Chapter 3

GAYASRADDHA

3.1 Introduction

Proceeding with the study of analysis of sacred tlrthas associated with the

perfonnance of death rituals next halt I make is at Gaya, situated in the state of Bihar which

has attracted the believers to its fold since ancient times, right up to the present age when

Gaya holds a pan Indian reputation .This chapter seeks to study the t1rtha of Gaya with

special reference to the ritual of Gayii Sraddha, its origin, antiquity and transformation in the

present times. Taking a cue from the following verse I proceed with my study.

"Prayaga Vapanam Kurgad, Gayiiyam Pinc!apatanam Danan dadyat Kuntk~etre

Varii11asyiim Ianum tyajet ''.

(Vacaspati Misra- Tirtha Cintama11i)

"One should make tonsure at Prayaga, offer Pi11qas at Gaya, gtve presents at

Kuruk~etra and leave ones body at Vara11asr'.

The city of Gaya and its environs have long been a center of ritual activity and sacred

specialists. A few miles south of the city proper is the site of the Bodhi tree under which the

Buddha is said to have achieved Enlightenment. The very popular Mahabodhl temple at the

site attracts not only Indian but also many foreigners who are devout Buddhists. The temple

dates from early Gupta period, or perhaps even earlier but has been rebuilt and modified

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many times and the identity of the original builder has not been established. no At Gaya there

are temples and shrines to every important god or goddess of the Hindu pantheon,

consequently as calendrical1ites in honor of this deity or that occurs, there is a never ending

round of ceremonies throughout the year. Although a myriad of ritual strands meet at Gaya,

the one ceremony, which stands tallest, is the Sriiddha ceremony, performed in honor of the

deceased.

Life and death are interwoven in a continuous and eternal cycle. Given the

inevitability and finality of death it is not surprising that in all cultures, the idea of dying has

captured the thoughts and imaginations of men. Rites for the dead constitute a very

important duty in the life of an individual. Obeisance to the ancestors fonns an indispensable

part of most religions and Hinduism in no exception. In fact in Hinduism the pitr: ~7!a i.e.

debt to ancestors is considered as greater than deva r:11a or debt to gods.

Hence, in this paper my attempt will be to explore the death rituals that are

perfonned for the sake of deceased and dead ancestors of the family at the holy center of

Gaya. How, when and why did Gaya came to be associated with the rite of Sriiddha and how

the Gaya .~:riiddha has survived from ancient times to the present, including its adaptation to

changing socio-economic environment will be the issues discussed in this chapter. How the

development of Gayatirtha conforms to the shifting of site of ritual performance i.e. did the

development of Purfu}ic religion synchronize with the decline of Vedic religion and the

gravity of religious life shifted from home - the venue of samsakaras to tirthas and

temples?87

286 Trevithic Alan, British Archaeologists, Hindu Abbots, and Burmese Buddhists: The Mahabodhl Temple at Bodhgaya, 1811-1877, 1999. 287 Pandey, Raj Bali, ibid, 1969

117

The main object of the proper disposal of the corpse and performance of all rites and

ritual ceremonies like .vraddha. piw;fa dana, tarpana etc. are to free the survivors from the

pollution associated with death. Until these rites are duly perfonned the soul of the dead

does not find peace and a due place in the company of the pit1:s, it is not elevated to its due

position in the cult of ancestor worship and it continues to be a preta, haunting its relatives.

While on other hand the happy ancestors are said to bestow all kinds of good fortunes on the

family members.

Death is viewed both as liberating i.e. granting mokfia or as polluting. It is viewed as

kala (time) or as evil (being the domain of Yama). Death in Kas1 e.g. is said to be 'mokqa '.

While perfonnance of srfiddha at Gaya is said to grant mokfia. The sanctity and antiquity of

Gaya is well attested in Puranic texts and epics. Buddhist literature too recognizes the

sanctity of Gaya as a tltiha due to its proximity with the site of Buddha's enlightenment i.e.

the present Bodhgaya Gaya. It has not only retained but added to its glory, as is evident from

the huge congregation of devotees that gather here every Pit1: Pakfia, i.e. the period of fifteen

days, in October-November which is specifically devoted for the worship and welfare of the

deceased ancestors.

The Gaya sraddha is auspicious at all times but the merit is said to increase on

certain occasions. The Right combination of space and time is a very essential part of

performance of rituals in Hinduism. It is to be emphasized that the Gayii sraddha is distinct

from the performance of Sraddha rites immediately following death, although the two

maybe combined. The importance of tlrtha yatras is well attested in epics and puranas. This

specific kind of tlrtha yatra is considered obligatory in nature in contrast to other kinds of

pilgrimages to attain merit. It is considered not only meritorious but also obligatory by some

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to go for cremation of the dead to Kas1, offering of Pinqas at Gaya, immersing of ashes at

Haridwar, Prayaga and so on.

Taking a cue from Gaya Mahatmya of Vayu Purana. today one can find popular

books in streets of Gaya variously tilted as ';Shri Gaya Mahatmya Ka{ha" or "Gayli

Pura17a". They are obviously attempts to impress the pilgrims with the fabulous stories and

mythology associated with Gaya. Apart from a list of piT?cfa dana rituals they also contain

description about the kinds of gifts to be given to the Brahmaf!as who officiate at these

ceremonies- primarily Gayawals and Dhami priests.

A survey of the secondary sources on Gaya has already been done in the introductory

section and the various interpretations of the scholars like Buchanan Hamilton, Mitra, Barua,

Vidyarthi, Claude, the themes that have touched upon by them and those that have been left

out of a thorough study. The next section provides a glimpse of the many references to Gaya

in ancient literature and subjects them to a critical analysis to arrive at the authentic

historicity of this sacred site.

3.2 Reference to Gava in Primarv Sources

(}t_,f'

A Gaya _:son of Plat~__!l~or~!_!~o ~~ns ~f ~g Ved~. In the Atharva '-1

Veda ( 1.14.4 )288 Gaya appears to be a wonder worker or a sorcerer along with Asita and

Kasyapa. It is not difficult to imagine how a sorcerer Gaya could have been transformed into

Gayasura later on in the Gayamahatmya. The Nirukta while explaining a verse of the }\g

288 Quoted in Kane, P.V.ibid, p.645

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Veda ' idam Visnu-vi cakrame tredha nidham padam · ( 1.22.17 )m states that · Vi~nu puts

down his foot in three ways. According to Sakapuni, Vi~nu plants his foot on the earth, in

mid air ( sky) and heaven; according to Aurnavabha on Samarohana, on Vi~nupada and on

Gayasiras'. 1~ the opinion of Kane290 Aurnavabha held that in a particular region there were

three places on which according to the legends current in his day the foot -prints of Vi~nu

could be seen. Two of these Vi~nupada and Gayasiras are well known; hence it would not be

unreasonable to hold that ' Samarohana' is also a place name which must be situated near the

other two. Since Samarohana means 'mounting up' or 'ascending', this word probably refers

to the ascent of the hill that rises up from the river Phalgu. Hence Kane291 concludes that

even before the time of the Buddha, there was a tradition about Vi~11u's footprints in at least

two well known places viz. Vi~nupada and Gayasiras ( both in Gaya ).

'Gayii Mahiitmya' the work extolling the virtues of Gaya as the most sacred and

auspicious place for the offering of Pif!cfas, is found in its complete and most elaborate fonn

as a part of the Vayu Purana, which was perhaps compiled around 400A.D. 292 The

Gayiimahatmya, a collection of legends and ritual injunctions associated with the sacred

region of Gaya is well known as an appendix to the Vayu Pura11a. The same work is also

found as a separate work styled Sriviiyupurane Gayamahatmyam in two recessions, one

corresponding to that which has been edited as part of the Vayupurana, and one which

Jacques Claude has now edited from three manuscripts containing the Gayiimahatmya

alone.293 It is scholarly opinion that there must have been an ancient independent 'sthala

289 Quoted in Kane, ibid, p.645 29° Kane, P.V. ibid, p.646 291 Kane, P.V. ibid, p.647 292 Smith Morton R, Review Author, "The Sacred Complex in Hindu Gaya", 1962 293

Wright JC, Review Author," Gayamaha!~a'_', 1_9?4 rJ l)vv--h ·, .,.../-; •v-•-I v ·~ ,.-----

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pura11a' called Gayu Mahatmya 294 which was the source of different Gaycl Ma!ultmyas in

works like Vayu Purana, Garuda Purana, Agni Purana, and Van a Parva of Mahabharata etc.

That the Ma!ultmya section of the Pura11a is a later addition is a popular opinion

among scholars, for the section on Gaya is complete in itself and a number of passages are

repeated in a number of other pun1nas and epics as well. Scholars differ about the antiquity

of these chapters. While Rajendralal Mitra assigned the Gaya Mahatmya to the 3rd or 4th

Century A.D. O'Malley 295was inclined to hold that the legend of Gayasura was invented in

the l41h or 15th century, principally on the ground that the Gayawals profess the Vai~11ava

faith professed by Madhavacharya and acknowledge as their spiritual head the mahant of

Hari Narsimhapura.

