Transportation Engineering-II

Prof. Rajesh Bhagat Asst. Professor, CED, YCCE, Nagpur

B. E. (Civil Engg.) M. Tech. (Enviro. Engg.)

GCOE, Amravati VNIT, Nagpur

Achievement

Selected Scientist, NEERI-CSIR, Govt. of India.

GATE Qualified Three Times.

UGC - NET Qualified in First Attempt.

Selected Junior Engineer, ZP Washim.

Three Times Selected as UGC Approved Assistant Professor.

Assistant Professor, PCE, Nagpur.

Assistant Professor, Cummins College of Engg. For Women.

Topper of PhD Course Work at UGC-HRDC, RTMNU Nagpur.

Mobile No.:- 8483002277 / 8483003474 Email ID :- rajeysh7bhagat@gmail.com

Website:- www.rajeysh7bhagat.wordpress.com

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Unit-V

1) Airport Layout and Classification: Terminal area, aircraft parking and parking

systems, unit terminal concept, aprons, hangers, International airports layout,

helipads and heliports.

2) Visual Aids: Airport marking and lighting for runways, taxiways and other areas.

3) Air Traffic Control: Need, networks, control aids, instrumented landing systems,

advances in air traffic control.

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Unit-VI

Tunnels: Alignment, surveys, cross section of highway & railway tunnels, tunneling

methods in hard rock and soft grounds, tunnel lining, drainage, ventilation and lighting

of tunnels, advances in tunneling techniques, tunnel boring machines, case studies.

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Taxiway:-

1) A route along which an aircraft can move slowly along the ground before take-off or

after landing.

2) A path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons, hangars, terminals

and other facilities.

3) This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land or

take off in a shorter interval of time.

4) Used by aircraft to facilitate their movements between runways & parking areas.

5) At night, runways are lined with white lights and taxiways are lined with blue lights.

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Taxiway

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Aprons:-

1) Apron is the area of an airport where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded,

refueled, or boarded.

2) Although the use of the apron is covered by regulations, it is more accessible to

users than the runway or taxiway. However, the apron is not usually open to the

general public and a license may be required to gain access.

3) It is located close to the terminal building or hangars.

4) The size of apron depends on:

a) Type of aircraft.

b) Number of Gate Positions.

c) Aircraft Parking System.

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Types of Aprons:-

Terminal Aprons and Ramps

1) Aircraft parking positions, also called aircraft gates or aircraft stands, on the

terminal apron or ramp are sized for the geometric properties of a given design

aircraft, including wingspan, fuselage length and turning radii.

2) Both the FAA and ICAO recommend minimum clearances between any part of an

aircraft and other aircraft or structures in the apron area.

Holding Aprons

1) Holding aprons, holding pads, run-up pads, or holding bays as they are sometimes

called, are placed adjacent to the ends of runways.

2) The areas are used as storage areas for aircraft prior to takeoff.

3) They are designed so that one aircraft can bypass another whenever this is

necessary.

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Types of Apron:-

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Hangar:-

1. It is an enclosure for servicing, overhauling, and doing repairs of the aircrafts.

2. Its size depend upon the size of aircraft.

3. It is usually constructed of steel frames and covered with galvanized iron sheets.

4. It is also provided with machine shops and stores for spare parts.

5. Adequate lighting inside the hangar is of prime importance.

6. If hangar can be located close to the terminal building & loading aprons, such as an

arrangement offers many advantages.

7. Such arrangements should offer scope for future expansion.

8. The functional efficiency of airport should not be impaired.

Convenient road access.

Utilities & facilities like electricity, telephone, water supply, sewer, etc.

Reasonable proximity.

Topography for good natural drainage.

Adequate are for future expansion & car parking for working personal.

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There are generally two types of hangars are used

1) Nose Hangars:

Provided for large size aircraft.

They enclose only forward portion of aircraft

Tail and some portion of fuselage is outside

Helps in servicing and provide better working conditions

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2) T- Hangars:

These are provided with small size aircraft.

Pilot can easily manoeuver the aircraft in and out of hangar without any

assistance.

The area should be large enough to accommodate different types of aircrafts with

a minimum clearance of 30 cm.

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Terminal area

AIRPORT

Landing area

Terminal and

operational building Vehicular parking Apron

&

Hanger

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Terminal Area

1) It is the portion of the airport other than the landing area.

2) It serves as a focal point for the activities on the airport.

3) It includes terminal and operational buildings, vehicle parking area, aircraft

service hangars, etc.

Terminal Building

1) The purpose of airport building is to provide shelter and space for the various

surface activities related to the air transportation.

