Geologists’ Association Guide No. 68
The Geology of LondonIntroduction
Compiled by Diana Clements
THE CURRY FUND
HampsteadHeath
Frontispiece: Figure 1. Map of the London Area showing the locations of Itineraries described in relation to the Thames and the major road networks. The grey area is Central London. Red circles denote Itineraries.
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Notes: The details of routes given in this guide do not imply a right of way. The onus of obtaining permission to use footpaths and to examine exposures rests with the user of the guide, who should carefully observe the Code for Geological Field-work available from the Geologists’ Association. In particular those in charge of parties should ensure that no damage is caused to property.
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Front cover: Snapshots of London Geology: From top left, the Itineraries clockwise round the Thames; cross stratification in the Reading Beds at Harefield, Pinner Chalk Mines, brickfield on Hampstead Heath c. 1880, London Clay exposure at Trent Park, sarsen at Chafford Hundred, sub-merged forest at Erith, Lower Shelly Clay at Charlton, Pulhamite grotto in Sundridge Park, Iguano-don, part of the Geological Illustrations in Crystal Palace Park, goat conservator at Riddlesdown Quarry. (Design Trevor Mill, Brand Engineering, after an initial idea from Sari Finch)
Introduction
INTRODUCTION TO THE GEOLOGY OF THE LONDON AREA
BGS 1:625 000 Bedrock Geology UK SouthBGS 1:250 000 sheets: Chilterns and Thames EstuaryBGS 1:50 000 sheets: 255, 256, 257, 269, 270, 271BGS: London Memoir (Ellison et al., 2004)BGS: Regional Guide (Sumbler, 1996)GLA, 2012: London’s Foundations web link (see below)
Contributors: Rory Mortimore (Overview and Chalk), Danielle Schreve (post-Anglian Pleistocene Gravels), additional material compiled by Diana Clements
Overview
The Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks of the region broadly known as the London Basin (Fig. 2) do not form a continuous succession. Several major hiatuses are present (Fig. 3) that span more time than is represented by preserved rocks. The sediments formed across an ancient tectonic block, the London or Anglo-Brabant Platform that represented a geological ‘high’ during much of the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 4). Along the southern, heavily faulted edge of the London high, episodic uplift provided source material for the Wealden sediments of the northern part of the Weald Basin (Allen, 1975; 1981). Rising sea levels in mid and Late Cretaceous led to flooding of the Weald Basin and the London Plat-form and widespread deposition of Gault and Chalk. Further tectonic movements along faults led to episodic fracturing of the Chalk while it was forming and growth of folds creating local highs on the sea bed within, and along the margins of, the London Platform, including the Greenwich and Purfleet anticlines and their underlying faults (Fig. 5). These intra-Chalk ‘Subhercynian’ movements culminated, towards the end of the Cretaceous and early Palaeogene, in differen-tial uplift and erosion of the Chalk (Laramide tectonic phase) prior to Palaeogene sedimentation (Fig. 3). By the Early Palaeogene, the Weald Basin had inverted to become a high and the London Uplands (Allen, 1981) had inverted to become a shallow, intra-platform basin. The Palaeogene seas then flooded this differentially eroded Chalk surface in the London Basin. Oscillations in sea level and further tectonic epi-sodes generated other hiatuses between Palaeogene formations, culminating in the Late Alpine (Miocene) uplift and erosion which must have removed much of the Late Palaeogene sediments from the region and led to further fault displace-ments of the Cretaceous and Palaeogene sediments within the London Basin (e.g. along the Greenwich, Streatham, Wimbledon en-echelon fault system). The re-sulting, differentially uplifted landscape was further modified by late Cenozoic and Quaternary weathering and climate oscillations.
