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ISSUE 116 MAY – JUNE 2015 PAGE 3 CANOLA PAGE 9 DISEASE SURVEILLANCE PAGE 12 PULSES FOLIAR FUNGAL DISEASES OF PULSES AND OILSEEDS Strategies for disease control
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ISSUE 116MAY JUNE 2015
PAGE 3 CANOLAPAGE 9 DISEASE SURVEILLANCE
PAGE 12 PULSES
FOLIAR FUNGAL DISEASES OF PULSES AND OILSEEDS
Strategies for disease
control
2By Dr Sharyn Taylor
GRDC-commissioned reports indicate that the annual cost of oilseed and pulse diseases is more than $210 million.
Diseases such as sclerotinia stem rot and blackleg are on the rise across Australian canola-growing regions as an increasing number of wheat
growers incorporate canola within rotations. Managing diseases of pulses and oilseeds at the right time, with the
right control methods, can substantially reduce their impact, thereby improving the role of these crops as profitable breaks within rotations.
This Ground Cover Supplement outlines the three-pronged approach being taken by the GRDC to:
Introduction
DISEASE SOLUTIONS SOUGHT THROUGH A NATIONAL APPROACH
COVER PHOTO: GRDCAscochyta blight infecting chickpea seed pods.
GROUND COVER SUPPLEMENT edited by Janet Paterson
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develop oilseed and pulse varieties with greater resistance to foliar fungal diseases;
keep abreast of fungal disease dynamics across the GRDC cropping regions; and
develop and extend management packages to control foliar fungal diseases on-farm and prolong the useful life of Australias limited fungicide options.Variety resistance is the most sustainable way to manage fungal
disease a principle that guides the GRDCs ongoing and substantial commitment to finding new genes that confer disease resistance to Australian crop varieties. GRDC-funded pre-breeding in pulses is delivering new resistance genetics to Pulse Breeding Australia for the development of new pulse varieties (see pages 14 and 15).
At the farm level, the work of plant pathology teams across Australia underpins the effective management and monitoring of oilseed and pulse foliar fungal diseases.
Surveillance work by such teams is capturing the changing dynamics of foliar fungal pathogens and enabling plant breeders to monitor changing resistance status and stay abreast with new sources of varietal resistance. For example, work in South Australia (see pages 12 and 13) has identified a new virulent strain of ascochyta blight in lentils that has led to the popular variety Nipper
A being reclassified with a less resistant
status for this costly disease. Other monitoring work is keeping abreast of changes to the
ascochyta pathogens affecting chickpeas and faba beans. This surveillance work is critical to the maintenance of an accurate
disease-rating system for Australian oilseed and pulse varieties and also drives the development of fungal disease management packages.
With only a limited number of fungicides available to Australian growers, fungicide resistance is a constant threat. Of current concern to the canola industry is preliminary evidence of fungicide tolerance in a population of the blackleg pathogen found during a survey in 2014 (see page 6). This finding will be investigated in a more extensive survey in 2015.
Fungicides are just one component of an effective management strategy against disease. Fungicides do not increase yield or retrieve lost yield if applied after infection is established.
Integrated disease management (IDM) involves the use of a range of disease-management practices to reduce the impact of plant diseases. Used in combination, disease-management practices can reduce a disease to a level unobtainable by one practice alone.
The three aims of IDM are: reduction of the inoculum responsible for the disease (for example,
spores, cells or sclerotes) through crop and variety rotation, careful paddock selection, control of volunteers and alternative hosts, and stubble management;
exclusion of the pathogen through the use of clean seed, farm and paddock hygiene; and
protection of the crop through the use of varietal resistance and fungicides.
More information: Dr Sharyn Taylor, manager of plant health
surveillance and mitigation, GRDC, 02 6166 4500,
3Canola
Seasonal sclerotinia triggers sought for better controlResearch is underway to better understand sclerotinia outbreaks to guide fungicide management decisions
By Dr Kurt Lindbeck
MONITORING OF COMMERCIAL canola crops for the fungal disease sclerotinia stem rot, via the GRDC-funded National Canola Pathology Program led by Professor Barbara Howlett at the University of Melbourne, has confirmed the strong relationship between prolonged periods of leaf wetness during flowering and sclerotinia stem rot development.
LONG-LIVED AND WIDESPREAD PATHOGEN While sclerotinia outbreaks depend on rainfall and humidity, the pathogen can easily remain viable for up to five years in the top five centimetres of soil as hard-cased sclerotia (and even longer if buried deeper) making integrated disease management the only option for long-term management of the disease.
Preventive fungicide applications are currently the only in-crop management tool.
The disease is most prevalent in high-rainfall regions of New South Wales and in Victoria's north-east and Western District. Sclerotinia stem rot is also emerging as an increasing problem in south-east South Australia.
In Western Australia, sclerotinia was previously only considered an issue in the northern agricultural region but the pathogen has now started to affect crops in the states southern cropping areas.
Infections in high-risk regions have become more severe in recent years with intensive wheat/canola rotations, which have likely increased the residual inoculum in cropping soils.
In 2013, there were reports of up to 50 per cent of canola crops being infected in southern NSW and northern Victoria.
In WA, sclerotinia stem rot was widespread with an average infection of about 30 per cent and yield losses of 0.5 to 1 tonne per hectare in the worst-affected crops.
SCLEROTINIA LIFE CYCLESclerotinia stem rot has a complex life cycle compared with many other foliar
diseases, with several developmental stages needing to be synchronised and completed for stem rot to occur (Figure 1).
Weather conditions during flowering play a major role in determining the development of the disease. The presence of moisture during flowering and petal fall will determine whether sclerotinia develops. Dry conditions during this time can quickly prevent development of the disease; therefore, even if flower petals are infected, dry conditions during petal fall are not conducive to stem infection development.
For example, in 2014 there was potential for stem rot to develop at several of the GRDC-funded disease-monitoring sites in southern NSW. Rapidly developing crops (resulting in higher in-crop humidity), the presence of apothecia (the fungal fruiting body of sclerotinia) and high levels of petal infestation by sclerotinia all indicated that epidemics of the disease were likely. However, drier-than-average conditions throughout August and spring kept potential stem rot levels low in many districts and dry conditions within the crop canopy prevented the pathogen spreading from petals into stems.
