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8/13/2019 Geopolitics 1 http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/geopolitics-1 1/14 Southern Political Science Association Geopolitics Author(s): Charles B. Hagan Source: The Journal of Politics, Vol. 4, No. 4 (Nov., 1942), pp. 478-490 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Southern Political Science Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2125653 . Accessed: 02/10/2013 21:05 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at  . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp  . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].  . Cambridge University Press and Southern Political Science Association are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of Politics. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 112.204.142.87 on Wed, 2 Oct 2013 21:05:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
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Southern Political Science Association

GeopoliticsAuthor(s): Charles B. HaganSource: The Journal of Politics, Vol. 4, No. 4 (Nov., 1942), pp. 478-490Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Southern Political Science Association

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2125653 .

Accessed: 02/10/2013 21:05

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

 .JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of 

content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms

of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

 .

Cambridge University Press and Southern Political Science Association are collaborating with JSTOR to

digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of Politics.

http://www.jstor.org

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GEOPOLITICS

CHARLESB. HAGANHarvard University

The relation which subsists between man and his geo-graphical environment has been the subject of speculationat least since the time of the Greeks. The answers to thequestion have varied from time to time as well as the em-phasis which attaches to that relation. The Greeks andthe Romans treated of this matter, and the subject was

revived by Jean Bodin in the sixteenth century. LaterMontesquieu attempted to formulate a systematic theoryof the influence which environment exerted on politicalpractices. Karl Ritter in the early part of the nineteenthcentury wrote a gigantic work attempting to trace the rela-tions between man and his geographic position.'

Geography may be considered as the study of strictlynatural phenomena such as climate, topography, soil, andresources. In more ambitious formulations it may study

social organization as dependent on those natural phe-nomena and attempt to trace the casual connections betweenthe conditions which are naturally provided and social prac-tices and customs, as well as the method of securing a liveli-hood. With these traits as central, the topic becomes eco-nomic or social geography. The step from economic andsocial geography to political geography is a short one, forpolitical institutions and practices comprise a large part ofsocial and economic organization. The greatest name in

the development of political geography in its modern con-notations is Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904). He wrote anumber of works which treat of various aspects of geog-

1A brief summary of the central points in these early theories maybe found in A. H. Koller, The Theory of Environment (Menasha, Wis-consin, 1918). For the recent period, see Richard Hartshorne, RecentDevelopments in Political Geography, American Political ScienceReview, Vol. 29, pp. 785-804, 943-966 (1935). A brief summary maybe found in Otto Maull, Politische Geographie (Berlin, 1925), pp.1-31. Maull was associated at least for a while with the geopolitical

group on the Zeitschrift fur Geopolitik. Eugen Oberhummer has anappendix to an edition of Friedrich Ratzel's Politische Geographie(Munich and Berlin, 1923), which summarizes the history of politicalgeography, pp. 597-618. For a more extended treatment, see FranklinThomas, The Environmental Basis of Society (New York, 1925).

478

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1942] GEOPOLITICS 479

raphy, but the most important one in connection with the

present topic is Political Geography.2The core of political geography is the state. The state,according to Ratzel, is a fragment of humanity on a pieceof soil. The fragment of humanity is organized and isbound to its soil by ties which take on the character of anorganism. He goes on to assert that the political com-munity acts in very much the same manner as an individualbeing. This conception is, of course, the organic theory ofthe state and its peculiar quality rests in. the relation to

territory, or as Ratzel prefers, to space (Raum). Since thestate cannot exist without its territory or space, the latteris extremely important in political life. With the organictheory as the backbone of the analogy, the growth of astate is represented by its expansion. Decay and death arerepresented by static boundaries or a decrease in space.The frontier is a peripheral organ of the state. A growingstate will expand and a dying state will contract in thatorgan. The manner in which the expansion over the fron-

tier takes place may vary in different circumstances; itmay be by emigration, by the establishment of tradingcenters or cultural centers, or it may take place by war.The forms of expansion also may vary; there may bespheres of interest, spheres of influence, or colonies.