1
2
Introduction
War
min
ster
Tan
Hill
Win
dsor
Tapl
owO
gbou
rne
Mai
sey
Fogn
am
Stok
ench
urch
Chi
nnor
Pits
tone
Kens
wor
th
Totte
rnho
e
Arle
sey
Roy
ston
Mel
bour
nSu
dbur
y
Bury
StEd
mun
ds
Laye
r-de-
la-H
aye
CBH
Gre
atC
hest
erfo
rd
New
bury Fa
ircro
ssC
BH
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ham
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ldfo
rd
North
Downs
Chiltern
Hills
Ridd
lesdow
n
Clif
feM
arsh
esC
BH
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ham
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CBH
Mar
lbor
ough
4 00
2 00
040
km5 00
6 00
Bags
hotW
inds
orR
othe
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e
Bren
twoo
d
Axisof
Lond
onBasinSynclin
e
Laye
r-de-
la-H
aye
CBH
Fetc
ham
Mill
Leat
herh
ead
CBH
Fairc
ross
CBH
Swan
scom
be
Lake
side
Cro
ydon
Chi
sleh
urst
New
bury
Rea
ding
Cha
lkG
roup
Than
etSa
ndFo
rmat
ion
and
Lam
beth
Gro
upTh
ames
Gro
up(L
ondo
nC
lay
and
Har
wic
hFo
rmat
ions
)Ba
gsho
tFor
mat
ion
Nor
wic
han
dot
herC
rags
Key
Cha
lkco
red
bore
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(CBH
)
Loca
litie
sKe
yC
halk
field
expo
sure
orqu
arry
Figu
re 2
. Geo
logi
cal m
ap o
f the
Lon
don
Bas
in re
gion
(bas
ed u
pon
BG
S 1:
625
000
Ten
Mile
Map
, Sou
th S
heet
, 197
9 w
ith
the
perm
issi
on o
f the
Brit
ish
Geo
logi
cal S
urve
y.) (
R.N
. Mor
timor
e)
3
Introduction
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
Bagshot Fm
London Clay Fm
Tham
esGroup
Claygate Member
Harwich Fm
Camberley Sand& Windlesham Fms
Lambeth Gp
Thanet SandFormation
Reading FmWoolwich Fm
Upnor Fm
Seaford Ck Fm
Newhaven Ck Fm/ Margate Ck Mbr
Lewes Nodular Ck FmNew Pit Ck Fm
Holywell Nodular Ck FmZig Zag Ck Fm
West Melbury Marly Ck Fm
Gault FormationSub-Cretaceous rocks
Era Series
Pliocene
Miocene
Olig
ocen
e
Eocene
Pal
eoce
neM
aast
richt
ian
Cam
pani
an
Santonian
ConiacianTuronian
Cenoman.
AlbianE.CretJur. & Palaeozoic
40 million yearhiatus
Phases of ‘Alpine’ uplift, foldingand erosion of Cenozoic sedimentsculminating in major Miocene tectonics
Quaternary ice ages and warm periodsformation of the Thames valley
Phases of Subhercynian and Laramideuplift, folding and erosion of the Chalk
Transgression of the Gault and Chalk seaonto the London Platform
London Platform basement rocks of variableage from Palaeozoic to Jurassic
Transgression of the Thanet seaonto the eroded Chalk of theLondon Platform
25 million yearhiatus
Coralline CragNorwich and Red Crags
NE
OG
EN
EPA
LAE
OG
EN
ECEN
OZO
ICLA
TE C
RE
TAC
EO
US
Quat.
System
LambethGroup
ChalkGroup
Ma
Figure 3. Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic succession and major events in the London Basin. (R.N. Mortimore)
4
Introduction
Figu
re 4
. Cro
ss-s
ectio
n of
the
Lond
on B
asin
show
ing
how
the
olde
r out
crop
s can
be
seen
on
eith
er si
de o
f the
Tha
mes
Val
ley.
The
sync
line
is
supe
rimpo
sed
on th
e ol
der a
ntic
line
of P
alae
ozoi
c ro
cks.
CP1
4/01
3 Br
itish
Geo
logi
cal S
urve
y ©
NER
C. A
ll ri
ghts
rese
rved
.
