GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE Vytautas Magnus University, … · 2017-07-31 · M. De Fleur, G. Gerbner,...

Nijole Petkeviciute, Dalia Streimikiene ISSN 2071-789X

INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY

Economics & Sociology, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2017

279

Nijole Petkeviciute, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected]

GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE NEGOTIATION

Dalia Streimikiene, Vilnius University, Kaunas, Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT. Nowadays women more often lead teams, make plans as well as important decisions. They also strive for good results when collaborating with partners and take part in negotiations. Most of them get rather general recommendations on how to act in negotiations but very little attention is paid to gender differences, especially not enough interest is paid to the impact of women and their behavior in negotiations. Success in sustainable negotiation in many cases depends on gender stereotypes prevailing in the society. The object in this paper is the importance of gender differences in sustainable negotiations. The aim of the paper is to discuss the main gender behavior differences in sustainable negotiations.

Received: December, 2016 1st Revision: April, 2017 Accepted: June, 2017 DOI: 10.14254/2071-789X.2017/10-2/21

JEL Classification: J16, J53, M12, Z13

Keywords: communication, models of the communication, negotiation process, sustainable negotiation, gender.

Introduction

Success of sustainable negotiations in many cases depends on gender stereotypes

dominating in a particular society. Today women hold important positions in both private and

public organizations. Such women are strong, determined, and capable of making the right

decision. In 2010 the European Commission announced a ‘Europe 2020’ strategy which, inter

alia, focuses on gender equality: a tendency has been noticed that the best financial results are

demonstrated by organizations that demonstrate a balance between male and female

employees.

Nowadays women more often lead teams, make plans along with other important

decisions. They also strive for good results when collaborating with partners and take part in

negotiations. However, what role does the gender play in the process of negotiation? How do

opponents look at women in negotiations and does gender have impact on reaching a

sustainable agreement? It is difficult to offer univocal answers to these questions.

Many authors have been analysing the art of negotiation: preparation for negotiation,

behaviour and etiquette rules. Most of them provide general recommendations how to act in

negotiations but they do not pay enough attention to gender differences, especially not enough

interest is paid to the impact of women and their behaviour in negotiations. According to

some authors (Robbins, 2015; Al Mazrouei and Krotov, 2017), personal traits do not

influence the process of negotiation or end results.

The object of the paper is the importance of gender differences in sustainable

negotiations.

Petkeviciute, N., Streimikiene, D. (2017), Gender and Sustainable Negotiation, Economics and Sociology, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 279-295. DOI: 10.14254/2071-789X.2017/10-2/21

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]




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The aim of the paper is to discuss the main gender behaviour differences in sustainable

negotiation.

The methods of the research include the analysis of the related theoretical literature

and interpretation of the research results concerning women’s role and behaviour in

sustainable negotiations.

1. Communication and behaviour

Economists using evidence from behavioral economics suggested a redirection of

public policy from supply side to demand side measures (Poortinga et al., 2004; Abrahamse,

2003; Brekke et al., 2008; Dietz et al., 2009; or Abrhám et al., 2015). Very practical

examples of using behavioral understandings to inform policy include the design of

sustainable development plans and improving the reliability of identification in policy lineups.

In addition, behavioral economics plays important in modern economic research (Steg, 2008;

Reusswig, 2010; Dwyer et al., 1993). The user behavior is dependent on information,

motivation and responsibility. All these factors have to be addressed by several instruments

like incentives in communication and negotiation.

Communication is a complicated phenomenon. It is obvious that every participant is

important in the system of communication, environment and the most important role is

attributed to the space of developing interaction, because this is where sustainable perception

and mutual understanding is created, synergetic effect is created.

Synergetic effect is created by uniting the advantages of different communicants. If

the message of public relations is accepted by the consumers, they believe in it, advertising

allows to inform and to teach mass auditorium about how to use product or item, sales

promotion encourages the consumers to purchase, and all this is used together – there is a

possibility to achieve all at once. Synergetic effect enables to eliminate the vices of each

communicant and to develop sustainable communication.

When explaining the concept of communication, the process of exchanging

information is stressed. This process can happen not only in the society, but also in other

systems, e. g., in biological, technical etc. Meanwhile in the definitions of interaction the

building of a relation between two people is stressed, and not the exchange of information.

According to definitions, communication can happen between two cells, e. g. exchange of

genetic information, while interaction between the cells is impossible. It is obvious that those

two concepts are not synonyms, but they are related, e. g. communication can be present in

interacting.

Communication can be generally described as the process of exchanging information.

It is possible to say the communication is any exchange of information, intellectual or sensual

experience through verbal, written or non-verbal interaction and distribution and spread of

information. In scientific literature of Western world communication is usually explained as

the mutual process of exchanging information. E. g., according to K. Miller (2005),

communication is “the process of exchanging meanings between individuals using common

system of symbols”. Other authors state that communication is transmission of message from

sender to receiver (Bowman, 1987; Ruben, 1989). Also, Bowman indicates that a

communication forms relation between people and in this way provides conditions for their

cooperation and existence of organisations. As Nurmi (1998) notices analysing literature of

social sciences, communication is one of the most important characteristics of information

and knowledge society.

