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Geographies of the National QuestionGeographies of the National Question
Dr. Zoltán GrossmanDr. Zoltán GrossmanGeography/World Indigenous Peoples Studies, Geography/World Indigenous Peoples Studies, The Evergreen State College, Olympia, Wash.The Evergreen State College, Olympia, Wash.
Northern Ireland (Catholics vs. Protestants)
Same race, language
Different religion(and class, ethnic group?)
Protestant Ulster majorityloyal to U.K.Poorer Catholic minorityfor joining Ireland.
Loyalist(Protestant)
and Republican(Catholic) murals
in Belfast
Rwanda(Hutus vs. Tutsis)
Same race, language,religion
Different ethnic group;one favored by Belgiancolonialists
Genocide againstTutsi minority andmoderate Hutus, 1994.War against Hutu refugees in Congo, 2000s.
Bosnia(Orthodox Serbs vs. Muslim Bosniaks vs. Catholic Croats)
Same race, spoken language
Different religion,script, “ethnic” group
Intermarried, cooperated,1950s-80s; at war 1990s
Muslim andSerb refugeesfrom Sarajevo
Somalia
Same race, language,religion, and ethnic group !
Yet 1990s civil warbetween clan militias
Contending theories
Ethnic hatred is ancient,always there; politics can keep a “lid” on it
Croatian and Serbian leadersstoke ethnic hatred after 1989
Ethnic hatred is modern toolused for political and
economic power
Communism collapses inEastern Europe, 1989
Bosniapartition plan
Explaining interethnic cooperation(Fearon/Laitin)
Cooperation is more the norm than conflict;Prejudice always exists but crisis of economy or power turns it into violence
Macedonian Slav and Albanian kids in Open FunFootball School
Territoriality
Control people by controlling space:Classification (boundaries for ease of control),Communication (of in/out rules),Enforcement (to punish transgression)
Types of territoriality
State
Ethnic
Religious
Fears ofBalkanization(splitting state into ethnic or
religious parts)
Types of territoriality
State(patriotism)
Ethnic(nationalism)
Religious
Racial
State territorialityState territoriality(“patriotism”)
Place identity based on political unit(Serbian, Croatian)
“I am an American.” “I am a Nigerian.”(Civil wars)
Exercise of powerover people and territory.
Boundaries recognizedby other states.
Global system of sovereign states
State Sovereignty
NATIONNATION
Not a state: A cultural group with a territorial identity; stitching together many local identities
Over 5,000 ethnic “nations” cannot allbecome states, yetmany are large enough to survive(larger than some states).
Theories of European nationhood
Primordialism(nation is essential/family, in the “blood”)
Instrumentalism(nation is top-down, self-serving project of elites)
Constructivism(nation is constructed both by elites and masses)
Urbanization
Transmission Belt for nationalism(Ernest Gellner)
Constructed in urban areasby intellectual elites
but extols rural peasantry
Local to National IdentityLocal to National Identity(Eugèn Weber)(Eugèn Weber)
• Nations patched together from local dialects
• Central dialect selected as standard (Parisian, Queen’s English)
• Construct national identity through education, print
Local-Scale IdentitiesLocal-Scale Identities• Identity of multiethnic region (Carpathian Rus, Vojvodina, Transylvania)
• Identity of town, city or valley (Pec, Kosovo)
Local scale seen as provincial, but can be inclusive (Iraqi tribe can be Shia and Sunni together)
Expanding scale seen as cosmopolitan (Tuan), but can be more exclusive (Greater Serbia, Greater Albania)
Basques in Spain/France Québécois in Canada
Ethnic territorialityEthnic territoriality(“nationalism”)
Place identity based on ethnicity(Serb, Croat)
Social and Territorial Definitions of Place
• SOCIAL Defines place as belonging to one ethnic or racial group
(Jus Sanguinis: “Law of the Blood”)
• TERRITORIAL Defines place/state geographically as home for all who live there (Jus Soli: “Law of the Soil”) So-called “ethnic cleansing” to match ethnic, state boundaries
BosnianSerb
ethnic flag
Bosniamultiethnic
state flag
Homeland: Territorialization of national identity
Past: Golden Age
Past independence/autonomy of (usually larger) territory
Present: Cohesion/Security
Cultural, Linguistic, Territorial
Future: Prosperity /Glory
Economic viability, preferably political viability (autonomy or independence)
Battle of Kosovo Polje(Blackbird Field), 1389
Battle of Kosovo Polje(Blackbird Field), 1389
Muslim Turks defeatSerbian (and Albanian!)Christians under Prince Lazar.
Knights’ blood “turns into” red poppies.