5
Introduction
Further details on the structure of the London Basin will shortly become available from Mortimore (2011) and Mortimore et al. (2011) and from the Lon-don Basin Forum (De Freitas & Rowse, 2009). A more detailed overview of the geology of the London Boroughs can be found online in London’s Foundations (GLA, 2012). Quaternary The landscape of the London area was greatly modified during the Quaternary. Prior to the ice sheet that impinged on the north of London during the Anglian Glaciation, a series of fluvial deposits was laid down as former courses of the River Thames and its tributaries, many of which are thought to have crossed the London Basin from the Weald in the south to join the Thames on its course to the East Coast (Fig. 7) (Sumbler, 1996 fig. 31). See Figure 6 for the Chronology of the main Quaternary deposits of the London area. The greatest extent of the ice during the Anglian Glaciation was at least as far as the Colne Valley, the Finchley depression and the Hornchurch area where
LeatherheadSevenoaks
Croydon
Greenwich
M25
M25
M3
M4
M1 A1
M11
M26
M20
R.Thames
R. Lea
R.Roding
M23
Twickenham
HarrowTottenham Romford
GreenwichAnticline
Pur�eetAnticline
PlaistowGraben
Dartford
Westminster
Brixton
1
M25
F aults
Wimble
donFau
lt
Streath
am
Fault
Greenw
ich
Fault
Seaford Chalk FmThanet Sands Fm
Formations in the core of anticlines
Figure 5. Map showing the major NE-SW trending faults in the London Basin which are also associated with periclinal folds (e.g. the Greenwich and Purfleet anticlines) based upon Ellison et al. (2004) with the permission of the British Geological Survey; Mortimore et al. (2011). (R.N. Mortimore)
6
Introduction
remnants of glacial till can still be found (Fig 7; Sumbler, 1996 fig. 32; Ellison et al., 2004 fig. 31). During glaciations the whole area would have been subject to periglacial processes.
Post-Anglian Pleistocene GravelsA highly detailed record of climate change over much of the last c. 450,000 years is preserved in the lower reaches of the Thames Valley in the east of London. Here, a sequence of four river terraces is present, forming a ‘staircase’ of deposits
SYSTEMSERIES
HOLOCENE
BRITISHSTAGE
QUATERNARYDEPOSITS
Alluvium 11026
70
132
300
428
500
600
1640
234
Oxygenisotopestage
*
AGEka
not toscale
sub-alluvial gravel
KemptonPark
Gravel
Taplow Gravel
Hackney Gravel
Lynch Hill Gravel
Boyn Hill Gravel
Black Park Gravel
Glacial depositsANGLIAN
DEVENSIAN
Dollis Hill Gravel
Woodford Gravel
Westmill Gravel
Gerrards Cross
Stanmore Gravel Well Hill Gravel
(age highly uncertain)
Riv
er Te
rrac
e D
epos
its
QU
ATER
NA
RYPL
EIST
OC
ENE
Pre-
dive
rsio
nary
Riv
er Te
rrac
e D
epos
its5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
?22
c63
16to21
FLANDRIAN
Gravel
Figure 6. Chronology of the main Quaternary deposits of the Lon-don area. The Winter Hill Gravel (Itinerary 1) relates to MIS 13–12. CP14/013 British Geological Sur-vey © NERC. All rights reserved.
7
Introduction
ANG
LIAN
IC
E
S
HEET
St A
lban
s
Mai
denh
ead
Gra
vese
nd
Chel
msf
ord
Clac
ton
LOND
ON
Moo
r Mill
Lak
eTh
ames
Medway
Darent
Wey
Mole
Figu
re 7
. Th
e ex
tent
of t
he A
nglia
n ic
e sh
eet a
nd th
e re
sulta
nt re
-rou
ting
of th
e Th
ames
thro
ugh
Cen
tral L
ondo
n. M
oor H
ill L
ake
was
late
r to
beco
me
the
Col
ne V
alle
y. (A
fter B
ridg
land
et a
l., 1
995)
.
8
Introduction
Purfl
eet
(Blue
lands
&Gr
eenla
nds)/
Gray
sde
posit
s
Dartfo
rdHe
athGr
avel
Swan
scom
bede
posit
s
Horn
churc
h
Boyn
Hill /
Orse
tt He
athGr
avel
Lync
h Hill /
Corb
ets Te
yGr
avel
Taplo
w /Mu
cking
Grav
el
Kemp
ton Pa
rk /Ea
st Til
bury
Marsh
es G
rave
l
Alluv
iumMo
dern
Rive
r
Burie
dCh
anne
l
??