Most researchers relate communication with practical activity, do not stress passive

transmission and receiving of information, but emphasize endeavour of information sender to

achieve mutual understanding. E. g., according to S. Smith and S. Wilson (2010),




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communication is a process involving sorting, selection and exchange of symbols in order for

the receiver of the message to be able to formulate the meaning which would be the closest

possible to the one which was in the mind of the sender, and in this way the mutual

understanding can be achieved. Mcquail and Windhahl (1995) assert that “communication is a

process, in which participants create information and share it in order to achieve mutual

understanding”.

Persing (1981) offers an interesting definition of communication: communication is a

spiral process of transmitting the meaning using symbols, related to written, verbal and non-

verbal transmission and receiving of the message. Communication involves much more than

sending or even sending and receiving. This definition shows that when participants of the act

of communication reach mutual understanding, communication process develops

dynamically, because the spiral process of transmission of meaning is stressed. In the word

“process” (Lat. “processus”), “pro” means moving forward, and the whole word means a

change. Therefore, communication as a process evokes change, because while exchanging

information, the subjects exchange the results of their mental activity (thoughts, ideas,

experience, knowledge etc.), which enriches one side, as well as the other.

Willing to perceive what communication is, it is also important to review the whole

process of communication. One can find more than one model of communication process in

scientific literature. They are different: linear, cyclic, triangular, spiral etc. Most well-known

models of communication are presented by: H. D. Lasswell, C. E. Shannon, W. Weaver,

M. De Fleur, G. Gerbner, W. Schramm, F. Dance, B. Westley other authors (Miller, 2005).

The most popular levels of the process of communication are presented in scientific literature:

linear, cyclic, and spiral. In the linear level of the process, communication is approached as

one-way process, i. e. the sender only transmits the message to the receiver, but there is no

feedback. In this case the efficiency of communication depends on the ability of the sender to

encode the message properly, to choose the channel for message transmission.

One of the primary models of communication is the one by H. D. Lasswell.

H. D. Laswell started one of his articles with probably most famous phrase in the science of

communication: “the most convenient way to describe the act of communication is to answer

these questions: 1. Who? 2. What is said? 3. By which channel? 4. To whom? 5. What is the

effect? (Littlejohn and Foss, 2008; Bačík et al., 2015). Later the chain of these questions was

called Lasswell’s formula. This formula is presented in graphics in Figure 1.

Figure 1. H. D. Lasswell model of communication

It is possible to explain the essence of the H. D. Lasswell’s model in one question:

who said what to whom by which channel, and what is the effect achieved? These questions,

although really simplified, refer to the main essence of communication process and divert to

the main aspects of communication theory analysis and very often is using in negotiation

process as well.

2. Negotiation behaviour: gender aspect

The opinion that men and women have different roles in the society is still very

prevalent in Lithuania. It is believed that the role of a woman is less important than the role of

a man. The belief that men are career driven employees and women are ‘only employees’ is

WHO

(speaker)

WHAT IS

SAID?

(message)

BY

WHICH

CHANNEL

TO

WHOM?

(listener)

EFFECT




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still widespread among both men and women. Despite such stereotypes, increasing number of

women are having successful careers and hold important positions in both, private and public

organizations.

However, it is still true that today’s business operates according to men’s rules.

Therefore, it is very important for women to know those rules and follow them. It is

especially valuable to observe how men behave with each other. When negotiating with

women most men do not trust them or do not consider them to be equal opponents. Also,

different rules are applied to a relationship between a woman and a man and the relationship

between a man and a man.

Practical examples show that higher standards are required from women than from

men in both, personal and professional lives including cases of negotiation. Mature, educated

women value the art of negotiation and pay a lot of attention to it (Profiroiu, Nastaca, 2016;

Kljucnikov, Majková, 2016; Belás et al., 2015). They know that to close a deal, cheap tricks

do not work and skills and wisdom are required. According to O. Lapinas (2013), negotiation

is an opportunity for a woman to prove to herself that she is a smart, mature woman who has

the right to demand everything that she wants from the world. However, in order to reach her

goal, she needs to learn how to stay calm, observe the situation, use insight and her creative

energy.

It is well-known that we make the first impression about a new person the same

second that we meet them. A number of factors such as appearance, facial expression,

clothing, manners, and voice are important when making the first impression. Therefore, we

can safely claim that when we meet our negotiation opponent for the first time, we

immediately make some assumptions about them and it impacts our negotiation strategy

(Rees, Porter, 2016). Psychologist O. Lapinas (2009) names woman’s beauty as her weapon

in negotiation. However, he excludes such cases when a student is negotiating a better grade

with her male teacher or when a job seeker is having an interview for a job. According to him,

in such cases, negotiators do not have equal power and in order to achieve her goal a woman

needs a powerful weapon – and usually she uses flirt.