2) Terminal building usually refers to a building mainly, used for passenger,

airline and administration facilities

3) planned for the maximum efficiency, convenience and economy

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Terminal area

Terminal Building

Vehicular Parking Area:

1) The circulation of traffic and location of parking lots should be such that access to the terminal building is simple and convenient.

2) Circulation of vehicular traffic within the terminal area is also carefully planned.

3) Separate parking area is to be provided for the staff personnel.

For the most efficient airport vehicular circulation and parking system, the following points are considered.

a) Ease of passenger loading and unloading at the terminal building.

b) One way traffic wherever possible.

c) Sufficiently and clearly defined parking and circulation routes.

d) Well lighted routes for pedestrians and vehicles.

The basic parking patterns adopted are as follows.

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The Aircraft Parking Configuration:-

Size of loading area required for each type of aircraft This area is also known as

gate position.

The aircrafts are parked causing the least interference due to heat, fumes and blast

during maneuvering into and out of the gate position.

1) Nose in and Angle nose in

2) Nose out and Angle nose out

3) Parallel System

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Aircraft Parking System:

Aircraft can be grouped adjacent to terminal building in various ways.

1) Frontal System

2) Open Apron system

3) Finger System

4) Satellite System

Frontal System :

It is very simple and economical system. But its use is limited only to small airports

requiring few gate positions.

the aircrafts are parked along the face of the terminal building.

It usually has an apron providing close-in parking for three to six commercial passenger

aircraft.

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Open Apron System :-

1) In this system the aircrafts are parked in rows.

2) If the number of aircrafts is too large, passengers may have to walk long distances.

3) They are thus exposing to weather, noise and hot blast of the jet aircrafts, To protect the

passengers from such nuisance, some sort of closed vehicle conveyance for the

passengers may be essential.

Finger System:-

1) Processing of passengers and their baggage is mainly done within the terminal building.

2) But the facilities for the passengers, for entering and leaving the aircraft, often require

extension of the terminal building. Such extension is known as Pier Finger.

Satellite System:-

1) Satellites are small buildings located on the apron.

2) Aircrafts are parked around the satellite buildings which are connected to the main

terminal building by the underground tunnel.

3) This system is in use at the international airport of Los Angeles.

4) It is advantageous, compared to the pier finger system only when the connections to the

satellite buildings are through the tunnels.

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Concept of Planning of Terminal Building:-

There are two concepts of planning of the terminal building for commercial airport:-

1) Centralization

2) Decentralization

Centralization : In centralized plan, All passengers, baggage and cargo are funneled through

a central building and are then dispersed to the respective aircraft positions.

Decentralization : In decentralization plan, the passengers and baggage arrive at the point

near the departing plane. All airline functions are carried out adjacent to the departing

plan.

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Unit Terminal Concept :- 1) In past 20 years, the air traffic has increased by many folds that the centralized

concept has become inoperative.

2) The decentralized-centralized concept also known as “Unit Terminal Principle” now

becoming popular in the design of air terminals.

3) This system involves planning of terminal area in such a manner that facilities are

provided in units of manageable size providing minimum walking distances from

the kerbside to gate positions

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The first centralized facilities became known as the earliest “simple-unit terminals”,

because they contained all required passenger processing facilities for a given air

carrier in a single-unit building.

Airport Layout:-

The layout of an airport mainly depends on basic patterns or configuration of

runways. Following are the characteristics of a well planned airport layout.

1. It grants maximum functional efficiency with the minimum utilization of space.

2. It has adequate space for the loading aprons.

3. It has sufficient terminal building facilities.

4. It provides excellent control tower visibility.

5. The cost of construction is minimum.

6. The operations of landing, Taxiing and take-off of the aircraft are carried out

smoothly without interfering with each other.

7. The overall arrangement of the components is such that the future expansion is

easily permitted

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1. Airport Layout for Single Runway

2. Airport Layout for Two Parallel Runways

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3. Airport Layout for Three Non Intersecting Parallel Runways

4. Airport Layout for Tangential Runways

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Helipad :- A helipad is defined as a paved or other surface used for parking helicopters

at a heliport.

A heliport is defined as an identifiable area on land, water, or structures, including

buildings or facilities, used or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of

helicopters or other rotary wing type aircraft.

Helideck:- A helideck is a heliport located on a floating or an off-shore structure.

Visual aids :-

Visual aids are installed at the airport to achieve the following purposed:

1) To avoid accidents during landing of the aircraft.

2) To convey to the pilot the ground to air visual information required during

landing .

3) To direct the pilot to make the landing of the aircraft to the landing area only.

4) To enable the pilot to locate and identify the particular feature specified by the

making.

5) To provide safety to the persons and properties.

