General Linguistics General Linguistics

I. The Nature of Language 1. Definition and characteristics (1)Definition: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by

means of which the members of a speech community communicate, interact, and transmit their culture

(2)Characteristics arbitrariness duality: sound/ meaning productivity: (never heard before displacement: refer to things not present cultural transmission interchangeability: any human being can be both producer and

receiver

(3)Functions Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact--

greetings, comments on weather. Directive:: get hearer to do something—imperative sentences Informative: tell what the speaker believes, give information about

facts, reason things out— Declarative sentences Interrogative: get information from others—questions Expressive: reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the

speaker—evaluate, appraise and assert the speaker’s attitude Performative: do things, perform actions—“I declare the meeting

open”, “I declare war…” (4)Origin of language: the divine-origin theory; the invention theory;

the evolutionary theory

2. Some basic distinctions in linguistics (1)Speech and writing—primacy of speech over writing in linguistic analysis (2)Synchronic and diachronic—priority of synchronic (3)Langue and parole(by Swiss linguist F. de Saussure1857-1913) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a

speech community— a set of conventions, generalized rules, abstract, not actually spoken by anyone, relatively stable and systematic.

Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue—concrete use of conventions or application of rules, specific, naturally occurring event, subject to personal and situational constraints.

(4)Competence and performance(Noam Chomsky 1950s) Competence: ideal language user’s knowledge of the rule of his language Performance: actual realization of this knowledge in utterances

(5)Linguistic potential and actual linguistic behavior(English linguist M. A. K. Halliday, 1960s)— functional point of view, more concerned with what speakers do with language—many things, many topics—what is actually said is what is selected from among the many possibilities

Linguistic potential: similar to langue and competence// langue –social property/ linguistic potential—something available for the speaker to select from// competence—a form of “knowing” /linguistic potential—a set of possibilities for “doing”// The competence and performance distinction is one between what a person “knows” and what he “does”/ the linguistic potential and actual linguistic behavior distinction is one between what a person “can do” and what a person “does”.

Actual linguistic behavior, similar to parole and performance

3. Process of speaking(1)Semantic encoding. (2)Grammatical

encoding. (3)Phonological encoding. (4-8)Sending, transmission, receiving. (9-11)Phonological, Grammatical, Semantic decoding

4. Major branches of linguistics (1)Semantics: the study of the semantic code—meaning (2)Lexicology: the study of the total stock of morphemes.

(lexicography: the art of making dictionaries of various sort)—words (3)Syntax: the study of the grammatical code—grammar (4)Phonology (AmE phonemics): the study of the phonological code

—phoneme (5)Articulatory phonetics: the study of the movements of the vocal

organs in producing the sounds of speech.// Acoustic phonetics: the study of the vibrations of air molecules.// Auditory phonetics: the study of the way the sounds are perceived by the human ear.

5. Use of linguistics—applied linguistics (1)Linguistic geography: study of the way in which a language varies

through geographical space. (2)Socioliguistics: study of the variations in linguistic usage of

different social classes. (3)Synchronic linguistics: study of a given language at a given period

of time. (4)Diachronic linguistics: study of language change through time.--

Two branches: Historical linguistics: study of the historical development of a language.//Comparative linguistics: study of the historical relationships among languages and attempts to group them

into families, subfamilies.

(5)Psycholinguistics: study of how language if acquired, understood and produced.

(6)Anthropological linguistics: study of how language fits into the larger context of sociocultural behavior and how grammar is a part of culture.

(7)Neurolinguistics: study of a number of issues related to the neurological basis of language: the brain's anatomy, the species specificity of language and the relationship between language and consciousness.

(8)Stylistic linguistics—linguistics and literature (9)Other branches: language teaching, machine translation, computer

linguistics(computational linguistics, mathematical linguistics, statistical linguistics, mechanolinguistics)

II. Phonetics 1. Vocal organs 2. Consonants: places of articulation; manners of articulation

(obstruction)—classification 3. Vowels: height of tongue raising (high, mid, low); position of the

highest part of tongue (front, central, back); degree of lip rounding (rounded, unrounded)—classification

Additional factors: oral or nasal; long or short; pure or gliding 4. Phonetic transcription: method of writing down speech sounds in a

systematic and consistent way: International Phonetic Alphabet 5. Phoneme: sound capable of distinguishing one word from another:

get/net, have/ gave

III. Phonology 1. Phonology: study of sound systems—distinctive sounds

and their patterns—phoneme 2. Non-distinctive sounds: members of the same phonemes