Kane296 however refutes the contentions of O'Malley as baseless. The Gayawals he

says are notorious for their indolence, dissoluteness, and ignorance and they are a dying race.

O'Malley himself notes in the paper mentioned above that originally the families of

Gayawals were 1484, that in Buchanan Hamiltion's time they numbered about 1000, in the

census of 1901 there existed only 168 males (as pure Gayawals) and 153 females. Gaya is a

place sacred to Vi~nu and if the Gayawals had to tum in medieval times for support to some

great acarya they would choose to naturally align themselves with the Vai~nava adirya

· Madhava rather than with Sankara. 297 Barua, holds that the Gayamahatmya is not older than

13th or 141h Century A.D.298 But Kane does not agree again, stating that Barua relies too

much on dubious and unconvincing argument from silence. Barua examines the account of

294 Tagare G.V. Ancient Indian Tradition and Mythology series, 1988 295 JASB, Vol. LXXII, 1903, Quoted in Kane P.V. History ofDharmasastras, Vol. IV, p.644 296 Kane, P.V. History ofDharrnasastras, Vol. IV, p.644 297 Kane, P.V. ibid, p. 644 298 Barna, Benimadhab, ibid, p.64

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Gaya that appears in Vanaparva of Mahabharata and compares it in the fuller account in

Gayamahatmya and arrives at the conclusion that '' Gaya proper as known to the epic (

Mahabharata) is essentially a place sacred to Yama, Dhannaraja, Brahma and Sivasulin, and

Vi~11u or Vaishnavism has no place in it either as a name or as an idea. Except Brahmayupa,

Sivalinga and Vrsabha there is no reference to any structural erection nor any iconic

suggestion". But again Kane points out that the argument is not justified and goes on to give

details of Vedic references to Gaya in the epics and pura11as299 and also brings out its clear

connections with Vai~11avism from the earliest times.

In Kane's300 opinion the Gayamahatmya was possibly later than the main text of the

Vayupura11a, but it cannot be placed so late as the 13th or 14th centuries A.D. Gayamahatmya

is really a patchwork from many sources of earlier times such as the Vanaparva,

Anusasanaparva, Padma and Naradiya purar)a. Kane also draws attention to the mention of

several sub-t!rthas of Gaya in the Vayupura11a, like, Brahmaku11qa, Prabhasa, Pretaparvata,

Uttaramanasa, Udici, Kanakhala, Dak~inamanasa, Dhannara11ya, Gadadhara, Matanga and

so on, which are also repeated in the Smrticandrika ( about 1150-1225 A.D.) on Sraddha and

Asauca. Kane therefore places Gayamahatmya between i 11 and 1oth Centuries A.D.

Barua judged the antiquity of Gaya based merely on three works viz. the Vanaparva,

the Agnipurana and the Vayupura11a. If he had taken into consideration the explanation of

the three padas of Vi~11u as furnished by Aumavabha, his interpretation might have been

more accurate. Barua goes very much further than the facts warrant when he says that there

is no reference in the Vanaparva to any structural erection or iconic suggestion. It is clear

that there must have been an image of Dharma, since the Vanaparva speaks ofthe pil6Ifim to

299 Kane P.V. ibid, p.645 30° Kane P.V. ibid, p.651

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Gaya having to touch Dhanna , • Dharmam tatrabhi samsprsya -JOI. Besides there is a

reference to the footprints of a cow with a calf and to • Savitra pada ·. All these would surely

be things that have an iconic suggestion.

Garuda Puraqa also presents a tale of Gaya, but the mythological story has some

variations. The Naradiya puraqa states that Gayasiras extends from Kraunchapada to

PhalgutTrtha. Padma, Garuda and Naradiya Puraqa contain much that concerns Gaya and all

of them have many verses in common. In a passage ofVi~qu Samhita (Chapter 85) Pu~kara

and Gaya have been specified as the two places for performing funeral obsequies of

imperishable results.

"Atha Pu~karaeh vakshayasraddham, eram era Gayasirishe, Ak~yava(e, Vi~nupade,

Phalgutistte"302, meaning Gaya proper is represented by Gayasirsha hill, Ak~aya vata,

Vi~qupada and Phalgu-tlrtha. It is interesting to note that out of the 45 spots or ved!s

mentioned in Puraqas for offering Piqqas at Gaya, it is these very 4 spots that are most

popular today. These V edls found in the Gayak~etra extend from about five miles to the

north west of old Gaya town to about seven miles south of it.

"Yard dadatti Gayak~etri Prabhase Pu~kare picha Prayage Naimi~aranye

Sarvamanan tam ud1yate Ganga Yumuna tire tisthe Vanasakantake Narmadayam Gaya tire

sarvamanam tam udyate "303 i.e. Gayak~etra, Prabhasa, Pu~kara, Prayaga, Naimi~araqya, the

banks of Ganga and Yamuna as the principal places for offering oblations". Gaya is also

mentioned in the Vi~qudharma- slltra in the form of Gayasirsa. Chapter 85 of Vi~qudharma

slitra mentions by name about fifty holy places that are most proper for sraddha among

301 Quoted in Kane, P.V. ibid, p.650 302 Quoted in Barna Benimadhab, ibid1931, 303 Samkha Samhita, Chapter 14, Quoted in Barna Benimadhab, ibid, 1931

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which those connected with Gaya are Gayasirsa, Ak~ayavata, Phalgu, Uttaramanasa,

Matangavapi etc. The name ofVi~f!upada occurs in the text as a place very fit for sraddha. 304

Further,Vi~f!udhannasutra quotes three verses as gathas sung by pitt:s.

Yajiiavalkya ( 1.261 )305 states that whatever a man gives while in Gaya leads to

inexhaustible rewards. Atri- Smt:ti refers to a son's son going to Gaya for the benefit of the

pitt:s, to a bath in the Phalgu and tmpa11Zi of pitt:s in the river, to seeing Gadadhara at Gaya

and to Gayasirsa. The Likhita smt:ti speaks of the importance of Gaya as follows, ' in

whosoever name a pif)qa is offered at Gayasiras, whether for oneself or for another, that

person , if in hell, goes to heaven and if in heaven that man secures release from samsara.

Ayodhya kanda (Canto 1 07) in Ramaya11a recognized Gayaksetra alone as the

suitable place for the performance of funeral oblations. It says,

"Eslitavya baharamputra gunavanto bahusrratah tesham vai samavetanam api

Ka/iid Gaya vrajet" i.e. "A Man should desire to have many sons or descendents, gifted with

good qualities and learned, in the hope that at least one of them may at some time go on

pilgrimage to Gaya". The Vanaparva (Chapter 87) 306 too expresses a similar opinion,· one

should desire to have many sons, and if even one of whom goes to Gaya, or performs the

Asvamedha sacrifice or lets loose a nila bull the pitJ;s may be gratified.' The Kurmapura11a

also desires the same. Then Vanaparva goes on to refer to the holy river Phalgu, the hill

Gayasiras, the Ak~aya Vata , where food offered to the pitJ;S becomes inexhaustible. It

further states that king Gaya , son of Amurtarayas, performed a sacrifice in which food and

fees in plenty were distributed. The sastras tell us that when a man goes to Gaya and offers

304 Quoted in Kane, ibid,p.646 305 Quoted in Kane, P.V. ibid, p. 653 306 Quoted in Kane, P.V. ibid, p.652

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food, his ancestors become delighted like agriculturists that rejoice when there is good rain,

and pit:r:s become 'putrin · , having a son , on account of such a son. The Matsya puraqa307

speaks of Gaya as Pifl:tlrtha and as best among tlrthas where Brahma himself dwells.

In all these references Gaya has been described as an excellent place for perfonnance

of funeral rituals and ceremonies for the benefit of the departed souls. In the Ramaya11a the

great sanctity of Gaya has been accounted for by the great sacrifice performed by Gaya, in

Gaya Mahatmya the sacrifice is said to be perfonned by king Gaya while in Mahabharata as

a royal sage, "raj rishi". In Vanaparva308 of the Mahabharata Dhaumya describes about 57

holy places (including such famous ones as Naimisa, Sakambhari, agangadvara, Kanakhala,

the confluences of Ganga and Yam una, Kubjamraka ) and then comes to speak of the sacred

spots in Gaya. In the Anusasanaparva309 three sacred spots in Gaya are mentioned which do

not occur in the Vanaparva viz. ' In Gaya a man becomes purified in Asmaprstha (the same

as Pretasila ), on the hill Niravinda, and of even a third Brahmana murder in Kraunchapada'.

The Kraunchapada is the same as the Munda-prstha ofVayupurana. Hence it appears that the

Anusasana parva mentions the three important sites of the Gayamahatmya. The critical

edition of the Mahabharata ( B.O.R.I, Poona )310 reads 'Savitram padam ', which may be

taken to mean the foot- print ofVi~qu ( Savitr ).

