Geography compendium

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RESEARCHResearch is the finding out about the real geographical phenomena for ourselves1. It is a

procedure which attempts to find scientific solution of the problems in the societies.

IMPORTANCE OF FIELD RESEARCH

i) It helps to understand the problems facing a specific area and how can you

attempt to solve it.

ii) It helps to solve the conflict between human and environment.

iii) It helps to relate the problems studied in a small scale and how can help to

understand a similar large scale.

iv) It helps the researcher to involve in a practical learning situation that relaying

more on theory only.

v) It is an important source of Geographical knowledge since is a secondary data

source.

AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

i) To solve Geographical problems.

ii) To develop theories and practical.

iii) To collect difference records, analysis and interprete the data in order to disc

over new facts.

iv) To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered.

v) To prove or disapprove what have been already learnt and experienced.

vi) To generate new knowledge.

USES OF RESEARCH

i) To solve problems existing in the society.

ii) To develop principles and theories

iii) To provide decision makers with accurate information.

iv) To direct social activities of the society

v) Enable the member of the society to be well informed about their

surroundings.

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CHARACTERISTICS/PRINDIPLES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

i) The collected information should be recorded and reported correctly.

ii) It should be conducted scientifically and systematically

iii) A research should be planned in an orderly manner.

iv) It must be intended to find the solution generate new ideas and prove the

existing information

v) It must be able to generate knowledge

vi) It must be applicable to be used everywhere in the universe.

PROBLEMS WHICH CAN BE RESEARCHED

Research problems include issues of social, Political, Economical and cultural issues, e.g.

- Problem of child labor

- Population problems

- Quality of education in the state

- Quality of social services provided

- Problems accompanied by circumcisions in the society.

LIMITATION/SETBACKS, DRAWBACKS OF FIELD RESEARCH (Problems

facing field research)

Field research difficulties (problems) are inevitable some of them are:

1. Language barrier (Problem of language)

2. Problem of transport and communication.

3. Lack of capital.

4. Bad/poor weather and climatic condition to some areas

5. Political instability/problems

6. Lack of knowledge concerning with the research studies.

7. Poor social services.2

TYPES OF RESEARCH

i) Descriptive research

ii) Applied research

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iii) Analytical research

iv) Pure/fundamental research

v) Quantitative research

vi) Qualitative research

vii) Conceptual research

viii) Empirical research.

i) Descriptive Research/Applied Research

This is the research which is collected so as to be used by other on an immediate

problem. Example, Eruption of a certain diseases may be given solution immediately

after its eruption.

ii) Analytical Research

The research has to use facts or information already available and analyses these to make

a critical evaluation of the material.

iii) Applied (Basic) Research/Pure Research/Fundamental Research

This also is the type of research conducted so as to develop new knowledge/principles or

theories and to modify the pre-existing theories. This type of research is mostly used by

Philosophers and Thinkers.

iv) Quantitative Research.

This is the type of research which based on the measurement of amount3 or quality. Is the

type of research that involves the collection of statistical data for Geographical

phenomenon.

NB. It is applicable for the objects which can be measured quantativelly.

v) Qualitative Research.

It is the type of research which is concerned with involving quality or kind of

phenomenon. Example, Research on which people prefer to keep a big number of

domesticated animals.

vi) Empirical Research

It relates to some aspects of a real situations and deals with the concrete data that

provides validity to research results.

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vii) Evaluation Research

This is the type of research conducted so as to obtain the information (data) for decision

making. It is aimed to develop the policies such as Industrial Policies, Management4

Policies etc.

Systematic Research

It is structured with specified steps in accordance with the well defined set of rules.

Logical Research

It is guarded by the rules of logical reasoning of and logical process of induction and

deduction.

ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH

i) It led to the generation of new ideas and knowledge.

ii) It led to the solution to problems which have no answer.

iii) It helps the learner to have the mind of investigation and enquiry.

iv) Principles of scientific laws are helpful in on daily life.

DISADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH

i) It is expensive if conducted in its nature.

ii) It consume much time.

iii) The large amount may appear unnecessary and confuse the researcher.

iv) Normally research base or concentrates on single problem and other problem

may be left away.

RESEARCH TOOLS:

Tools are the means by which are searcher is enabled to collect the data. Research tool is

any device which is used by the researcher in the course of data collection in the field.

Also, Research tools refer to a method of collecting or gathering data for research

purpose. These research tools include; pencil, notebook, camera, tape recorder,

topographical maps.

LUBAMBURA, F. 15TH JUNE, 2011 Mr. SOSPETER JALEDI +255754260412

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There are five mainly research tools or methods of data collection as follows;

i) Interview methods

ii) Questionnaire method

iii) Fields observation methods

iv) Focus group discussion

v) Literature review.

I. INTERVIEW METHOD

This is the research work in which there is face to face communication between the

researcher and the respondent. It is the method of data collection that involves asking of

questions verbally by a researcher and the respondent answer them accordingly.

Face to face interaction led to the production of a report by the researcher.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

There about two types of Interview as;

i) Rigid interview

ii) Open ended interview

a) Closed or Rigid Interview

This is the type of interview which involves the situation where the respondent is

required to give yes or no answer.

b) Open Ended Interview

This is the type of interview where the respondent is free to express his/her ideas.

N.B: The information obtained in this interview is always5 recorded in recorders like tape

records.

