Gateway Review

Biology

Major content areas for Biology:

• Energy and Matter Transformation

• Genetics/DNA

• Cell Theory

• Adaptation

• Basic Life Function

Energy and Matter Transformations

• Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy

• Organization of living things

• Ecology

• Organic Molecules

• Photosynthesis and Respiration

Matter and Energy Transformations

• Law of Conservation of matter and energy– Matter or energy cannot be created or

destroyed, it can only change forms

Matter and Energy Transformations

Organization of living things• From smallest to largest

Atommolecule organelle cell

tissue organ system organism

population community ecosystem

Energy and Matter Transformations

• Ecology– Energy in a food chain- single pathway as

organisms consume each other

Producer 1st order consumer 2nd order Consumer 3rd order Consumer

Autotroph Heterotroph Heterotroph Heterotroph

herbivore carnivore carnivore

Matter and energy TransformationsEcology vocabulary

• Producer/autotroph-makes its own food from sunlight

• Consumer/heterotroph-must obtain food

• Herbivore- eats only plants

• Carnivore- eats only animals

• Omnivore- eats plants and animals

• Decomposer- breaks down dead organisms

Matter and Energy TransformationsEcology

• Food Pyramid– At each step of

the food chain, energy is lost

– Approximately 10% energy is passed on to next level

Matter and Energy TransformationsEcology

• Food Web- all possible feeding relationships in an ecosystem

Matter and Energy TransformationsEcology

• Carbon Cycle

Matter and Energy TransformationsEcology

• The Water Cycle

                                                 

     

Matter and Energy TransformationsOrganic Molecules

• Organic Molecules- molecules with a carbon backbone made by living things

• Monomer- basic unit that repeats over and over again

Matter and Energy TransformationsOrganic Molecules

Organic Molecule

Common Name Elements Uses Monomer

Carbohydrate

Lipid

Protein

Nucleic Acid

Matter and Energy transformationsOrganic Molecules

Organic Molecule

Common Name Elements Uses Monomer

Carbohydrate sugars and starches

C, H, O energy monosaccharide

Lipid fats, oils, and waxes

C, H, O storage, cell membranes

1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Protein proteins C, H, O, N building blocks of living things, enzymes

amino acids

Nucleic Acid DNA and RNA C, H, O, N, P

genetic material, controls cell’s activities

nucleotide

Matter and Energy TransformationsOrganic Molecules

• Condensation reaction- joins molecules together by removing water

• Ex.

• Glucose + Glucose → Maltose + water

• C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 → C12H22O11 + H2 O

Matter and Energy TransformationsOrganic Molecules

2. Hydrolysis

water is added and the molecule is broken apart

Ex.

Maltose + water → glucose + glucose

C12H22O11 + H2 O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Matter and Energy TransformationsPhotosynthesis and Respiration

• ATP- molecule that stores energy in the body

• Endergonic Reactions- reaction that requires energy

• Exergonic Reactions- reaction that releases energy

Matter and Energy TransformationsPhotosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis• by producers - plants, algae, some bacteria • absorbs energy from sunlight and turns it

into chemical energy (glucose)• light absorbed by chlorophyll• 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 • Carbon + water → glucose + oxygen

dioxide

Matter and Energy TransformationsPhotosynthesis and Respiration

• Aerobic Respiration• bonds in food we eat are broken to release

energy using Oxygen molecules• occurs in the mitochondria• Reaction• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2+ 6H2O+36 ATP• Glucose + oxygen → carbon + water + energy

dioxide

Matter and Energy TransformationsPhotosynthesis and Respiration

  Respiration Photosynthesis

Type of Reaction

Energy Source

End Product

Requirements

By-products

Location

Matter and Energy TransformationsPhotosynthesis and Respiration

  Respiration Photosynthesis

Type of Reaction exergonic endergonic

Energy Source glucose light

End Product ATP glucose

Requirements oxygen carbon dioxide

By-products carbon dioxide oxygen

Location mitochondria chloroplasts

Matter and Energy TransformationsPhotosynthesis and Respiration

• Anaerobic Respiration– release energy from molecules without

using oxygen– location - cytoplasm

•Two types–Lactic Acid Fermentation

•when part of the body runs low or out of oxygen•releases lactic acid causing muscle soreness

–Alcoholic Fermentation•many plants + microorganisms •produces ethanol

Genetics/DNAMendelian Genetics

• Genetics- the study of heredity

• Heredity- passing of traits from parent to offspring

• Gregor Mendel- father of genetics

• dominant- gene masks the expression of another gene (Expressed with capital letter)

Genetics/DNAMendelian Genetics-Vocabulary

• recessive- gene is hidden by a dominant gene (Expressed with lower case letter)

• homozygous- genes in a pair are the same

• heterozygous- one dominant and one recessive gene in a pair

• genotype- the pair of genes

• phenotype- expression of the trait

Genetics/DNAMendelian Genetics Examples

• Yellow seeds are dominant and green seeds are recessive.