. A comparative study of these references helps us envisage a gradual process of

evolution through which more fantastic stories and myths are added to the glory of Gaya.

This leads to a centralization of the position of Gaya in comparison to other centers like

Pu~kara or Prayaga where similar funeral ceremonies could be performed. Vayu pura11a adds

307,~~Quoted 1. K P V ·b·d 654 ane, .. I 1 ,p. 308

: Quoted i Kane, P.V. ibid, p.647 309\Quoted · Kane, P.V. ibid, p.649 310 Quoted· Kane P.V.ibid, p.649

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many new dimensions to the story of Gaya-Jike the legend of the demon Ga_nlsura.

Brahma's sacrifice, Dharma.Wii etc. It also incorporates the region ofBodhgaya as a place of

offering of Pinqa. While earlier reterences to places of piqqa dana all fall in the region of

Hindu Gaya or Brahma Gaya, therefore it is obviously a later and conscious addition.

Mahabharata, Vana Parva, chapter 84 and 95 devote considerable space to extolling

the virtues of Gaya. Pilgrimage to Gaya is said to earn the merit of performing a horse

sacrifice. Chapter 95 describes the sacrifice of Gaya, where fabulous fees were distributed to

the Brahmaqas and their cries of joy reached the sky. Th~ic h~s n~thi_ng to say about the ~-vG..,

curse of Brahma to the Brahmaqas. The scheme of offering of Pil?c/a is not clearly laid out ------ - ---------

nor is the importance of priestly class emphasized. Hence it would be right to assume that it

is the Gaya Mahatmya of Vayu Purana, which deals most systematically with Gaya sraddha

and incorporates many old myths and adds new ones. I shall be subjecting Gaya Mahatmya

to a close scrutiny at a later point.

Reference to Gaya also abounds in Buddhist sources. But due to my focus on the

particular aspect of Gaya Sraddha I will not be discussing much about the Buddhist

association of Gaya except in so far as it forms a part of the piJ?c/a dana ritual scheme. In

Buddha's time Gaya was certainly an important place of pilgrimage. In Majjhima Nikaya it

is included in the list oftirthas "The Bahukula, Gaya and Sundarika, Saraswati and Prayiiga

••• "311 Buddhaghosha commenting upon this writes, "because Gaya is the most revered in

the world .... ". Gaya is here the name of the tirtha that is the ford in the river phalgu. The

Thera Gatha says, "At dawn, at noon, at evening, 3 times a day I have descended into the

311 Quoted in Claude Jacques, Gaya Mahatmya, 1979

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current ofGaya on the occasion ofGaya-Phaggu".312 In the Mahavagga313 it is said that after

having dwelt at Uruvela, Buddha accompanied by a thousand bhikkhus went to Gayasisa.

Traditions of Gaya as a king of the territories are mentioned in Jaina and Buddhist works.

The Uttaradhyayanasutra states that Gaya was son of king Samudravijaya of Rajagrha and

became the 11 1h chakravartin. The Buddhacharita of Asvaghofia314 infonns un that Buddha

visited the hermitage called a city of the royal sage Gaya, that the saint ( future Buddha )

fixed his dwelling on the pure bank of the Niranjana river and that Buddha went to the

hennitage ofKasyapa at Gaya called Uruvilva.

Chinese pilgrims Fa Hien and Huin Tsang too have commented briefly on Gaya. Fa

Hi en (C. 410 AD) says, "This city is desolate and completely deserted". Huin Tsang (C 629-

645 AD) writes, "It has but a few inhabitants, there are about 1000 families only, they are

the off springs of a Rishi. The king does not regard them as vassals and the people

everywhere highly respect them". Although Huin Tsang does not call it a tirtha, the presence

of so many Brahmana families do attest to its sacred character. 315 Kane 316 gives his opinion

that Gaya might have suffered from earthquakes before 400A.D. ( as it is a region that is

liable to severe earthquakes even in modem times ) and therefore no structural erection of.

the ancient city of Gaya might have been left in Fa Hien's time. Gaya appears to have

passed through several vicissitudes. Some centuries before the Christian era it was in

existence and was a flourishing town. On the authority ofF a Hien, we may claim that by 400

A.D. it had been reduced to desolation. But further on by the ih Century A.D. on the

testimony of Hieun Tsang, who attested the presence of a thousand Brahma11a families

312 Quoted in Claude Jacques, ibid, !979 313 Quoted in Kane, P.V.ibid, p.646 314 Quoted in Kane P.V. ibid ,p. 646 315 Claude Jacques, ibid, 1979 316 Kane, P.V. ibid, p.650

127

MAHAf!>OOHI TEHPL-£.~ 13oOHC.AYA

~ovl2-c~:- <:too ~L/3 fHA~c.s

residing there, it may be stated that it had once again gained in stature and prosperity. Later

on when Buddhism waned and vanished from the region, Gaya carne to comprehend even

Buddhist remnants, since the Vayupurana317 speaks of Gaya as extending from Pretasila to

Mahabodhl tree. Although in the ancient Buddhist works of Fa hien and Hieun Tsang there

is a distinction between Gaya and Uruvilva or Uruvela where Buddha attained

Enlightenment, the Bodhi or Mahabodhl tree was recognized by the Gayamahatmyas one of

the sacred places which Hindu pilgrims should visit and is so regarded even now. When

exactly the Buddhist sacred space was appropriated by the Hindus is difficult to say. The

Bodhi tree is in fact the oldest historical tree in the world. A branch of it is said to have been

transplanted to Ceylon in the time of Asoka Maurya (circa 250 B.C. )

Inscriptional evidence left at Gaya is also useful in judging the antiquity of Gaya and

its religious character. These inscriptions have been edited by Dr. Kielhorn.318 The text of an

inscription may be translated thus, " that wise prince Y akshapala caused to be constructed a

temple for the image of Maunaditya and other gods, he dug up the famous Uttarclmanasa

lake and established a sattra (charity house for food ) near the Ak~aya Vata." This

inscription of the reign of Nayapala was engraved in about 1040 A.D.319 Barna concluded

from this that Uttaramanasa was dug up at that time and therefore this tank is taken by him

to be not older than I 040 A.D. that along with it many of the sacred spots must have been

later and the Gayamahatrnya w·hich speaks of the Uttararnanasa tank must be later than the

11th Century A.D. But Kane320 proves him to be entirely mistaken. He points out that if a

tank was dug up for the first time at the time of the inscription, it is impossible that it should

317 Quoted in Kane, P.V. ibid, p.650 318 Indian Antiquary, Vol.l6, Quoted in Kane P.V. ibid, p.650 319 Kane, P.V. ibid, p.651 32° Kane P. V. ibid, p. 651

128

have been called ' khyclta', or famous. The tank could have become famous only some

centuries after it was dug up. Uttaramanasa tank has been mentioned in the Vayupurana, and

the verse has also been quoted in Kalpataru of Lakshimadhara in 1110 A.D. Therefore

Uttaramanasa tank was well known at least in the 81h or 9th Centuries A.D. What the

inscription then refers to is some kind of repairing, desilting or enlargement of the already

constructed tank.

Among medieval digests Gaya is dealt with in Kt:tyakalpataru of Lakshmidhara,

Tirtha Cintamani of Vacaspati, Tristhalisetu of Narayanabhatta, Tirthaprakasa,

Tirthendushekhara, Tristhalisetu- sara- sangraha ofBhattoji.

3.3 Special Merit of Sraddha at Gaya

Sraddha, or the funeral ceremony of the dead, is derived from the word Sraddha. In

the definition given in Brahma Purana and that given by Marichi and Brhaspati emphasize

the connection between Sraddha and Sraddha. In Sriiddha one has the firm faith that what is

given to the Brahmanas for the benefit of the departed men will reach him in some way.321

The Skanda Puraqa (VI.218.3) says that s~·addha is so called because .5raddha is at its root.

This means that there is not only the conviction but also a firm belief that a person is under

obligation to perform it. It is also the reason why th~ ~on is called 'putra' that is one who

will rescue his father and ancestors form the hell called 'puta '. Vedic mythology says that ---- --·~- -------

Yam a was the first mortal to die, and assumed the charge of the abode of the dead, the mild

3?1 ' . . - Moghe S.G, Sraddha-Sagara ofKullukabhatta, 1994

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ruler of the Elysian -like abode where the shades of the pit1:is lead a happy dreamy

existence. 322 The early Aryans attached no ideas of judgment or punishment to the world

over which Yama ruled. Near the funeral pyre, the priest used to say, ·· go thy straight

way ... go where the Fathers, lavish of gifts, live in joy with Yama; free from blemishes enter

thy home there, with a new and shining body clothing thyself.( 1\g Veda, X Mandala). The

conception of heaven and hell came much later, in the Brahmanicalliterature of the classical

period, where Yama appears stripped of all his gracious features and as a creature of horror.

