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Geologic TimeGeologic TimeDeciphering Earth History and Creating a Time ScaleDeciphering Earth History and Creating a Time Scale
• Interpreting Earth history is a prime goal among scientists.• Geologists seek clues from the rock record.• The history of Earth needs a calendar.
• The Geologic Time Scale – “The Earth’s history book”
Let’s take a field trip and decipher Earth history.
UniformitarianismThink back to chapter 1 – Intro to Geology,and write down the philosophical meaningbehind the concept of uniformitarianism.
As we take our “virtual” field trip, ponder the concept of uniformitarianism.
““The Present is the Key to the Past”The Present is the Key to the Past”““The Present is the Key to the Past”The Present is the Key to the Past”
Let’s take a field trip and decipher some Earth history.
Which stratigraphic layer is oldest?
AA
BB
CC
DD
EEFormation(mappable units)
FormationContacts
FormationsFormations and and ContactsContacts
Let’s take a field trip and decipher some Earth history.
Fault (displacing strata)Fault (displacing strata)
Is the fault younger or older than the strata?
11 11
22
22
33
33
Geologists use two types of dating methodsGeologists use two types of dating methodsto interpret Earth history.to interpret Earth history.
Relative Dating TechniquesRelative Dating Techniques::• Geologic events are arranged in Geologic events are arranged in chronological sequences using relative datingchronological sequences using relative dating principles ----- which came first?principles ----- which came first? No numerical values are applied. No numerical values are applied.
Absolute Dating TechniquesAbsolute Dating Techniques::• Radioactive isotopes (unstable elements) decayRadioactive isotopes (unstable elements) decay into stable atoms ----- rate of decay is measureableinto stable atoms ----- rate of decay is measureable with a numerical valuewith a numerical value
An actual number (numerical age) can beAn actual number (numerical age) can be applied. applied.
I I I I Geologic Dating. Geologic Dating.
I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.
1.1.Describe the difference Describe the difference between:between:
Relative Dating Relative Dating techniquestechniques
Absolute Dating Absolute Dating techniquestechniques
2. What is meant by John 2. What is meant by John Powell’s phrase:Powell’s phrase:
““The Grand Canyon is the Book of The Grand Canyon is the Book of Revelation ?”Revelation ?”
3. What role does 3. What role does uniformatarianism playuniformatarianism play
when interpreting the when interpreting the previous field tripprevious field trip
slides? slides?
I>clicker question
Uniformatarianism’s role in relatively dating a sequenceof strata is:
a.a. All strata is datable.All strata is datable.
b.b. Layers of strata that formed in the past are subject to Layers of strata that formed in the past are subject to erosive forces.erosive forces.
c. Earthquake faults displacing strata are always olderc. Earthquake faults displacing strata are always older than the displaced strata.than the displaced strata.
d. Observing geological processes today, ensures the d. Observing geological processes today, ensures the accuracy of dating a sequence of strata that has formedaccuracy of dating a sequence of strata that has formed in the geological past.in the geological past.
Relative Dating - placing the geologic occurrence in the proper sequence
Relative Dating - placing the geologic occurrence in the proper sequence
Which came first and WHY?Which came first and WHY?
To construct a “relative” geologic time scale, rules were To construct a “relative” geologic time scale, rules were established (principles of relative dating).established (principles of relative dating). Nicholas Steno Nicholas Steno (1636-1686)(1636-1686)
• Principle of Original HorizontalityPrinciple of Original Horizontality• Law of SuperpositionLaw of Superposition• Principle of Cross-Cutting RelationsPrinciple of Cross-Cutting Relations• Principle of InclusionsPrinciple of Inclusions• Principle of UnconformitiesPrinciple of Unconformities
Which came first and WHY?Which came first and WHY?
To construct a “relative” geologic time scale, rules were To construct a “relative” geologic time scale, rules were established (principles of relative dating).established (principles of relative dating). Nicholas Steno Nicholas Steno (1636-1686)(1636-1686)
• Principle of Original HorizontalityPrinciple of Original Horizontality• Law of SuperpositionLaw of Superposition• Principle of Cross-Cutting RelationsPrinciple of Cross-Cutting Relations• Principle of InclusionsPrinciple of Inclusions• Principle of UnconformitiesPrinciple of Unconformities
Let’s unravel some geologic history from observations of various formationsLet’s unravel some geologic history from observations of various formationsand their contacts.and their contacts.