Ratzel devotes considerable attention to the position(Lage) of the state. In this section attention is given toneighbors, to climate, to topography, and to problems cre-ated by position. Here the state is exihibted in some of

its practical problems.A larger and more extended treat-

ment is devoted to space (Raum). The influence of spaceon ideas, on possibilities of expansion, and on density ofpopulation comes under examination. It seems clear that

2 Friedrich Ratzel, Politische Geographie. The first edition ap-peared in 1897 and a second edition in 1903. Use has been made hereof Eugen Oberhummer's edition of 1923 (Berlin, 1923). Ellen ChurchSemple brought out her book, Influence of Geographic Environment:on the basis of Ratzel's system of anthropogeography (New York,1911), which is based on Ratzel's views. Some of his political viewsare there restated in modified form. Miss Semple is considered bymany to be one of Ratzel's greatest students. A brief treatment ofRatzel may be found in Robert Strausz-Hupe, Geopolitics (New York,1942), pp. 27-36. See also Camille Vallaux, Geographie Sociale: Le

Sol et L'Etat (Paris, 1911). Vallaux is very critical of many ofRatzel's propositions.

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482 THE JOURNALOF POLITICS [Vol. 4

of the Powers in Europe, but the ideas which he contributes

to geopolitics are to be found in two volumes: The Stateas a Form of Life10 and Foundations for a System ofPolitics. The former was published in 1917 and the latterin 1920.

In Kjellen's revision of the content of political science,emphasis was placed on the several aspects of the state.It was envisaged as being concerned with territory, people,management for promoting the national welfare, social or-ganization, and governmental structure. Although thereare some modifications and changes introduced in the Foun-dations for a System of Politics which are not found in theearlier volume, the main features remain the same. Theterm, geopolitics, is introduced in the Foundations to con-note the matters involved in the situation of the state'sterritory, its shape and form, and its natural and physicalresources. Kjellen invented the word, and the present-dayschool of geopolitics in Germany appropriated it. Kjellenwas a follower of Ratzel and many of Ratzel's basic notions

reappear. Kjellen treated the state as an actual organismrather than as a useful analogy, and he emphasized thegrowing and expanding traits of that organism. Theunion between the state and its territory was that of anorganism, and from this union several inferences resulted:the state should seek to preserve the conditions for healthyliving and space for growth; the state was concerned withthe character and quality of its citizens both in the presentand in the future; and autarkie or self-sufficiency became

an ultimate ideal. Moreover, Kjellen brought the externalor foreign relations of the state into an integrated relationwith domestic policy. By way of this system, he thoughthe had resolved the conflict between individualism and

10 The Swedish title was Staten som lifsform. It was translatedinto German under the title Der Staat als Lebensform. It has notbeen translated into English. For a discussion of Kjellen's views atgreater length than is given here, see Johannes Mattern, FromGeopolitik to Political Relativism, in John M. Mathews and JamesHart (eds.), Essays in Political Science (Baltimore, 1937); and thesame author, Geopolitik: Doctrine of National Self-Sufficiency andEmpire (Baltimore, 1942), pp. 63.72.

For an evaluation of Kjellen by one of the German members ofthe geopolitical group, see Robert Sieger, Rudolf Kjellen, Zeitschriftfur Geopolitik, Vol. 1, pp. 339-345 (1924).

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1942] GEOPOLITICS 483

socialism; the issues were avoided by shifting the central

theme to the welfare of the state.The subsidiary influence mentioned earlier is to be foundin the multitude of geographical discussions. In these,efforts had been made to trace geographical influences andcauses into human society. One of the typical examplesof this type of literature is James Fairgrieve's Geographyand World Power. This volume was first printed in 1915and has had several later reprintings. Here an attemptis made to trace world power to a search for energy. The

history of most of the world is passed in rapid review andthe shifts in the centers of political power are traced togeographic bases. Fairgrieve observes: In the long runthe geographical conditions are more powerful than thegenius of individuals, more powerful even than racial char-acters, unless the racial characters are due to geographicalcontrols.... 12 The students of geography have notagreed upon the degree of importance which attaches tonatural environment; in general the French and American

geographers have not tended to develop the political aspectsof geography. A few English geographers have attemptedto delineate the political influences of natural environ-ment.'3 The study of the relations between geography and

12 James Fairgrieve, Geography and World Power (London, 1924),p. 22. This volume was translated into German with an introductionby Karl Haushofer. For a general review of the literature heresuggested, see Richard Hartshorne, supra note 1. The monthly num-bers of the Zeitschrift filr Geopolitik have extended notes on bibliog-raphy. See Isaiah Bowman, The New World (New York, 1921).This book has appeared in several editions.