As these concepts evolved, the sraddha ceremony also changed and rituals became more

detailed. Soma , a ritual beverage ,and pil}qa , a wheat cake, had been offered to the pit1:is in

a simple ceremony, earlier, perhaps not even requiring the presence of a ritual specialist,

" ... we invite the soma loving fathers to partake of the food they love ... "( R,g Veda, X

Manda!). Later only the virtuous were thought to go to heaven. The wicked went to hell and

those who died premature deaths , by accident, poisoning, murder, or other forms of

unnatural deaths were supposed to become preta and bhoot i.e. ghosts and evil spirits. In the

course of time the rituals became mechanical and it came to be held that if sraddha was not

performed properly , the dead would continue to exist in the preta stage, so now it became

obligatory to perform sraddha and it became a duty towards the ancestors.

In spite of the apparent loss of faith in these rituals in the present age of science, they

still continue to be performed as a mark of tradition and respect. Besides it gives the

bereaved members of the family a feeling of doing something for the sake of the deceased,

as though by performing the rituals properly one can get certain control over death, when in

reality no such control is possible. It is also a psychological reaction to the sudden sense of

322 Narbadeshwar Prasad,," The Gayawals ofBihar", 1952

130

loss that the kith and kin of the deceased have to face and the rituals and the travel involved

helps them to come to terms with reality of death. Traveling to tlrthas would also give

mental solace, because in such places one realizes that all existence has to end and one has

no control over death.

The Brahma Pura11a defines sraddha as follows, "whatever is given with faith to

Brahma11as intending it for the benefit of pitr:, at a proper time, in a proper place, to

deserving persons and in accordance with the presented procedure is called .~raddha ''. The

Mitak:'iara on Yajnavalkya stm;ti (I.217) defines sraddha as "abandonment with faith of an

article of food or some substitute thereof, intending it for the departed". Agni Pura11a

(163.440-41) states that the pitr:s viz. Vanilla, Rudras, Adityas are the deities of .\:raddha,

being gratified by sraddha, give gratification to the ancestors of human beings. Manusml,ii

(III.284) makes it clear that the three ancestors of man, viz. the father, the patemal grand

father and the paternal great grand father are respectively to be identified with the three

orders of superintendingpitr deities when performing sraddha.

According to Sraddha Sagara of Kullukabhatta .\:raddha denotes three things, viz.

homa, offering of pi11qas and gratification of Brahma11as by offering food.

Sraddha is a unique institution in the sense that it provides an occasion for the

remembrance of near and dear departed souls and seek their blessings too. It was on account

of the supposed power of pit~·s to benefit or harm the living that the cult of the dead became

a prominent feature.

Various beliefs about pit1:s are mentioned in the post Vedic literature. The word pitr:

means father, but the word 'pitarah' is used in 2 senses -1) a man's 3 immediate deceased

ancestors, 2) the early or ancient ancestors of the human race that were supposed to inherit a

131

separate world (pit1:loka) by themselves. 323 The ,~raddha or feast for the dead may have long

preceded the advent of a priestly class, or the introduction of a systematic 1itual. But in due

course it was recast into the Brahmanical mould and it is in this later institutionalized fonn

that it appears in the laws of Manu, the epics and puraqas. It consists of 3 distinct rites-

1) Daily sraddha, to be performed in propitiation of pitrs.

2) Monthly .\:raddha, including feast to Brahmaqas.

3) The funeral sraddha, to be performed within a certain period after death or

hearing of the death of a near kinsman.

The sraddha performed at Gaya seems to be distinct from these regular sraddhas.

While some opine that once a sraddha has been performed at Gaya then no further sraddha

is required, for Gayasraddha has eternal merit. While others, although not denying the great

merit of Gayasraddha, nonetheless insist that one cannot dispense with the regular .\:raddha

ceremonies. The spirit of kinship is highlighted in the performance of .\:raddha. For the

persons eligible to offer piqqa form a distinct social grouping called 'sapil?cfas'. It is this

spirit of kinship that is reflected in these words of the one who performs sraddha at Gaya,

"may those of my ancestors that are in the fonn of pretas be all satiated by means of the

balls made of barley flour mixed with sesame and may everything whether moving or

immovable from Brahma to the blades of grass derive satisfaction from the water offered by

me"

In Hindu mythology each sacred center has come to be closely associated with

certain specific kinds of religious rites and sacraments. Gaya is considered as the central par

323 Moghe S.G. ibid, 1994

132

excellence for the ritual of piwfa dcl11a for appeasement of the ancestors. Situated in the state

of modem Bihar, about 50 km south ofPatna, on river phalgu's left bank. How the city was

chosen for the sraddha ceremony is not fully known. When the Gayawal Brahmanas are

asked about this , they state that it is here that Sri Ram, the hero of the epic Ramayaqa,

performed the sraddha ceremony for his father, king Dasrath and hence it is pure and

rewarding.

Gaya is said to be the holy place superior to all other centers that saves all by the

means of performance of sraddha and holy rites.324 All manes (pit1:s) afraid of falling into

helL desire for sons. They say that the son who goes to Gaya will be our savior. On seeing

the sons reaching Gaya the pit1:s become overjoyed. They say -even by touching its waters

with his feet, what is it that the cannot give us?325

A number of merits are said to be attained by offering of pi11cfa here. Even a sin like

BrahmaQa slaughter is said to perish by performing sriiddha here.326 These are common

devices that are often used in Puraqic literature to highlight the sanctity of the tlrtha.

It is interesting to note the four modes of attaining liberation that are enumerated in

Vayu puraqa.

1) Through knowledge of Brahman.

2) Through performance of sriiddha at Gaya

3) Death in a cow shed

4) Through residence at Kuruk~etra327

324 Vayu Purana 43.2.4, Ed. GP Bhatt, Tr. G.V. Tagare, 1998 325 Vayu Purana 43.18.9, ibid, 1998 326 Vayu Purana 43 .18.12, ibid

133

Here Vayu Pura11a acknowledges the various strands in Brahmanism, but since Gaya

is the subject of the text it is .{'rclddha at Gaya which is said to be the most meritorious of all,

in comparison to jfiana marga or death in cow shed. It is important to point out that there is

no mention of Kasl here, which is otherwise celebrated as the most auspicious place to leave

ones body. Perhaps this was a conscious omission so that the preeminent position of Gaya

alone is emphasized. It needs to be remembered that it is not death at Gaya which is said to

grant liberation, but performance of sraddha alone, that too not necessarily immediately

after death.

3.4 The ritual specialists- Gavawals

The position of sacred specialists at the sacred center is sought to be legitimized in

very clear terms. "One should honor and propitiate with f!~ and Kavyas (offerings) the /-jfv.z.J. Brahma11as who had been assigned the Right of receiving these things by Brahma himself. If

they are pleased, all pit1: and devas will be pleased". 328 Since it is quite likely that

Brahma11as of the region were themselves the composers of the text they had to assure for

themselves a decent portion of the pilgrims offerings. The Gayawala priestly class is united

by the same mythology that explains their single common origin by the hands of Brahma11a

into fourteen gotras. Although this gotras name is not mentioned in the Pura11a, Gayawals do

seek the status of descendents of those Brahmanas created at the time of Brahma' s sacrifice.

The result of this teaching of the puranas was that the Brahmanas at Gaya became a guild

and resented the intrusion of an outsider.

327 Vayu Pura11a 43.18.14, ibid 328 Vayu Pura11a 43.18.21, ibid

134

Gayawals are the custodians of Gayii.\:riJddha and they claim that only under their

supervision would the ceremony be meritorious and grant salvation to the deceased and

happiness to the survivors/ sacrifices. The word Gayawal literally means 'the inhabitant of

Gaya', but it is only used to denote a particular Brahma11a community and not all the

Brahma11as of Gaya. Among the Gayawals the gotra is not inherited but is acquired at the

time of the initiation ceremony they keep strictly to there marriage rules because they are

eager to maintain the exclusiveness of their community and profession, hence even child

marriage is accepted. 329 They are placed at the apex of caste hierarchy and claim a high ritual ? ~. -·

status. Apart from this, the Gayawalas have developed spiritual superiority through

observing the rules of comrnsm.ality, caste endogamy, priestly code of conduct etc.330 One of _c.--

the early historic references to Gayawala Brahmanas occurs in the Saktipur copper plate of

king Lakshmanasena of Bengal in his 6th R.Y. ( 1183 A.D.)

Vidyarthi's study has also shown that the Gayawala community has passed through

a period of prosperity, corresponding approximately with the time when the British rule

improved transport facilities contributed to an unprecedented increase in the pilgrim trade

and traffic. This period he calls the 'feudalistic' phase. Since the 1920's the Gayawalas have

entered upon a rapid decline due to factionalism and mutual suspicion. The ancient ideals of

morality and learning , which were replaced during times of prosperity by an empty

luxuriousness, have now given way to mere pretence.331 They have also been unable to

combine to halt the organization of a new class of middlemen who draw off the profits of the

329 Prasad Narbadeshwar, ibid, 1952 330 Vidyarthi L.P, ibid, 1961 331 Allchin F.R, Review Author, 'The Sacred Complex in Hindu Gaya", 1962

~ -~- --- ·- --- ------

135

pilgrim trade, in t~1et so much so that they cannot function smoothly without the cooperation

of the latter.

