General Psychology 1

Memory – Modules 23-26

April 5-7, 2005Class #19-20

Memory

Memory To a psychologist, memory is any

indication that learning has persisted over time

A pioneer of the scientific study of memory:

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 – 1909)

Worked as philosopher at University in BerlinPerformed experiments on himself published in classic volume entitled: ‘Über das Gedächtnis’ (1885)

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Serial Learning Experiments A list of items presented one at a time Memorizing lists in sequence until they can be

recalled perfectly in order they were presented Ran tests on himself for six years Memorized thousands of lists of nonsense

syllables (ZAB, VUB, etc.) Invented 2300 of these syllables, arranged them in

random lists and tested them after various delays

What problems do you see with this methodology?

Ebbinghaus' ExperimentsSerial Learning Experiments Learning to criterion

Ebbinghaus would repeatedly attempt to learn the material until he achieved a perfect reproduction (every item memorized in the order originally presented)

“Method of savings“Subtracting the number of repetitions required

to relearn material to a criterion from the number originally required to learn the material to the same criterion

Serial Position Effect (primacy/recency effect)Subjects are much more likely to remember

items at the beginning of a list (primacy effect) and at the end of the list (recency effect)

Invented lists of 16 nonsense syllables to minimize influence of meaningful associations and learner’s historygoal: study memory in ‘pure’ formIntroduced criterion for successful learning (2 errorless recitations)Introduced savings method to measure retention/forgetting of lists

Memory experiments of Ebbinghaus:Focus on retention of newly learnt

material

List-length effectEase of learning and amount of information not

related in linear one-to-one fashionDisproportionate increase in difficulty with more

than 7 syllables

Distributed practiceBeneficial effects of distributed practice for

repetitions

Memory experiments of Ebbinghaus…

Other important findings

Memory Testing Research Methods

Serial Learning ExperimentsThese were Ebbinghaus’ experiments

A list of items presented one at a time Subjects are asked to recall them in

order Memorizing lists in sequence until they

can be recalled perfectly

Memory Testing Research Methods

Free Recall In this experimental procedure the subjects are asked to

recall the items presented to them in any order they wishProbably this is the simplest way to test the effects of

subjects studying verbal material

Murdock (1962) Used common unrelated English words and found the

probability of their recall depended on their position in the list

What effects do you think this researcher found???

 

Memory Testing Research Methods

Free Recall (cont.)Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

Same type of experiment as Murdock (1962) except put certain delays into equation

Like AM PMWhat do you think happened here?

Memory Testing Research Methods

Paired-Associate Learning This experiment requires subjects to learn a

set of stimulus-response pairingsOften, subjects are exposed to the list with the

usage of a "flash-card" techniqueEach complete presentation of the list

constitutes a trial and items are presented in a different order on each trial

Most researchers consider this the most challenging type of memory testing

 

Information Processing

Our memory system works much like that of a computer:Research suggests (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

that the most important determinant of memory is how extensively memory is encoded or processed when it is first received

How extensively is the encoding (acquisition of information processed) during the initial formation of memory?

Encoding

Information in sensory stores and STM is lost unless it is encoded, or processed into long term memory…Does encoding occur in a special short term

memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin Model) or in rehearsal systems?

3 stages of processing for manipulation of mental representations:

Encoding (acquisition of info)

Storage (retention of info)

Retrieval (recovery of info)

Information-processing approach to memory:

Basic framework

time

Encoding Retrieval

Information Processing: Automatic Processing

Processing that doesn’t require person to consciously attend to something

Information Processing: Effortful Processing

How does storage of this information take place? Imagery

Mnemonic devices Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful units so that it can better be remembered

Mental Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating things over and over Spacing effect

Elaborate Rehearsal Involves thinking about how new material relates to

information already stored in memory

Information Processing Model: Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

Most influential historically & most comprehensive model… In order for info to become firmly

embedded in memory, must pass through 3 stages of mental processing:

Sensory MemoryShort-Term Memory (working memory)Long-Term Memory

Sensory Memory

Major function is to hold info long enough so that it can be processedSight (usually less than a second)Sound (a little longer maybe up to 3

seconds)

Also referred to as “Transient Memories”

Visual sensory memoryThe iconic store

Auditory sensory memoryThe echoic store

Auditory Sensory Memory

Several studies have shown analogous results in auditory memory…Echoic store studies often use dichotic listeningEchoic memory disappears by 5 seconds

Information Processing Model: Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

Short-term memoryResearchers differ saying that without

maintenance rehearsal something stays in STM for between 6-30 seconds.

After this its either lost forever or somehow makes its way into LTM

Long-term memory Infinite

Testing STM

Immediate Memory SpanThe maximum # of items you can recall

perfectly after one presentation Miller (1956)

7 +/- 2 meaningful groupings

Brown-Peterson Procedure A method for preventing rehearsalCounting backwards by 3’s

Crowder & Morton (1969): The Suffix Effect

Their directions to participants: I am going to say some numbers At some point, I will say the number zero When you hear me say zero, ignore the zero and repeat

all the numbers that preceded it

Their directions to participants: I am going to say some numbers When you hear the tone, ignore it and repeat all the

numbers that preceded it

STMBaddeley (1986) “Working memory” is the more contemporary term for

short-term memory, is conceptualized as an active system for temporarily storing and manipulating information needed in the execution of complex cognitive tasks 

Primacy and recency effects are seen in STMLimits of working memory Phonological working memory Visual working memory