CONDITIONS FOR THE SUCCESSIFUL INTERVIEW:

1. There must be good or friendly situation or atmosphere with the respondent.

2. Encourages him/her to speak with simple question.

3. Avoid questions with touch an internal feeling of the respondent directly.

4. Ensure the respondent that the information has a secret between you and him.

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ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW METHODS

1. New information may be obtained from that particular person

2. Comparison ideas may be made to get true information

3. Interview brings people into relationship

4. Feedback may be obtained in interview

5. It is the fastest method of data collection

6. There is high rate of responses as people are willing to talk than to write

7. It involve a whole population life both literate and illiterate people

8. Additional questions may be asked depending on the response given

DISADVANTAGES/LIMITATIONS/SETBARKS/PRONS/DEMEITS:

1. It may be hindered by language problems

2. The method involve the wastage of time

3. If not careful conducted the respondents may give wrong information

4. It is disadvantages to people who do not prefer talking rather than writing

5. The respondent is not given enough time to think about the answers

6. Many date may be collected by this method but difficult in data analysis

7. It is costful in terms of money.

II. QUESTIONNAIRES MATHOD

Questionnaire is the consists of the sets of questions which are in written form provided

to respondent6

The questionnaire should relate to the topic to be deal with and objectives of the

problems.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE MATHOD

There are two types of questionnaire namely

a. Open questionnaires

b. Closed/fixed questionnaires

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a) Open ended Questionnaires

Open ended is the type of questionnaire where by the respondent is asked to write

answers freely using his/her own records. E.g. what are the possible causes of soil

erosion?

b) Closed ended/fixed Questionnaires

Here the respondent is asked to pick, circle or choose the appropriate answer.

E.g. How far is your home from Kamhanga Sec. School?

(a) 100m (b) 250m (c) 300m (d) 80 (e) more than 300m

CRITERIA FOR GOOD QUESTIONNAIRES

i. Should relate to the topic and objectives

ii. Questions should be simple clear and direct

iii. Avoid questions which may touch on internal feeling of the respondent

iv. Questions should range from simple to complex

ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

i. It serves time in administration

ii. They may give various information from various place

iii. Respondent7 who don’t like to speak may have time to express their ideas

through writing.

iv. Similar questions are used to all people.

v. It may reduce field Work

vi. The respondent is given enough time to think carefully.

DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONAIRES

i. It is more time consuming

ii. Additional question can not be asked

iii. It involves only the literate population

iv. It is very expensive to be conducted.

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III. OBSERVATION METHODS:

It is a research tool which a researcher collect data at the real situation environment. OR.

Observation is the direct visual of Geographical phenomenon. This is the method of data

collection which is done by a researcher looking over the phenomenon in a field. It is an

effective methods used when the factors to be researched can not be communicated

verbally. It must be recorded immediately so that they can not be forgotten. It is useful

for a study of plant growth, soil erosion, animal behavior etc.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

There are two types of observation as follows:-

a) Participant Observation

In this type of research the researcher become normal member of the group and is

involved to activities that respondents do. In this type of observation the true identity and

the rule of the researcher may not be known to the respondents.

b) Non-Participant (Indirect) Observation

It is the type of observation in which a researcher does not engage in the rules and work

of the group but remains distanced from their action.

Advantages of Observation Methods

i. It involves active learning and participation and accurate8 data can be

gathered.

ii. The methods help to develop skills as it involves observation.

iii. It is the good method of data collection from sensitive uses.

iv. It overcomes the problem of language barriers.

Disadvantages of Observation Methods

i) It involves extensing traveling

ii) Past data can not be seen except present

iii) One may record data wrongly

iv) It consume a lot of time

v) It is very expensive to conduct

vi) It is limited to small population


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IV. LITARATURE REVIEW (LIBRARY RESEARCH)

This is the method of data collection which involves the collection of secondary data by

reading the written resources. This means, the reading of other works of research done by

other researchers on the same problems. Literature review can be reviewed from the

library to get the knowledge on the problems.

Advantages of Literature Review

i. Data collection is easy because the information are already analyzed

ii. Document define data which cannot be easily obtained from the field e.g. Past

events

iii. It serves time that the data is already obtained.

Disadvantages of Literature Review Methods

i. The researcher may obtain out data information

ii. There is a problems of analysis hence the researcher may not get the whole

picture

iii. The researcher may have under information from the document as the data

may have been incomplete.

iv. It is expensive.

V. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

This is the method of data collection which a researcher9 collects data by organizing

discussion with some respondent on a certain topic. In this method the researcher guides

the discussion and records data from what is discussed by the member.

Advantages of Focus Group Discussion

i. Allow critical thinking to the participants

ii. Make the participants to understand each other

iii. Researchers become active person in population.

LUBAMBURA, F. 15TH JUNE, 2011 Mr. SOSPETER JALEDI +255754260412VISIT: www.jalediabout.webs.com write to: [email protected]

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Disadvantages of Focus Group Discussion

i. It is time consuming

ii. Some participants may be dominated

iii. There is a difficult in data analysis.

STAGES/POCEDURES OF RESEARCH

(a) Problems Identification

The first thing in research process involves identification of the problem. This can be

done from map through observing relationship of variables by reading various literatures

or by experience. Example the problem of circumcision in Tarime District, The problem

should end up with the solution or answer.

(b) Hypothesis Formulation

The problem identified for research should be written in form of possible outcome.

Hypothesis – are possible outcome.