Sacred site for Serbian nationalism vs.Albanian nationalism,1989-1999
NATION-STATE
State with one nation(none “pure” but some close)
Nearly all states multiethnic(more than one nation)
Nation-States and Multiethnic States
National Congruence
Desire for nation-state(state boundaries to matchethnic boundaries)
* If minority wants self-determination-- declare independence or autonomy (limited self-rule)
* If majority does not want minority—assimilate, kill or expel themBoundaries of Albania
in different eras
Ethnic Territory TypologyEthnic Territory Typology(John Coakley)(John Coakley)
• Cohesiveness (size) within territory
• Concentration of total members in territory
1. Strong majority/High concentration (Slovenia)2. Strong majority/Low concentration (Aland Swedes)3. Weak plurality/High concentration (Bosnia)4. Weak plurality/Low concentration (Birobijan Jews)
Kurds
Ethnic group in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria.
Many Kurdsfor independence of Kurdistan(autonomy in Iraq)
States pit Kurdsagainst each other(state territoriality wins)
Demographic trends(shrinking or growing relative to other groups)
Cultural trends(language use lessening or growing)
Economic trends(getting poorer or better off)
Political trends(getting repressed or gaining autonomy/rising expectations)
Activation of ethnic territoriality
Religious TerritorialityReligious Territoriality
States defined by religion
IranIran
VaticanCity
IsraelIsrael
SaudiSaudiArabiaArabia
VaticanVaticanCityCity
Israelis
Zionism:Jewish (religious) territoriality
Israelis are multiethnicEuropean, Middle Eastern,Newer Russian, Ethiopian immigrants
Arab Israeli minority
Palestinians (in West Bank, E. Jerusalem, Gaza Strip)
Arab (ethnic) territoriality
Palestinians are multireligiousMuslims and Christians
Ethnic nationalist movement, but later Islamist groups
Iraq
Ethnic:Arabs vs.Kurds
Religion:Sunnis vs.Shi’as
Rulers wereSunni Arab,now Shia
IRAN (Shi’a Persian) vs.IRAQ (Sunni Arab)
Yet Iraqi Shi’as fought for Iraq,Iranian Arabs fought for Iran
(State territoriality won)
Iran-Iraq War, 1980-88
Iranians
Iraqis
ARMENIA (Christian) vs.AZERBAIJAN (Shi’a Muslim)
Yet Shi’a Iran stayed neutral,fearing ethnic Azeris in NW Iran (Ethnic territoriality won)
Armenia-AzerbaijanWar, 1988-94
Armenian (above) and Azeri views
Racial TerritorialityRacial Territoriality
States defined by race
South Africa’s Whiteand Black areas under
Apartheid (racial separation)
White supremacist map for a racial partition of the U.S.
South African Black Homelands
76% of populationgiven 13%of land;deniedcitizenshipin rest(ethnocide)
“Bantustans” forced on Blacks
South African Apartheid (racial separation), 1948-94
Core group
States are constructed around a dominant ethnic, racial or religious group
English in U.K.Whites in U.S.
Russians in U.S.S.R. & Russia
Majority nationalism Equating “patriotism” with “nationalism”
German skinheadsattack TurksKKK rally against immigrants, 1925
Hindu mobs attack IndianMuslim neighborhood
State usually represents core group, but also concedes to minoritiesso they will be loyal, not rebel
English attack immigrants
Minority nationalism
For “self-determination”Not only secession but autonomy
Reaction to majority nationalism?
What if minority becomes majority?
LithuaniaEast Timor
PuertoRico
Secession
Separation from state(independence)
Autonomy (self-rule)not offered, or not enough
Recognized by other states
Irredentism
Joining ethnic minority with acountry where they are majority,To form Greater________
Germany annexes ethnic German region of Czechoslovakia, 1938
State response to minority: Coercion
Ethnocide(forced assimilation)
Hungarian sign defaced in Romania.Turks forced to
change names in Bulgaria.=
”Kill the Indian, not the man”in boarding schools
Genocide(extermination)
Holocaust in Europe(Not only Germany)
Ethnic cleansingForced removal of
an ethnic group
Serbs expelledfrom Krajina(Croatia), 1995
Albaniansexpelled
from Kosovo (Serbia), 1999
To match ethnic, state boundaries;
increase majority percentage
State response: Unitary system
Central government holds power;No autonomy for ethnic minorities
State response: Autonomy
Ethnic minoritiescan rule themselves in special regionswithin the state
Autonomousregions of Spain.Flag of Catalonia
alongside Spainand EU flags
China settlingethnic Chinese in
“autonomous”regions
Indian Reservations (autonomy)
Inuit (Eskimo) territory of Nunavut
Canada
1999
State response: Ethnic Federalism
Territorial unitsrepresent differentethnic groups
Other large multiethnicfederations have failed(Yugoslavia, USSR)
Languages and states of India
Confederalism
Devolution (transfer)of most power from centralgovernment to regions
Confederacydeclared, 1861.“States’ Rights” after Civil Warended in 1865.