The key developmental stages
for sclerotinia are as follows: Soil-borne sclerotia are the main source
of sclerotinia inoculum each season. Most sclerotia will remain viable for three to five years before their viability slowly declines. Sclerotia soften and germinate in winter once soil remains wet at the surface for about 10 days. Germination is enhanced if the developing crop has reached full ground cover. The sclerotia germination produces small (five to 10-millimetre diameter), golf-tee-shaped fruiting bodies called apothecia.
Apothecia release airborne spores of the fungus, which use canola flower petals as a food source. The spores cannot infect canola leaves and stems directly, although old fallen leaves can be colonised. When infected
Dr Kurt Lindbeck is contributing sclerotinia trial and spore monitoring information to the sclerotinia forecasting model.
Research in Australia and Canada has shown that an application of foliar fungicide around the 20 to 30 per cent flowering stage (14 to 20 flowers on main stem) can be effective in reducing sclerotinia stem rot infection.
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SOURCE: MANAGING THE RISK OF SCLEROTINIA, FARMNOTE 546, DAFWA
FIGURE 1 Sclerotinia stem rot disease cycle.
Wet and humidconditions
required fordisease
progression
Initiation ofinfection
Severe stem rot
Sclerotia forminside infected
stem
Apothecia producedfrom sclerotia in
moist soil
Petal infection byascosporesproduced
in apothecia
Sclerotia survivein the soil
Spring
Summer
Growingseason
Direct
germ
inatio
n of s
clerot
ia
to inf
ect st
em ba
se
petals die, they can become lodged on leaves, or within leaf axils and branch junctions along the stem. In moist conditions the fungus grows out of the petal and invades healthy plant stem tissue, resulting in stem lesions and the production of more sclerotia within the stem. These new sclerotia are returned to the soil following harvest with some picked up with harvested seed (Figure 2).
Sclerotia also have the ability to germinate in the soil, produce mycelium and directly infect nearby canola plants, causing a basal infection.
FUNGICIDE CONTROL The challenge in managing sclerotinia stem rot with in-crop fungicide is determining the risk of disease development and potential yield loss from the disease.
Research in Australia and Canada shows the relationship between the presence of sclerotinia fungal spores on canola flower petals and subsequent development of sclerotinia stem rot is not very clear due to the strong reliance on moisture for infection and disease development.
Sclerotinia yield loss is highest when infection occurs during early flowering. Early infections cause
premature maturing of plants, which go on to produce little or no yield.
Plants become susceptible to infection once flowering commences. Research has shown that an application of foliar fungicide around the 20 to 30 per cent flowering stage (20 per cent flowering is 14 to 16 flowers on the main stem while 30 per cent flowering is about 20) can be effective in reducing the level of sclerotinia stem infection. Most registered products can be applied up to the 50 per cent flowering (full-bloom) stage, but check the label to ensure compliance.
Timing of fungicide application is critical in order to prevent early infection of petals while ensuring that the fungicide also penetrates into the lower crop canopy to protect potential infection sites (such as lower leaves, leaf axils and stems).
A foliar fungicide application is most effective when applied before a rain event during flowering. Such fungicide applications act as protectants and have no curative activity.
In general, foliar fungicides offer protection for up to three weeks, after which the protectant activity of the fungicide declines.
Using high water rates and fine droplet size will help ensure good canopy penetration and coverage.
In 2014, despite some commercial crops receiving an application of foliar fungicide they still developed stem rot later in the season. This is not unexpected, as the fungicide will have a limited period of protection during a time of rapid plant
SOURCE: STEVE MARCROFT
SOURCE: STEVE MARCROFT
FIGURE 1 Stem and branch blackleg symptoms observed across southern Australia in 2014.
Blackleg canker on canola branch. Blackleg lesions progressing up canola stems.
FIGURE 2 Typical blackleg symptoms on canola leaves and crown.
Leaf lesions from blackleg normally occur during autumn and winter on cotyledons and leaves.
Typical canola crown canker caused by blackleg.
Blackleg lesion on canola stem. Blackened pith inside infected canola stem.
FIGURE 2 Typical sclerotinia symptoms.
Sclerotinia causes white, bleached lesions that normally completely girdle the stems and branches.
Sclerotinia produces sclerotia small, dark and hard survival structures.
SOURCE: STEVE MARCROFT
5Canola
TABLE 1 Timing of application of Prosaro (one or two applications) in managing sclerotinia stem rot in canola.
Treatment timing Incidence Yield (kg/ha) Gross margin ($)
Nil 48 980 0
67 leaf stage 35 1029 13
10% bloom 31 1138 41
30% bloom 33 1091 17
50% bloom 24 1260** 102
1 week after 50% bloom 17 1208** 76
67 leaf and 10% bloom* 37 1196 32
10% and 50% bloom* 21 1324** 96
50% bloom and 3 weeks* 23 1263** 65
LSD (P
6 Canola
Rotate resistant varieties to outflank blacklegGrowing canola varieties with different blackleg resistance genes will slow the development of disease resistance
By Dr Steve Marcroft
THE FUNGAL DISEASE blackleg can be minimised in canola by: sowing varieties with high
blackleg resistance; sowing canola at least 500 metres
from the previous seasons canola stubble (and never into the previous years canola paddocks); and
applying fungicides in crops at high risk of developing blackleg.Blackleg severity is influenced
by environment and canola intensity. Regions with more than 20 per cent of the cropping area sown to canola and greater than 500 millimetres of annual rainfall (with more than 100mm falling before sowing in March to May) are at highest risk of blackleg infection.
Canola is most vulnerable to blackleg as a seedling. If crops are sown early into warmer conditions and get through the seedling growth stage quickly before blackleg spores are released, they may escape high blackleg severity but may also be more prone to aphid damage and to blackleg stem canker.