60 40 20 0
-20
-40
metres OD
Shep
perto
nGr
avel
Avele
y / W
est Th
urroc
k/Cha
fford
Hund
red de
posit
s
Trafal
gar S
quar
ede
posit
s(p
rojec
ted do
wnstr
eam)
9
5e
11
SWA
NSC
OM
BE
MA
ZC
ave
bear
(Urs
us s
pela
eus)
Lar
ge fa
llow
dee
r (D
ama
dam
a cl
acto
nian
a)Sm
all m
ole (
Talp
a m
inor
)G
iant
bea
ver (
Trog
onth
eriu
m c
uvie
ri)
Rab
bit (
Ory
ctol
agus
cun
icul
us)
Hum
ans (
Cla
cton
ian
and
Ach
eule
an a
rtef
acts
)
PUR
FLE
ET
MA
ZB
row
n be
ar (U
rsus
arc
tos)
Wat
er sh
rew
(Neo
mys
bro
wni)
Spot
ted
hyae
na (C
rocu
ta c
rocu
ta)
H
uman
s (C
lact
onia
n an
d Ach
eule
an a
rtef
acts
)
PON
DS
FAR
M M
AZ
& S
AN
DY
LA
NE
MA
ZM
amm
oth
(Mam
mut
hus
trog
onth
erii,
late
form
)H
orse
(Equ
us fe
rus)
Lar
ge n
orth
ern
vole
(Mic
rotu
s oe
cono
mus)
Hum
ans
(Lev
allo
is a
rtef
acts
)
JOIN
T M
ITN
OR
CAV
E M
AZ
Hip
popo
tam
us (H
ippo
pota
mus
am
phib
ius)
Fallo
w d
eer
(Dam
a da
ma
dam
a)A
bsen
ce o
f hor
se (E
quus
feru
s)A
bsen
ce o
f hum
ans (
Hom
o sp.)
7?
Numb
ers in
dicate
the o
xyge
n iso
tope s
tages
to wh
ich th
ese h
ave b
een a
ttribu
tedInt
ergla
cial d
epos
itsCo
ld-cli
mate
grav
els11
TillFa
llow
dee
r(D
ama
dam
a ss
p.)
Figu
re 8
. Ide
alis
ed tr
ansv
erse
sec
tion
thro
ugh
the
Tham
es te
rrac
e st
airc
ase
with
feat
ures
of t
he M
amm
alia
n A
ssem
blag
e-Zo
nes
(MA
Z) a
nd
corr
elat
ion
with
the
mar
ine
oxyg
en is
otop
e re
cord
indi
cate
d. (M
odifi
ed fr
om S
chre
ve, 2
004)
9
Introduction
where the highest is the oldest (Fig. 8). The Lower Thames sequence is, in its entirety, Anglian and post-Anglian in age, since the river was only diverted into this part of the valley by the Anglian glaciation. At Hornchurch, Essex, the Orsett Heath gravels directly overlie Anglian till or ‘Chalky Boulder Clay’. Each ter-race consists of a suite of cold-climate sand and gravel at the base (representing pre-interglacial, cold-climate conditions deposited on the warming limb of the glacial-interglacial cycle), overlain by fine-grained (and frequently richly fossilif-erous) deposits that are in turn covered by cold-climate gravels, laid down under deteriorating conditions before the river cut down to a new base level.
510000
510000
520000
520000
530000
530000
540000
540000
550000
550000
1600
00
1600
00
1700
00
1700
00
1800
00
1800
00
1900
00
1900
00
2000
00
2000
00
Superficial Deposits
Alluvium
Crag Group, including Stanmore Gravel
Clay-with-flints
River Terrace Deposits
Sand and Gravel, age and origin uncertain.
Derived from BGS digital geological mapping at 1:625,000 scale, British Geological Survey NERC. All rights reserved. CP14/013 British Geological Survey
Till
©
Figure 9. Simplified map of the superficial geology of the London Region showing the posi-tion of the Thames, the M25 and other major roads. Small squares represent 10 km.