Nicholas Steno – 1669 proposed the following relative dating principles:Nicholas Steno – 1669 proposed the following relative dating principles:
The Principle of Original Horizontality:•Sedimentary rock layers are deposited as horizontal strata.
•Any observed non-horizontal strata have been disturbed.
basin
Sediment inputSediment input
AA
BB
CC
Limestone (ls)
Shale (sh)
Sandstone (ss)
granitic rock
Original Horizontal Strata
The Principle of The Principle of SuperpositionSuperposition
In any undisturbed sequence of strata, In any undisturbed sequence of strata, the oldest stratum is at the bottom the oldest stratum is at the bottom of the sequence, and the youngest of the sequence, and the youngest stratumstratum
is on top.is on top.
The Principle of The Principle of SuperpositionSuperposition
In any undisturbed sequence of strata, In any undisturbed sequence of strata, the oldest stratum is at the bottom the oldest stratum is at the bottom of the sequence, and the youngest of the sequence, and the youngest stratumstratum
is on top.is on top.
1
2
3
4
5
Unit 1 = oldestUnit 1 = oldestUnit 5 = youngestUnit 5 = youngest
Which strata is oldest?
1
2
3
4
554321 oldest
youngest
The principle of The principle of Cross-Cutting RelationshipsCross-Cutting Relationships
•Any geologic feature that cuts across another Any geologic feature that cuts across another geologic feature is geologic feature is younger.younger.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Unit 1 = oldestUnit 6 = youngest
Which came first:Which came first:Unit 5 or Unit 6?Unit 5 or Unit 6?
Which is older, the faultor volcanic layer?
Which is older, the faultor volcanic layer?
Volcanic layerVolcanic layer
faultfault
Which is younger, the dikeor country rock?
Which is younger, the dikeor country rock?
country rockcountry rock
dikedike
Determine the relative age of the two dikes.Determine the relative age of the two dikes.
1122
The Principle of The Principle of Inclusions:Inclusions:
•A piece of rock (clast) that has become “included” A piece of rock (clast) that has become “included” in another rock body is in another rock body is olderolder than the rock body than the rock body it has become part of – why?it has become part of – why?
Rock body Rock body AA
Intrusion of pluton BIntrusion of pluton B
AA A
Older (Rock A was there first.)
Which “granites” are older and younger?Which “granites” are older and younger?
OLDEROLDERYOUNGERYOUNGER
Which rock body is older?:Which rock body is older?:
AA
BB
CC??
??
Can you identify the inclusionsfound in this Sierra NevadaMountain batholitic material?
Can you identify the inclusionsfound in this Sierra NevadaMountain batholitic material?
YoungestYoungest
OldestOldest
SuperpositionSuperposition
Original HorizontalityOriginal Horizontality
Cross-Cutting RelationshipCross-Cutting Relationship
A B C Asp Vn
Principle of Inclusions
Principle of Inclusions
Which granite is older?Which granite is older?
OlderOlder YoungerYounger
I I I I this geology class. this geology class. this geology class. this geology class.
I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.
3. Explain the concept of relative dating.4. Draw a diagram, and explain each of the following dating principles:
• Original Horizontality• Superposition• Cross-Cutting Relations• Inclusion Principle
3. Explain the concept of relative dating.4. Draw a diagram, and explain each of the following dating principles:
• Original Horizontality• Superposition• Cross-Cutting Relations• Inclusion Principle
I>clicker
In the diagram below, unit D is younger than ______In the diagram below, unit D is younger than ______
A.Units B and C because of original horizontality
B. Units E and F because of cross-cutting relations
C. Units E and F because of inclusions principle
D. Units B and A because of cross-cutting relations
A.Units B and C because of original horizontality
B. Units E and F because of cross-cutting relations
C. Units E and F because of inclusions principle
D. Units B and A because of cross-cutting relations
Ok – given the principles, what is wrong with this stratigraphic section?