ROTATE RESISTANCE GENESThe blackleg rating for canola varieties, published every year in the Blackleg Management Guide (www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-BlacklegManagementGuide), is the most important blackleg management tool. The guide classifies Australian canola varieties according to their blackleg resistance groups.
If varieties based on the same resistance gene are grown each year, the blackleg fungus can overcome varietal resistance. It is important to switch to another resistance grouping if the same variety has been grown for three years and blackleg infection is increasing. Changing to a canola variety with different resistance genes will slow the development of resistance breakdown.
Each year, representative varieties from each of the resistance groups are sown at 40 National Variety Trials (NVT) sites across Australia and monitored for levels
of blackleg infection. The monitoring sites are sown without any fungicide protection on seed or fertiliser and do not receive any foliar fungicide applications.
Stem canker (rot) incidence is recorded by pulling plants out of the ground, cutting the crown and scoring the percentage of the crown infected (0 to 100 per cent).
The monitoring information indicates which resistance groups have higher levels of disease compared with the national average and provide an indication of whether the blackleg population is able to attack one or more particular resistance groups.
The annual blackleg monitoring information is released each year via NVT Online (www.nvtonline.com.au).
If the previous canola crop had a high level of disease, choosing a variety with a higher blackleg rating will help combat the disease.
If the same resistance genes are used each year it is inevitable that the blackleg pathogen will overcome the varietal resistance. Rotating varieties with different resistance genes and avoiding a fungicide-only management approach will reduce the chance of the pathogen overcoming resistance.
STUBBLE AND BLACKLEGBlackleg spores come from the previous years canola stubble. To minimise blackleg infection, canola should be planted at least 500m from the previous seasons canola stubble.
Stubble destruction is not effective in reducing blackleg infection because enough stubble usually remains to harbour blackleg spores.
Stubble older than two years produces fewer blackleg spores and will normally have minimal impact on blackleg severity. However, inter-row sowing of canola into two-year-old canola stubble may result in higher levels of blackleg infection if germinating seedlings are immediately next to standing stubble.
DETERMINING BLACKLEG RISKA combination of high canola intensity and adequate rainfall increases the probability
of severe blackleg infection (Table 1). Determining the extent of blackleg
damage each season helps guide canola management decisions the following season (Table 2).
Canola crops can be assessed for blackleg damage from the end of flowering through to windrowing (swathing). Pull 60 randomly chosen stalks out of the ground, cut off the roots with a pair of secateurs and, using the reference photos in Table 2, estimate the amount of disease in the stem cross-section.
Canola yield loss occurs when more than half the cross-section is discoloured with blackleg.
If blackleg monitoring identifies yield loss and the same variety has been grown for three years or more, choose a variety from a different resistance group for the following season.
FUNGICIDE-TOLERANT BLACKLEG RAISES CONCERNSBlackleg isolates with tolerance to the fungicide fluquinconazole (Jockey) were identified in a small 2014 survey.
Further survey work in 2015 will determine the distribution of the fungicide-tolerant fungal strains, potential yield losses and how the tolerance may affect other fungicides.
It is still recommended that growers use fluquinconazole in 2015. However, other blackleg management practices such as strategic use of variety blackleg ratings, separating crops from the previous years stubble and rotating variety resistance groups should be given a higher priority.
Blackleg fungus reproduces sexually, which means it can quickly mix and match its genes to produce strains that can overcome the disease resistance bred into canola varieties.
7Canola
GRDC Research Code UM00051 More information: Dr Steve Marcroft,
Marcroft Grains Pathology, 03 5381
2294, [email protected];
Professor Barbara Howlett, University of
Melbourne, 03 8344 5062, b.howlett@
unimelb.edu.au
This research is undertaken as part of the National Canola Pathology Program led by Professor Barbara Howlett.
Cut a plant at the crown to assess internal infection.
PHOTO: STEVE MARCROFT
TABLE 2 Crop blackleg severity.
High risk Medium risk Low risk
Yield loss occurs when more than half of the cross-section is discoloured.
Cankered 60%100% 40%80% 0%20%
TABLE 1 Regional blackleg factors.
Environmental factors that determine risk of severe blackleg infection
Blackleg severity risk factor
High risk Medium risk Low risk
Regional canola intensity (% area sown to canola) above 20 1620 15 1114 1114 10 69 5 below 5
Annual rainfall (mm) above 600 551600 501550 451500 401-450 351400 301350 251300 below 250
Total rainfall received MarchMay prior to sowing (mm) above 100 above 100 above 100 above 100 91100 8190 7180 6170 below 60
Combined high canola intensity and adequate rainfall increase the probability of severe blackleg infection.
8 Canola
CURIOUS CANKERS CONFIRMED AS BLACKLEG Sowing time and variety resistance rating can be used to minimise new blackleg symptoms
By Dr Steve Marcroft
UNUSUAL BLACKLEG SYMPTOMS on canola stems and branches observed across southern Australia during 2014 were likely the result of early-sown crops developing faster than normal and hitting the blackleg disease peak during early flowering.
Symptoms included lesions and cankers on stems and branches, and inside the stems, causing the pith to become blackened (Figure 1).
Lesions varied in size from one centimetre through to the entire length of the plant and in many cases branches died prematurely. Some lesions contained pycnidial fruiting bodies (small black dots); however, many lesions had no fruiting bodies. In some instances the stem and branch lesions/cankers appeared to cause more yield loss than typical crown cankers.
Normal blackleg infection typically occurs as lesions on the cotyledons and the first true leaves but infection can develop on any plant part. The fungus grows from the lesion to the crown (the junction between the stem and roots) where it causes a canker, blocking the vascular tissue and causing the plant to fall over and die (Figure 2).
EARLY-SOWN CROPSMolecular marker technology confirmed that the pathogen associated with the infected canola stems and branches was indeed the blackleg fungus. Members of the GRDC-funded National Canola Pathology Program believe the unusual blackleg symptoms were caused by environmental conditions.