10
Introduction
The four terraces are named the Orsett Heath terrace (= Boyn Hill ter-race of the Middle Thames), the Corbets Tey terrace (= Lynch Hill terrace) (see Itinerary 5, Location 1, Stops 1 and 2), the Mucking terrace (= Taplow terrace) (see Itinerary 5, Location 3, Stop X2) and the East Tilbury Marshes (= Kempton Park terrace). The interglacial deposits within them have been correlated with MIS 11, 9, 7 and 5e of the marine oxygen isotope record (Bridgland, 1994; Schreve, 2004). Although pollen is generally poorly preserved within the fluvial sediments, the interglacial deposits contain rich assemblages of fossil mammals, molluscs and Palaeolithic archaeology. The mammals, and to a lesser extent the molluscs, have proved particularly useful in distinguishing the interglacial de-posits by means of biostratigraphy. Each terrace has yielded a distinctive and unique suite of mammals, informally termed a ‘Mammal Assemblage-Zone’ (MAZ) by Schreve (2001) and allocated to a ‘type site’ where that fauna is best expressed (Fig. 8). The lowest terrace, represented by the East Tilbury Marshes Formation, now occurs below the modern river floodplain and no exposures are therefore visible. These deposits preserve evidence for the Last (Ipswichian) Interglacial, c. 125,000 years before present, the best-known site being Trafalgar Square in central London, where remains of hippopotamus, lion, narrow-nosed rhinoceros and other species were recovered from building foundation works in the 1950s. Itineraries
The itineraries in this guide are an introduction to this broad geology (see Figs 1 (frontispiece), 9 and 10). Older basement rocks of the Silurian, Devonian and Jurassic are not exposed at the surface and can only be seen in borehole cores. Faulting from the basement represented by the Purfleet and Greenwich structures can be seen at the surface in Itineraries 5 and 6. Episodic fracturing of the Chalk represented by different styles of fracture is seen in the Riddlesdown Quarry (Itin-erary 9). Chalk can also be seen in the remnants of former quarries in the Colne Valley (Itinerary 1). Two underground itineraries have been included as these are important sites, particularly for Chalk researchers. Chislehurst Caves (Itinerary 7) are open to the public but the Pinner Chalk Mine (Itinerary 2) requires the as-sistance of cavers. Details of Chalk stratigraphy are shown in Figure 11. The long hiatus/unconformity between the Chalk and the Palaeogene is represented by the basal flints of the Thanet Sand Formation Bull Head Bed, the flints being derived from the eroded Chalk (Itineraries 5 and 7). The overlying Thanet sands are best seen at Chafford Hundred (Itinerary 5). Further west, the Thanet Sand Formation thins and wedges out (Ellison et. al., 2004 fig. 9) but a similar horizon of Bull Head Bed-like flints can be seen at Harefield (Itinerary 1) where the top of the Chalk is intensively bioturbated with burrows descending from the overlying basal Lambeth Group (Upnor Formation).
11
Introduction
Figure 10. Simplified map of the solid geology of the London Region showing the position of the Thames, the M25 and other major roads. Small squares represent 10 km.
