her an unnatural creation:
Like her emblem, the hybrid flowers, she is a living violationof the static order of nature. However much we may pity heras a person, nature imperatively demands that she be purgedfrom the system of created things. (Boewe 49)
Their parodies of God transform them into the serpent, withsome of Rappaccini's creations in the garden described as having"crept serpent-like along the ground or climbed on high, usingwhatever means of ascent was offered them" (258). Indeed,both men attempt to "ascend," burnish their scientific reputa-tions, using the innocent Beatrice, and both are responsible forthe tale's catastrophic ending, which recalls the finale of huma-nity's sojourn in Eden—the Fall.
In "The Lady of the Lake," Ernesto, Isabella's father, likeRappaccini, wishes to arrange a match for his daughter, conni-ving to get her to America, "but under the right circumstances"(129). These "circumstances" are purely materialistic, as hequestions Levin/Freeman closely concerning his income, notexpressing interest in his Jewishness or what kind of man he is.Poor and shabby, he uses his role as a guide to the del Dongoestate to exercise a pathetic control over his charges, actuallystriking Levin/Freeman with his cane for straying from thegroup. Like Rappaccini and Baglioni, Ernesto operates throughulterior motives. Each of the minor characters supports thestructure of deceit underlying each tale. Moreover, all three menshare the lack of perceptiveness and understanding from the"heart" possessed by the female protagonists.
The nature of the Eden presented in both stories is ambi-guous, as neither Rappaccini's garden nor Isola del Dongo sharethe Edenic ideal since none of the main characters wish toremain within them: "For Hawthorne the conception of anearthly Paradise was repugnant; thus the loss of Paradise wasreally a piece of good luck" (McPherson 113), a "fortunate fall."
36 Studies in Short Fiction 37.1
Rappaccini's garden is poisonous, and Beatrice and Giovanniwould like to live outside it. Isabella, encouraged by her father,is willing to leave Isola del Dongo for a life outside its confines,and Levin/Freeman sees San Francisco as his Eden. Thus,whereas Adam and Eve were expelled from Eden and con-demned to live in the world, Beatrice and Giovanni are "ex-pelled" from the world and condemned to live in the poisonedgarden. Levin/Freeman hopes to convince Isabella, whom hestill believes to be a countess, to forsake her island paradise forthe new world, symbolically a modern Eden. In these tales it isthe world that is presented as paradisical and the garden that is"fallen." Referring to Seymour Levin in Malamud's A New Life.,concerned with an Eden in the American West, Iska Alter ob-serves that "to live in Eden is to cripple one's humanity. . ."(Alter 47).
For Hawthorne, Eden is only attainable on earth throughlove. He wrote in his notebook, in 1836, "New Adam and Eve,"a story that is critical of nineteenth-century society, presented asa corrupted, fallen world far from nature, where humanity hasbeen destroyed but its cities and creations remain. Adam andEve, innocent and Unfällen, view this world with curiosity andalarm. The new Eve expresses Hawthorne's view: "And what astrange place too! Let me come closer to thy side and beholdthee only; for afl other sights trouble and perplex my spirit"(328). Adam has the "stronger tendency toward the materialworld" (328), wishing to explore it. However, Hawthornepresents Eve's instinct for love as more important than theephemeral creations of humanity. In 1839 Hawthorne becameengaged to Sophia Peabody, and the following year wrote toher: "How happy were Adam and Eve! . . . We love one ano-ther as well as they; but there is no silent and lovely garden ofEden for us" {Letters449). Their love had to be sufficient.
Nature itself can be treacherous, as in walled garden or islandthe initial attraction to its beauties, seen in aspects of descriptionthat are tinged with pathetic fallacy, illustrates the danger of an
"Rappaccini's Daughter" and "The Lady of the Lake" • 37
appeal to an Edenic ideal. Hawtiiorne asks an ironic questionwithin "Rappaccini's Daughter": "Was tiiis garden, then, theEden of the present world?" (259); no, but poison prevents mo-ving beyond its walls. Levin/Freeman cannot stay on beautifulIsola del Dongo but encounters difflculties on leaving andtransferring his ideal of paradise to the real world. Not only isthe water rough, but he also flnds that "Rowing back to Stresa,he was stopped by tiie lake patrol and compelled to show hispassport" (116)—that is, assume his real identity, putting intoquestion the viability of his new life. Finding paradise in theworld or in a garden is problematic for botii Hawthorne andMalamud.