Normally blackleg infection occurs from May through to July, which usually coincides with the vegetative stage of the canola crop (when no stem/branches have yet formed). In 2014, crops were sown early and warm conditions through early winter meant that plants were more developed than usual by July. Blackleg infection was at its most intense when canola crops had elongated, produced branches and had their first flowers.
The 2014 blackleg infection was exacerbated by frost damage
to green (and therefore soft) canola branches, which provided an entry point for the blackleg fungus.
DISTINGUISHING BLACKLEG AND SCLEROTINIA STEM ROTBlackleg stem and branch infection can be misdiagnosed as sclerotinia stem rot. Sclerotinia does not produce the pycnidial fruiting bodies (small black dots see Figure 2 below) characteristic of blackleg but instead produces sclerotia small, dark and hard survival structures (Figure 2, page 4).
GRDC Research Code UM00051 More information: Dr Steve Marcroft,
Marcroft Grains Pathology, 03 5381 2294,
SOURCE: STEVE MARCROFT
SOURCE: STEVE MARCROFT
FIGURE 1 Stem and branch blackleg symptoms observed across southern Australia in 2014.
Blackleg canker on canola branch. Blackleg lesions progressing up canola stems.
FIGURE 2 Typical blackleg symptoms on canola leaves and crown.
Leaf lesions from blackleg normally occur during autumn and winter on cotyledons and leaves.
Typical canola crown canker caused by blackleg.
Blackleg lesion on canola stem. Blackened pith inside infected canola stem.
FIGURE 3 Typical sclerotinia symptoms.
Sclerotinia causes white, bleached lesions that normally completely girdle the stems and branches.
Sclerotinia does not produce the pycnidual fruiting bodies (small black dots) characteristic of blackleg but instead produces sclerotia small, dark and hard survival structures (pictured).SOURCE: STEVE MARCROFT
Early-sown canola is more likely to be flowering and elongating during peak blackleg severity and suffer stem and branch cankers as a result.
MANAGEMENT OF STEM/BRANCH INFECTION Time sowing date so that stem
elongation occurs in the normal flowering window rather than in winter, when blackleg infection is at its most intense.
Sow varieties with effective major gene resistance for blackleg. In 2014 varieties from blackleg resistance Groups D, E and F did not develop the stem/branch cankers, even at sites where varieties from Groups A, B, C and S did develop branch cankers.
It is important to note that seed-dressing fungicides and Prosaro applied at the four-to-six-leaf growth stage will not protect stem and branches from blackleg infection.
PRE-EMPTIVE BREEDING PROTECTS PULSE INDUSTRYPre-emptive breeding for rust resistance is the most cost-effective way to manage this exotic disease threat
By Megan Meates
RESEARCH UNDERWAY AT the Centre for Crop and Disease Management (CCDM), which is funded by the GRDC and Curtin University, is ensuring that Australian pulse varieties will contain resistance to lentil and field pea rust diseases currently exotic to Australia.
The pre-breeding research is focused on finding resistant sources for: lentil rust the most significant foliar
disease of lentil in north and east Africa, South America and south Asia; and
field pea rust a significant disease in tropical and subtropical areas such as northern India and China, and one that can cause substantial yield constraints in temperate regions such as Spain and Canada. The research will ensure Australian
pulse varieties are already armed with resistance should rust diseases reach Australian shores in the future.
Pre-emptive development of resistant varieties is the most effective and economic way to manage potential incursions of the diseases into Australia in the future.
Led by Dr Judith Lichtenzveig, the research is assessing exotic pulse landraces
and Pulse Breeding Australia (PBA) breeding lines in rust-hot countries to uncover novel sources of resistance to the diseases and gather information about how the pathogen populations behave.
The goal is to deliver genetic tools and material to PBA to enable a pre-emptive breeding program for the costly diseases.
The research team includes Professor Diego Rubiales, a leading rust scientist at CSIC-IAS (Spain), Dr Seid Kemal, a pulse pathologist at the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (Morocco and Ethiopia), Professor Ramesh Chand, from Banaras Hindu University (India), Professor Bao Shiying, from Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences (China), in collaboration with PBA breeders Peter Kennedy and Matthew Rodda, from the Victorian Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources.
Rust outbreaks in Australian lentil and field pea crops could result in yield losses of 40 to 70 per cent and cost the industry as much as $20 million per year under current cropping conditions with complete crop failure possible in some circumstances.
Weather conditions during the Australian pulse-growing season are favourable to rust
development, so it is crucial that the exotic pathogens are studied to minimise the chances of an Australia disease outbreak.
The most common pathogen of rust in cool season legumes is Uromyces viciae-fabae. Isolates of U. viciae-fabae are specialised for one or more host species. For example, lentil-derived rust isolates are better adapted to and develop higher disease levels on lentil than on other pulse species.
In Australia, faba bean crops are affected by an isolate of U. viciae-fabae to which lentils and field peas appear to be immune. Although there are U. viciae-fabae strains capable of infecting field peas, the disease levels are not as severe as those caused by the rust species U. pisi, which has a narrower host range, primarily affecting field peas.
The CCDM research is gathering information on the distribution, prevalence, population structure and host range of the U. viciae-fabae species to better inform pulse-breeding programs.
GRDC Research Code CUR00020 More information: Dr Judith Lichtenzveig,
CCDM, Curtin University, 08 9266 9914,
Field pea and lentil rust diseases currently exotic to Australia could cost the industry as much as $20 million in lost production and control costs should the diseases find their way into the country.
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Australian lentil rust nursery at Chefe Donsa, Ethiopia (2014-15 cropping season).
Inset: Lentils showing moderate susceptible (left) to susceptible reactions to rust infection. Medium to large-sized uredinia associated with chlorosis, typical lentil-rust symptoms, are visible on both.
10 Disease surveillance
Spore behaviour reveals secretsSpore trapping and disease-monitoring research is helping to develop accurate disease forecasts, so that growers can implement more timely and targeted management practices
By Dr Rohan Kimber and Dr Jenny Davidson
SPORE TRAPS ACROSS South Australian grain-growing regions are delivering a detailed picture of the environmental triggers underpinning fungal diseases in a range of crops.