6) To maintain an orderly flow of aircraft without any congestion.

7) To satisfy the visual requirements for take-off and taxiing.

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Visual Aids

Airport marking Airport lighting

Daytime with clear weather Night & Daytime with bad weather

Airport Marking

For assisting the pilots in guiding the aircraft on the runways and taxiways.

The pavements are marked with lines and numbers.

These airport marking are of benefits to the pilot.

The airport markings are divided into the following groups :

a) Runway Marking

b) Taxiway Marking

c) Runway and Taxiway shoulder marking

d) Apron Marking

e) Wind direction indicator

f) Landing direction indicator

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Runway Markings:-

Following markings are made on the runways

1. Runway centre-line marking

2. Runway edge stripes

3. Runway numbering

4. Touch down zone marking

5. Threshold marking

6. Displaced threshold marking

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Runway Centre Line Marking:-

The centre line of the runway is represented by the broken strip running along

the entire length of the runway as shown in figure. Its width is 90 cm.

Runway Edge Stripes :-

• The runway edge stripes are normally marked.

• But when the runway width exceeds 45 m, the side stripes in the form of long

continuous lines 90 cm wide may be marked near the edges

Touch Down Zone Marking

• The runway touch down zone or landing zone is indicated by a series of stripes

arranged symmetrically about the centre-line with their number decreasing

gradually in the direction of landing.

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Runway Numbering

The end of each runway is marked with a number which indicates the

magnetic azimuth, i.e. the angle measured in the clockwise direction

from the north of the runway in the direction of the landing. Thus, the

east end of the east-west runway would be marked 27 (for 270 ° and the

west end 9 (for 90°) as shown in figure.

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Threshold Marking:-

• The runway threshold is indicated by a series of parallel lines starting from a

distance of 6 m from the runway end.

• The threshold markings are in the form of stripes 3.6 m wide spaced at 0.9 m

clear and placed symmetrically on either side of the runway centre-line.

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Displaced Threshold Marking:-

At some airports, it is desirable to displace the runway threshold on a per

manent basis.

A displaced threshold is one which has been moved a certain distance fro

m the end of the runway.

Taxiway Marking

1) A single continuous 15 cm yellow stripe is used to mark the centre line of the

taxiway.

2) At the intersections of the taxiways with the runway ends, the centre line of the

taxiway is terminated at the edge of the runway.

3) All other intersections of the taxiways with runways, the centre line of the

taxiway is extended to the centre line of the runway.

4) A holding line marking is painted at all the intersections of the paved taxiways

with runways.

5) At the taxiway intersection, the centre line markings of the taxiway continue

through the intersection area.

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Shoulder Marking

1) The shoulders on the edges of a runway and taxiway are paved but they are

not capable of withstanding loads

2) A paved blast pad about 45 m to 60 m in length is provided adjacent to the

runway end to prevent erosion of the soil.

3) The paved area of the blast pad is not designed to support the aircraft loads ,

but it may have the appearance of being so designed.

4) The paint used is yellow.

5) Runway shoulders are marked with diagnol stripes each having a width of

90 cm.

6) The taxiway and holding apron shoulders are marked with stripes at right

angles to the direction of travel of aircraft.

7) The blast pad is marked with V shaped or chevron pattern marks.

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Landing Direction Indicator

1) To indicate the landing direction, an arrow or a tee is placed at the centre of

a segmented circle.

2) It indicates to the pilot the direction of the active runway of the airport.

3) It is painted by orange or white color for being spotted with during day time

and is lighted during night time.

4) It is fixed at a distinct place.

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Wind Direction Indicator

The direction from which the wind blows is indicated at the airport by a wind

cone.

It is placed with in a segmented circle together with landing direction indicator.

Wind cone length should not be less than 3.6m and its diameter should not be

less than 90 cm.

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Airport Lighting System:- Night Landing Aids

Airport Beacon or Rotating Beacon

Boundary Lighting

Approaching Lighting

Threshold Lighting

Runway Lighting

Taxiway Lighting

Apron & Hanger Lighting

Illuminated Wind Direction Indicator

Illuminated Landing Direction Indicator.

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Airport Lighting System:- Night Landing Aids

Airport Beacon or Rotating Beacon

Boundary Lighting

Approaching Lighting

Threshold Lighting

Runway Lighting

Taxiway Lighting

Apron & Hanger Lighting

Illuminated Wind Direction Indicator

Illuminated Landing Direction Indicator.

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Approach Lighting System:-

1) While approaching the runway for landing, the approach lights are the only

elements of guidance to pilot.