However, it is more interesting to analyse what happens when negotiation is

happening between two equally powerful opponents of different sexes. According to

O. Lapinas (2009), a woman will still use her beauty as a weapon in order to be liked, to

influence and to make an impression. When speaking with a man who is influential and whom

a woman does not know well, she will send various body signals with sexual implications. It

demonstrates her wish to be liked and to draw attention. Such behaviour is influenced by the

fact that a woman feels tension when she is in a company of an unfamiliar man. Tension is

also revealed by the fact that when a woman is in a neutral environment she acts in a more

natural and unrestricted way.

When talking about various signals used by negotiators K. Jensen (2006) points out to

contradictory signals. According to him, such signals can result in misinterpretation of the

arguments provided by the negotiator. For example, an attractive woman can find it very hard

for most men to take her seriously. However, instead of suppressing her ‘sexual’ signals she

strengthens them by wearing a miniskirt, a thin shirt, and high heels. In such case, the

presentation that the woman is giving at the negotiation is weakened by the ‘sexual’ signals

that she sends.

The question then arises if women use their sexuality unconsciously in negotiation

with men. Psychologist O. Lapinas (2009) presumes that seducing behaviour is more likely to

lead to a wanted outcome of the negotiation.

Can a man ignore a woman’s body language? No, he cannot. A man always reacts to it

but he is not always conscious about it. If a man is conscious of what is happening, then he

can consciously try to defend himself from a woman’s effort to seduce him. ‘Is she trying to




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charm me to win the argument?’ is a natural question that a man can ask himself. However,

even if he is able to rationalise, a man will still want to say ‘Yes’ for beauty and desire.

Interestingly, at the same time he thinks that he agrees to a business offer. A clever man

understands that and surrenders himself to a woman. As there is no man on earth who can

resist his subconsciousness (Lapinas, 2009).

The world-famous body language specialist A. Pease (2009) also claims that men

cannot take many aspects into account at once and they usually concentrate only on one thing

at the time. Therefore if a woman manages to make a man focus on her looks, the chances are

high that he will ignore the rest. And this often brings a victory to a woman. It might be that a

lot of women make similar assumptions and use their sexuality in negotiation as they know

that it might help them reach their targets faster and easier.

Therefore, flirt might become a weapon in negotiation with male opponents. But what

happens when two women meet at the negotiation table? They also fight for power, however,

it is usually cleverly hidden and usually rise from competition. It must be noted, that usually it

happens when a woman has self-esteem issues. In such cases, she tends to react to other

women hastily. According to a psychologist (Lapinas, 2009), in a modern office aggression is

demonstrated in more subtle ways. When a woman with low-esteem notices a new female

rival, she puts on a poker face to hide her emotions but at the same time she speaks in ‘killing’

tones, gives spiteful looks, ironical smiles, and derogatory mimics. If a woman has a high

self-esteem, she does not feel such strong rivalry and becomes friendlier towards another

woman; friendlier than a man can ever be towards another man. Mutual liking for each other

makes a relationship between these women especially harmonious and beautiful. In such

cases, there is no need to manipulate and an honest conversation is possible (Lapinas, 2009).

When talking about a woman’s negotiation with a man there are two possible

outcomes: ‘Win-win’ (when both sides are happy about the outcome) and ‘Win-lose’ (when

one side is unhappy about the outcome). According to A. Pease (2009), right from the

childhood girls tend to help each other, they demonstrate friendliness when talking and it is

difficult to spot the leader in an all-girls friendship group. In contrast, boys have a clear

hierarchy in their friendship groups. Every boy energetically strives for a certain position in

the group and it is easy to spot the leader. It can be concluded that when two women are

having a negotiation they will tend to cooperate and look for a mutually beneficial conclusion;

their preferred outcome of a negotiation is ‘Win-win’. Exactly such outcome they should seek

when negotiating with men. However, according to A. Pease (2009), from early days men

seek power and status. Usually, they are trying to reach their goal not only by evoking their

knowledge and wits but also their ability to speak strictly and make strong counterarguments.

Men try to reach ‘Win-Lose’ outcome of negotiation as they want to win at any cost and do

not mind the disappointment of the losing side. Men mostly concentrate on having positive

end-results, reaching their goals, acquiring status and power while women concentrate on

communication, cooperation, harmony, love, sharing and relationships (Pease, 2009).

What happens when a woman, seeking cooperation, and a man, determined to reach

his goal meet at the negotiation table? If a woman is emotionally weak, it is likely that she

will not be able to handle categorical and persistent arguments and will lose the negotiation.

On the other hand, if a woman is bold, clever and strong, she can make strong

counterarguments and maybe make a man look at the situation from another angle and finally

reach a mutually beneficial agreement.

The research of A. Pease (2009), demonstrates that a man’s brain is organized in a

way that he can only concentrate only on one task at the time. At the same time, a woman’s

brain is suitable for multitasking: they can work on a number of different tasks at the same

time and their brain is constantly working. According to V. Mačiulis, Director General of The

Association of Lithuanian Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Crafts (2006), who gives




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lectures on women’s success in business, the brain of men and women are completely

different: women‘s brain has three times more neurons between emotional and logical

cerebral hemispheres, that is why information is moving much faster and women are good at

multitasking while men are not.