Led by the SA Research and Development Institute (SARDI), the research is unravelling the spore-release patterns of fungal diseases such as blackspot in field peas and ascochyta blight in lentils under different seasonal rainfall and temperature conditions.
The research shows that spore release from stubble infested with blackspot or ascochyta blight fungi is driven by different environmental triggers with rainfall a primary driver for blackspot and temperature the initial stimulus for ascochyta blight.
The findings have important management implications for the two diseases and are being used to help refine and develop disease-forecasting tools.
BLACKSPOT IN FIELD PEASSummer and autumn rainfall events drive spore development and release of the blackspot (ascochyta blight) fungus. As a result, the timing of spore release can vary widely even at the same site (Figures 1 and 2).
The relationship between summer/autumn rain and spore release underpins the Blackspot Manager model developed by the Department of Agriculture and Food, WA, and now used widely across southern Australia to guide the field pea sowing date.
Figures 1 and 2 show the results of SARDI spore trapping research at Hart, SA, in 2013 and 2014. The very different release patterns for the two years at the same site demonstrate the impact of environmental conditions on the timing of spore release from infested stubble at the start of the season and from within the field pea crop during spring.
Blackspot in field pea can be managed by manipulating sowing date to avoid the autumn/winter spore release and by
Blackspot spore development is driven by summer/autumn rain, while ascochyta blight spore development is triggered by a temperature drop.
Sclerotia germination triggers sought Understanding the seasonal conditions that trigger sclerote germination and disease spread could greatly improve sclerotinia management.
Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia plant pathologist Ciara Beard coordinated field experiments in 2014 to determine the soil moisture requirements for sclerotia germination and longevity under WA wheatbelt conditions.
Sclerotia sourced from a lupin crop in the northern WA wheatbelt (small sclerotia) and a second source from a canola crop on the south coast (larger sclerotia) were placed at field trial sites at Geraldton, Northam, Esperance, Albany and South Perth. Rainfall, soil temperature, air temperature and humidity were recorded at each site.
Soil containing the sclerotia was either kept moist, exposed to natural field conditions or placed in a rainout shelter for one month and then watered to simulate a delayed break to the season.
The trial confirmed the need for moist soils for at least seven to 10 days before sclerotes would germinate. Germination of sclerotes under natural field conditions was delayed while those in the delayed break treatment germinated one month after the irrigated treatment.
Interestingly, many more of the smaller sclerotes sourced from the northern wheatbelt in WA (Eneabba) germinated than the larger sclerotes sourced from the south coast (which only germinated when watered).
No sclerotes from either source germinated at Geraldton or Esperance due to low rainfall and hot conditions in 2014 drying out the soil.
Soil texture at each site will be assessed and correlated with sclerote germination rates. In watered plots, fruiting bodies (apothecia, pictured left) small mushrooms that germinate from the sclerotia survived about one month before dying. Some sclerotes re-germinated to produce another apothecia when the first fruiting body had died, showing the ongoing nature of spore production when conditions are right.
The field research and laboratory work will continue in 2015. Better understanding of the life cycle of the Sclerotinia sclerotiorum pathogen and why some years are more conducive to disease development than others will assist growers in improving management.
applying foliar fungicides before the spring spore release, provided crop yields are high enough (greater than two tonnes per hectare) to justify this economically.
ASCOCHYTA IN LENTILSTemperature is the primary driver of Ascochyta lentis, with spore maturation starting only once the pathogen has been exposed to a chilling event of 10C or less. In SA this usually occurs in April. Consequently, any summer or early autumn rainfall that occurs before the required chilling event will have no impact on spore maturation and release. After the chilling event has occurred, rainfall becomes the primary factor driving spore maturation and release from lentil stubble.
Figure 3 shows spore release patterns in lentil stubble at Maitland, SA, over four years (201114) and at Bute, SA, in 2014.
In contrast to the blackspot examples in field peas in Figures 1 and 2, spore release from infested lentil stubble occurs at a similar time each year regardless of location (due to the temperature drop around April). Summer and autumn have minimal influence on the pattern of spore release so sowing date cannot be used as a risk-management strategy for this disease.
Fungicide seed dressing against A. lentis is imperative to protect lentil seedlings against airborne spores. This is particularly important in regions where lentils are grown close to the previous years stubble.
GRDC Research Codes DAS00139, UM00051, PBC00003
More information: Dr Jenny Davidson, SARDI, 08 8303 9389, [email protected];
Blackspot Manager,
www.agric.wa.gov.au/field-pea-essentials
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11Disease surveillance
SOURCE: JENNY DAVIDSON
FIGURE 1 Hart spore trap 2013.Number of blackspot spores released
FIGURE 2 Hart spore trap 2014.Number of blackspot spores released
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21 A
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11 M
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31 M
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20 J
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Field peas Field peas120
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20 F
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22 M
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21 A
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FIGURE 3 Numbers of ascospores released from infested lentil stubble in South Australia 201114.Number of ascochyta spores released1400
1200
1000
800
600
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Date Stubble incubation, Maitland 2011 Stubble incubation, Maitland 2012
Stubble incubation, Maitland 2013 Stubble incubation, Maitland 2014
Stubble incubation, Bute 2014
1 M
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21 M
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Dr Rohan Kimber from SARDI. Fungal spores suspended in air are drawn into spore traps where they hit and stick to adhesive tape mounted inside the drum. The drum completes a rotation in a predetermined time, so that weather information can be linked to the position of the spores on the tape. In this way, the environmental triggers underpinning spore development and release can be established. Where previously spores had to be manually counted and identified, new DNA technology enables the spores to be identified rapidly and accurately. The goal is to progress this work to develop a real-time analysis of spore type and number to better guide disease-management decisions.
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Emerging canola diseases The area sown to canola in Australia has increased from 1.39 million hectares in 2009 to 2.29 million hectares in 2013. While it is recognised that blackleg (caused by Leptosphaeria maculans) and sclerotinia stem rot (caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) remain serious impediments to sustainable canola production, there is much less information on the biology and control of other fungal diseases in Australia.