(c) Data Collection

This is the stage where the researcher has done all the preparation, now he/she is in the

field, collecting data through arranged procedures.

(d) Data Analysis/Organization

Means that the amount of data of different kind may be collected and now the researcher

needs to put them in groups of similar categories; the collected data may be in form of

graphs, maps, tables, photographs10, words analyzed to facilitate easy understanding.

(e) Data Recording and Presentation

The analyzed are now interpreted or compared. In this stage the researcher should be

able to know every item in the data, so as to eliminate or includes them in the last step of

competition.


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(f) Testing Hypothesis

In this stage the imagined answer o the real situation through practical is now compared

to know the truth. Normally, if the hypothesis testing does not match with the ideas set

that means that thee is complication. So, one must either check back or has to make it a

fresh.

(g) Report Writing, Summary or Conclusion

On all what has been done by the researcher in the course of his/her study. What has been

written has to be kept for other people to read or to verify.

RESEARCH DATA

This is the body of information collected systematically through a researcher procedure to

explain a research problem.

Types of Research Data.There are two types of research data namely,

i. Primary data

ii. Secondary data.

i. Primary Data/Origin data or Raw Data

They are fresh data collected for the first time by a researcher in a field11. Normally this

type of data have not been collected by other researches and also not published in the

document.

ii. Secondary Data/ Essential

Is the type of data which has been collected by reading written sources (documents). The

document sources include books, newspaper, etc.


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SAMPLINGSampling12 is a process of forming a sample from a large population.

Sample; is a small part of a population that contains the elements of the whole

population.

Importance of Sampling

i. It serves time staying huge population.

ii. It minimizes the cost of doing the researcher as limited portion is taken in the

study.

iii. It can be conducted over a whole area.

TYPES OF SAMPLING.

2. Random Sampling

3. Systematic sampling

4. Cluster Sampling

1. Random Sampling

This refers to a sampling method in which the selection of sample from the large

population is done randomly by6 chance. By this method every person has an equal

chance of being included into the sample.

2. Systematic Sampling

It is the method of obtaining sample from the large population using a fractional method.

For example, The interested research area has total number of 100 people and the

required sample size is 10 hence the selection is done as follows;

K = N/n

Where N = 100

N = 10

K = 100/10 K = 10

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Hence the sample has to be picked from the sample with fraction interval of 10 hence the

members of the sample will be

1, 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, 81, 91.

3. Stratified Sampling

It is the method of obtaining the sample in which the sample13 is selected from different

areas. This method combines both random sampling as follows;

X = x

X

Where X = size of sample to be formed

x = Number of number of individual in a particular area.

x = Total number of individual in all area.

Example;

A researcher intends to have a sample of 20 students from five schools below;

a) Mzumbe = 250 students

b) Kamhanga = 1000 students

c) Arusha = 100 students

d) Nyehunge = 600 students

e) Geita = 400 students

Then,

X = 250+1000+100+600+400 = 2350

Mzumbe = 250 x 20 = 2

2350

Kamhanga = 1000 x 20 = 9

2350

Arusha = 100 x 20 = 1

2350

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Nyehunge = 600 x 20 = 5

2350

Geita = 400 x 20 = 3

2350

Total sample = 2+9+1+5+3

= 20 Students

4. Cluster Sampling

This is the process of obtaining a sample from every large population in which the large

population is subdivided into small convenient14 groups and sample is selected from the

groups by either sample random or systematic sampling.

Non-Probability Sampling

This is the type of sampling in which the selection of sample is done not by chance. Non-

Probability Sampling includes the following types;

a) Purposive Sampling

Its in which a research uses his/her own knowledge to choose the sample.

b) Accidental Sampling

It is the type of non-probability sampling in which the respondents are included into the

sample as they come into contact with the researches accidentally.

RESEARCH PROPOSALIt is the systematic plan which brings together in organized from the preliminary planning

that will be needed to accomplish the objectives (purpose) of the project research.

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Functions of Research Proposal

a) It is the guidelines to the research as to show how he/she will proceed with the

research project.

b) It provides the means by which the study can later be calculated.

c) It shows the boundary of what research should end.

Research Design

Is the plan or structure which direct towards obtaining answers to research questions.

Reconnaissance

This is an investigation or research done for military purpose in a certain areas or

location.

Content Analysis Method

Is the methods involves the analysis of the available document in the library, reports,

survey, and articles, sources of information may be library, national museums, and

Achieves.

Methodology Formulation

This is the situation where the researcher selected the suitable methods in which the data

will be collected15. E.g. Interview, Observation and other instruments to be used.

TYPES OF EVALUATION RESEARCH

There are three types of Evaluation Research as follows:-

i) Needs assessment evaluation research

ii) Formative evaluation Research

iii) Summative evaluation Research

i) Need assessment Research

It is the evaluation conducted so as to obtain ideas for developing new program. It

involves the collection of new ideas for the possibilities of establishing defined program.


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ii) Formative Evaluation Research.

This is evaluation research that involves the collection of information so as to develop the

program which is in progress.

iii) Summative Evaluation Research

Summative is the type of evaluation research that deals with the collection of information

(data) for the program which has fully developed so as to determine the merits and

demerits of the program. Generally, summative evaluation is the evaluation done at the

end of the program as the conclusion16 (Jaledi 2011).