123567
Missing time – or does time really stop?
oldest
youngest
The principle of The principle of UnconformitiesUnconformities
•rock surface that represents a period of erosion or rock surface that represents a period of erosion or non- depositionnon- deposition•referred to as “missing time”referred to as “missing time”•three major types of unconformities:three major types of unconformities:
•disconformitydisconformity•angular unconformityangular unconformity•non-conformitynon-conformity
Unconformity
disconformitydisconformity – unconformity in non-disturbed unconformity in non-disturbed sedimentary layerssedimentary layers
angular unconformityangular unconformity – uncon. lies between angled – uncon. lies between angled strata and overlying strata and overlying horizontal stratahorizontal strata
non-conformity non-conformity – sedimentary strata– sedimentary strata overlies crystallineoverlies crystalline rocks (ig and met)rocks (ig and met)
Igneous or metamorphic rockIgneous or metamorphic rock
Xln rocksXln rocks
Sedimentary rocksSedimentary rocks
DisconformityDisconformity
AngularUnconformity
AngularUnconformity
NonconformityNonconformity
DisconformityDisconformity
Angular UnconformityAngular Unconformity
NonconformityNonconformity
TimeTimeFormation of an angular unconformity
Deposition of layersDeposition of layers(original horizontality)(original horizontality)
Tectonic activity producesuplift of strata causing tilted
layering.
Active erosional processes Active erosional processes shaping the surfaceshaping the surface
A period of erosion creatingA period of erosion creatingthe unconformitythe unconformity
Continued deposition buryingContinued deposition buryingthe erosional surface to createthe erosional surface to create
an angular unconformityan angular unconformity
Grand Canyon StratigraphyTypes of Unconformities
I I I I this geology class. this geology class. this geology class. this geology class.
I will get an A on my exams and quizzesI will get an A on my exams and quizzes
5. Describe an unconformity and what5. Describe an unconformity and what what it represents regarding geologicwhat it represents regarding geologic history.history.
6. Diagram pictures that represent the 6. Diagram pictures that represent the three types of three types of unconformitiesunconformities
Fossils – evidence of past life or “time pieces,” the remains or traces of prehistoric life
Paleontology – study of fossils
How do we get a fossil? – preservation of past lifeHow do we get a fossil? – preservation of past life
• 2 conditions must exist for preservation2 conditions must exist for preservation• rapid burialrapid burial• possession of hard partspossession of hard parts
Prehistoric bug
Bug dies Bug soft parts areeaten or dissolved
Rapid burial ofsediment coversthe bug – fossil
Fossils – evidence of past life or “time pieces,”
the remains or traces of prehistoric lifePreservation of fossils
• Small percentage of fossils preserved throughout geologic time – WHY?
Most organisms composed of soft parts.
Organisms with hard parts and within a sedimentary environment are favored.
Very rare to see vast array of other life forms
How do fossils help scientists relatively date layersof rock (strata)?
William Smith – Principle of Fossil Succession
Fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order, and ,therefore,any time period can be recognized by its fossilcontent.
“Fossils are arranged according to their age by using the law of superposition.”
Fossil succession:• allows geologists to age date wide geographicalallows geologists to age date wide geographical areasareas• documents the evolution of life
• Age of mammals• Age of reptiles• Age of fish Oldest
Youngest
How do fossils help date rocks?1200 miles
Which fossils are the youngestand oldest?
DisconformityDisconformity
11
22
33
55
66
77
22
33
44
6677
I I I I this geology class. this geology class. this geology class. this geology class.
I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.
7. Give 2 reasons why many organisms 7. Give 2 reasons why many organisms are not fossilized.are not fossilized.
8. Explain the law of fossil succession and8. Explain the law of fossil succession and how this law allows dating of strata.how this law allows dating of strata.9. How has fossil succession helped geologists9. How has fossil succession helped geologists unravel earth history?unravel earth history?
I>clickerI>clicker
The principle of fossil succession states:
a. Fossils discovered in lower sections of rock layers are younger than fossils above.
b. Most fossil soft parts are preserved.
c. The age of fossils is marked by the preservation of all hard parts.
d. Fossils can be dated by using the principle of superposition.