This can be especially useful in negotiation as it makes it possible for a woman to

listen to a number of different arguments presented by an opponent, link them together and

make decisions accordingly. As a woman can take a number of different things into account at

once, it helps her make a holistic approach to the object of negotiation, properly evaluate

possible outcomes and alternatives. On the other hand, men can only concentrate on one thing

at a time, for example on the arguments of only one opponent, and therefore might overlook

some important details which might influence the outcome of the negotiation.

Women are always seen as more emotional than men. S. Robbins and T. Judge (2013)

stress that women can better address their feelings and are better at understanding other

people’s emotions. According to the authors, it is confirmed that men and women have

different emotional reactions and ability to understand emotions of other people. Women are

better at expressing their emotions, their emotions are more intense, and they also express

their positive and negative (except anger) emotions more often. Contrary to men, women are

more comfortable expressing their feelings. And finally, women are better at reading non-

verbal signals (Robbins, Judge, 2013). This sentence is especially important when talking

about negotiation. As women are better at understanding non-verbal signals, they can feel the

mood and emotions of their opponents and change their strategy and tactics accordingly. If

they can sense that their opponents are not sure about their decision, they can try to use

suitable arguments to win them over. At the same time, if they feel that their opponents are

absolutely sure about their decision and are not likely to change it, then they can save energy

and shift focus to other questions that might be useful for them.

Most psychologists (Lapinas, 2013; Robbins, Judge, 2013) stress the difference

between emotions that are felt and emotions that are shown. Emotions that are felt are the real

emotions. On the contrary, emotions that are shown are those that are required by

organizations and are seen as suitable in a workplace. They are not inborn but learned. In

business, and especially in negotiation, it is very important to look self-confident. A salesman

who does not know how to smile and look friendly will not be able to demonstrate a good

performance. If he wants to sell a product or a service to a client, a salesman has to be polite,

kind and clearly answer to all questions. A negotiator, seeking to benefit from their opponent,

should act in the same manner.A negotiator needs to smile and show confidence even if they

feel insecure or uneasy. It might be assumed that a person who is naturally more emotional

and finds it easier to adapt to the different roles can imitate emotions more easily. Therefore,

it might be guessed that it is easier for a woman to imitate emotions than it is for a man. Even

though most men imagine negotiation as a process that requires concentration and

seriousness, a friendly smile can make a breakthrough in communication, win an opponent

over and help reach the wanted outcome. Of course, the smile is more effective when it is

honest and natural, however as it is not always possible, it is very useful to be able to imitate

the wanted emotions.

Sometimes it can be harmful to demonstrating real emotions in negotiation. When

making a decision it is very important to stay rational, diminish anxiety, stress, fear, doubts

and similar emotions. As people tend to evoke not only logics but also emotions and intuition,

these feelings also make an impact on their final decisions. People will make different

decisions when they are angry and stressed and when they are calm and content even though

the objectives on which they base the decision can be the same. It is not hard to guess that

decision made depending on emotions are usually not well thought-through and do not bring

maximum value; sometimes they can even be risky and damaging (Robbins and Judge, 2013).




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As women are more emotional than men, it is especially important for them to learn how to

make rational and weighed decisions that influence their success in negotiation and business

in general.

W. Keller (2005) equates negotiation to a theatre. This author sees a female negotiator

as a kind and attractive leading actress. However, in negotiation is it useful to look indifferent.

According to W. Keller (2005), our position in negotiation is the strongest when we honestly

are indifferent, and the weakest when we pretend to be indifferent. The negotiator has to know

how not to show what they want. They have to stay cool, calm, nice and professional; and

most importantly, the negotiator has to be ready to leave the negotiation at any point.

A. Meneghetti (2002) is certain that if a woman decides to become a leader, then she

has to stick to that decision and distance herself from any moral, psychological and social

stereotypes. Seeking that, she has to learn how to control her behaviour and know how to take

advantage of her best qualities. Therefore, it is important that she works with her behaviour

and does not act in a stereotypical and predictable way.

Constant learning is one of the most important things in order to adapt to a fast

changing environment. It is important to pay attention to observation and mastering of one’s

behaviour as it helps to become more flexible and more capable of adapting to different life

circumstances.

S. Robbins and T. Judge (2013) claim that applied behavioural science is based on

several disciplines exploring behaviours. The most important of them are psychology,

sociology, social psychology, anthropology and political science. We will shortly overview

these disciplines.

When talking about the most important personality traits that impact behaviour and

help reach success in negotiation, the Big Five personality traits model should be mentioned.

It is especially important because it mentions the five most important personality traits which

represent the basic structure behind all personality traits. Therefore, in order to master

behaviour not only in negotiation but also in other spheres of life, it is important to evaluate

these five traits and concentrate on improving them. The Big Five traits are Openness,

Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Neuroticism.

Openness (to experiences). This trait describes a person’s interests and enthusiasm for

novelty. People with a strong openness trait are creative, curious, artistic and sensitive. People

on the opposite side of the scale are conventional and feel comfortable in familiar situations.

Openness to experience is important as it helps to learn new things which we can later adapt

to similar situations. Negotiation usually take an unexpected turn and a person with a week

openness trait can get easily lost in the situation. Therefore it is important to continue

believing in yourself, take every new situation as a challenge and use creative powers. Only

such behaviour can help reach positive results and not to lose authority in the eyes of the

opponent.