LUMAMBURA, F. 15TH JUNE, 2011 Mr. JALEDI SOSPETER +255754260412VISIT: www.jalediabout.webs.com write to: [email protected]

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PHOTOGRAPH READING AND

INTERPRETATION

By Definition;

Photography is an image of an object, person, recorded by a camera inform of

print with a photosensitive materials.

It is the picture of image of an object taken by different types of camera.

PHOTOGRAMETRYThis is the branch of photography in which the images and plans changes scale

maps are prepared from measurements taken from photographs. This is the science of

taking topographic images from (in) an aerial photograph (Jaledi 2011)

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHSThey are classified according to their view point from which they are taken. Their

classes are as follows:-

i) Ground Photography (Horizontal)

ii) Aerial Photography (Vertical)

iii) Oblique Photography

i) Ground Level Photographs

These are taken when the camera is hold horizontally. These are photographs taken

from the ground by a camera held at the level17 of the object the person taking the

photograph stands in a position where can see the objects directly in front of him. In this

type of photographs the size of the features decreases from the foreground to back

ground. However the object near the camera appears big and clear. An area hidden from

the eye of the camera by an object is called DEAD GROUND.

In this category, there are two sub-types of ground photographs,


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These are:-

a) Ground Close-up Photographs

b) Ground General View Photographs

a) Ground Close-Up Photographs

They are taken when the photographers intends to take one major objects.

Being this is the case; the photographers should be very close (near) with the object.

Automatically the images (pictures) appear very big. So it will tend to obscure other

objects.

b) Ground General View Photographs

This is taken when the photographers is at a certain distance. It is taken when the

photographers is at a certain distance. So everything within the limit of the lens of the

camera is taken. The 18images will be decreasing as the distance increases from the lens

of the camera.

Characteristics of Ground Level Photography

- All types of Ground Photographs shows horizontal images

- The scale of the ground photographs changes, the features near the camera

appears big and those away from the camera appear small.

- They show the dead Ground

- They are taken on Ground

- Ground Photographs shows the sooty front view.

Advantages of Ground Photographs

• A clear photographs provide an instant records of the landscape at a given

time

• All objects as seen from the photographic view points as recorded.

• The familiar pictures is represented in contrast to unfamiliar view in aerial

photographs

• The point can replace a great deal of verbal description

• The ground short can be used as an aid to field sketching (Good and to field

Sketching)


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Disadvantages of Ground Level Photographs

• Not all objects in the landscape can be seen as near objects may obscure the

back feature.

• It is difficult to judge the scale of the field unless familiar objects are

included.

• A camera recorded all objects but right not be required in the analysis.

• Due to desire depth only certain parts of the photographs will be in focus.

ii) Aerial/Vertical Photographs

This is the type of photographs taken from the air where the photographer is always in the

plan. It was by first taken from the ‘ballon’ by the French man19.

Characteristics of Vertical Level Photograph

a) Objects seems to be dwarf

b) Never show dead ground

c) Never show the dead horizon

d) Not easy to interpret

e) Features are shown vertically.

Advantages of Aerial/Vertical Photographs

• Vertical photos are used in map making

• They can be used to survey dense forest

• They can be used for record Keeping

Disadvantages of Vertical Level Photographs

• They are difficult to interpret

• They are expensive to produce.


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iii) Oblique Photographs

This is the type of photographs that, when the plan is flying at the low level and the

camera are lighted at an angle to cover a large area. This sometimes occurs when the

photographers is either on top of the house or a hill. The object near the camera are large

than those far away. They do not appear in side away other objects are also observed.

PARTS OF PHOTOGRAPHSA photograph is divided into three main parts namely:-

- Fore Ground; this is the part nearest to the camera.

- Middle Ground; the part in the centre of the camera

- Back Ground; the furthest part from the camera.

Each of these parts is divided into left middle and right.

Photograph InterpretationExamine different photographs in order to identify objects and asses their use in

their particular location. Features to be interpreted on a certain photos are like physical

features i.e. Hills, valleys, drainage feature as well as man made features such as farmers,

bridges, roads, and houses.

LOCATION OF THE PHOTOGRAPHSIn order to determine the location of photographs we use the following features20 to

know the location of a photographs e.g.

i) Water falls.

This indicates that the photograph was taken in the area having waterfalls like Owen

falls in Uganda, Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe.

ii) Coffee Estate.

This indicates that the photographs was taken in the area growing coffee like Bukoba,

Arusha, Moshi, Usambara in Tanzania and Thika, Kiambu, Makuru, in Kenya and

Northern part of Mount Elgon at the border of Kenya and Uganda.


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iii) Tea Estates.

This indicates that a photograph was taken in the area growing tea, e.g. Mufindi-

Rungwe (Southern Highland), Usambara in Tanzania and Kericho, Limuru in Kenya.

Similarities between Maps and Photos

i) Both uses scale

ii) Both shows man made things and natural things

Differences of Maps and Photos

i) Maps are selective while photos are not selective

ii) Maps scale are constant while photo scale are changed

iii) Maps are expensive to make while photos are cheap

GROUND AND OBLIQUE PHOTO INTERPRETATIONa) Study the fore, middle, and back ground making notes of important features.

b) Try to identify the types of objects i.e. natural and artificial features e.g.

Settlement, roads, houses, etc.

c) In interpreting agriculture activities be careful looking:-

COTTON

Cotton agriculture is known by observing people harvesting they put on urrapped clothes,

their bodies when harvesting21.