—allophones—“let, play, tell” 3. Phonology—language specific// phonetics—universal 4. Minimal pair: word forms which differ from each other

only by one sound, pen/pin//pin//ping

5. Free variation: that boy/that—the same phoneme

6. Complementary distribution: two sounds never occur in the same environment, /h/--/g/

7. Distinctive features: phonological features of a phoneme which distinguish one phoneme from another

8. Intonation: stress, length, pitch音高— four grammatical functions: indicate different sentence type; different pitch indicates connotative meaning(I can’t eat anything—fall/fall-rise); different structure (John didn’t come because of Mary—John came, but it had nothing to do with Mary/ John didn’t come, because Mary); give prominence to one part of a sentence(John likes fish.)

IV. Morphology 1. Morphology: the internal structure of words and rules by which

words are formed—two branches: inflections// word-formation 2. Inflection: addition of affixes such as number, person, finiteness,

aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems

3. Word-formation: compound//derivation 4. Compound: relationships between lexical words—noun compounds

(daybreak); verb compounds(brainwash); adjective compounds (carefree); preposition compounds (into/ throughout)

5. Derivation: relationships between stems and affixes (word class changed// word class unchanged)

6. Morpheme: minimal unit of meaning—phoneme/gouz/ for third-person singular

7. Free morpheme: form a word by itself—bed, tree 8. Bound morpheme: with at least one other morpheme, ‘-al’ in ‘national’ 9. Root: polymorphemic words other than compounds may divide into

roots and affixes 10. Free root morpheme (most, stand by themselves as words)—bound

root morpheme (relatively few, such as ‘-ceive’ in ‘receive’, ‘perceive’, ‘conceive’)

11. Stem 词 干 : morpheme or combination of morpheme—friends/ friendships

12. Affix: prefix (mini-), suffix (-tion), infix (foot/ feet)—inflectional

(walked) & derivational (sleepy)

V. Lexicon 1. Lexicon: similar to vocabulary, deal with the analysis and creation

of words, idioms, collocation 2. Word: grammatical unit(sentence, clause, word group, word,

morpheme); most stable of all linguistic units; smallest unit which can constitute a complete sentence

3. Variable words (changeable)// invariable words(unchangeable) 4. Grammatical word—function word—form word(to be, preposition,

articles, possessives, demonstratives, qualifiers, conjunctions, intensifiers, auxiliary verbs, pronouns)// Lexical word—carry semantic content

5. Closed-class word (articles, pron, prep, conj)// open class(n, v, adj, adv)

6. Idiom—semantically and often syntactically restricted(meaning unpredictable, special syntactical restrictions)

7. Collocation: habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items—Features(1) Mutual expectancy, (2)Fixed syntactical-lexical relations (3)Inexplicability

VI. Syntax 1. Syntax: study of rules governing the ways to form sentences, or the

interrelationships between elements in sentence structures 2. Syntactical relations(1)Positional relation(word order)—Syntagmatic Relations

(2)Relation of substitutability—Associative relations (de Saussure)// Paradigmatic Relations (Hjemslev) (3)Relation of co-occurrence

3. Immediate constituent: small units of constructing a sentence, such as single words, groups of words—The boy ate the apple. (S=NP+VP)

4. Coordinate and subordinate constructions 5. Syntactic function: subject, predicate, object… 6. Category: number, gender, case, concord, government 7. Extension of sentence: conjoining//embedding// recursive//

Hypotactic/Paratactic 8. Cohesion: reference, substitution, ellipsis, logical connection, lexical

collocation

VII. Semantics 1. Semantics: study of meaning 2. Meaning: conceptualism(symbol, referent, thought), mechanism,

contextualism (linguistic context/ situational context), behaviorism (stimulus—response), functionalism(meaning explained in use)

3. Kinds of meaning traditional approach—lexical meaning/ grammatical meaning functional approach—conceptual meaning (denotative), associative

meaning (connotative), social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, thematic meaning—woman (female, human, adult)(fragile, emotional)(register)(personal emotion)(The Comforter--comfort)(pretty —handsome)(Mr. Smith donated the money—The money was donated by Mr. Smith)

pragmatic approach (sentence meaning/utterance meaning—implicature)

4. Sense relationships of words: synonymy (sameness or close similarity of meaning); antonymy (oppositeness of meaning); complementarity (single/married); gradability (hot/warm/cool/cold); relational opposites (buy/sell); hyponymy (meaning inclusion—flower/rose); polysemy(more than one meaning); homonymy(pupil/student—pupil/ of the eye// flour—flower)