The relationship of the Gayawal with their customer and other Brahmanas and

ritualists is complex and fascinating. Members of each Gayawal lineage have the Right to

conduct ceremonies for pilgrims from some specific part of India. In order to stimulate

interest among potential customers in coming to Gaya, the priests or their representatives

pay visit to the areas from which their allotted pilgrims come and they give lectures on the

glory of Gaya. At Gaya the shrine priests keep elaborate account of the visits of pilgrims that

record the name, village and other details about their clients. This client- patron relationship

is thus strengthened over centuries when pilgrims are gratified to see the proof of the visits

of their ancestors in years past to the same city shrine, and in tum their visit is meticulously

entered in the records for posterity. When the Gayawal is satisfied with the gift he gets , he

says that the ancestors in heaven are "doing fine". But there is considerable haggling

regarding gifts and money. They have a leisurely attitude, they provide patronage to the

thumri fom1 of music, and they have established their own school of thumri, komal rag

ragini . it is because of them that Gaya has an important place in the music map of India.

The most striking thing about this community is that they are not very pious or religious

minded ,their rationalization is that when we can send others to heaven, why wouldn't we go

ourselves?332

Some opinions regarding Gayawals may be cited here. Crooke ( 1907 ), writes, " the

Gayawals of Gaya in Bihar, which is the best place where funeral rites which ensure a seat in

heaven to the spirits of a man's relations can most fitly be performed, ... have agents all over

332 Prasad Narbadeshwar, ibid. 1952

136

the country who induce the pious to make pilgrimages to their city. Their manner of life is

idle and vicious, they pass their time in clubs and drinking .. '· Hutton ( 1946) opines, " the

Gayawals of Gaya maintain themselves in idleness on the offerings of pilgrims to their holy

city." 0' Malley says, " there is considerable competition for unattached pilgrims i.e. for

pilgrims who have no hereditary priest. The are met at the railway station by touts and

servants of Gayawals, who clamorously press their master's claims to their patronage, not

without a good deal of quarrelling ,which sometimes come to blows"

Disputes between Gayawalas and outside priests have come before courts and have

also gone up to the privy council in England. In order to keep the business in their own

families the Gayawalas have adopted some peculiar customs. If a Gayawala is sonless he

makes a gift of his office (called gaddi) to another Gayawala, who describes himself as the

adopted son of the Gayawala making the gift. There is no real adoption in the strict sense,

therefore the so called adopted son retains his Rights in the family of his birth and it is not

rare to find that one Gayawala claims to have succeeded to four gaddis, (i.e. claims to be the

son adopted by several persons simultaneously ). The Gayawalas remark that gaddi is not a

hereditary office, but only a business to which good will is attached. The Calcutta High

Court gave a decision 333 that persons who require religious ceremonies to be performed are

at liberty to choose the priest by whom they shall be performed, and a particular priest

cannot claim exclusive Rights to officiate as priests when pilgrims perform the sraddha

ceremony of their ancestors on the banks of the sacred river Punpun. Another decision

concerned the division of books containing the names and addresses of pilgrims kept by a

joint family of Gayawalas at the time of partition of property. Though a Hindu woman

m Quoted in Kane P.V. ibid, p.581

137

succeeding as heir to the husband's estate enjoys only a limited and qualified ownership over

it, judicial decisions334 have recognized that she can alienate a small part thereof for the

expenses of a pilgrimage to Gaya for perfonning her husband's sraddha for the latter's

spiritual benefit or for a pilgrimage to Pandharpur.

The Gayawals are central in the conduct of the .<'raddha ceremony , but they interact

with other ritual specialists and participants who have become involved in the procedures. A

group of Brahmanas , called Acarya, carry on some of the rites under the direction of the

Gayawal. Non -Brahmmw ritual assistants called Dhami, lead the pilgrims to certain sacred

centers by arrangement with the Gayawal, thus acting like an agent of theirs. Arrangement is

also made with barbers , tlorists, grain sellers and others to provide their services as needed.

Thus there emerges a complex web of inter dependent practitioners of religion who play

their specific role in the ceremonies surrounding death. It must be noted that it is the Dhamin

priests alone ( and not the Gayawalas ) who have the rite of officiating during sraddha and

pinqadana at five Vedis viz. Pretasila, Ramasila, Ramakunda, Brahmakunda, and Kakabali.

However they are regarded as inferior in status to the Gayawalas.335

3.5 The Sacred Performances

The area of sacred space in Gaya as declared by Brahma is 2 Y2 kroJas, and that of

Gayasiras is 1 kro.~a336 . The Tristhalisetu337 states that the whole of Gayaksetra is five

krosas in extent and Gayasiras is one krosa and all the tirthas of the three worlds are

centered in these two. We have to distinguish between Gayaksetra, Gaya and Gayasiras. The

334 Quoted in Kane P.V. ibid p.569 335 Kane P.V. ibid, p.668 336 Vayu Purana 43.18.26, ibid 337 Quoted in Kane, P.V. ibid, p.655

138

Vayu, Agni and Naradiya puraiJa all asseti that Gayaksetra is five kro.\'as in extent. lt had

become the fashion to speak of famous tlrthas like KasT and Prayaga to be called

Pai'icakro.{:as. Gaya is said to be two and a half kro.\'as in extent in all directions from

MuiJc!aprstha. Gayasiras is smaller than Gaya and is identified with PhalgutTrtha.

A variety of pi17qas can be offered here made of milk pudding, sattu, pistaka, rice,

grains, roots, powdered gingelly seeds, etc.338 The procedure of pi17qa dana is the

following339 - Seat is offered to pil?qas, pil?qas are offered, then Aranejara rite is performed

(water is ritualistically poured over darbha grass), Dak~il?fi is them offered and them Anna

Sankalpa (ritualistic verbal utterance of ones intention of offering food). At Gaya there is no

ritualistic invocation to pit1:a and there is no defilement through seeing, hence pi11qas can be

offered in open and even in groups. Those who desire to reap the full fruit of sraddha

performed at Gaya must give up passionate longings, anger and avarice, observe celibacy,

eat only one meal a day, should sleep on the ground, should speak the truth, should be pure

and intent on the good of all beings.

Sraddha may be performed at Gaya at all times, even in an intercalary month or even rr-=

ones birthday. One should honor the BrahmaT]as of Gaya that were established there by

Brahma; when they are gratified all deities together with the pitts are gratified. Tonsure and

fast are to be observed at all tirthas except in Kuruk~etra, Visala, Viraja and Gaya. 340 An

ascetic ( sannyasin ) should not offer pi11clas at Gaya but should merely exhibit his staff and

put it down on Vi~IJupada.341 It is said that pitts hanker after sons because the son that goes

to Gaya saves the pitts from hell. At Gaya a man should offer piiJclas to his father and others

338 Vayu Purafla 43.30-32, ibid 339 Vayu Purafla 43.34, ibid 340 Vayu purafla, Quoted in Kane, P.V. ibid, p. 655 341 Vayu and Naradiya purafla, Quoted in Kane P.V. ibid, p. 655

139

and even to himself but without sesame; the Tristhalisetu 342 observes that when a man

offers a pinQa to himself, it should be in the hands of Janardana on Bhasmakuta and that the

pilgrim can offer a pinqa to himself only \vhen it is certain that he has no son or other

adhikarin for offering sraddha.

Further anyone related or unrelated could offer a pinqa to anybody , ' whether it is

one's own son or the son of another who offers in whosoever name a pinqa is let fall at Gaya

that man attains everlasting Brahma'. Baudhayana allows a sraddha to be perfmmed by

anyone for any relative through affection, particularly at Gaya. If a son dies sonless the

putrikaputra should perform them for his maternal grand father, in default of all these

women should perform these rites for their husbands but without Vedic mantras. It is

emphasized in the Tristhalisetu that he alone deserves to be called putra, who . while the

father is alive, obeys his words, and gives plenty of food to the Brahmanas every year (

after his fathers death ) and who offers pinqas to his ancestors at Gaya.

It is desirable that a pi:T)qa may be offered for anyone's sake after pronouncing his

name and gotra and the latter reaches the highest goal. All the five mortal sins like Brahmana

murder are removed by performing sraddha at Gaya. The famous river V aitarini has come

down to Gaya; one taking a bath in it and donating a cow, is said to save twenty-one

generations in his family. By offering of pinqas a man is said to save seven gotras, viz. that

ofhis father, mother, wife, daughter, sister, paternal aunt and maternal aunt.