Recent surveys suggest that the prevalence and intensity of some diseases, such as downy mildew, white leaf spot, powdery mildew and alternaria pod spot, has increased as a result of increased canola sowings.
Observations have also been made on some newly emerging pathogens such as club root, charcoal rot and Fusarium root rot complex, which have recently been recorded for the first time on canola in Australia.
To determine the impact of emerging diseases on canola, a national GRDC-funded monitoring program has been established to deliver seasonal summaries of disease constraints to canola production. The information will help guide future canola disease research priorities.
Canola disease monitoring is being undertaken each season in Western Australia, Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales.
In the 2013 survey in WA, samples were collected from 33 commercial crops at early seedling stage and 87 crops at maturity. Among early-season diseases, downy mildew was most prevalent, followed by white leaf spot and damping-off. Late-season powdery mildew and charcoal rot were present at low levels and club root was detected in only one sample from southern WA. High levels of beet western yellows virus (BWYV) also known as turnip yellows virus were observed in samples from high-rainfall areas in the southern region, whereas turnip mosaic virus was detected in
only one per cent of samples. Eight trial sites in Victoria, NSW and SA were monitored in 2013 for canola diseases other than blackleg and sclerotinia at both the seedling stage and maturity.
In Victoria, downy mildew was present at all eight sites with the incidence ranging from 10 to 100 per cent of samples in Brassica napus and 0 to 55 per cent in B. juncea cultivars. Very high levels of downy mildew were observed at Hamilton, Streatham and Wunghnu, particularly in B. napus cultivars. B. juncea was almost free from downy mildew at all sites except for Minyip, where incidence of downy mildew was 55 per cent.
White leaf spot was observed at all eight sites with the highest levels (100 per cent) at Diggora, Hamilton and Wunghnu. Incidence of white leaf spot ranged between 5 to 100 per cent and 0 to 100 per cent for B. napus and B. juncea, respectively.
Among late-season diseases in Victoria, severe alternaria pod spot was observed at Streatham and Hamilton. In SA, alternaria pod spot was observed at all sites except Mt Hope. Severe symptoms of alternaria were observed at Arthurton and Turretfield Research Centre. Mild levels of powdery mildew were observed only at Turretfield Research Centre.
Interestingly, no seedling canola disease (other than sclerotinia and blackleg) was observed at any of the eight trial sites in NSW. Similarly, no late-season diseases were observed at any NSW sites except at Mullaley, where very mild levels of powdery mildew were observed.
BWYV was recorded at all sites in spring, and was particularly high (15 to 30 per cent infection) at the Riverton and Roseworthy sites in SA at the seedling stage. RAVJIT KHANGURA
GRDC Research Code UM00051 National Canola Pathology Program (see page 6)
12 Pulses
CLOSE MONITORING SHOWS CHANGING PATHOGEN STRAINS Disease monitoring activities across southern Australia are helping breeders and growers stay on top of new pathogen strains
By Dr Rohan Kimber
GRDC-FUNDED DISEASE MONITORING work across National Variety Trials (NVT), Pulse Breeding Australia (PBA) and commercial crops in southern Australia has identified new strains of ascochyta affecting lentils and faba beans. A virulent strain of Ascochyta lentis
able to infect the previously resistant variety NipperA is widespread across South Australia and Victoria. This variety should now be managed similarly to the less-resistant Nugget for ascochyta blight.
A virulent strain of A. fabae able to infect PBA RanaA and FarahA is common in lower and mid-north SA. These varieties will require foliar fungicides when grown in these regions.The monitoring work is part of two
broader research programs being funded by the GRDC and the SA Grain Industry Trust, which are providing information on the biology of crop pathogens to support the development of more effective management strategies. The spore release patterns of fungal pathogens are being monitored using trap plants and the information from the aerial pathogens will be correlated with weather data to identify conditions that promote spore dispersal.
LENTILSFive lentil hosts (Indianhead, ILL7537, NipperA, Northfield and the susceptible Cumra) were exposed to isolates of A. lentis collected between 201014 from naturally infected lentil field trials in SA and Victoria.
Ascochyta infection in NipperA is becoming more common, with blight lesions increasingly more aggressive on this variety in recent years. Of the 21 isolates collected in 2013 from NipperA, the four most aggressive were originally from Hart, Riverton, Melton and Kulpara in SA, and the remaining 17 isolates were from 10 sites on Yorke Peninsula and from Tarlee, SA.
Lentil entries in the 2014 NVT were exposed, under controlled conditions, to
a virulent and avirulent (not infectious) ascochyta isolate on NipperA. The results indicated that the NipperA virulent form of A. lentis is widespread. While dry conditions in the August and spring of 2014 resulted in very low levels of ascochyta blight, growers should remain vigilant about controlling the disease as inoculum can carryover for two to three seasons.
FABA BEANSControlled-environment testing of A. fabae isolates collected from mid-north SA has confirmed that a new strain has overcome the resistance of FarahA and PBA RanaA. However, NuraA and PBA SamiraA remain resistant to the pathogen.
The findings prompted large-scale screening of present and historical faba bean breeding material in 2014, in collaboration with the PBA faba bean breeding program at the University of Adelaide, to identify lines resistant to the new strain.
More than 80 breeding accessions were tested against the new and old A. fabae isolates. Seventy-three accessions were resistant to the old strain but only 24 of these were also resistant to the new strain. There was also a strong relationship between the disease ratings of the breeding material and the geographical location where genetic material was originally collected.
Most of the breeding material resistant to the new strain originated from the Middle East and Mediterranean Basin, while material sourced from China previously selected for resistance to ascochyta was susceptible to the new strain. Within the material from the Middle East some was resistant while other breeding material was moderately susceptible to very susceptible to the new strain.
In response to the virulence shift, PBA SamiraA has been identified as resistant and significant plantings are expected in SA and Victoria.
It is important that PBA SamiraA plantings are at least 200 metres from other faba bean crops, to exclude cross-pollination and maintain genetic purity in seed that is retained for the following season.