TEA

In harvesting people put baskets at their back. Also tea plants are not vertically long

having small needle like leaves.

COFFEES

Look care fully the coffee trees. Also the people in harvesting use baskets tied in front of

their stomach. Sometimes you can see people on the trees and sometimes also the coffee

is seen spread down so as get dried.

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CLIMATE

In describing climate look at the clothes worn by the people found in the photographs. If

the area suggested then you can know the climate. Also look at the type of crops.

E.g. Cotton Tropical climate with reliable rainfall with warm temperature

Coffee Equatorial and Tropical climate with high amount of rains

Banana Typical equivalent climate or modified equivalateral climate.

Evidence of nomadic Pastoralism look large herds of cattle may suggest a dry savannah

climate with low and reliable rainfall. It also indicates high temperature.

OTHER ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ON PHOTOS

They include;

a) Manufacturing, it is indicated by building with large Chimneys, factories

or people engaged in processing of activities

b) Fishing, it is indicated by fish vessels, people casting nets and fish trapes

c) Mining, it is indicated by a mine in quarry people undertaking a mining

activities or mineral processing of factory.

ESTIMATING THE TIME THE PHOTOS WAS TAKENIn estimating the time the photo was taken, use the length of shadow as follows;

i) Darkness in the Photograph. This shows that the photographs were taken

during the night or cloud day if there are some clouds in a photo.

ii) Long Shadow, these shows that the photos were taken in morning or evening

hours.

iii) No Shadow or a Shortest Shadow, these shows that the22 photograph was

taken in noon hours.

Also it is possible to estimate the time of the year when the photograph was taken. E.g.

The presence of young crops on the photo could indicate the rainy season, while

harvesting could imply season. Using this information23, it is possible to identify specific

month when the photo was taken.

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USES OF PHOTOGRAPHSi) Clear photographs used to show the instant records of landscape at time taken

ii) By using photos (prints) we replace the use of great deal of verbal description.

iii) Ground short can be used as an aid of field sketching

iv) To survey dense forests.

Note: Sometimes you may be asked to determine the season at which the photographs

was taken

Here we consider two seasons;

i) Dry seasons, if the vegetation (plants, glasses) seems to be dry with little or no

leaves.

ii) Rain Season, if these vegetables have leaves.

Again dry grasses/plants with leaves ranges from white to black (white is dominant)

Green Glasses/plants with leaves ranges from black to white (Black is Dominant)

FARMINGWe do consider farming as including both crop realing and keeping of livestock

This can further be classified into small scale and large scale farming.

Again should be distinguished from subsistence farming and commercial24 farming.


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Identification of Farming Types.

Farming Type Evidence to be considered.

1. Plantation Extensive stretch of the same crop,

infrastructure, planted trees on lines along

the farms

2. Livestock Farming Animals, Pad docked, Pastures

3. Commercialized Farming Presence of Cash crops and evidence of

Modern Farming E.g. Machinery, health,

hybrid and Livestock

4. Subsistence Farming Out molded structure e.g. huts, open grazed

animals, local breed animals, uses of

simple tools i.e. hoe and pangas.

SETTLEMENT IN THE PHOTOGRAPHSIn the context of human Geography a settlement is a group of dwellings with some

degree of interaction. With this in mind we can divide settlements25 into rural and urban

settlements.

Identification of Rural and Urban Settlement in the Photo

No. Rural Settlement Urban Settlement

1. Simple huts and semi-permanent

Buildings

Permanent structure e.g. Block building

being dominant

2. Evidence of farming (Field like

Stock)

Little evidence of farming or any other

primary sector activities

3. Unevenly/unplanned dwellings

primary sector activities e.g. Fishing

and Lumbering.

Evidence of much other activities e.g.

many motor vehicles and busy streets,

factories etc.


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FLYING HEIGHT, FOCAL LENGTH AND PHOTO SCALEThe vertical distance between the air crafts and the ground below is known as FLYING

HEIGHT (H). The scale26 of the photographs is calculated from the height (h) and the

focal length (f) of the camera used.

S = f

h

Where, S = Scale

F = focal length

h = Height

NB. In Scale calculation both ‘f’ and ‘h’ must be in the same units of measurements

(because usually ‘f’ is given in millimeters and ‘h’ is given in meters.

It is mostly practical to convert the meters into millimeters by multiplying by 1000.

QUESTION 1:

By using the focal length of 15000mm, find the scale of the photographs taken at a flying

height of 4500m.

Solution,

Data Given: Focal length (h) = 15000mm

Flying height (f) = 4500m

Scale = ?

But,

1m = 1000mm

S = f

h


26

S = 15000mm

4500x1000

= 15

4500

= 1

300

Therefore,

Scale = 1: 300 or 1/300

27QUESTION 2.

To determine the focal length of a camera which shoots on the air at 600m above and the

ground taken was on 3900m. If the scale of the photograph is 1: 14000

Solution,

Data Given:-

Scale of the Photo = 1: 14000

Distance from the Air plane (h) = 600m

Distance from the lower ground (f) = 3900m

Actual Flying Height (F) = ?

Steps,

S = F

h-f

1 = f .

14000 (6000-4900) m

1 = f .

1400 2100

14000f = 2100m

14000 14000mm

= 2100000

14000


27

f = 21000

140

Therefore,

Focal length = 150mm.

QUESTION 3.

A 28camera in an aircraft at an Altitude of 1600metres was used to take a photograph.