In order to emphasize the great sanctity of Gaya, Gaya Mahatmya presents the story

of the demon Gayasura, on whose name, says Vayu purana, the city is so named. In the

342 Quoted in Kane P.V. ibid, p.670

140

opinion of Kane 343 Gaya had become a famous pitJ:tlrtha centuries before Christ and the

legend of Gayasura was a post facto attempt to account for the sanctity of the place and the

numerous shrines and holy places that had sprung up around Gaya. The mighty Gayclsura is

said to have performed a severe penance on mountain kolahal (Brahmayoni hill, including

Munc/aprstha at Gaya). He is remembered as an excellent devotee of Vi~qu.344 All the gods

with Brahma and Siva went to Vi~qu to save them from this dangerous penance. Vi~qu

agreed to ,grant a boon to Gayasura in return for his severe penance. This is what Gaya asked

for, "may I be ever holier than all Devas, Brahmaqas, Yajfias, holy rivers and mountains,

sages, Siva, mantras, all yogis all renounced, all Karmins, all Dham1ins and all holy

jfianis.345 This is an interesting list of all kinds of beings, men and places who were

considered as holy at that time.

On granting of this boon a peculiar problem arose. After merely seeing and touching

Gaya all people went to Hari's city (as he had become so pure, his sight made people sinless

and the three worlds became vacant. Yam a was perturbed as the Y amaloka was beginning to

get overcrowded. To solve this problem again Vi~qu's help was sought. Vi~:qu told Brahma

to ask Gayasura for his body for the purpose of a sacrifice and Gaya agreed joyfully not

knowing the god's intentions. In the course of his sacrifice Brahma created leading

Brahma:qas, but the demon's body began to shake, hence a slab of stone (the holy

Dharmasila) was placed on his head. But to no avail. Vi~qu gave his image and though it

was placed on the sila , it still moved. Then Vi~11u sat on the sila in three forms, viz.

Janardhana, Pundarika and Adigadadhara, Brahma in five forms ( Prapitamaha, Pitamaha,

343 Kane, P.V. ibid, p.660 344 Vayu Puraqa 44.5, ibid 345 Vayu Puraqa 44.16-18, ibid

141

Phalgvisa, Kedara and Kanakesvara ), Vinayaka in the form of an elephant., the sun in three

fonns, the goddess Lakshmi as Sita, Gauri as Mangala, Gayatri and Saraswati. As Gayasura

was made stable by the first gada ( mace) wielded by Hari , Vi~qu came to be called there as

Adigadadhara346. On thus being totally suppr~ssed Gaya became still and complained, why

am I deceived? I have given my pure body to Brahma for the latter's sacrifice. Would I not

have become stable at the mere word of Vi~nu ( hence why torment me with the mace? )

Then the gods again asked him to choose a boon and Gayasura asked - that for all times to

come Vi~11u, Brahma and Mahesvara stand on the slab along with devas and the holy land be

named after him.347 He also requested that whosoever offered piw.fa and tarpa11a here should

uplift a thousand members of his family. 348 Having granted his wish the sacrifice was

complete.

Then Brahma gifted all kinds of glorious gifts to Brahmaf!as, fifty five villages, well

furnished houses, desire yielding cows and trees, a river with flowing milk, golden wells

heaps of food but enjoined them not to beg of others. 349 But the Brahma11as out of greed

went to the sacrifice of Dharma and asked for da/Gi1Ja. Therefore Brahma came and cursed

them and took away their prosperity. The Agnipura11a adds that Brahma cursed them to be

bereft of all learning and to be full of greed. When the Brahmaqas bewailed that they had

been deprived of everything from them and how were they to survive? Brahma said that they

were to live out of earning at holy centers and on the charity of the pilgrims at Gaya.350

"Those meritorious persons who perform sraddha in Gaya will attain Brahmaloka. I will be

346 Vayu Pura11a 44.60, ibid 347 Vayu Pura11a 44.64, ibid 348 Vayu Pura11a 44.66, ibid 349 Vayu Pura11a 44.76, ibid 350 Vayu Pura11a 44.83, ibid

142

considered worshipped by those who worship you ... 351 From this it is clear that the Gaya

Brahma11as at the time of composition of the Gayamahatmya possessed the same

characteristics as the modem Gaya Brahma11as and made the Gaya pilgrimage their business

even then ( as now ).

The holy slab of stone (Dharmasila) that was actually a pious lady Vis1varupa, also

asked for a boon for benefit of mankind. "All of you (Brahma, Vi~Qu etc, take the vow of

standing on this slab to enable pit1:a to attain liberation".352 The story of the sila as found in

the Gayamahatmya goes like this: Dharma had a daughter called Dhannavrata. Dharma

could not find a bridegroom worthy of her virtues and accomplishments and asked her to

perform tapas for the purpose. She performed severe austerities for ten thousand years.

Marici , one of the mind-born sons of Brahma, once saw her and asked her to become his

wife.

Once Marici being tired lay down for sleep and asked Dharmavrata to shampoo his

feet. While she was shampooing his feet Brahma ( her father-in-law ) came there. She left off

shampooing her husband's feet and got up to receive with honor her husband's father. In the

meantime Marici woke up and not seeing her wife cursed her to become a sila. But she being

innocent of any fault got angry and was about to curse Marici, but said , ' Mahadeva will

curse you'. She then performed tapas in fire, being pleased with which Vi~QU told her to ask

for a boon. She prayed that the curse pronounced by her husband be annulled. The gods said

that Marici being a great saint the curse could not be annulled and asked her to choose

another boon. She then said that she should be a sila more holy than all rivers, sages and

gods and all tlrthas should stand on the slab of stone, that those who would bathe in the

351 Vayu Pura11a 44.48, ibid 352 Vayu Pura11a 46.1 0, ibid

143

tlrthas on the sila and offer piQqas and sraddha should be able to go to brahmaloka, that all

the holy rivers like the Ganges should always remain in her. The gods conceded what she

had prayed for and said that when she would become stable on the head of Gayasura, they

would all come and stand on the sila. The sila was thus stationed on the head of Gayasura,

and all the gods stationed themselves upon it and the sila came to be called Munc/aprstha. A

portion of it is remembered as pretasila. If pine/as are offered to the dead on this rock, the

dead man becomes free from the state of a goblin.353

There are some variations in the tale of the sila m the Anandarama edition of

Vayupura11a354. It states that the sila was placed on the head of Gayasura and therefore there

was union of two very holy objects, on which Brahma performed his Asvamedha sacrifice

and when the gods came to receive their share of the sacrificial offerings the sila said to

Vi~11u and other gods, ' promise that you would remain on the sila and would bring about the

release of pitts.' The gods agreed and they stayed on the sila in the fonn of images and

footprints.

Vayu pura11a also expounds the story of the mace, ' gada' ,and how it was produced,

wielding which Vi~Qu came to be manifested here in the form of Adigadadhara. There was

once a powerful asura called Gada, who when Brahma requested gave his bones to Brahma.

Visvakarma at the desire of Brahma, fashioned a wonderful mace out of his bones. In the

time of Svayambhuva Manu an asura named Heti, son of Brahma, performed severe

austerities for thousands of divine years. He secured from Brahma and other gods the boon

that he could not be killed by gods, daityas, men or with such weapons as the discus ifKr~11a

and others. Heti then conquered the gods and became Indra. The gods went to Hari and

-'53 Vayu Puraqa 46.15, ibid

354 Quoted in Kane P.V. ibid, p.658

144

requested him to kill Heti. He asked for a powerful weapon and the gods gave him the mace

manufactured from the bones of Gada and Vi~nu went on to kill Heti with this gada. Hari is

called Adi- gadadhara because he was the first one to wield that mace, and taking it along

stood on the sila on the head of Gayasura, in order to stabilize him. There Hari shows

himself in the form of hills viz. the Munqaprstha , Prabhasa and other hills. These along with

Ak~ayavata, Phalgu and other rivers are said to be the unmanifest fonns of Adigadadhara.

The Vi~Qupada, Rudrapada, Brahmapada and other footprints are the manifest forms.

When the body of Gayasura was made stable Brahma sang a hymn in praise of Vi~nu

and also asked for a boon, ' we gods shall not abide in the sila without you, but shall remain

here together with you, if you have a manifest form. Vi~nu agreed and stood on Gayasiras in

the Adigadiidhara fonn and as Janardana and Punqarlkak~a.

The interesting thing about these stones or 'myths' is that although nobody is

expected to believe in their historicity or truth, they still seek to evoke emotions of belief and

awe and are instruments that are used continuously to glorify a person, place or event. These

stories are far from static. Within the epic and Puranic tradition we find considerable variety.

But that apart in present times too stories are being circulated through means of popular

chapbooks sold for a paltry sum at Gaya, meant for pilgrims as a guide to their stay at Gaya.

Authored by local priests these books have tried to· present the Vayu Purana story in some

accuracy. But the variations, adaptations are quite in keeping with the 2 I st century

considerations. E.g. one of the chapter book that I read claimed as its primary sources -

various Puranas Matsya, Vayu, Vi~nu, Padma, Mahabharata, Upani~adas etc. The long list is

testimony to the fact that the source of legitimacy is these ancient texts.