GRDC Research Codes UM00052,
DAS00139, DAN00176, UA00127
More information: Dr Rohan Kimber, SARDI,
08 8303 9380, [email protected];
Dr Jeffrey Paull, University of Adelaide,
08 8313 6564, [email protected]
A virulent strain of Ascochyta lentis able to infect the previously resistant variety Nipper
A
is widespread across South Australia and Victoria. This variety should now be managed similarly to the less-resistant Nugget for ascochyta blight.
Ascochyta lesions on PBA RanaA
pods. Faba bean varieties PBA Rana
A
and FarahA
grown in the lower and mid north of South Australia are susceptible to a virulent strain of Ascochyta fabae and will require foliar fungicides when grown in these regions.
Ascochyta infection in the previously resistant lentil variety NipperA is becoming more common in South Australia and Victoria due to the emergence of a more virulent strain of the disease.
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13Pulses / oilseeds
Staying abreast of chickpea ascochyta
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GRDC-funded research, with linkages to SARDI (page 12) and Curtin University Centre for Crop and Disease Management (page 14), led by Associate Professor Rebecca Ford at the University of Melbourne is gaining a clearer picture of the relative aggressiveness of chickpea ascochyta isolates across Australian chickpea-growing regions.
The aim is to supply the most destructive isolates annually to the national chickpea-breeding program, being led by Dr Kristy Hobson from the New South Wales Department of Primary Industries (DPI), for pre-emptive resistance breeding. The potential for the pathogen to erode current sources of resistance sources is also being assessed.
Advanced breeding material is screened for its disease response to the most aggressive isolates under conditions optimal for disease development. The team is also using information on location, host genotype, isolate frequency and aggressiveness to determine whether the ascochyta pathogen is adapting within popular commercial chickpea varieties.
The survey work has recently identified several particularly aggressive ascochyta isolates of differing pathotypes, including several from South Australia that can generate spores and cause extensive damage to the resistant chickpea varieties PBA HatTrick
A
and GenesisTM090. Other isolates from northern NSW have been found to sporulate on
and destroy PBA HatTrickA
but not GenesisTM090; however, no isolate has been detected that can overcome the ICC3996 resistance source, although moderate disease has been noted.
The findings show that the ascochyta population is potentially changing and becoming more pathogenic to even the most resistant chickpea varieties.
We are always going to be a season behind the pathogen, but the survey work is so important because it enables us to keep abreast of the most aggressive isolates and where they are located regionally,
Associate Professor Ford says.By identifying the most aggressive
isolates we can ensure that future chickpea varieties are going to be as sustainable as possible for as long as possible.
Associate Professor Ford is working closely with Dr Kevin Moore from the NSW DPI to unravel the biology of the new ascochyta isolates.
We want to determine how the isolates are interacting with chickpea varieties and whether the more aggressive forms of the pathogen are in fact breaking down the physical and biochemical barriers that condition varietal resistance to the disease.
Associate Professor Ford is keen to receive more ascochyta isolates for testing. Samples should be sent to:
Dr Sam Sambasivum
Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences
The University of Melbourne, Parkville Victoria 3010
Collected infected tissue such as leaf and stem should be put in separate paper bags as dry as possible and posted as soon as possible. Include collectors name and contact details, location of collection and cultivar on the bag.
GRDC Research Codes UM00052, DAN00151
More information: Rebecca Ford, University of Melbourne,
[email protected]; Dr Kevin Moore, NSW Department of
Primary Industries, 02 6763 1133, [email protected]; Kristy
Hobson, NSW DPI, 02 6763 1174, [email protected]
Summer crops play an important part in the varied farming systems from central New South Wales to Central Queensland where they provide a break for wheat diseases, while enabling weed-management options and crop-income diversity.
Integrated disease management (IDM) of the major diseases of summer crops, through various combinations of plant resistance, fungicides, planting seed selection, planting time, paddock selection and other agronomic practices, has been the focus of the joint University of Southern Queensland (USQ) and Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries summer field crops pathology team.
Examples of IDM include: the strategic use of fungicides and resistance to manage rust and leaf spot of peanuts and powdery mildew of mungbeans; and resistance/tolerance studies and planting strategies to manage tobacco streak virus in sunflowers and other crops in Central Queensland.
The current focus of research is on the roles that all crops (and weeds) in the varied farming systems play in biology of pathogens of
summer field crops to provide improved management options.The researchers are finding that some pathogens have a much
wider host range than previously thought.Some newly found Diaporthe (Phomopsis) species are capable
of causing stem cankers on sunflowers, soybeans and mungbeans and a range of other crops, but can also infect a range of live weeds and weed stubble; others can infect host plants without causing symptoms such as the damaging D. gulyae on maize.
Similarly, Fusarium thapsinum, which is a major cause of sorghum stalk rot, has been shown to be capable of invading living plants of non-hosts including chickpeas, mungbeans and maize, with no symptoms being displayed.
Plant residues are an important mode of survival of many plant pathogens, including species of Diaporthe and Fusarium.
Traditionally, infected residues of the recognised major hosts, for example sorghum infected with F. thapsinum, charcoal rot on sunflowers, sorghum and soybeans and Diaporthe species on sunflowers and soybeans, have been considered to be the main means of survival from season to season. However, preliminary findings suggest that residues of asymptomatic non-hosts including crops and weeds may play a similarly important role and can be a reservoir for disease.
These findings have farm-scale implications, particularly with respect to stubble and weed management and crop sequences.
GRDC Research Code DAQ00186
More information: Dr Sue Thompson, USQ, 0477 718 593,
Wide host range for summer diseases
Sunflowers on the Darling Downs, Queensland.
Immature chickpeas.
NATIONALLY COORDINATED EFFORT TO TACKLE ASCOCHYTA BLIGHT OF PULSES
By Megan Meates
ASCOCHYTA BLIGHT IS the most economically damaging disease of field peas, chickpeas, lentils and faba beans, with an estimated cost to the Australian industry of more than $120 million in annual disease control and yield loss.