13 For a discussion of geopolitics from the French point of view,see Jacques Ancel, Geopolitique (Paris, 1936); Jacques Ancel, Diefranz6sische geographische Schule und die Geopolitik, Zeitschriftfur Geopolitik, Vol. 16, pp. 640-656 (1939); in Zeitschrift fur Geo-politik, Vol. 9, pp. 594-601 (1932), there is reprinted the commentsof Albert Demangeon, Y. M. Goblet, and H. N. ter Veen (Dutch)who agree that geopolitics is merely German nationalism. There havebeen a number of English writers who have ventured into this field.Fairly typical is Lord Curzon, Frontiers (Oxford, 1908); C. B. Faw-cett, Frontiers (Oxford, 1918); Thomas H. Holdich, Political Fron-tiers and Boundary Making (London, 1916). Until recently therehas been little produced by Americans beyond Miss Semple's workmentioned earlier. For recent materials, see Nicholas J. Spykman,

Geography and Foreign Policy, American Political Science Review,Vol. 32, pp. 28-50, 213-236 (1938); Derwent Whittlesey, The Earth

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484 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 4

politics and their implications both in policy and theory

has proceeded further in Germany than elsewhere. Geo-politics is the latest of these fashions in the intellectualsphere.

The distinction between political geography and geo-politics may be drawn in broad generalizations, but the onetends to merge into the other. Broadly speaking politicalgeography is concerned with a historical and factual accountof changes in the circumstances of states, and it observesstates in a condition of rest. Geopolitics, on the other hand,

observes and speculates upon the influence of geographicalnecessities upon political events and changes in the politicalforms of states. It observes states as dynamic phenomena.14Karl Haushofer, the leading figure in German geopolitics,writes that geopolitics formulates the scientific foundationof the art of political transactions in the struggle for ex-istence of political living forms on the living space of theearth.'5 Another formulation of the scope of geopolitics isto be found in Baustein zur Geopolitik.'6 Geopolitics is there

stated to be the theory of political events integrated intotheir geographical setting.'7 The theory rests on political

and the State (New York, 1939); F. H. Simonds and Brooks Emeny,The Great Powers in World Politics (New York, 1935 and 1939);Samuel Van Valkenburg, Elements of Political Geography (NewYork, 1939). There have appeared in the United States several booksdealing with raw materials in their bearing on international relations.These studies have implications that reach into geopolitics. Exam-ples are: Brooks Emeny, The Strategy of Raw Materials (New York,

1934); C. K. Leith, World Minerals and World Politics (New York,1931). There is a large amount of periodical literature on this topic;for an example, see Walter H. Voskuil, Coal and Political Power inEurope, Economic Geography, Vol. 18, pp. 247-258 (1942).

Richard Hennig, Geopolitik: die Lehre vom Staat als Lebewesen(Berlin, 1931), pp. 9-11; Kurt Vowinckel, Geopolitik und politischeGeographie, Zeitschrift fiir Geopolitik, Vol. 13, pp. 688-693 (1936).

16 Karl Haushofer, Geopolitik des Pazifischen Ozeans (Berlin-Grunewald, 1924), p. 1.

(Berlin-Grunewald, 1928). This volume is a statement of theleading members of the geopolitical school. Selections from it have

been inserted from time to time in the Zeitschrift fur Geopolitik.The latter is a monthly periodical devoted to a discussion of topicsof interest to geopoliticians.

17 The German statement is: Die Geopolitik ist die Lehre von derErdegbundenheit der politischen Vorgange. The above translation,it is thought, gives the sense of the statement.

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1942] GEOPOLITICS 485

geography and particularly on political geography as a

theory of spatial organisms and their structure. It is in-tended to provide knowledge for the conduct of state policyand to bridge the gap between theory and action. Geo-politik intends to and must come to be the geographicconscience of the state. 18

As a systematic discipline, geopolitics examines the char-acter of the state as a living organism. The conditions ofbirth, growth, life functions, and death are studied em-pirically in order to determine the operative laws; political

history is thus a laboratory from which the geopoliticianderives his fundamental principles. Physical conditionscome under scrutiny in order to trace the interrelationsbetween those phenomena and human events. It is firmlyheld by adherents of geopolitics, at least in its Germanformulations, that states exhibit a tendency toward expan-sion; that there is a compelling urge to move from narrowerto wider spaces. This leads to a discussion of frontiers andan examination of the varieties of boundaries that haveprevailed in history.