The principle of fossil succession states:
a. Fossils discovered in lower sections of rock layers are younger than fossils above.
b. Most fossil soft parts are preserved.
c. The age of fossils is marked by the preservation of all hard parts.
d. Fossils can be dated by using the principle of superposition.
OK – We have relative dating and fossils – How dowe get “absolute” ages on the rocks (numbers)?
Radiometric dating – applying a number• radioactive atoms (isotopes) decay at a constant rate over time
Review of the atom:• Atomic number = • Atomic mass = • Isotope =
number of protons (+) chargednumber of protons + neutrons
unstable atoms with varying numbers of neutrons (atomic masses)
Unstable atoms will decay into stable atoms by losing neutrons and protons at a constant rate.
U238 Pb206DecaysDecays
• Isotopes decay at a fixed rate.• Decay rate is measureable.• Isotope decay is not influenced by weathering.• One isotope will decay into another isotope.
Radio active decay U238 Pb206
Alpha emissionAlpha emissionMass # reduced by 4Mass # reduced by 4
Atomic # reduced by 2Atomic # reduced by 2
Beta emissionBeta emissionMass # remains unchangedMass # remains unchanged
Atomic # increases by 1Atomic # increases by 1
How does radiometric dating work, and where does the age (number) come from?
Half life: the time required for ½ of the parent to decay into the daughter element
Parent element: the “beginning” element that contains 100% of radioactive particles
Daughter element: the element that the parent element decays into (or turns into over time)
Parent Isotope
Stable Daughter Product
Currently Accepted Half-Life Values
Uranium-238 Lead-206 4.5 billion years
Uranium-235 Lead-207 704 million years
Thorium-232 Lead-208 14.0 billion years
Rubidium-87 Strontium-87 48.8 billion years
Potassium-40 Argon-40 1.25 billion years
Samarium-147 Neodymium-143 106 billion years
U-3U235 Pb207
704 m.y.704 m.y.
1.4 b.y.1.4 b.y.
2.1 b.y.2.1 b.y.
1 half life = 704 million years
1/2 1/4 1/8
Daughterelement
Parentelement
I I I I absolute dating. absolute dating. absolute dating. absolute dating.
I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.I will get an A on my exams and quizzes.
11. Define the following absolute dating terms:11. Define the following absolute dating terms: parent/daughter elements, half-lifeparent/daughter elements, half-life
12. Explain how the half-life is used to 12. Explain how the half-life is used to calculate an absolute age.calculate an absolute age.
I>Clicker
A certain material contains 1/64 of parent material. IfA certain material contains 1/64 of parent material. Ifthe half-live for decay is 2.3 million years, what is thethe half-live for decay is 2.3 million years, what is theage of the material?age of the material?
A. 11.6 m.y.A. 11.6 m.y.
B. 13.8 m.y.B. 13.8 m.y.
C. 10.5 m.y.C. 10.5 m.y.
D. 3.18 b.yD. 3.18 b.y..
What is the importance of radiometric dating?• produced thousands of dates for earth events
• rocks have been dated at more than 3 b.y.• granite in South Africa dated at 3.2 b.y.• granite contains inclusions of quartzite• quartzite inclusions must be older• Acasta gneiss in Northern Canada – 4.0 b.y.• Earth believed to be 4.55 (4.6) b.y. old
Radiometric dating:• vindicated the ideas of Hutton, Steno, and others• consistent with relative dating techniques• allowed “absolute” dating on the Geologic Time Scale
Lets make a Geologic Time Scale!Lets make a Geologic Time Scale!
The Geologic Time Scale:• It combines both relative and absolute dating.