Bosnia after civil war ended in 1995,
dividedinto strong Serb and
Muslim-Croat regions
Nationalism in the Former Soviet BlocNationalism in the Former Soviet Bloc
Growth of Russian Empire
Lenin on national self-determinationLenin on national self-determination• Nationalism of the oppressor vs. Nationalism of the oppressed
• Criticized Russian majority nationalism
• Independence for Poland, Finland, Baltic states
• Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), 1922
Stalin on nationalismStalin on nationalism• Ethnic Georgian (Dzhugashvili) but pro-Russian
• Feared, repressed ethnic minorities & religions
• Russification of minorities (Cyrillic)
• Ruled republics through Russified elites, money
Stalin on nationalismStalin on nationalism• Constructed ethnic groups
from local identities
• Divide-and-rule through ethnic boundaries– “Booby traps” of
minorities within republics
• Yet boundaries strengthened national identity of titular groups
Russian nationalism in WWIIRussian nationalism in WWII• Stalin used “Mother Russia” to rally USSR
• “Traitorous” minority ethnic groups– Some initially welcomed Germans (or outdid them)
– But Nazis wanted Lebensraum (Living Space)
– Stalin relocates ethnic Germans, Chechens, etc.
Dominant (titular)Dominant (titular)groups in 15groups in 15
Soviet republicsSoviet republics
All had minorities
14 republics outside Russia
(“Near Abroad”) haveRussian minorities
Ethnic minority areas within S.S.R.sEthnic minority areas within S.S.R.s
Nagorno-KarabakhNagorno-Karabakh Ethnic Armenian region, but part of Azerbaijan
(booby trap); War in 1988-94
Chechnya• Muslim region of Russia declared independence; beat Russians in 1990, 1994-96
• Putin fears Kosovo precedent; flattens Grozny, 2000
RUSSIANS OUTSIDE RUSSIARUSSIANS OUTSIDE RUSSIA
Fears that Russianethnicterritorialitywould turnirredentist
25 millionpeople(17% of allRussians)
• 22% of population (up from 10% in 1926)
• Concentrated in cities east of Dnieper River (Donbass industrial region)
• Also on Crimean Peninsula in Black Sea
• Ukraine, Russia mutually dependent
Russians in UkraineRussians in Ukraine
Russians in lighter greenin east, south
• Crimea former homeland of Crimean Tatars (removed by Stalin)
• Was part of RSFSR; given to Ukrainian SSR as Khrushchev’s 1954 birthday present
Russians in Crimea (Ukraine)Russians in Crimea (Ukraine)
CrimeaCrimea
Russians 70% ofpopulation, electedseparatist leader 1994
Crisis over splittingBlack Sea Fleet betweenRussia and Ukraine
Reconciliation 1997-2000
Simferopol parliamentSimferopol parliament
• Russian 35%; only some have left• Mainly in northern steppe/
“Virgin Lands”• Also in cities (Almaty)• Capital shifted to northern city of
Aqmola, renamed Astana (“Capital”)
Russians in KazakhstanRussians in Kazakhstan
• 29% Estonia(42% Tallinn,
95% Narva)
• 33% Latvia (47% Riga)
• 8% Lithuania (20% Vilnius)
BalticBalticRussiansRussians
• Have long history in Baltics (part of Russian Empire)
• Most settled after 1940 annexation (esp. officers)
• Pre-1940 residency or language requirements for citizenship
• Older Russians not learning, younger people see as minority apart from Russia
Russians in Baltic StatesRussians in Baltic States
• 27% of Moldova (Bessarabia)
• Concentrated in industrial zone
east of Dniester River (not Romanian)
• Feared Moldova would
be part of Greater Romania
annexation like in WWII
Russians/Ukrainians in MoldovaRussians/Ukrainians in Moldova
• Declared independence 1992 (also Gagauz Turks in south)
• Russian Gen. Lebed’s 14th Army aided secessionists
• Lebed relieved 1994, but troops stay
Russians/UkrainiansRussians/Ukrainiansin Moldovain Moldova
(Transdniestria)(Transdniestria)
Modernizers vs. Slavophiles
Westernizers:Lean to Europe
Pro-industrial
Capitalists & Socialists
Russia as state
Eurasianists:
Europe-Asia bridge
Pro-peasantry
Royalists & populists
Russia as ethnic nation
ETHNIC (Lebed, Slavophiles)
Bring all Russians into Russia,
but let Chechens go from Russia
STATE (Yeltsin, Modernizers)
Leave Russians outside Russia,
but keep Chechens in Russia by force
What is Russia?What is Russia?State State vsvs. Ethnic Territoriality. Ethnic Territoriality
Dominant capitalBelgrade, Serbia Moscow, Russia
IrredentismOrthodox Serbs Orthodox Russians outside Serbia outside Russia
SecessionKosovo Muslims Chechen Muslims in Serbia in Russia
Yugoslavia-USSR parallelsYugoslavia-USSR parallels
Milosevic, Putin emphasize both ethnic and state territoriality;Overextend reach of Serbia & Russia