• Dominant Gene- Y Recessive Gene- y

• heterozygous- Yy homozygous dominant- YY homozygous recessive- yy

• genotype- YY, Yy, or yy

• phenotype- yellow or green

Genetics/DNAMendelian Genetics Examples

• Tall pea plants are dominant over short pea plants. Diagram a Punnett Square for two heterozygous pea plants.

Genetics/DNAMendelian Genetics Examples

• Here is the completed Punnett Square

• What is the probability of producing a tall pea plant?

• What is the probability of producing a short pea plant?

• What is the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for this cross?

TT Tt

Tt tt

T t

T

t

Genetics/DNAMendelian Genetics Examples

What is the probability of producing a tall pea plant?– 75%

• What is the probability of producing a short pea plant?– 25%

• What is the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for this cross?– Genotypic 1:2:1– Phenotypic 3:1

TT Tt

Tt tt

T t

T

t

Genetics/DNAOther forms of inheritance

• codominance or incomplete dominance- genes in a pair are both expressed– Example: Red genes and white genes for flower color

are codominant.

– If genotype is RW then the flower produced will be pink

• sex-linked traits- genes are located on the X chromosome– XX- female XY- male

Genetics/DNA

Genetics/DNAStructure of DNA

• gene- sequence of DNA• Structure of DNA

– Double Helix- Shape is a twisted ladder– Sides made of alternating sugars and phosphates

• Steps of ladder made of base pairs:• Adenine bonds to Thymine (A-T)• Guanine bonds to Cytosine (C-G)• codon- made of three bases, each codon codes for

one amino acid

Genetics/DNAStructure of DNA

_______

_______

________

Label the parts of the DNA molecule at the right.

Genetics/DNAStructure of DNA

Base

Sugar

Phosphate

Genetics/DNADNA Replication

•  • Replication- process where DNA makes a

copy of itself before a cell divides• Steps:

– DNA molecule unzips– parent strands called templates– nucleotides pair with complements (A–T, G-C)

on template

Genetics/DNADNA Replication

• Template

• Complementary strand

Genetics/DNAProtein synthesis

• Protein synthesis- DNA’s code is read and translated into a protein

• 2 steps:• 1.      Transcription- messengerRNA is made• One strand of DNA is copied in the nucleus forming a

mRNA molecule in the nucleus. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm.

• Translation- the code on the mRNA is read and a protein is assembled.

Genetics/DNAProtein synthesis

Genetics/DNAProtein Synthesis

•  

transcription translation

• DNA RNA PROTEINS

(nucleus) (ribosome in

cytoplasm)

Genetics/DNAProtein Synthesis

• mutation- mistake in the genetic code

• -         could cause harm to organism or allow for genetic variation in the population that may be advantageous

• cancer- uncontrolled cell division caused by a mutated gene

Cell theory

• The Cell Theory

• 1. All living things are composed of cells.

• 2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function.

• 3. All cells come from preexisting cells.

Cell TheoryTypes of Cells

• Prokaryotes• -simplest form of cells• -no membrane bound organelles• -DNA in plasmids, no nucleus or chromosomes• -found in bacteria• Eukaryotes• -more complex cells• -contains nucleus and membrane-bound

organelles

Cell TheoryParts of the Cell

cell organelle function

nucleus

mitochondria

chloroplast

endoplasmic reticulum

vacuole

cell membrane

cell wall

centrioles

Golgi bodies

cytoplasm

ribosomes

lysosomes

Cell TheoryParts of the Cell

cell organelle function

nucleus control center of cell

mitochondria powerhouse of cell

chloroplast (plants only) site of photosynthesis, absorbs light from the sun

endoplasmic reticulum internal transport system

vacuole storage

cell membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell

cell wall (plants only) structure

centrioles (animals only) assist in cell division

Golgi bodies package cell secretions

cytoplasm jelly-like substance inside the cell

ribosomes site of protein synthesis

lysosomes contain strong degrading enzymes

Cell TheoryParts of the Cell

Cell TheoryParts of the Cell

Cell TheoryCell Transport

• Passive transport- does not require energy– moves from high to low concentration (downstream)

– Ex. diffusion,

– osmosis- movement of water molecules

– facilitated diffusion- uses carrier proteins

• Active Transport- requires energy– moves from low to high concentration (upstream)

– Ex. active transport- moves glucose from blood into the liver for storage

Cell TheoryThe Cell Cycle- Mitosis

Phase Events

Interphase Time between cell divisions

Prophase Chromatin shortens and thickens into chromosomes, nuclear membrane disappears, centrioles move to poles, spindle forms