12
Introduction
Mt
Us
StratigraphicalrangeofChalkatsubcropbeneathLondon
MargateChalkatoutcropinNorthDowns
Portsdown Marl
Castle Hill Marls
Brighton MarlBuckle MarlsWhitaker’s Three InchFlintBedwell’s Columnar Flint(Michel Dean Flint)
Seven Sisters Flint BandBelle Tout MarlsShoreham Marl 2
Meeching Marls
Peacehaven MarlOld Nore Marl
Key boundary markers
New Southern Province Chalk Stratigraphy(Mortimore, 1983, 1986; Bristow ., 1997)et al
Traditional Chalk Stratigraphy
400
300
200
100
0
TraditionalUnits
Campanian
Mytiloides
labiatuss.l.Te
rebratulina
lata
Sternotaxis
planus
Micraster
cortestudinarium
Micraster
coranguinum
Offaster
pilula
Gonioteuthis
quadrata
Belemnitella
mucronata
Numerous ammonite
zones
Cenomanian
Turonian
Coniacian
Santonian
Approximatethickness (metres)
UpperChalk(redefined)
MiddleChalk
(redefined)
LowerChalk
GreyChalk
Subgroup
WhiteChalkSubgroup
LewesNodularChalk
SeafordChalk
NewhavenChalkCulver Chalk
Key marker beds
Barrois’Sponge BedBedwell’sColumnar Flint
Seven SistersFlint Band
Top Rock
Chalk Rock
Melbourn RockPlenus Marls
Grey Chalk
Chalk Marl
Glauconitic Marl Glauconitic MarlBase of the Chalk at baseGlauconitic Marl
Plenus Marls MemberMelbourn Rock
Tenuis Limestone
Sub-Plenus erosionsurface
Foyle Marl
Gun Gardens Main MarlMalling Street MarlsNew Pit MarlsGlynde MarlsSoutherham MarlCaburn MarlBridgewick MarlsLewes MarlsLewes Nodular chalksNavigation MarlsCliffe HardgroundHope Gap HardgroundBeeding HardgroundsLight Point Hardgrounds
Formations membersand bed divisions
Portsdown ChalkFormation
Spetisbury ChalkMember
Tarrant ChalkMemberBastion Steps
BedsMeeching BedsPeacehaven BedsOld Nore Beds
Splash Point Beds
Haven Brow Beds
Cuckmere Beds
Belle Tout BedsShoreham BedsBeachy Head BedsLight Point BedsBeeding BedsHope Gap BedsCliffe BedsNavigation BedsSouth Street BedsKingston BedsRingmer BedsCaburn BedsGlynde Beds
New Pit ChalkFormation
Holywell NodularChalk Formation
Zig ZagChalk Formation
West Melbury MarlyChalk Formation
ZoneStage
Figure 11. Chalk stratigraphy of the London area. (R.N. Mortimore)
13
Introduction
The Lambeth Group is a diverse sequence of sediments (Fig. 12; Sum-bler, 1996 fig. 27; Ellison et al., 2004 fig. 22). The basal Upnor Formation at Harefield is represented by a thin pebble bed, but in a thicker sequence at Pinner Chalk Mines (Itinerary 2), there is an in situ layer of silica-cemented pebble bed in the upper part known as Hertfordshire Puddingstone. It is probable that the cementation took place during a phase of global warming close to the onset of Reading Formation deposition. The overlying Woolwich and Reading Forma-tions are extremely variable and cause ongoing problems for the many engineer-ing projects in and around the capital. The SSSI at Gilbert’s Pit, Charlton (Itiner-ary 6) is the classic place for viewing the Woolwich Formation. The Harwich Formation comprises a number of contrasting lithologies (Fig. 12; King, 1981 text-fig. 5; Sumbler, 1996 fig. 28; Ellison et al., 2004 fig. 23), including clay with pronounced ash bands at Harwich, loams in the Tilehurst Member at Harefield (Itinerary 1), shell beds at Abbey Wood (Itinerary 6) and very distinctive round, black pebbles at Blackheath, best exposed at Gilbert’s Pit, overlying the Woolwich Formation (Itinerary 6). In several locations in southeast London these pebbles have been cemented with calcite, as at Elmstead (Itinerary 7), Dog Rocks, Plumstead (Itinerary 6) and on the top of Croham Hurst (Itinerary 9). Harefield, Abbey Wood, Gilbert’s Pit and Elmstead are all SSSIs. London is the type area for the London Clay but there are now few acces-sible exposures in the capital and temporary excavations provide the only oppor-
Thanet Sand Formation (marine)
Woolwich Formation (estuarine)Reading Formation (terrestrial)
Reading Formation (terrestrial)
Upnor Formation (marine)
Harwich Formation (marine)Tilehurst, Blackheath, Oldhaven & Swanscombe Members (King, 1981)
London Clay Formation (marine)5 Divisions A-E (King, 1981)Claygate Member at the top (Division E3)Walton Member at the base (Division A2)
Bagshot Formation (marine)
Formation
3
1, 3, 4,10
1, 6, 7, 9
1, 2, 6,(9)
5, (6),7, 9
EOCE
NEPA
LEO
CENE
Ypre
sian
Than
etia
n
Tham
es G
roup
Lam
beth
Gro
up
Period Stage Itinerariesseen
Figure 12. Chronology of the Tertiary deposits of the London area.