145

The description of Gayi'iyiitril is giVen a very detailed treatment in the

Gayamahatmya of VayupuraQa, and one must study it closely before attempting to analyze

the changes that have come forth in the present times. The journey begins at Phalgu, a river

to the east of Gaya. If it is dry ( as it has become now ), one should dig a pit of water and

have a bath. The first tarpana and sraddha are to be perfonned here, but without arghya i.e.

water for showing respect and avahana, or invoking of pit:~;s. The full pilgrimage lasts for

seven days. On the first day, as has been stated the pilgrim starts with a bath at Phalgu and

offers sraddha and tarpana there, then he goes to pretasila and performs a sraddha there and

offers pi:Qqas with boiled rice and ghee. On doing this the person for whom this is done

becomes free from the position of being a preta. Then the pilgrim should bathe in

Ramatlrtha which is near the place where Phalgu meets the Prabhasa hill. By a bath here and

offering of sraddha and pinqa the person for whom this is done become pifl:s. (being already

free from pretatva by the sraddha on Pretasila ). On the hill to the south of Pretasila one

should offer a bali (food offered with ku/w, sesame and water) to Yamaraja and Dharmaraja

and to the two gods Syama and Sabala. This is outlined for the first day.

On the second day of the pilgrimage, the pilgrim is to proceed to Pretaparvata and .

take a bath in the Brahmakunda and there he should perform tarpana, sraddha and offe1ing of

pinqas mixed with sesame ghee, curd and honey to his ancestors with the mantra, 'pita

pitamahascaiva '. Then the pilgrim should offer on kusas, water, sesame and pinqas to

persons related in other ways with the mantra, ' asmat kule mrta ye ca '. He should then

invoke the gods to be witness to the fact of his having come to Gaya and become free from

the debt to his ancestors, 'pit1: ~·11a '.

146

The third day is meant for perfonnance of Pancatirthi rites. The pilgrim first bathes

in Uttaramanasa, offers tarpana to gods, gives water and sraddha and pinqas to his ancestors.

The fruit of this rite is the inexhaustible gratification of the pit1:s. Then the pilgrim proceeds

to the three tlrthas which constitute Daksinamanasa, viz. Udicitlrtha ( on the north ),

Kanakhala ( in the middle ), and Daksinamanasa ( on the south ). At each of these three there

is a sraddha. Then the pilgrim goes to Phalgutirtha, which is repeatedly mentioned as the

best among all Gaya tlrthas. The pilgrim perfonns tarpana and sraddha with pinqas on

Phalgu. This sraddha at Phalgu results in mukti for the performer and also for whose benefit

it is performed, ' muktir bhavati kartrnam pit,_-nam sraddhatah sada '. It is stated that Phalgu

is Adigadadhara himself in a fluid form. By a bath in Phalgu and seeing Gadadhara, a man

saves himself, his ten ancestors as well as ten descendents. After the bath the pilgrim

worships Gadadhara by pouring Pancamtra to Vasudeva , Sankarsana, Pradyumana,

Aniruddha, Vi~QU and Sridhara. The mention of these Vrishni heroes also is interesting,

because their worship is not that popular today.

On the fourth day the pilgrim should repair to DhannaraQya which is so called

because Dharma perfonned a sacrifice there. Then the pilgrim should bathe in Matangavapi,

situated there, after which he has to offer tarpana , sraddha and pinqadana, at the well called

Brahmatlrtha, at the space between Brahmatlrtha and Brahmayupa. He should bow to the

Mahabodhl Tree ( i.e. the sacred pipala ) and perfonn sraddha also underneath it.

Five days after entering Gaya the pilgrim should bathe in Brahmasaras and perfonn

sraddha with piQqas between the Brahmakupa and the yupa, sacrificial post, raised by

Brahma when he perfonned a sacrifice there. By this sraddha the pilgrim saves his pitts from

a state of distress. Thereafter he should go to Brahmayupa and bow to Brahma. There are

147

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mango trees near Gopracara established by Brahma, the watering of these with the water

from Brahmasara gains mok0a for the pit1:s. Then a bali (sacrifice) should be perfom1ed to

Yamaraja, Dharmaraja, the two dogs, crows etc.

The next day, the pilgrim should take an ordinary bath in the Phalgu and perfom1

sriiddhas at several padas on Gayasiras which is near Phalgutlrtha. Sriiddha offered here

becomes inexhaustible. By performing a sriiddha with piqqas on Vi~qupada the pilf,Yfim saves

one thousand families and takes them with himself to the blissful, inexhaustible and never

ending world ofVi~qu.

On the seventh day, a bath has to be taken in the sacred place called Gadiidola, by

performing sraddha and piqqadana here the pilgrim takes himself and his ancestors to the

world of Brahma. Finally he should proceed to Ak~ayavata, perfonn a sraddha there and

honor the Gayii BrahmaQas, with offerings and food. When they are gratified with gifts,

Brahma, other gods and pitJ;s, all together become gratified. The Gayawal priest binds the

thumbs or hands of the pilgrim with a garland of flowers and receives his fees. He gives

sweetmeats to the pilgrim as prasada, applies tika to the pilgrim's forehead, touches him on

his back, pronounces the word 'suphala' (i.e. the pilgrimage has been successful ), declares

that the pilgrim's ancestors have gone to heaven and blesses him in tum. 355

The Tristhalisetu356 remarks that above are the fixed rites for seven days in Gaya, that

other tlrthas may be visited according to ones convenience if one stays in Gaya for half a

month or a month ; that the sraddha at pretasila has to be the first and that at Ak~ayavata is to

be performed at the end, and although there is a variation between the order in which tlrthas

355 Kane P.V. ibid, p.668 356 Quoted in Kane P.V. ibid, p.666

148

are to be visited on several days according to the Vayupurana, Agnipurana and other puraqas

, yet as the Vayupuraqa is the most detailed as regards Gaya rites, the order therein should be

followed and that one not knowing the order may visit the tlrthas in any order, except

Pretasila and Ak~ayavata.

Though the number of tirthas at Gaya is very large, the majority of pilgrims do not

visit them all. But visit to three places are absolutely necessary for every pilgrim to Gaya357

viz. Phalgu river, Vi&nupada, and Ak&ayavata at all of which worship has to be done with

milk, water, flowers, sandalwood paste, tambula, lighted lamps and piqqas to the ancestors

have to be offered.

Certain special characteristics of the Gayasraddha may be noted here. There is no

tonsure, one must honor Gayawalas alone and not other Brahmm1as, however learned they

may be. One should not enquire about the learning of the Gayawalas or their character. It is

provided in the Vayupurana that when a son goes to Gaya , he should invite only those

Brahmanas that have been settled in Gaya by Brahma and that such Brahmaqas are above

ordinary mortals. Hence when they are gratified the gods together with the pitr:s become

pleased .. so not enter upon a consideration of their family , their character, their learning or

their austerities ( is there ignorance and rapacity being indirectly implied by making such

statements one should?) and that when the Gaya Brahman.as are honored the man doing so

secures release from samsara.

Now making a brief survey of the chap books and the ritual material contained them,

we may compare how traditions have been moulded in the present socio-economic scenario.

357 Kane P.V. ibid, p.667

149

The chap book begins with an invocation (Arti) to the pit{deva. No such invocation is

to be found in the Vayu Puraqa. But perhaps this is in keeping with the present popularity of

offering iirti. The best way to make the journey to Gaya according to Vayu Puraqa is by foot,

the pilgrim must avoid taking monetary gifts, should be pure and devoid of anger.358 This

provision indicates that people from within a specific sphere of influence alone would come

to Gaya, mode of travel being a major constraint in undertaking too long a joumey. The first

things that must do upon entering Gaya is to take a bath in the holy river Phalgu. 359 While in

the chap book is given the most convenient way to reach Gaya is by train. On the Patna Gaya

railway line is the station of Punpun. In the present times therefore the problem of traveling

over long distances has been overcome and therefore surely the influence of a sacred center

increases manifold as it is possible for people from even gar flung areas to visit it, if they can

afford it monetarily It is said in the chap books that sriiddha should be perfonned first of all

at the river Punpun, although one may be coming from any direction. There is no mention of

a srilddlza at Punpun in the Puraqic literature and this is obviously a later addition. The chap

book then provides one with a list of lodgings at Gaya, quite in keeping with its guide- book

like format. Then we are provided with a long list of places to be visited by the pilgrims. The

order seems to be quite random, not conforming to the order of the Vayu Pura11a, but perhaps

according to the popularity of the spot among pilgrims today. This is in direct relation with

the role of the Gayawalas in the upkeep of particular vedls and the neglect of others.