Extraversion describes a person’s need to communicate with other people. Extroverts

are friendly, determined and social. On the contrary, introverts are more reserved, shy and

quiet. Extraversion is of course the most important trait in negotiation. It can be said that an

introvert will never choose an activity that requires constant communication with people and

will also not want a position which might require taking part in a negotiation or representing a

company. A person who is inclined to reticence and shyness can feel psychological pressure if

they have to constantly communicate with people, present arguments or try to convince other

people. Therefore, the chances are higher to meet extroverts in negotiations. Their wish to

communicate and reach for their goals in negotiation will always make a good impression on

the opponents. On the other hand, if a person is an introvert, but has to take part in a

negotiation, they need to look for ways to improve their behaviour. A psychologist could offer

the best tactics for that.




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Agreeableness. Agreeableness is a trait that describes a person’s inclination to yield.

Very yielding people are obliging, warm and trusting. Non yielding people are cold, do not

have an inclination to agree with others and are antagonistic. The main task of a negotiator is

to find the ‘golden mean’ between the warmth and compliance and coldness and inclination

not to agree with others. As it is recommended to strive for co-operation and the end-result

that is beneficial for both parties in negotiation, it is important to set certain boundaries for

agreeableness. A common problem of women during negotiations is that it is difficult for

them to say ‘no’. Also, they are often pressured by their opponents to become more agreeable

than they would otherwise be. Therefore, if a person demonstrates a strong agreeableness trait

it is important for them to learn how to hold to their opinion.

Conscientiousness. It can be seen as a measure for reliability. A very conscientious

person is responsible, organized, trustworthy and persistent. Those, who are less

conscientious are easily distracted, unorganized and unreliable. Conscientiousness is the most

important trait which impacts a preparation for the negotiation. A good negotiator will always

get ready for the negotiation: they will foresee possible strategies and courses of negotiation,

will collect enough information about the object of the negotiation, their opponents and their

arguments. It is often being claimed that a good preparation for the negotiation determines its

successful outcome. Therefore working on one’s conscientiousness can help reach success.

Neuroticism or emotional stability. Neuroticism is also called emotional stability. This

quality describes a person’s ability to resist stress. People who have positive emotional

stability are calm, trust themselves and feel secure. Those who have a negative emotional

stability are nervous, anxious, suffer from depression and feel insecure. Neuroticism or

emotional stability is influenced by a person’s emotional intellect. According to U. Ley and

R. Michalik (2005), women are more emotional and their emotional intellect is higher.

Unfortunately, usually it also becomes the reason for them not being able to control their

emotions. Therefore, it is especially important for women to learn to manage their emotions

and master their behaviour in emotionally tense situations.

3. The study about gender in negotiation

This research aims at recognising the possible standpoint of opponents to women in

negotiation and the most important problems that arise in negotiations. The results of this

research will help form a model for refinement of women’s behaviour in negotiations. It will

be also used as a base for workshops for women who want to focus on positive results in

negotiation and the workplace in general. It will help women perfect their negotiation skills

which they will be later able to successfully use in negotiation with their clients, suppliers and

partners. It will also help them seek better positions or execute tasks that require taking part in

negotiations and taking greater responsibility.

Organizations that were invited to participate in this research were various business

companies co-operating with other companies – suppliers, buyers, transport companies – on a

regular basis. They constantly make deals, co-operate and negotiate with other companies.

Each company is usually represented by certain people – leaders, import, export, sales and

product managers. It should be noted that most of these positions are held by men. It confirms

that most companies in Lithuania still stick to stereotypes that men are more suitable for such

positions.

Qualitative research is evoked for further analysis. It is hoped that the answers

provided by the respondents of the research will help make an objective evaluation of

women’s behaviour in negotiations. After evaluating the answers, it became clear which

behavioural problems are most relevant to women. The research focused on respondents’

participation in negotiations, their perception of gender differences, the most important and




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the sorest points in negotiations. Also, the respondents were asked to provide such

information as age, education and position.

3.1. Research methodology

The participants of the research were 85 employees working in different business

companies and participating in negotiations with clients or suppliers. The respondents were

questioned by sending out a questionnaire by email.

The age of the respondents varied from 25 to 60.

Excel was used for processing collected data.

The data was collected by using a questionnaire prepared by the authors of the

research. The questionnaire was made of 18 questions. The respondents were asked to answer

multiple answer questions and also to provide answers to some open-end questions. The

anonymity of the respondents was secured: they were not asked to provide their names or the

names of their companies’.

Implementation of the research. The research was conducted in 2015 in various

Lithuanian business organizations. Verbal agreements for company’s participation in the

research were acquired from the heads of the companies. They were then presented with

questionnaires which they filled in themselves or passed over to other employees who were

taking part in negotiations. Five days later filled in questionnaires were recovered from the

same people. In total 100 questionnaires were sent out and 85 were filled in.

Data processing. Data was processed by calculating percentage of the answers. The

researcher believes that it is the most accurate method for data collection and analysis.

Multiple answers questions require respondents to be specifics and it makes collected data

objective.