Frontiers have varied in history. There are frontiers ofan ethnic character, of an economic character, of a strategiccharacter. There are artificial frontier lines, such as wallsand embankments or mathematical survey lines. Finally,there are natural frontier lines, which are said to be moun-tains, the seas, swamps, deserts, and sometimes rivers.None of these has prevailed perpetually, and all have some

deficiencies. Buffer states, in fact, have been created toavoid some of the difficulties inherent in other types of

18 The German is: Die Geopolitik wilt und muss zum geographischenGewissen des Staates werden. A discussion of the propositions abovetranslated may be found in Strausz-Hupe, op. cit., pp. 7-8; Mattern,op. cit., pp. 74-75; Hennig, op. cit., pp. 8-9; Karl Haushofer, Pflichtund Anspruch der Geopolitik als Wissenschaft, Zeitschrift fur Geo-politik, Vol. 12, pp. 443-448 (1935). See also H. W. Weigert, GermanGeopolitics, Harpers, Vol. 183, pp. 586-597 (1941); H. W. Weigert,

Haushofer and the Pacific, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 20, pp. 732-742(1942); A. W. Griswold, Paving the Way for Hitler, AtlanticMonthly, Vol. 167, pp. 314-321 (1941); Robert Strausz-Hupe, Geo-politics, ' Fortune, Vol. 24, p. 111 (1941); J. S. Roucek, GermanGeopolitics, Journal of Central European Affairs, Vol. 2, pp. 180-189(1942). Mattern, op. cit., lists other American discussions.

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486 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 4

boundaries.1 The examination of frontiers can afford some

basis for the notion of expansionistic tendencies of states,if looked at from one point of view; but if looked at fromthe point of view of the contracting state, the reverse con-clusion may be drawn. At this point, the conception ofthe growing organism provides a solution, for clearly agrowing organism is healthier and sounder than a con-tracting one. It may be added that it depends on the kindof growth and the kind of organism as to whether increas-ing size is either healthy or sound physiologically.20

The subject matter of geopolitics includes also considera-tion of population problems, frictional issues between states,the generative instincts of a people which lead to coloniza-tion in its various forms, races, nationalism, and almostany other topic that bears upon the expansion of states. 21

In becoming the geographic conscience of the state,geopolitics has also advanced a basic strategy for Germanforeign policy. The substance of this strategy rests uponan adaptation of Mackinder's theory of the Heartland. That

is, that somehow and in some manner Germany, Russia,and Japan (occasionally China is included) should unite inthe great overland area between the Rhine and the Amurand Yangste. This would provide a great source of man-power and resources, and it has the great advantage of

19 C. B. Fawcett, op. cit., p. 24, where he says; The conception offrontiers-between inanimate things, of plant or animal regions, ofhuman races, or cultures, or states-as lines is purely subjective....But in the world as it is the objective fact is the existence of frontier

zones. Of all these regions it is true to say that they pass graduallyone into the other. See also Jacques Ancel, Geopolitique (Paris,1936), wherein may be found a critical discussion of geopoliticalnotions of frontiers. He concludes that no geographical formationprovides an absolute frontier, and that frontiers are a result of theequilibrium between the vital forces of the peoples which inhabit thearea (p. 55). For a further discussion of frontiers, see Lord Curzon,op. cit.

20 For a discussion of the organic analogy applied to social andpolitical organizations, see Mattern, op. cit.; Francis W. Coker, Or-ganismic Theories of the State, Columbia University Studies in

History, Economics, and Public Law (New York, 1910), Vol. 38. Seealso Francis G. Wilson, The Revival of Organic Theory, AmericanPolitical Science Review, Vol. 36, pp. 454-459 (1942).

21 For example, there had appeared in the Zeitschrift articles deal-ing with geojurisprudence, geomedicine, etc. For a general account,see Strausz-Hup6, op. cit., pp. 86-100.