14
Introduction
tunities to examine the fresh ‘blue clay’. King (1981; 2006 fig. 16.12) recognised 5 coarsening-upward cycles A-E (see Itinerary 10, Fig. 4), which can be cor-related with better developed sequences in the Hampshire Basin. The youngest subdivision E3, becomes sandier towards the top due to shallowing of the London Clay sea and is known as the Claygate Member. Although the London Clay is largely obscured at outcrop, clues to the contact with the Claygate Member and the overlying contact with the Bagshot Formation can be inferred by looking at the geomorphology of Hampstead Heath (Itinerary 3) and Trent Park (Itiner-ary 4). Exposures of London Clay are described from the foreshore of the River Thames at Isleworth, Kew and Hammersmith where they are visible at very low tide, usually characterised by septarian nodules weathering out (Itinerary 10). The youngest Palaeogene sediments in the area comprise the shallow marine Bagshot Formation which caps the hills of Hampstead Heath (Itinerary 3), Harrow-on-the-Hill and the high ground around Epping Forest in the northeast. The Bagshot Formation also crops out around Esher and Weybridge to the south-east but the type area of Bagshot in Surrey is outside the area covered. A detailed chronology of the Tertiary deposits in the London area is shown in Figure 12. Quaternary sediments are included in several of the itineraries. Pre-An-glian fluvial deposits are featured in the Colne Valley (Itinerary 1) and the An-glian ice sheet is discussed in the geological walk around Trent Park (Itinerary 4) although exposures may more easily be observed in freshly dug graves of the Finchley cemeteries. The SSSI for the glacial till at Hornchurch is not included in the Guide as it is on a railway cutting and access is severely restricted, however, in the summer of 2010 this section was conserved and occasional access may be possible via Natural England (see below). The post-Anglian terrace gravels in east London are described in Itinerary 5 where periglacial features can also be seen. Two itineraries in the Guide discuss rocks that are not in situ. Itinerary 8, ‘Geological Illustrations in Crystal Palace Park’, features imported rocks of Car-boniferous age to illustrate the geological strata of the ‘Primary age’, and rocks of the ‘Secondary age’ to provide a backdrop to Waterhouse Hawkins’ magnificent giant reptile sculptures. In Itinerary 7 the artificial rock loved by Victorians, Pul-hamite can be seen at Sundridge Park Manor.
Websites (2014)
GLA. 2012. London’s Foundations: www.londongeopartnership.org.uk/publications.htmlNatural England (for access to the Hornchurch cutting SSSI): www.naturalengland.org.uk/about_us/contact_us/default.aspx
15
Introduction
References Allen, P. 1975. Wealden of the Weald. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Associa- tion, 86, 389–437.Allen, P. 1981. Pursuit of Wealden Models. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 138, 375–405.Bridgland, D.R. 1994. Quaternary of the Thames. Geological Conservation Review Series 7. Chapman and Hall, London.Bridgland, D.R., Allen, P. & Haggart, B.A. (eds) 1995. The Quaternary of the lower reaches of the Thames. Field Guide. Quaternary Research Association.De Freitas, M. & Royse, K. 2009. London Basin Forum. Geoscientist, 19 (No. 10 October), 20–21.Ellison, R.A., Woods, M.A., Allen, D.J., Forster, A., Pharoah, T.C. & King, C. 2004. Geology of London. Memoir for sheets 256 (N London), 257 (Romford), 270 (S London), 271 (Dartford). British Geological Survey, Keyworth.GLA. 2012. London’s Foundations: www.londongeopartnership.org.uk/publications.htmlKing, C. 1981. The stratigraphy of the London Clay and associated deposits. Tertiary Research Special Paper, 6, 1–158.King, C. 2006. Paleogene & Neogene: uplift and a cooling climate. In: Brench- ley, P.J. & Rawson, P.F. (eds) The Geology of England and Wales, 2nd edition. Geological Society of London. Mortimore, R.N. (2011) A Chalk revolution: what have we done to the Chalk of England? Proceedings of the Geologists Association, 122, 232–297.Mortimore, R.N., Newman, T., Royse, K., Scholes, H. & Lawrence, U. (2011). Chalk: its stratigraphy, structure and engineering geology in east Lon- don and the Thames Gateway. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 44, 419–444.Schreve, D.C. 2001. Differentiation of the British late Middle Pleistocene inter- glacials: the evidence from mammalian biostratigraphy. Quaternary Science Reviews, 20, 1693–1705.Schreve, D.C. 2004. The Quaternary Mammals of Southern and Eastern England. Field Guide. London. Quaternary Research Association.Sumbler, M.G. 1996. British regional geology: London and the Thames Valley. Fourth edition. London HMSO for the British Geological Survey.