3.2. Research results

Statistical data analysis was completed by processing data of 85 participants – 41 men

and 44 women. Most of the respondents have higher education: 35 – a bachelor’s degree, 32 –

master’s, 29 – graduated in management studies. Some of respondents – 48% mentioned that

theywere acquainted with negotiation strategies, methods and theory; 39% stated, that they

would like to get acquainted with negotiation strategies and 13% claimed that they did not

need it. Most (N=32) mentioned that they take part in negotiations more often than once per

week, 16 – less than once per month. After evaluating responses from men and women

separately, it was revealed that only 11% of men and 35% of women took part in negotiations

less than once per month. It is obviously that women take part in negotiations less often than

men. 44% of men and 79% of women indicated that they never took part in very important or

international negotiations. None of the female respondents indicated that they always

participate in important negotiations for long-term agreements with clients, partners or

vendors. The results demonstrate that usually it is male negotiators who are involved in

important and international negotiations. Women usually negotiate for less important, one-

time agreements concerning prices, payments terms, etc. That suggests that men take, or are

forced to take, leading positions in negotiations. Also it is confirmed a prevalent stereotype

that men are more suitable for holding important positions, leading, taking part in negotiations

and are more concerned about performance.

How does the behaviour of men and women differ in negotiations? What advantages

do women have and how their behaviour could be improved? What are their disadvantages

and how can they be managed? In order to find the main behavioural difference between men




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and women in negotiations, the respondents were asked to identify what aims they have

before the negotiation.

Unexpectedly, most male respondents claimed that they also aim at reaching a

mutually beneficial agreement. These results contradict A. Pease (2009), who claims that men

are naturally inclined to conquer, rule, lead and seek recognition. If we follow A.Pease’s

ideas, it means that most men are seeking personal benefits in negotiations and do not care

about the opponent. However, the results of the research demonstrate that men and women

have similar goals. Does it mean that there was a change in men’s nature or that menchanged

their approach to negotiation? It is more likely that now men look at negotiations not as an

opportunity to fight and win but as an opportunity to make a compromise that would be

beneficial for both sides and would ensure further collaboration.61% of men most of the time

negotiate with other men while most women (62%) negotiate with men and women equally.

Such results are not surprising as we have already seen that men usually take part in more

important negotiations where women are less likely to be present. At the same time women,

who take part is less important, everyday negotiations negotiate with both, men and women.

Women and men provided different answers to a question with whom it is easier to

negotiate, a male or a female opponent. Most men claimed that they do not see the difference

(Fig. 1) while women find it easier to negotiate with men (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. The distribution of men’s opinions

Women’s position is a little unexpected. According to A. Pease (2009), women are

naturally more inclined to friendships and cooperation, therefore it should make it easier for

them to negotiate with other women. Theoretically, most women aim for mutually beneficial

goals. In this case an argument by O. Lapinas (2009) should be remembered: in business

environmentwomen tend to compete and it is not solely a professional competition but a

competition between women as well. This type of competition can hinder effective

negotiation.

22,30%

30,60%

47,10%

Easier to negotiate with:

Men Women No difference




289

Figure 3. The distribution of women’s opinions

Almost 73% of female respondents believe that their gender has an impact on

opponent’s standpoint towards them. 56% of female respondents believe that gender has an

impact on the course and the end-results of the negotiation. On the other hand, only 21% of

male respondents think that their gender has an impact on the course and the end-results of the

negotiation, even though almost half of them (45%) admit that their gender has an impact on

their opponents’ standpoint towards them.

The respondents were asked to name the problems that they most often encounter in

negotiations. Only 3% of men indicated that they have problems to concentrate, clearly

present the arguments and the lack of self-confidence, 27% of male respondents find it hard

to say ‘no’, 21% often find it hard to adapt to an opponent and to change strategy and tactics

of the negotiation.

Women, on the other hand, hold different position. 10% of women stated that they

always lack self-confidence, 49% said that they have insufficient knowledge about

negotiations and lack of experience. Only 4% of women noted that they never feel the lack of

knowledge. 17% of female respondents admitted that they always find it hard to control their

emotions in feuding situations and 45% of women often experience this problem.

Male respondents noted differences in business ethics, lack of time, scepticism of the

opponents, reliability issues and indifference as other difficulties in negotiations. Women also

noted that they feel superiority of their opponents and their unwillingness to cooperate.

In order to understand men’s standpoint towards women in negotiations, male and

female respondents were asked different questions. Women were asked how they think that

the men are looking at the women in negotiations and the men were asked to answer if they

really look at the women in negotiations the way that the women think.

55% of women stated that they often and 23% of women stated that they always feel

that men firstly evaluate them as women and only then look at them as negotiators.

Women’s answers to a question ‘Have you ever noticed that in negotiations men first

of all value you as a woman and only later as a negotiation partner?’ did not surprise the

researchers. Only 8% of women stated that they have never been in a situation where the male

opponents would not take their arguments seriously. 17% were never asked to specify their

arguments and never felt that the opponent was appealing to their emotions. The rest of the

respondents came across such problems. 16% and 32% of women often feel that their

opponents are trying to appeal to their emotions.