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1942] GEOPOLITICS 487

being unassailable by the Anglo-Saxon seapowers. Tem-

porarily this would mean that Germany should forego anyidea of advancing into the sea space via western Europe,and it would offer Japan a secure rear for any advance thatit might want to make into the south Pacific.22 Haushofer'spersistent use of Mackinder's analysis gives rise to thesuspicion that this has become a sound foreign policy forGermany because it disturbs the British so greatly. Theprogram thus indicated for Germany provides a way aroundthe dominant seapowers and offers the possibility, as Mac-

kinder foresaw, of the development of a great seapowerfrom this land base.23

It is in connection with this projected expansion that thediscussion of space (Raum) becomes so vital to geopolitics.The literature on space is enormous and not without itsdifficulties.24 There are various conceptions of space whichvary from mere surface, which may include either wateror land, to extremely subtle forms of human relations tothat surface either as an individual matter or as politicallyorganized groups. The treatment may consider in infinitedetail the physical and climatic problems or may extendto ethnic, racial, psychic, economic, and strategic problems.It is safe to assert that the geopoliticians have delved intoall of these aspects, but in the main they are concernedwith space as a political phenomenon. Space possesses forthem intrinsic values independent of its contents; a greatstate needs great space and the citizens of a great stateshould comprehend the importance and signicance of great

areal development. An insight into the Germany feelingabout space may be gained by recalling that ultimately it

22 Karl Haushofer, Geopolitik des Pcazifischen Ozeans (Berlin,1924), pp. 142-144. Haushofer constantly refers to Mackinder's thesisin his monthly observations in the Zeitschrift fur Geopolitik; seeparticularly volume 16, pp. 773 et seq. (1939), and the article, Geo-politischer Neujahrs-Ausblick, 1940, Vol. 17, pp. 1-5 (1940).

23 For an excellent discussion of this aspect of geopolitics and someof its implications, see Strausz-Hupe, op. cit., pp. 243-264. Also Hans

W. Weigert, Haushofer and the Pacific, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 20,pp. 732-742 (1942).

24 Rupert von Schumacher, Zur Theorie des Raumes, Zeitschriftfur Geopolitik, Vol. 11, pp. 573-580 (1934); Zur Theorie der Raum-darstellung, Vol. 11, pp. 635-652 (1934) ; and Zur Theorie der Raum-strategie, Vol. 11, pp. 779-788 (1934).

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1942] GEOPOLITICS 489

thus necessary as a new basis for modern economic life. 29

A growing, sound, and healthy state would strive to achievecontrol and domination of such essentials to its continuedsuperiority. This would constitute a satisfactory demon-stration of the inevitable need for such a state to expand,and at this point the geographic conscience comes intooperation and becomes a guide for policy. Geopolitics ishere making a determination based upon human values andis normative rather than scientific as the latter term isordinarily defined.

The manner of securing control of the resources andspace necessary to maintain a satisfactory geopolitical stateis an issue that is seldom discussed. The literature de-scribes the heterogeneous character in which state expan-sion has occurred throughout history, and some of thoseways have been by force and violence to existing politicalsocieties. By implication the geopolitician assumes thatexpansion may continue to occur in the same ways as inthe past, and by

implication approves of war as a meansto the end of increasing a state's power and prestige andspace. The idea that other states can have geopoliticalintentions of domination, and that, therefore, the geo-graphical conscience of the state implicitly leads to warhas not been discussed in the literature. The explanationof the lack of discussion of this issue may probably be foundin the hope of victory for Germany with world dominationas the result.

Geopolitics may be summed up as an attempt to find adeterministic principle which controls the development ofstates. The basic determining factor upon which it hascome to rest is that of geographic conditions, and it ismaterialistic in large degree. However, the geopoliticiansof the Germanschool have interwoven with their geographicmaterials an incalculable amount of national psychology,history, and military strategy. The unifying purpose thatruns throughout the discussions is the restoration of Ger-many to the position of a

great power which was lost fol-lowing her defeat in World War I. Practically all of theideas and all of the suggested courses of action contributeto that ultimate goal. And that ultimate goal is a world

29 Ibid., p. 63.

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490 THE JOURNALOFPOLITICS [Vol. 4

organization based on domination and not on cooperation

between equal states. Or in other terms geopolitics is acontemporary rationalization of power politics. A believerin democracy and a peaceful international order can findlittle comfort in this world outlook.


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