MapsBritish Geological Survey, 1979. Ten Mile map South sheet. Solid Geology 1:625 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.British Geological Survey, 2007. Bedrock Geology UK South. 1:625 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.British Geological Survey, 1989. Thames Estuary. England and Wales Sheet 51N 00. Solid Geology. 1:250 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.
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Introduction
British Geological Survey, 1991. Chilterns. England and Wales Sheet 51N 02W. Solid Geology.1:250 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Notting- ham.British Geological Survey, 1996. Romford. England and Wales Sheet 257. Solid and drift.1:50 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.British Geological Survey, 1998. Dartford. England and Wales Sheet 271. Solid and drift.1:50 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.British Geological Survey, 1998. South London. England and Wales Sheet 270. Solid and drift.1:50 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Notting- ham.British Geological Survey, 1999. Windsor. England and Wales Sheet 269. Solid and drift.1:50 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.British Geological Survey, 2005. Beaconsfield. England and Wales Sheet 255. Solid and drift.1:50 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Notting- ham.British Geological Survey, 2006. North London. England and Wales Sheet 256. Solid and drift.1:50 000 scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Notting- ham.
Glossary Note: For stratigraphic units see text above.
Anglian glaciations: the most extensive of the Quaternary ice sheets that came as far south as north London (MIS 12). Anticline: fold where the rocks have been pushed up (convex upward). Younger rocks have then usually been eroded from the top leaving an inlier of older rocks exposed at the surface. Biostratigraphy: subdivision and correlation of sediments based on occurrence of their enclosed fossils. Bioturbated: the churning of sediment by burrowing animals, often destroying sedimentary structures. Calcite: a mineral form of calcium carbonate CaCO3 that is more stable than aragonite. Shells and tests of many marine organisms are formed of calcite. Fluvial: relating to a river or river channel Loam: mixture of sand, silt and clay in roughly equal proportions. Inlier: outcrop of older rocks completely surrounded by younger rocks.Mammal Assemblage-Zone (MAZ): one of a series of biostratigraphical inter-vals defined by the distinct fauna of mammals that occur within it. Marine (Oxygen) Isotope Stage (MIS): a system used for correlation which is dependent on the analysis of heavy and light oxygen isotopes. A higher propor-tion of heavy oxygen isotopes recovered from the shells of certain marine organ-isms is generally associated with cold temperatures because the lighter isotope is preferentially incorporated into ice and is thus less abundant in contemporary sea
17
Introduction
water during cold periods. Periglacial: strictly an area of frozen ground in front of a glacier, but often used to describe the residual effects of permafrost. Septarian nodule: a form of concretion (‘growing together’) that displays septa, or divisions caused by cracking. The spaces are often filled with calcite. Common in the London Clay, where they are also known as ‘cement stones’ owing to the suitability of their composition for that purpose. SSSI: Site of Special Scientific Interest. Designated sites have legal protection. Till: is a dumped mix of the products of ice erosion by glaciers, showing poor sorting and no stratification. The predominant rock type is clay but it also con-tains sand and chalk in the London area as well as a variety of more exotic clasts.
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Introduction