STM vs. LTM

STM – here we can hold only a few items very brieflyLTM – relatively permanent and limitlessMain differences dependence on retrieval cues

they help in LTM; no help in STM differences in capacity

LTM is immeasurable; STM is relatively small and easily measured (Miller, 1956)

differences in duration (decay over time) LTM are not affected by the passage of time much….STM can

disappear in a blink of the eye

LONG TERM MEMORY

Long term memory stores our knowledge of the world It enables us to recall events, solve

problems, comprehend, recognize patterns, etc. (permastore)

Bahrick, Bahrick, and Witlinger (1975) 

Memory for picture recognition and matching of names with faces of yearbook portraits was remains pretty accurate even after decades…

1. Picture Recognition Test (shown a year-book picture and asked to recall the name of the person) 

2. Multiple-Choice Name Matching Test (match names with pictures) Each picture had 4 names with it – multiple choice test

Bahrick, Bahrick, and Witlinger (1975) 

Findings

Picture Recognition Test 50% recall after 34 years

Name Matching Test 75% recall at 34 years 60% recall after 47 years

The memory for faces of high school classmates seems quite durable

Forgetting is rather gradual

LONG TERM MEMORY

Bahrick & Hall (1991) High school Spanish was tested 30 years later Most subjects had no use of the language since

finishing the course So this was recall without intervening practice Retention seems to “level out” after very long periods of

time But we don’t lose all of it – seems some memory is

retained in a “permastore”Unaffected by the passage of time Interestingly, who had gotten the highest grades

remembered the most 30 years later

Types of Interference

Proactive interference The disruptive effect of prior learning on

the recall of new information (old materials increasing the forgetting of new materials)

Retroactive interference The disruptive effect of new information on

the recall of previous information (new materials increasing the forgetting of old materials)

Types of Interference

Examples:

Time 1 Time 2 Test InterferenceCh. 1 Ch. 2 Ch. 2 Ch. 1 pro

w/ch2Ch. 1 Ch. 2 Ch. 1 Ch. 2 ret

w/ch1

Study French Study Sp. Recall Sp. Fr. pro. w/SpStudy French Study Sp. Recall Fr. Sp. ret. w/Fr

Some Memory Distinctions

Procedural memoryA memory of how to do something

Fix a tire, ride a bike, bake a cake, etc.

Declarative memory The ability to state a fact

Such as names or events, etc.

Types of Declarative Memory

Semantic MemoryMemory of general principlesknowledge of concepts and meaningKnowledge of all the information needed to

use language, verbal information, visual-spatial information, etc.    

Ex: rules of how to play chess

Types of Declarative Memory

Episodic Memory Memory for specific events in one’s life Autobiographical memory, time and place dependent,

it conveys the conditions of occurrence Knowledge about personally experienced events

Ex: when and who you played chess with the last time

Flashbulb Memories These are extremely vivid episodic memories,

usually attached to a surprising, significant, or vivid event

Memory and Retrieval Cues

How do we recall or retrieve information that is not presently in conscious awareness?Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help us to get information stored in LTMSeems to help the best if it taps into information

that was encoded at the time of learning (encoding specificity principle)

Retrieval Cues

TheoriesRecognition cue

Identifying items from choices

Bahrick (1975)Relearning cue

Material already learned is relearned more quickly than new materials

Memory and Retrieval Cues

Moods Cue The things we learn in one emotional state are are best

remembered in the same state (this is referred to as state-dependent memory)

State Dependent Memory – theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind

Seems to have added effectiveness with recollections of everyday events (episodic memory)

Memory and Retrieval Cues

Context Effects Cue Putting yourself in the same context in which

you have experienced something can help with retrieval

See Gooden and Baddeley (1975) – next slide

Memory and Retrieval Cues

Gooden and Baddeley (1975)

Listen/Recall

Group 1: water/land

Group 2: land/water

Group 3: water/water

Group 4: land/land

Memory and Retrieval Cues

Von Restorff Effect (1933) Cue This is our tendency to remember unusual items

better than more common onesVery tall or very short people; unusual names

Cued Recall Method of receiving hints to help with memory

Example: initials in front of picturesTulving and Pearlstone (1966)

Category prompting led to better recall

Available vs. Accessible Memories

 Accessible Memories These memories can be recalled or retrieved

Available Memories Memories that contain learned information, but

may not be retrievable (at least not at the present time)

Brown and McNeil (1966) Referred to available memories as "tip-of-the-

tongue“

Absent Mindedness

Absent mindedness means preoccupied, forgetful, inattentive

Includes” “action slips”The performance of unintended actions

Implications: May cause accidents – some that are fatal Workplace deaths, car crashes, etc.

Absent Mindedness

Problems with MethodologyExperimenters can’t seem to obtain these

in the laboratory settingsSo, instead they tell their participants to

keep diary records of any action slips that they detect in their everyday lives…

Do you see a problem with this…

Absent Mindedness: Reason (1979)

35 volunteers asked to keep a diary of their slips of action for two weeks

Some participants reported a total of 400

Reason (1979): Five Categories of Action Slips

(1) Repetition errors (40%) Forgetting a action has been performed and repeating it

(2) Goal switches (20%) Forgetting a goal of a sequence of actions and switching to

a different goal

(3) Omissions and Reversals (18%) Omitting or wrongly ordering the component actions of a

sequence

(4) Confusions or blends (16%) Confusing objects involved in one action sequence with

those involved in another action sequence

(5) Unclassified (6%) These remaining slips did not fit neatly into the other

categories