• Created during the nineteenth century in Western Europe and Great Britain
• Sub-divides the 4.6 billion-year history of the earth• Eons• Eras• Periods• Epochs
Relative dating + Absolute datingRelative dating + Absolute dating
Hadean• represents the earth’s time of formation• no rocks are represented• “hellish” conditions
Hadean• represents the earth’s time of formation• no rocks are represented• “hellish” conditions
Archean• Single-cell life developed• most “ancient” rocks found• preserved rocks at the base of the Archean
Archean• Single-cell life developed• most “ancient” rocks found• preserved rocks at the base of the Archean
Proterozoic• Multi-celled, soft body organisms• “early life”
Proterozoic• Multi-celled, soft body organisms• “early life”
Precambrian
Phanerozoic• “visible life”• fossil record becomes more detailed• animals have hard shells and skeletons
Phanerozoic• “visible life”• fossil record becomes more detailed• animals have hard shells and skeletons
Building the Geologic Time Scale
Paleozoic Era• known as ancient life
• life progressed from marine invertebrates to fish, amphibians, and reptiles
Paleozoic Era• known as ancient life
• life progressed from marine invertebrates to fish, amphibians, and reptiles
Mesozoic Era• marks the rise in dinosaurs
• dominant vertebrates
• first flowering plants
• first shrew-like mammals
Mesozoic Era• marks the rise in dinosaurs
• dominant vertebrates
• first flowering plants
• first shrew-like mammals
Cenozoic Era• birds and mammals flourished
• appearance of man
Cenozoic Era• birds and mammals flourished
• appearance of man
Periods based on:
• fossil types• massive extinctions• geographical locations• characteristics of strata
Periods based on:
• fossil types• massive extinctions• geographical locations• characteristics of strata
Cambrian period• animals with hard shells• diversification of life “the Cambrian explosion”
Cambrian period• animals with hard shells• diversification of life “the Cambrian explosion”
Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic• age of reptiles• dinosaurs dominant• massive dinosaur extinction at 65 m.y. –Cretaceous• “Jurassic Park”
Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic• age of reptiles• dinosaurs dominant• massive dinosaur extinction at 65 m.y. –Cretaceous• “Jurassic Park”
EpochsEpochs
• not defined by extinctionnot defined by extinction events, but % of fossilsevents, but % of fossils still livingstill living
• plants and animals foundplants and animals found in the Pliocene epoch in the Pliocene epoch have living species todayhave living species today
• Eocene-few species Eocene-few species surviving todaysurviving today
• HoloceneHolocene• human’s timehuman’s time
Age ofReptiles
Amphibians
Age of fish
Invertebrates
How accurate is the Geologic Time Scale?How accurate is the Geologic Time Scale?
I I I I the Geologic Time Scale. the Geologic Time Scale. the Geologic Time Scale. the Geologic Time Scale. 13. You should be able to draw the 13. You should be able to draw the GeologicGeologic Time ScaleTime Scale and label it with the following: and label it with the following:
Eons, Eras, Periods, and Cenozoic/Eons, Eras, Periods, and Cenozoic/ Tertiary epochs.Tertiary epochs.
14. List major characteristics of each14. List major characteristics of each period.period.
15. How did the strength of both absolute and15. How did the strength of both absolute and relative dating techniques contribute to therelative dating techniques contribute to the development of the Geologic Time Scale?development of the Geologic Time Scale?
44
I>clicker
What time “slots” below arrange the geologic timescale from largest to smallest divisions?
a. period, era, eon, epoch
b. era, eon, period, epoch
c. eon, period, epoch, era
d. eon, era, period, epoch
What time “slots” below arrange the geologic timescale from largest to smallest divisions?
a. period, era, eon, epoch
b. era, eon, period, epoch
c. eon, period, epoch, era
d. eon, era, period, epoch
Cenozoic, Mesozoic, PaleozoicEras
The Geologic Time Scale – How much of Earth history isrepresented?
12%12%
Precambrian EonPrecambrian Eon88%88%
Geologic Time Scale
Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time ScaleDifficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale
• Not all rocks can be dated radiometrically.Not all rocks can be dated radiometrically.• all minerals must contain 100% parent atoms.all minerals must contain 100% parent atoms.
• Sedimentary rocks can only rarely be dated.Sedimentary rocks can only rarely be dated.• some parent atoms come from pre-existing rockssome parent atoms come from pre-existing rocks that have been weathered and transported.that have been weathered and transported.• sedimentary rocks are dated in proximity of sedimentary rocks are dated in proximity of igneous bodies.igneous bodies.
• Metamorphic rocks are challenging.Metamorphic rocks are challenging.• some minerals do not necessarily represent thesome minerals do not necessarily represent the time when the rock was formedtime when the rock was formed