50%

15%

35%

Easier to negotiate with:

Men

Women

No difference




290

Men who were asked to answer a similar question admitted that at the beginning of the

negotiation they firstly value a female opponent as a woman and only later as a negotiator.

9% admitted that they do it all the time, 35% – often, 40% – rarely.

Male respondents were asked: ‘Have you ever noticed that in negotiations with

women, first of all you value them as women and only later as a negotiation partner?’ 13% of

male respondents said that they always appeal to female’s emotions in order to reach their

goals and 33% do that often. This demonstrated that men look at women as vulnerable and

emotional and use that to reach their goals. Only 25% of men said that they never act this

way; 29% do it rarely.

When themale respondents were asked what other behavioural traits that can be

attributed to gender differences they notice in negotiations, they mentioned that women like to

go into too much detail and prefer long non-essential conversations, they also mentioned their

stubbornness, inability to understand the main point and flirting as a tool for seeking their

goals. Some respondents noted that negotiations with women are softer, more delicate, but

lack accuracy and concreteness. It was also noted that when the negotiation is on more

‘masculine’ topic like, for example, information technologies, women tend to trust themselves

less as they do not know the topic very well. Men also think that a woman’s appearance plays

a bigger role in negotiation than the appearance of a man. Such opinion leads us to believe

that men see women as inferior partners in negotiations who do not always know the object of

negotiation, are not precise and more often invoke their appearance rather than knowledge to

reach their goals.

Women‘sopinion about the same question is that male negotiators tend to flirt and

givecompliments. Women also noted that men see them as inferior negotiators who are easy to

be influenced. They also mentioned that men try to look superior, especially when the subject

of negotiation is more technical. Most men look surprised if women demonstrate good

knowledge of the subject. While men claim that women flirt to reach their goals, women say

that it is men who flirt and give compliments for the same reason. It appears that both genders

tend to invoke flirt as a tool to reach wanted goals.

Figure 4. The distribution of women’s opinions

When asked if they have ever flirted with an opponent in order to reach a better

outcome of the negotiation, 62% of female respondents gave a positive answer. However,

only 47% of women are sure that flirt is an effective tool to reach a wanted goal (Fig. 4).

47%

28%

26%

Do you think that flirt with opponent is an effective way to reach your goals in

negotiations?

Yes

No

Don't know




291

67% of male respondents admitted flirting with women to reach a better outcome of

the negotiation. 69% claim that a flirt is an effective tool for reaching their goals (Fig. 5).

Figure 5. The distribution of men’s opinions

A stereotype that it is women who most often use their beauty and flirt to reach their

goals is still prevalent in the society, but the results of this research refute such stereotype. It

appears that it is men who invoke flirt more often. Probably it is because they see women as

emotionally more vulnerable. Therefore, men who have a strong self-esteem are sure that a

compliment can make a woman to give in.

Respondents were also asked about their behaviour in negotiations. They were asked:

‘Do you always pursue your goals that you set in the preparation phase before the

negotiation?’ 59% of women answered that they do that and 38% of female respondents said

that they do that all the time. This demonstrates thatit is important for women to reach the

goals that they set before the negotiation as they want to meet the expectations. There was no

respondent who would give a negative answer to this question.The answers by the male

respondents were similar. 59% said that they are likely to pursue the goals that they set before

the negotiation. It can be concluded that in this case the character of the person plays the most

important role and gender differences do not have a big impact on this.

Women’s determination and decision to reach their goals is also illustrated by their

answers about making concessions in negotiations.

Women were asked: ‘Do you make more concessions in negotiations than you planned

to make?’ 18% answered that they never do that, which shows that they are ready to reach

their goals. However, it can also be said that these women are not flexible enough and are not

willing to look for a mutually beneficial agreement. For both sides to feel positively about the

negotiation, it is important to sometimes make concessions. Concessions should not be made

if they are harmful to the interests of the negotiator, however,they should also not be rejected

only to prove that a negotiator is strong and not easily convinced. Such position could make

more harm than good.

It looks that men are more flexible on this subject. Only 6% of male respondents said

that they never make more concessions thanthey planned to make. This demonstrated that men

are more rational when making decisions. They re-evaluate their position during the negotiation

and consider possibilities to make bigger concessions if it does not harm their interest.

69,50%

16,60%

13,90%

Do you think that flirt with your opponent is an effective way to reach

your goals in negotiations?

Don't know

No

Yes




292

The respondents were asked: ‘Can you feel the mood / emotions of your opponent?’.

Women and men provided similar answers. 5% of men said that they can never feel the mood

of their opponents while 57% usually can. However, can both genders use such knowledge

equally well? Results demonstrate that they cannot. 15% of women and 4% of men said that

they have never used opponent’s emotional weaknesses to reach their goals. This

demonstrates that women are emotionally more sensitive. Emotional sensitivity helps them

understand the emotions of their opponents but it also prevents them from reaching their

goals. It could be said that women are simply compliant to moral norms, however, isn’t it true

that this way they give all the cards to their opponents?

The respondents were asked to evaluate the importance of the following factors in

negotiations:

Well-designed strategy.