Determine the focal length of the camera if the scale of the photograph is 1: 50,000

Solution,

Data Given

Scale = 1:50000

Focal length (f) = ?

Height (h) = 1600m

S = f .

h

1 = f..

50000 1600m

50000f = 1600m

50000 50000

f = 1600000

50000

= 32mm

Therefore,

Focal length = 32mm


28

SURVEYINGBy Definition,

Surveying is the science of measuring distance, angles, and height on the earth surface.

This is the process of making measurements in the field from which the maps are drawn

For instance,

Measuring the distance from point A to B

B

A B

For Angles

Observers

BRANCHES OF SURVEYThere are four branches29 of survey, those are;

a) Geological Survey, the branch of survey which deals with rocks (minerals-

Mining)

b) Hydrological Survey, the one which deals with water bodies

c) Aerial Survey, it deals with aircrafts

d) Cartographic survey, that deals with map making

TYPES OF SURVEYThere are three types of surveying namely

i) Simple chain Survey

ii) Plane Table Survey

iii) Prismatic Compass Survey

LUBAMBURA, F. 15TH JUNE, 2011 Mr. JALEDI SOSPETER +255754260412VISIT: www.jalediabout.webs.com write to: [email protected]

29

1: SIMPLE CHAIN SURVEY

It is sometimes called Chain or Tape survey. It is the type of survey where by the major

work is mainly carried out by a chain. OR,

This also is a particularly method of surveying in which no angle are measured only line

measurements are taken in the field. It is the one which deals with linear measurements

NB: A Chain Surveying is suitable in small areas with fair visibility and relatively flat30.

Qualities of a Simple Chain Survey

It is useful for measurement of small areas. E.g. School, plantation, etc. the major

instrument is CHAIN.

Tools (Equipments) used in Chain Survey

- Chain - Measuring Rod

- Tape - Surveyor Band

- Ranging Pole - Pen

- Arrows - Spirit Level

- Pegs - Cross stuff

- Pocket Compass - Note book

• Chain or Tape

They are used for taking linear measurements and measuring the distance from one point

to another point.

Bench Mark

10m 10m 10m


30

• Ranging Pole/Ranging rod

They are used for making stations and are painted black, white and red so as to be seen

easier. It is made either in metal or wood. They are used for ranging purpose for instance

they are used for finding straight lines and offset.

• Arrows

A long narrow piece of iron rod coited at one and painted at one end. It is used to make

the position temporally during surveying activity.

• Pegs

They are used to mark position permanently during the process of surveying31. They are

put after the arrows have been removed.

• Cross Stuff/Optical Square

It is used to determine the right angles from the main chain of survey (line of traverse) to

the offsets.

Line of Traverse

A B

12m 19m

Stone (OFFSET)


31

• Measuring rod

They are used to measuring offset.

• Note book.

They are used to recording all the information obtained from the field.

• Surveyor Band

They are used for linear measurements

STEPS (STAGES) OR PRINCIPLES IN CHAIN SURVEY:

A. Preliminary survey

This is the first stage which is done to make the choice of the area to be surveyed,

The main line is made.

B. Triangulation Chain Survey

Division of the area into triangle starting with the major triangles32 by the base line then

secondary triangle by the help of check line. OR.

The division of the area to be surveyed into many triangles for the surveying purpose.

F E

G

A

D

B C

C. Booking In Chain Survey

It involves the entering in the field noting various measurements taken in the field, i.e. It

should include the necessary features e.g. rivers, houses, ponds, fence, etc.

It is done as follows;

Construct a double vertical line half an inch apart in the middle page.


32

NB: Field notes should include the following

i. The name and allocation of the areas surveyed

ii. Description and references number of items used e.g. type of chain (1 Unit)

iii. The date of survey should be recorded

iv. The names of the partnership

v. A sketch of the layout of the survey during the preliminary survey.

D. Plotting/Drawing the plane of the Map:

This is plotting of details. i.e. map making

In conducting the chain survey three people make up the team survey.

-landing (Chairperson)

-The follower

- The surveyor or Booker.

OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEY:An obstacle is anything which may hinder the penetration along the line of survey33.

Obstacles in chain survey are:-

- A Pond

- A river

- Building

- Hills or mountains etc.

Note: Choose the line of traverse which avoids obstacles. But sometimes they are

unavoidable.

CHAIN TRAVERSE

Traverse involves laying of legs (is an extension of the method of fixing a point by a

distance and bearing instead of fixing a single point.

Traverse is applied in the survey pf linear objects such as roads, school boundary, farms

etc.


33

Types of Chain Traverse

There are two types of traverse

i. Open traverse

ii. Closed traverse

i. Open traverse

This is the one which starts from one point to another point34.

A B

OR:-

B

A

C

ii. Closed Traverse.

This is the kind of survey which started at a certain point and end at a same point.

G E

F D

A

C

B

NB. One length of the surveyed area is called a single leg.

Uses/Application of Survey

i. Used for map making (for cartographer)

ii. Used in military activities


34

iii. Used for mining activities

iv. Used for construction of building, H.E.P, Statory road etc.

v. Used for fixing boundaries.

vi. Used for plan the best use of land (agriculture, industries)

Advantages/merits (cons) of chain survey

i. it is a simplest method of all methods (even less skills full person can conduct)

ii. Its equipments are cheap and easily obtained.

iii. It does not include the knowledge of mathematics35 because there is no angles

are measured.

iv. It is out of the quickest method of surveying. E.g. In army

v. It require few person at least two one enough ( a leader and a follower)

vi. It is an accurate method.