5. Sense relations between sentences: entailment( 蕴 涵 ); presupposition(The girl he married //He married a girl); implicature; sysnonymous; inconsistent; anomalous反常

6. Semantic analysis: componential analysis; predication analysis述谓分析 ; relational analysis (father); logical elements

VIII. Language change A. Lexical change 1. Invention: Kodak 2. Compounding: moonwalk, earthrise 地球从月球的地平线上升起 , black

hole 3. Blending: smog=smoke+fog, transistor=transfer+resister 4. Abbreviation: math=mathematics, prof=professor, telly=television 5. Acronym: WB(World Bank), PLO(Palestine Liberation Organization) 6. Metanalysis: a nadder—an adder, a napron—an apron 7. Backformation: editor—edit, peddler—peddle, enthusiasm—enthuse热心 8. Analogical creation: work—wrought(old)—worked

9. Borrowing: atom(Greek), tsunami(Japanese), wok(Chinese锅 )

B. Grammatical change 1. Morphological change: didst—did, hath—has, cometh—comes 2. Syntactical change: (15th c)more gladder, more lower// (Shakespeare)He saw you

not./ I love thee not C. Semantic change 1. Broadening: offend—strike against—create anger// bird—young bird—any kind

of bird 2. Narrowing: camp—open field—place// cattle—personal property—animals// girl

—young person of either sex—young woman 3. Meaning shift: lust—pleasure—sexual craving// silly—happy(O.E)—naïve(M.E) 4. Class shift: engineer—a person trained in a branch of engineering(n)—to act as

an engineer 5. Folk etymology: change due to incorrect popular notion: sparrowgrass 芦笋—

asparagus(Greek)芦笋 wiz奇才— wizard奇才 D. Orthographic拼写 change

IX. Pragmatics 1. Pragmatics: study of language in use and linguistic communication;

meaning that is not accounted for by semantics 2. Context and meaning: John is like a fish.(swim well// drink a lot of wine//

as cold as fish) 3. Speech act theory(J. Austin in 1962, J. Searle in 1969): language used not

only to inform and describe things, often used to “do things”—“I hereby name this ship Red Flag”, “I promise to be here at nine o’clock, “I apologize”—performative sentences—Three kinds of acts are performed at the same time (1)Locutionary act言中行为 : the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference; (2)Illocutionary act言外行为 : the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc, in uttering a sentence; (3)Perlocutionary act 言后行为 : the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances of utterance.—“It’s cold here”—saying(1)—request(2)—shutting the window(3)

4. Types of illocutionary acts: (1)Assertives: truth of something—I think the film is moving. (2)Directives: get the hearer to do something—I order you to leave right now. (3)Commisives: some future action—If you do that again, I’ll beat you to death. (4)Declarations: bringing about immediate change in the existing state of things

5. Indirect speech act: perform one illocutionary act indirectly by performing another—Let’s go to the movies tonight/ I have to study for an exam.

6. Conversational analysis(1) Adjacency pair: one type of utterance is typically followed by a special type of utterance—May I have a bottle of whisky?/Are you twenty-one?/ No/ No. (2)Preferred second parts: responses to question which are not answers but which count as second parts, some preferred and some dispreferred. (3)Presequence—What are you doing tonight?/ Nothing important. Why?/Come to my place for dinner, then.

7. The Cooperative principle(P. Grice): (1)Maxim of quality (2)Maxim of quantity (3)Maxim of relevance (4)Maxim of Manner (avoid obscurity and ambiguity, be brief and orderly)

8. Conversational implicature: a kind of extra meaning not contained in the utterance. If speaker follows or violates the maxims, he produces implicature—“I have 3 children.//I have only 3 children, not more”

X. Linguistics and literature 1. Stylistics: study of literature from a linguistic orientation. (H. D.

Widdowson, 1975) 2. Linguistic analysis: (1)Phonological features—sound patterns//

prosody 韵 律 学 — onomatopoeic effect// chiming//expectation and surprise; (2)Lexical features—total lexical choices; patterns of lexical choices; evaluation of lexical choices; (3)Grammatical features (4)Semantic features: redundancy, absurdity(a living death), figurative meaning, honest deception(Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay)(5) Graphological features笔迹

3. Theory of foregrounding: unusual, attractive, unconventional—(1)deviation(he sang his didn’t he danced his did) (2)parallelism(over-regularity—To err is human, to forgive divine// If you prick us, do we not bleed?/ if you tickle us, do we not laugh?/ if you poison us, do we not die?/ and if you wrong us, shall we no revenge?) (3) patterning