Metaphase Chromosomes line up at equator of cell

Anaphase Chromatid pairs separate and move to poles

Telophase (Opposite of prophase) chromosomes form chromatin, nuclear membrane forms, spindle disappears, cytokinesis occurs (cell division)

Cell TheoryThe Cell Cycle- Mitosis

Cell Theory

Cell theoryForming sex cells-Meiosis

• Meiosis- formation of sex cells (gametes)• -chromosome number is cut in half-

haploid cells, n number of chromosomes• Two divisions• Result is four cells• Males- 4 sperm cells• Females- one ovum or egg cell, 3

other cells do not survive (polar bodies)

Cell TheoryForming Sex Cells-Meiosis

Male Female

Gamete Formation

Adaptation

• Adaptation- characteristics of an organism that make it better suited to the environment

AdaptationTypes of adaptations

• Structural adaptations- internal or external characteristics of an organism’s anatomy that make it best suited to its environment.– Ex. webbed feet for swimming

• Physiological adaptations- chemical characteristics of an organism that make it best suited to its environment– Ex. an octopus can release ink to escape on enemy

• Behavioral adaptations- how an organism responds to its environment– Ex. bird migration

AdaptationPlant Adaptations-Movement

onto land• Roots- absorb water and nutrients from the soil• Leaves-broad, flat leaves for photosynthesis• Stems- contain vascular tissue to move materials

through plant– Xylem- moves water

– Phloem-moves nutrients

• Flowers– Contain male and female reproductive parts

AdaptationParts of a Flower

AdaptationAdaptations of Vertebrates

Class Adaptations

Fish (3 classes)

Gills- oxygen in, carbon dioxide out, fins for movement

Amphibia Lungs for breathing, “double life”-must return to water to lay eggs

Reptilia lungs,Completely adapted to life on land, have land egg-amniotic egg, skin covered with scales

Aves (birds) Lungs, wings for flight, hollow bones

Mammalia Lungs, internal development of young, have mammary glands to produce milk, legs under body for better movement

Basic Life FunctionsBody systems

• Digestive- breaks down food molecules to be used by the body

• Vertebrates– Major organs and functions

Organ Function

Stomach Churns food, adds chemicals for breakdown

Small intestine Absorb nutrients

Large intestine Absorbs water

Liver Produces bile-breaks down fats

Gall bladder Stores bile

Basic Life FunctionsBody systems

• Digestion in plants– Makes food (glucose) through photosynthesis– Carbon dioxide in, oxygen out

• Sponge– Filter feeders

• Earthworm– Food in soil is taken in, ground up in gizzard

Basic Life FunctionsBody Systems

• Transport

• Circulatory system

• Heart– Heart in mammals have 4 chambers– Amphibians-3 chambers– Fish- 2 chambers

Basic Life Functionsbody systems

• Circulatory

• Arteries- carries blood away from heart (oxygen rich)

• Veins-carries blood toward heart (oxygen poor)

• Capillaries- tiny vessels where exchange of nutrients and wastes happen at the cell

Basic Life FunctionsBody Systems

• Circulatory

• Closed Circulatory System- blood flows through vessels

• Open Circulatory system- blood flows through large cavities– Insects - grasshopper

Basic Life FunctionsBody Systems

• Circulatory

• Endothermic- regulates body temperature– Mammals, birds

• Ectothermic- “cold blooded”- cannot regulate body temperature– Fish, amphibians, reptiles

Basic Life FunctionsBody Systems

• Reproductive

• Plants- see parts of a flower

• Invertebrates- – Asexual-sponge- reproduce by budding– Starfish- reproduce by regeneration– Marine organisms- most produce by shedding

eggs and sperm in water

Basic Life FunctionsBody Systems

• Reproduction in Mammals

• Internal fertilization

• Young develop in uterus

• Have live births

Basic Life FunctionsBody Systems

• Gas Exchange• Plants

– Cuticle- has pores for gas exchange– Stomates- opening in leaves for gas exchange– Carbon dioxide in , oxygen out

• Invertebrates– Ex. Many marine organisms exchange gases through

the water using diffusion– Earthworms- exchange gas through moist skin by

diffusion

Basic Life FunctionsBody Systems

• Gas Exchange- Vertebrates

• Fish- use gills

• Other vertebrates major parts

bronchi 2 major branches in lungs, lead to smaller branches called bronchioles

alveoli Tiny sacs at end of bronchioles where carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged with the blood

Basic Life FunctionsBody Systems

• Nervous and chemical control

• Chemical control- hormones from endocrine system

• Nervous System– Neurons- passes impulses to parts from the

brain