Dr Judith Lichtenzveig, from Curtin Universitys Centre for Crop and Disease Management (CCDM), which is co-funded by the GRDC and Curtin University, leads the ascochyta blight program, a collaborative initiative that integrates the capabilities and expertise of geneticists and pathologists from across Australia.
Her teams long-term goal is to
package a set of complementary breeding tools developed by studying the plant, the fungus and the interaction between them. The tools will ensure breeders, pathologists and advisers have breeding-management options at their fingertips to minimise the economic impact of ascochyta blight.
Due to disease pressure, growers are advised to sow late or avoid certain cropping areas. In Western Australia, when looking for a break crop, growers tend to prefer non-legume options in their rotation, due to legumes' inconsistent yields and, therefore, inconsistent profitability. Overall, ascochyta blight results in lower grain yields and gross margins and in some areas it even leads to a reduction in the cropping areas dedicated to pulse
production, Dr Lichtenzveig says.To improve growers confidence in
pulse crops we need to develop varieties with higher yield stability, which is why we are keeping a close eye on pathogen surveillance and developing selection tools. Improved varieties will enhance the adoption of pulses.
Breeding programs are successfully delivering varieties with increasing levels of resistance, but progress is slow and the pathogen populations are continually changing, jeopardising the current disease-management strategies, such as use of resistant cultivars and fungicide application.
Dr Lichtenzveig says pathogen surveillance involves a nationally
Diseases pursued in multi-pronged breeding programThe GRDC pulse germplasm enhancement program is pursuing resistance genetics for a range of pulse diseases
14 Pulses
Pulse breeders have been involved in defining the project priorities and are part of a management team guiding and reviewing the research. The project also has close linkages with the Australian Grains Genebank and the Pulse Molecular Marker project.
Breeding material and screening methods developed through the research will be delivered to Pulse Breeding Australia (PBA) for future varietal development.
The research program is pursuing resistance genetics for chocolate spot in
faba beans, downy mildew and bacterial blight in field peas, Stemphylium blight in lentils and botrytis grey mould in chickpeas, lentils and faba beans.
ADVANCED SCREENING METHODSA new method developed to detect botrytis grey mould resistance in lentils and chickpeas has reduced the time required to screen for potential disease resistance from five months to five weeks. The new screening method uses two-week-old seedlings, which can
By Dr Tony Slater
IMPROVED DISEASE RESISTANCE in Australian lentil, field pea, chickpea and faba bean varieties is the goal of the GRDC-funded pulse germplasm enhancement program, which will run until 2016.
The pre-breeding research has a particular focus on pulse diseases that have so far received little breeding attention and those that are highly complex and therefore difficult for commercial breeding companies to tackle.
15Pulses
resistance traits have been developed and provided to PBA to fast track the delivery of field pea varieties with improved downy mildew resistance.
Field peas with improved resistance to two bacterial blight strains have been identified and new knowledge gained about the diversity and virulence of bacterial blight strains. A new seedling screening method for the disease has been readily adopted by PBA and will help speed the development of field pea varieties
The Pulse Pathology and Genetics team at the Centre for Crop and Disease Management, Curtin University (from left): Dr Judith Lichtenzveig, Lina Farfan-Caceres, Wing Yee Liu, Rob Lee, Kate Montgomery, Johannes Debler, Rob Syme, Chala Turo, Christy Grime and Bernadette Henares.
coordinated survey and characterisation of fungal collections for ascochyta blight in field peas, lentils and faba beans (pages 12 and 13). From here her team is able to assess resistance breakdown risks and predict future changes in pathogen populations.
Developing novel selection tools is also a big part of the research program. Dr Lichtenzveigs team is studying the genomes of species causing ascochyta blight to discover fungal effectors proteins secreted by the fungus that are the determinants of the disease outcome. Information about the genetic composition of the pathogen populations is leading to the discovery of novel sources of ascochyta resistance in field peas, lentils, faba beans and chickpeas.
This research will guide breeding and biosecurity strategies, aid in the discovery of resistance genes in the crop, and provide the means for cost and time-effective
improvement of ascochyta blight resistance and management, Dr Lichtenzveig says.
If all goes to plan, and we develop the breeding tools needed to produce resistant varieties, then we can really make a difference to the growers hip pocket.
The national effort involves Dr Jenny Davidson and Dr Rohan Kimber (South Australian Research and Development Institute), Associate Professor Rebecca Ford (Griffith University), Kurt Lindbeck (NSW Department of Primary Industries), Pragya Kant (Victorian Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and
Resources), Dr Janine Croser (University of Western Australia) and Dr Sarita Bennett and the Pulse Pathology and Genetics team at the CCDM, Curtin University.
Growers are encouraged to keep up to date with the latest on Dr Lichtenzveigs pulse research by signing up to the CCDM newsletter (www.ccdm.com.au).
GRDC Research Code CUR00023
More information: Dr Judith Lichtenzveig,
CCDM, Curtin University,
be tested for possible resistance genetics within two to three weeks of inoculation. Similarly, a screening method for chocolate spot in faba beans has been validated and seed from third-generation crosses has been generated for delivery to PBA.
Research is being done to better understand how the downy mildew pathogen interacts with its field pea host and sources of resistance to the disease have been identified in PBA breeding material. Screening methods for the
with resistance to bacterial blight.Two new sources of stronger resistance
to Stemphylium blight in lentils have been identified and a screening method for the disease delivered to PBA.
GRDC Research Code DAV00117
More information: Dr Tony Slater,
Victorian Department of Economic
Development, Jobs, Transport and
Resources, 03 9032 7325,
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The GRDC Pulse Germplasm Enhancement Program is pursuing resistance genetics for a range of pulse diseases including chocolate spot in faba beans, downy mildew and bacterial blight in field peas, Stemphylium blight in lentils, root lesion nematodes in chickpeas and botrytis grey mould in chickpeas, lentils and faba beans. The research is sourcing promising resistance genetics from pulse landraces and wild relatives (such as those pictured) and other breeding material.
A new method developed to detect botrytis grey mould resistance in lentils and chickpeas has reduced the time required to screen for potential disease resistance from five months to just five weeks.
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