In the Vayu Pura11a it is specified that sriiddha must be offered for those who are

sapinqas and that too in accordance with the respective grhya sutras. 360 Let me point out

358 Vayu Puraqa 48.2-4, ibid 359 Vayu Puraqa 48.6, ibid 360 Vayu Puraqa 48.9 .18, ibid

!50

that no such concepts are mentioned in the chap books perhaps because such distinctions are

not so prominent now and performance of rites today is more in accordance with ones

economic status rather than social status. Therefore the economics of the tirtha yatra seems

to have become more important than its social aspect.

In the Vayu Pura11a there is a seven day yatra for the pilgrim who goes to Gaya. His

itinerary for each day is fixed. The importance to each Vedi is almost equal and no spot is

more celebrated than the other, although some stories are provided for spots like

Adigadadhara. In the chap books there is no fixed routine that is to be followed by the

pilgrim. Obviously his convenience is of primary importance.

In the Vayu pura11a it is said, "By performing Sraddha and pif!qa offering at the foot

print ofVi~11u (Vi~l?upada), one leads a thousand members of ones family to the divine foot

of Vi~11u"361 There is no mention of any temple here. While today the Vi~11u Pada temple is

one of the most sacred spots of Gaya. It is said to be constructed by Maharani Ahilyabai in ------- ·------ -- ~- ----· -· - --

1780 AD. Next in line is the temple of Gadadhara, again, the temple must have been a recent -----------------

construction. In Vayu Pura11a Adigadadhara is called so because lord Vi~nu, after killing the

demon Heti with his mace (Gada) came to Gaya armed with the Gada to stabilize the demon

Gayasura. He is manifest there in the form of silas (i.e. Mountains and slabs) rather than as

temple. Gadadhara is worshipped as a bestower of boons and prosperity and causing

salvation of all men. Adigadadhara is given a lot of importance in Vayu Pura11a and a

considerable number of verses are devoted to him. "Those who regularly and devoutly visit

361 Vayu Pura11a 48.58, ibid

151

lord Adigadadhara will attain wealth, food gram, longevity and good health, fame,

h . . d d .. 362 appmess, w1ves, sons an gran sons--.

In different chap books the duration for Gayasraddha lies between anything from

to 3 or 7to I 7 days. Some other features that I'd like to highlight are - in the chap books the

authors made many claims which bear no resemblance to Pura11ic injunctions. Viz. it is said

that if a persons wants to perform sraddha at Gaya at a time other than pitr pak~a, he must

first make a joumey to Jagannath Puri. All sons of a father are required to participate in the

sraddha of the father- either monetarily or physically. While the onus for the same lies on

the eldest son. On coming to Gaya it is first of all required to take pennission from the

Gayawala priests. Gaya sraddha has changed in many important ways. E.g .. Today the most

auspicious time to come to Gaya is during the Pitr Pa/qa Mela celebrated in the seventeen

days of the month of Asvin. Lakhs of people from all over the country descend to Gaya at

this time for the sake of their ancestors. Secondly it is stated categorically in the chap books

that without the presence of the Gayawalas sraddha cannot be perfonned at Gaya. Their

overriding importance today speaks of their monopoly and domination over the

Gayasraddha. Perhaps they derive their legitimacy from the verses of Vayu Pura11a, "For the

perfonnance of Gaya sraddha there were Brahma11as of fourteen gotras. They were Gautama,

Kasyapa, Kautsa, Kausika, Karva, Bharadvaja, Usanas, Vatsya, Parasara, Haritkumara,

Maqqavya, Lokasi, Vasi&tha and Atreya".363 "Sixteen types of gifts should be made· to the

first at Gayatlrtha after honoring him and offering him clothes, scents, etc in the company of

one sons". 364

362 Vayu Pura11a 47.37-38, ibid 363 Vayu Pura11a 50.9, ibid 364 Vayu Pura11a 50.95, ibid

152

Some very important and unusual aspects of Gayii.\:raddha which find due

prominence in Vayu Purana have been neglected in the chap books. Not only the father son

relationship is highlighted, but also a person causes salvation of seven gotras or a hundred

families by perfonning .~riiddha at Gaya.365 Today the individual aspect of sraddha is

highlighted more. Further it is said in Vayu Pura11a that pine/a is being offered for those in

the family who have no means of salvation or those who died an unnatural or untimely

death, e.g. Those who died by poisoning, weapons, lions and tigers, etc. and those who are in

various hells. Piwfa is even offered to those who were not kinsmen in this birth but rather in

the previous births.366 At Gaya, Pi11qa may even be offered for ones own self. "This pi11qa

has even given, 0 Janardana, in your hand, at Gayasirsa, this must be given to we when I am

dead". 367 This aspect is totally absent today, perhaps because it was relevant when a person

become a mendicant or entered Vanapratha stage, leaving behind all family ties.

The incorporation of the Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya as a place where pi11qas are to be

offered on the fourth day of a pilgrim's journey is an interesting example of how sacred

spaces are appropriated and overlap, without necessarily causing friction .. The very popular

Mahabodhi temple at the site attracts not only Indian but also many foreigners who are

devout Buddhists. Therefore side by side there exist two disparate yet flourishing cults of

India. The Hindus too worship at the temple for the Buddha has been absorbed into the

Hindu pantheon as the 91h avatara of Vi~nu . In fact the Bodh Gaya temple was held until

1949- with the passage of the Mahabodhi Act by the Bihar Legislature- by the Hindu Giris

and their legitimacy as proprietors had resisted until that time all challenges through the

365 Vayu Pura11a 48.25, ibid 366 Vayu Purana, 48.50, ibid 367 Vayu Purana, 46.17, ibid

153

3.6 Conclusion

The Vi~f!upada temple and the Phalgu tlrtha are today the most sacred places for

.S'rZiddha sacrifice. The Vi~f!upada temple is built over the foot-prints of Vi~QU on the rock to

the west of the river Phalgu. The old town of Gaya was built around Vi~f!upada and it is the

largest and most important temples of Gaya. The footprint ( about 16 inches in length )

deemed to be those of god Vi~11u' s is inside an octagonal basin plated with silver. Pilgrims of

all classes ( except untouchables )371 surround the basin and cast their offerings inside the

basin, though for a substantial payment the priests clear out all people, shut the door for a

few minutes and thereby allow a very rich person to make his offerings without being

disturbed by anyone else. Thus money makes things more convenient no doubt.

The abandonment and transfonnation of sacred spaces is a part of a complex process

of evolution, which includes not only patronage but also construction of faith and circulation

of belief. It is based on such observances that Vidyarthi says, "it perhaps becomes clear that

though a place of pilgrimage is considered to be essentially Sanskritic and Great Traditional

in characters, it includes sacred centers that have grown out of or around the folk or little

traditions". Many fascinating problems arise, for example of the relationship of Hindu and

Buddhist Gaya. Was it the historical accident of the Buddha's enlightenment that triggered

off a reciprocal development of a Hindu sacred complex next door? Again what was the role

of the sacred intelligentsia of Gaya in moulding the course of Gaya's history and its present

position of sanctity. The motive for mourners or pilgrims may vary from an expression of

filial piety, to appeasement of ghost or achievement of personal happiness and prosperity.

We can visualize in the process of the development of Gayii :,:riiddha how these occurs a

371 Kane P.V. ibid, p.667

!55

continuous process of growth and elaboration from simple indigenous form of worship into

such complex intricate fom1s under the influence of sacred specialists and sacred

intelligentsia. 372

It is the role of sacred specialists at a sacred center to maintain and transmit elements

of Great Tradition to rural Indian by popularizing certain texts and by officiating as ritual

priests. The sacred complex in general and the sacred specialists in particular have been in

the process of modification and transfonnation as a result of general development in the

larger universe ofHindu Civilization ofwhich they are a part.373

Gaya is a part of the pan India complex of tlrthas that attracts pilgrims from near and

far. In fact the Rajatarangini374 observes that a tax was levied on the pilgrims from Kashmir

at Gaya. lt has maintained its sanctity from ancient times to the present and not surprising

its traditions have been modified in the present times. Still the overriding aspect off salvation

of the pit1:s in maintained and one can repeat this verse from Vayu pura11a that is often

quoted today-

"Gayaram Nahi tat sthamarn yatra tzrtha na vidyate. Sanidhyam sarva tzrthanam

Gaya tlrtha tatovaran. Brahma jinnen kim sadhyam, gan grihe maranen lim. Vasen kim

burukshetre yadi putro Gayiim Vrajet . . ,

-There is no place in Gaya, which is not a tlrtha, all the tfrthas are to be found here,

and hence Gaya is the best tlrtha. What is the use of attaining Brahma Jfiana or staying at

Kuruk~etra or dying in a cowshed, if the son goes to Gaya and offers piQqa. 375

372 Vidyarthi L.P, ibid, 1961 373 Saraswati B.N, The Sacred Complex ofKasT, 1979 374 VI.254-255 and VII.1008, Quoted in Kane P.V. ibid p.57l 375 Vayu Puraqa, 43.15, ibid

156