Both male protagonists intrude into the worlds created byRappaccini and Ernesto for their daughters. Giovanni andLevin/Freeman believe it possible to move beyond humanreality: Giovanni through Baglioni's antidote, which he believeswill render Beatrice "'purified from evil'" (275); Levin/Freeman, through denying his Jewish heritage, which will trans-form Isabella into a New World Eve, one without a past, eitherof aristocracy initially or, flnally, of a suffering Jewess. In thesetales both men's hopes are shown to be false, with Eden beingunrealizable.
It is important to realize that "Eve set in train a new phase ofhistory, where humanity exchanged the simplicity and ease ofunthinking obedience for the complexity and challenge of thefleedom to choose" (Norris 28). Beatrice and Isabella act thepart of Eve in their gardens. Beatrice is more innocent than Eve,with Giovanni describing her expression as one of "simplicityand sweetness" (262), and her voice as "half childish and halfwoman-like" (263). She does not sin with Giovanni, nor doesshe appear even to be aware of its possibility, her feelings beingthose for someone she could love briefly and virtuously until helefl:, she being trapped in tiie garden. Whetiier his motives arebased on discovering new scientiflc knowledge or egotism,Rappaccini has ehminated any normal sexual and emotional
33 Studies in Short Fiction 37.1
existence for his daughter, so has brought a "bridegroom" intothe garden. Rappaccini's garden has become the place for hisAdam and Eve to fiilfill their destiny, whereas the biblical Adamand Eve had to make their way through the trials of the world,closed to Beatrice. Giovanni's having eaten of the poisoned"apple" reverses the biblical story as he is doomed to remainwithin the garden. For Beatrice, sexual knowledge would havecome, not as to Eve through eating the apple (drinking the anti-dote), but through leaving the garden. Whatever Fall mighthave occurred would have been due to this modern Eve's in-genuousness rather than her duplicity.
Hawthorne was familiar with Paradise Lost, but did not shareMilton's attitude toward Eve being responsible for the Fall.2Rappaccini is more culpable morally than is Beatrice, havingtempted God with his impious garden and injected unnaturalpoisons into the world. Moreover, he has corrupted his puredaughter and connived at Giovanni's poisoning. ThroughBaglioni, Giovanni has gained access to an antidote that, likeEve to Adam, he convinces Beatrice to imbibe, thus destroyingher. Hawthorne has assigned to characters other than Beatricemost of the negative traits attributed to Eve by the PuritanMilton. Indeed, Gilbert and Gubar observe that
though Milton goes to great lengths to associate Adam,God, Clirist, and the angels with visionary prophetic powers,that visionary night-world of poetry and imagination, insofaras it is a demonic world, is more often subtiy associated inParadise Lost with Eve, Satan, and femaleness than with anyof the 'good' characters except the epic speaker himself(203)
2ln Book IX, Milton's attitude toward Eve is clear: "O much deceived,much failing, hapless Eve. . ." (1. 404); ". . . into ftaud / Led Eve ourcredulous mother, to the tree / Of prohibition, root of all our woe. . ." (11.643^5); «. . .his words replete with guile / Into her heart too easy en-trance won. . ." (U. 733-34).
"Rappaccini's Daughter" and "The Lady of the Lake" 39
Both women attract their respective Adams. Beatrice's inno-cent calls to Giovanni prove a powerful draw. Isabella is muchmore forthcoming, inviting Levin/Freeman to meet her,swimming naked in his presence, kissing him, and offering himfood which, unlike tiie apple, is permitted, but, like it, wouldenrich his world were he able to appreciate the implications thatlay behind it. Both eschew simphcity, with Beatrice, afterGiovanni's arrival, desiring the world outside the garden herfatiier has created, while Isabella rejects an easy life in Americawith Levin/Freeman in choosing her Jewish heritage. Bothwomen attempt to teach their men: Beatrice about love andpurity of soul, Isabella about the importance of one's heritage.Unfortunately neither man is capable of appreciating what isbeing offered. Of course Adam chooses to eat of the appleknowing it was forbidden, whereas Giovanni is poisoned unbe-knownst to him or Beatrice. She is presented as innocent, unlikeEve, who knowingly ensnared Adam in sin. However, Eve'soffer to Adam of the forbidden fruit began human history, as wehad to leave the Garden in order for it to begin.