2) The lighting within the approach zone therefore must be such that the pilot is

able to perceive the lights and has sufficient time to react and monoeuvre the

aircraft to bring it to the correct alignment at a safe distance away and at

adequate height above the runway level.

3) The visual requirements of approach lights to assist safe landing during poor

conditions are shown.

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Runway Lighting System:-

1) After crossing the threshold, the pilot completes a touchdown and then rolls the

aircraft on the runway.

2) The runway lighting is to planned that it imparts to the pilot the required

guidance on alignment, lateral displacement, roll and height and distance, so

that he is able to correctly judge his position in the space.

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Air Traffic Control:-

The need of air traffic control:

1) To safeguard life & property.

2) To expedite the traffic movements.

3) No congestion & no delay.

Air Traffic Control grouped as below:

a) Airport Traffic Control: To guide aircraft while take or landing. Movement

on taxiway & apron.

b) Airway Traffic Control: Movement of aircraft in the air.

c) Airway Communication: Conveying of airway & weather information to the

pilot during the flight.

d) Nor-airway Traffic Control: Personal flying is done by a large number of

people. In such cases, the movement of aircraft, not flying along the airway,

must be regulated to prevent interference to the main air traffic.

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Air Traffic Control Network:-

The network for controlling the air traffic can be divided into three parts as

below:

1) Control Within Terminal Area:

Done form the airport control tower which is located in the terminal area.

The control tower is nerve centre of an airport.

Controller directs the movement of aircraft on the ground and in the air within the

airport zone.

Information like airport condition, airway traffic, visibility, speed & direction of

ground winds, barometric pressure & other relevant information are provided to

pilot for safe operation.

2) Control Over Airways:

3) Airways Communication:

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Air Traffic Control Network:-

The network for controlling the air traffic can be divided into three parts as

below:

1) Control Within Terminal Area:

2) Control Over Airways:

The control is provided by a number of Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTC)

In India, ARTC are provided at Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Nagpur, Ahmadabad,

Delhi & Jodhpur. Each centre controls a certain geographic area & thus cover the

entire area of country.

ARTC is mainly concerned with flights under Instrumental Flight Rules (IFR)

conditions & not under Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

3) Airways Communication:

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Air Traffic Control Network:-

The network for controlling the air traffic can be divided into three parts as

below:

1) Control Within Terminal Area:

2) Control Over Airways:

3) Airways Communication:

This is usually done through flight service stations.

These stations are located at the airports and also along the airways.

To communicate air traffic control messages between the ARTC & enroute aircraft.

To give certain information to the pilot, before and during the flights, regarding the weather

change navigational aids, airports that are out of use & the procedure at a particular airports

etc.

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Air Traffic Control Aids:-

During VFL weather conditions, flight is usually conducted by visual

recognition of the objects on the ground.

IFL are used when visibility is inadequate during night time or due to cloudy or

foggy weather.

Air Traffic Control Aids are of two types:

Enroute Aids or Airway Aids & Landing Aids.

A) Enroute Aids or Airway Aid:

1) Airway Beacon

2) Low/Medium Frequency Ratio Range

3) Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Range (VOR)

4) Airground Communication

5) Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)

6) Marker Beacon

7) Direction Finder

8) Air Route Surveillance (ARSR) 55

Air Traffic Control Aids:-

During VFL weather conditions, flight is usually conducted by visual

recognition of the objects on the ground.

IFL are used when visibility is inadequate during night time or due to cloudy or

foggy weather.

Air Traffic Control Aids are of two types:

Enroute Aids or Airway Aids & Landing Aids.

B) Landing Aids:

1) Instrumental Landing System (ILS)

2) Precision Approach Radar (PAR) or Ground Approach Control (GAC)

3) Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)

4) Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE)

5) Approach Lights

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Aircraft Lands Under I.L.S.:- Instrumental Landing System

1) Aircraft is brought to the holding fix by means of enroute aids.

2) It is taken over by control tower.

3) If two or more aircrafts have reached the holding point simultaneously, they are detained by

control tower and directed to keep moving round in space with a vertical separation of at least

300m.

4) After every 2 minutes, the airport control tower directs the aircraft at the bottom of the stack to

move out for final approach to the airport.

5) As the aircraft slides out from the bottom step, it is picked up by the localiser.

6) The localiser provide the alignment guidance along the centre line of the runway. The glide slope

facility provide guidance for the angle of approach.

7) As the aircraft passes over the outer and middle marker, the pilot receivers a high pitched steady

tone and also finds a visual indications in the cokpit. These markers define the specific distance of

the aircraft from the runway threshold along the localiser course.

8) As the aircraft crosses over the middle marker, the pilot changes over from the instrumental to

visual flight system.

9) Now the approach and runway lighting assist the pilot in visual landing.

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