Experience in negotiations.

Competence in negotiations.

Knowledge about the opponent ant their weaknesses.

Solid arguments.

Charm and appearance.

Ability to convince another person.

Determination and self-confidence.

According to most women, charm and appearance are not important in negotiations.

However, our appearance helps make the first impression when we meet a new person. Good

looking, well-dressed person with a robust posture will make an impression of an earnest,

trustworthy person while scruffy clothes or haircut can cause doubts about this person’s

abilities to professionally represent their client. A lot of people think that nowadays there is

too much focus on appearance, however, workplace standards for clothing and behaviour

cannot be ignored.72% of female respondents claim that appearance is important in the

negotiations and 16% think that it is very important.

57% of male respondents think that appearance is important in the negotiations and

almost 18% think that it is very important.

More men than women think that appearance is not important in negotiations. It

proves that men pay less attention to the appearance of their own and appearance of their

negotiation opponent. It can be assumed that they see appearance as not important detail and

rather concentrate on the object of the negotiation. Women, on the other hand, find

appearance as one of the sources for raising their self-confidence.

The respondents were asked to evaluate how much influence the appearance of a

woman has to the outcome of negotiations. 73% of male respondents replied positive to a

question if it is easier for the attractive women to reach their goals. It only proves that

attractive women find it easier to reach their goals; a statement backed by many

psychologists.

A similar percentage of women also agree with this statement but almost one-fifth of

them claim that they are not entirely sure if it is true. These doubts can be linked to self-

confidence issues. It might be that a woman is attractive and she is successful in negotiations,

however, she has a low self-esteem and does not think that her appearance might influence the

negotiation.

56% of female respondents see a well-designed negotiation strategy as a ‘very

important’ aspect of negotiation. 44% see it as ‘important’. Male respondents provided similar

answers; only 4% think that a well-designed strategy is not important.

Determination and high self-esteem are seen as the most important aspect of

negotiation. 90% of women see it as ‘very important’ and 10% as ‘important’. Men had a

slightly different opinion – 17% think that these aspects play an important role in negotiation.




293

Determination and high self-esteem are definitely one of the most important qualities

when it comes to securing good results at negotiation. In case of unsuccessful negotiation,

these qualities help to move forward, to take part in other negotiations, and learn from

mistakes. Moreover, negotiators with low self-esteem will not make a good impression to

their opponents and are not likely to reach their goals. T. Stanley (2004), who analysed

success stories of wealthy American businessmen, claims that most women see determination

as a key to success and self-esteem comes only in the third place. According to this author, a

firm decision how to act, a strong belief in oneself and a good strategy is a mix that helps to

reach one’s goals.

When asked about other aspects that were not mentioned in the questionnaire but can

lead to successful negotiation, men named charisma, flexibility and social status. Women

named diplomacy, ability to compromise, ability to listen and discuss topics that interest the

opponent. This proves that women are more prone to cooperation, are cultured, seek to be

diplomatic and adhere to standards of conduct. Also, competences in different fields are

important to them. Men, on the other hand, are more concerned about the status in the society

which proves A. Pease’s (2009) claim that leadership is especially important to men. Men

think that a social status has a direct link to reaching their goals and becoming influential.

To improve women’s behaviour in negotiation, private consultations with a specialist

are necessary. It is recommended to have periodical consultations, for example, every week.

Also, it is recommended to assign homework between the consultations and to keep a diary. It

will help spotting difficulties that women encounter in different situations, the shift in their

emotions and to make a link between the two. Maybe it will prove that the same factor makes

women feel uncomfortable in different situations. In this case, that would mean that the

reason for that discomfort has to be addressed.

Conclusions

Gender differences have an impact on the process of the negotiation. Theoretical

analysis has demonstrated that men are usually striving for personal victories while women

are seeking cooperation and are trying to reach a mutually beneficial agreement.

The brain of men and women work in different ways: women are able to multitask

while men can concentrate only on one thing at the time. This leads to women having an

advantage in negotiations as they can process more information from different sources at the

same time.

Only a constantly learning, the flexible and forward-looking employee brings value to

the company and the society. Therefore, it is important to pay attention to employees’

education and the improvement of their performance.

This pilot research proves that the stereotype that important positions should be taken

by men is still prevalent in Lithuanian companies. Women are still seen as not strong enough

and easy to deal with. However, there are some companies that see a potential of women

asgood negotiators and they are trusted with positions that require strong negotiation skills. It

is advised to pay even more attention to the improvement of employees’ (and especially,

female employees’) negotiation skills in such organizations.

The pilot research also demonstrated that most women take part only in less important

negotiations with vendors and clients for one-time agreements regarding price, payment

terms, etc. Representation of the company in high-scale negotiations is still not entrusted to

women. The great majority of men firstly value women in negotiations as women and only

later as negotiators. It is easier for women to reach their goals in negotiations.

Both, women and men, invoke flirt in negotiations and think that is an effective tool

for reaching their goals.




294

Usually, women encounter such problems as lack of knowledge and experience in the

negotiations and the lack of self-esteem. Also, they notice that in negotiations they are treated

less seriously and looked downby men.

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