Altiiough. Beatrice does not intend to infect Giovanni withpoison, she does view the gorgeous poisonous shrub hangingover the fountain as a sister, her clothes mirroring it in terms ofcolors and textures, flaunted as are Pearl's and the scarlet letter.Isabella's horrendous experiences mean that she chooses clothesthat are more delicate and subdued in color, an expression of hernature that, while similar to Beatrice's in morality, differs be-cause of her experiences. Beatrice's innocence implies a blankslate, but she is an ironic mixture of moral innocence and scien-tific knowledge, tiie latter of which Baglioni thinks qualify her"to fill a professor's chair" (261). "Like Eve, she stands forknowledge; although she is innocent emotionally and socially,she is brilliant intellectually" (Fryer 44).
Beatrice is a strongly sexual creature, but, as with the excep-tional nature of her soul's purity, seems unaware of it.Hawdiorne states that "Flower and maiden were different, and
40 Studies in Short Fiction 37.1
yet the same, and fraught with some strange peril in eithershape" (260). Beatrice is certainly unaware that, referring tomore than the garden, "Many a young man in Padua would givegold to be admitted among those flowers" (265). FrederickCrews convinces when he states that "Her innocence consists inan almost willfiil ignorance of her sexual power, and this igno-rance is the foundation of her claim to spiritual purity" (120).Hawthorne keeps her true to Christianity's equation of sexualitywith sin; however no sin occurs and Beatrice remains a flawedMadonna. The sensuality of the flowers, which she mimics in herdress, combined with the heightened color of her cheeks due tothe poisonous atmosphere, combine to lure Giovanni, but whenhe attempts any physical contact Beatrice subtly repels him, theeternal unworldly innocent.
The garden's plants and the centrally placed shrub are for-bidden fruit to all save Beatrice. She slavishly follows her father'sprescriptions until Giovanni's poisoning when, like Eve defyingGod and eating of the apple, she chooses courageously to drinkBaglioni's antidote that will cleanse the poison from her body.However, unlike Eve, she is presciently fearftil of the outcome,telling Giovanni, "with a peculiar emphasis, 'I will drink; but dothou await the result' " (275). She intuits that purification maybe impossible and dangerous but wishes to be free from herfather's influence and to live in the world beyond the garden.Like Eve's, Beatrice's attempt to achieve freedom and, in hercase, love ends in disaster; she dies and destroys Giovanni'sfiiture. For Hawthorne, human perfectibility is unrealizable.
One critic sees her as a mythological type for Hawthornewho
Clearly admires this primal woman and takes elaborate painsto say that she is guiltless, or at least no more guilty thanmen; she simply follows the laws of her nature. . . . Stillmore clearly, Hawthorne's angelic "Beatrice" Rappaccini isonly what her father made her. . . . In Christian terms, theDark Lady is Eve, cursed by the Puritans but admired byHawthorne. (McPherson 223-24)
"Rappaccini's Daughter" and "The Lady of the Lake" 41
Isabella also destroys her Adam's fiiture, in her case throughrejecting Levin/Freeman as a gentile. Although willing to leaveEden for the world beyond, she cannot relinquish her heritage,her hopes succumbing like those of Beatrice, to the shallownessof her Adam. Both Eves make use of unusual devices to destroytheir own fiiture and that offered by their men: Beatrice, Bagli-oni's antidote pressed upon her by Giovanni; Isabella, the Buch-enwald number that Levin/Freeman's falsehood forces her toexpose. Both authors illustrate the impossibility of achievingEden as place in a postiapsarian world, finding in self-under-standing and a genuine love relationship the only Eden of whichwe are capable.
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Alter, Iska. The Good Man's Dilemma: Social Criticism in the Fiction of Ber-nard Malamud. New York: AMS, 1981.
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Crews, Frederick. The Sins of the Fathers: Hawthorne's Psychological Themes.New York: Oxford UP, 1966.
Evans, Oliver. "The Cavern and the Fountain." ColUße English 24 (1963):461-63.
Field, Leslie A., and Joyce W. Field, eds. Bernard Malamud and the Critics.New York: New York UP, 1970,
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Goldman, Mark. "Comic Vision and the Theme of Identity." Field and Field151-70.
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