Disadvantages/demerits (prons) of chain survey

i. it is limited when used in densely wooded area

ii. it is limited when the ground is wet

iii. it is only used for small ground area

iv. It is particularly slow especially when surveyors are not skillful in the

selecting the line of traverse.

v. A chain itself is heavy equipment. (not easily portable)

vi. Over long distance it’s likely accumulated (Gross errors) uncalculated.

2: PRISMATIC COMPASS SURVEY:

Is the method in which the position of the object in the field is fixed by measuring angles

between the line of magnetic north and the line of the sight to the object. OR:

It is the method of surveying which involves the utilization of prismatic compass.


35

MN

MN GN TN

80°

Line of sight

TN = True North

GN = Grid North

MN = Magnetic North

True North (Geographical North)

It is the direction given always in maps

Magnetic North

It is the direction of magnetic pole where the needle of magnetic compass point is said to

be near i.e. both near.

It is constant normally keep on changing from time to time. Normally the place and data

where the magnetic North Pole is taken should be indicated36.

Grid North

The vertical lines drawn on the map does the grid north. Three types of Bearing are:-

a) True Bearing

b) Magnetic Bearing

c) Magnetic declination or Magnetic Variation

a) True Bearing

This is an angle of distance point taken from the observer’s position in the relation to the

line pointing to the true north.


36

b) Magnetic Bearing

This is an angle of distance point taken from the observer’s position in relation to the line

pointing to the magnetic north.

c) Magnetic Declination or Variation or Angle of Declination:

This is the angle between the true north and the magnetic north.

It refers to as an angle of declination normally does not exceed 11° and is not constant

due to changing of magnetic North.

MN(Magnetic North) TN(True North) P(Distance Point)

MB

MD(AD) TB

Observers

TB = True Bearing

MD = Magnetic Declination

AD = Angle of Declination

MB = Magnetic Bearing

TB = MB – AD

MB = TB + AD

AD = MB – TB

NB: BEARING is the angle of distance point taken from the observers’ position in

relation to the line pointing to the North Direction.

This angle is usually measured in degrees clockwise37.


37

A. Forward Bearing

This is the degree reading to an object in front of observers along a line of sight. It is a

bearing of a point taken from the observer’s station in relation to the distant station.

B. Back Bearing

This is the bearing (angle) from the object station in relation to the distant observers

position.

Object

MN

O

50°

340°

A B

NOTE: If the forward bearing is greater than 180° subtract so as to get the back bearing.

If forward bearing is less than 180° then add 180° to get the back bearing.

How to avoid errors in compass survey

a) Avoid wearing metals, spectacles, metal bangles, steel watches and related when

vocing compass.

b) Avoid areas with metal gates railway lines, steel structure these will influence38

the reading

c) Ensure booker takes a reading accurately by asking him/her to speak.

PRISMATIC EQUIPMENTS:

i. Prismatic compass, it is used to find north to south direction

ii. Chain/tape, is used to measure the base line during a process of surveying


38

iii. Chain Arrows, used to mark the position temporarily

iv. Field notebook, it is used to record the information obtained in the field

v. Traverse Sheet, is the paper which have different lines to draw graphs.

vi. Mathematical set

vii. Drawing materials, (ruler, rubber, drawing papers)

Advantages of prismatic Compass Survey

i. The equipments are easily portable

ii. Near and distant objects can be taken accurately

iii. Accumulative errors is reduced and can be easily rectified

iv. It is fairly rapid method in the field

v. It can be combined with other methods e.g. chain and plane table survey

Disadvantages of prismatic compass survey

i. Over long distance compass observation cannot be checked by back bearing

unless transport is provided

ii. Presence of one world affect reading

iii. It is difficult to hold the compass steady thus human errors is involved in

taking observation.

iv. It involve complication mathematics

3. PLANE TABLE SURVEY

A plane table survey is an accurate and rapid way of fixing the position of distant objects

by intersection. It is a geographical method of providing topographical details in an open

country. In a plane tabling only one linear measurement is made. A plane table survey is

used in military operations for unmapped country or exploration39.

Branches of Plane Table Survey

i. Radiation Method

ii. Intersection Method

iii. Resection Method

iv. Plane Table Traversing Method


39

Equipments used in Plane Table Surveying

i. Table, is used a simple drawings board, when the table used is covered with

the drawing paper. It has a socket underside which allows it to be fixed

mounted on a tripod stand

ii. Tripod Stand, it has the three lagged framework on which the table is mounted

iii. Plumb Bob, this is tied to the clamping screw and the plumb-bob hangs down

wards pointing on the pig which marks a station during plane tabling.

iv. Telescopic Alidade, this is used for long sight observation

v. Chain or Tape, this is used to measure the base line during a process of

surveying

vi. Trough Compass, is used to find the magnetic meridian in the field (north to

south direction)

vii. Drawing Materials, (paper, ruler, pencil)

viii. Alidade, is used for sighting the points

ix. Spirit Level, for leveling the table.

Advantages of Plane Table Survey

a. a map can be produced immediately

b. Does not require filling the information in the field note book

c. The method id quick, accurate and permit rapid sketching of details

d. The techniques used is an excellent discipline in observation

e. It serves time because a map is produced; therefore minimize the official the

official work.

Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey

a. The method can’t be used during rain season because the paper will get water40 or

wet

b. It is very difficult to survey in the area with many obstacles

c. the method is limited in a small and slight flat area


40

d. It is very difficult to select the base line other wise the intersection will take place

outside of the paper.

Difference between a Simple Chain Survey and A Plane Table Survey

A Simple Chain Survey A Plane Table Survey

i. Simple equipments are used e.g.

ranging pole, pegs, arrows

ii. Its equipments are very easy to

carry

iii. Its easy to survey the area of

obstacles

iv. It is much more to accurate in

fixing the boundary of the area.

i. A complex equipments

are used e.g. tripod,

telescopic alidade etc.

ii. Its equipments are not

easy to carry.

iii. It is not easy to survey

the area of obstacles

because will under direct

indivisibility of the

objects

iv. It is less accurate

method of fixing the

boundary of the area.

LEVELING:This is the process of measuring the height differences between points on the ground

surface41. It is the procedure by which the heights of the points on the earth surface are

determined.

LUBAMBURA, F 15TH JUNE, 2011 Mr. JALEDI SOSPETER +255754260412LUBAMBURA, F. 15TH JUNE, 2011 Mr. JALEDI SOSPETER +255754260412VISIT: www.jalediabout.webs.com write to: [email protected]

41

Types of leveling

There are two kinds of leveling

a. Differential Leveling

b. Profile Leveling

a. Differential Leveling

This involve in the determination of difference in height between the two points OR.

It is the determination of the vertical height between two points on the ground.

b. Profile Leveling

This deals with the determination of the elevation of a series of points measured at

intervals.

Horizontal line

of staff sight

A Level

Tripod stand

Leveling staff

Leveling

Level line

The process of measuring42 height different is done by using a level and a staff

Equipments used in Leveling

i. Chain or Tape, Are mainly used for measurement of distant and are the same

equipments used in chain surveying.

ii. Pegs, are used for marking permanently station or points at a certain field

where by the leveling process is taken

42

iii. Spirit level, these are used in leveling and it consist of a telescope and the lot

mounted on a tripod and free to rotate on a horizontal plane about a vertical

axis.

iv. The Clio meter, is used for measuring angles of elevation or depression

v. Tripod Stand, for supporting spirit level

vi. Telescope, with spirit level used for sighting

vii. Leveling staff/Telescopic staff, is a wooden or light metal staff 2 meters to 4

meters long with measurements in meters used for recording differences in

height between points and determining the height of contouring

viii. Note book

ix. The Hand Level, are used to conduct leveling and it consists of the front a

perture on the tube a small spirit level is mounted.

x. The Aneroid Barometer, is the normal instrument used for measuring of

pressure therefore it is used in leveling in area.

USES OF LEVELING

a. It is used for the production of contour lines, after establishing spot height,

trigonometric station or bench mark

b. It can be used to determine the elevation of the land, e.g. Hill

c. It is used to produce longitudinal station

d. It can be used for location and determination of hosing foundation, industrial

sites, and the routes of communication and sitting of building.

Advantages of Leveling

a. It is used to obtain across section of man made and natural features43

b. It is used in the production of contour maps

c. It is used to determining the height of a point above the seal level.

Disadvantages of Leveling

a. It needs skills to be conducted

b. It consume time, because its needs to be done accurately.


43

Methods of LevelingAre two simple methods which can be used to determine the difference in level between

two points height of one point among two have to be known44 easily.

i. The rise and fall method

Leveling instruments in the rise and fall method can be placed as shown in the diagram.

Horizontal line of sight

3.561 A Level

1.352

Tripod Stand

Leveling

Staff 637.771

635.362

A X B Level line

Figure above the level is set upon its tripod stand at X the leveling is erected at A and

reading to it (3.561m) the level is then surveying around in a horizontal plane the leveling

staff is set up and a second reading taken (1.352m).

Difference in level between A and B is rise of 3.561m minus 1.352m which is equal to

2.200m as height is known as 635.562m+2.209m above the datum

i.e.

3.561m

- 1.352m

= 2.209m

ii. Collimation Method


44

Changing Points

Tripod

Stand

635.782 637.263

635.861 636.284 636.202

A B X C D E

Horizontal

18m 29m 30m 34m Distance

The above level is set up on its tripod at X. the leveling staff is erected at A and a

reading. The height of collimation line is found by adding the staff reading of a point

known level to those points known height in the above figure.

In the above figure the height of collimation is as height of 635.562m in plus 1.743m

which is equal to 637.305m.

The level45 of all other points is calculated by deducting the staff reading of those points

from the height of collimation for example BS height is 637.305m minus 1.02m which is

equal to 636.284m.

i.e.

637.305m

- 1.02m

= 636.284m

Consider this method of Leveling:


45

FIGURE FOR LEVELING METHOD BOTH RISE AND FALL; AND COLLIMATION METHOD.DRAWN BY: JALEDI SOSPETER

THE PROCEDURES OF TAKING LEVELING

The following are the procedures of taking leveling46

i. a staff is put at station one or base station

ii. the sighting instrument (1-6) is put in the direction of travel, a back sight is

recorded

iii. The distance from base station to the instrument is measured

iv. The staff is moved a head of the sighting instrument at an equal distance as

before. This will be station two; a foresight is taken and recorded.

v. The sight instrument is moved a head of the staff and a back sight taken and

recorded


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