Georgia Perkins

1

Baruch Spinoza is often associated today with the Deep Ecology movement and

particularly the work of the Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess. How do you position

yourself in relation to this movement that states that the biosphere does not consist of

discrete entities, but rather internally related individuals that make up an ontologically

unbroken whole? Discuss with reference to both Spinoza and Naess.

No Man is an Island,

Entire of itself,

Every man is a piece of the continent,

A part of the main.1

Introduction

In this text, my argument undermines anthropocentric views of human beings at the

centre of the universe. I address this through an understanding of individuals as

internally related through the theoretical understandings of the Dutch philosopher

Baruch Spinoza’s Ethics and Norwegian theorist Arne Naess’ ‘Deep Ecology.’ This is

completed in conjunction with an analysis of the increasing interest in the study of

epigenetics, proving that entities are not discrete but are, in fact, complexly

interconnected. By doing this I hope to make it clear that if genes can be effected by

other aspects of the biosphere, they are inevitably affected by changes in the climate

too.2 Therefore, it is necessary to address both the physical impact humans have on the

climate and the ideology which might have provoked humans to understand themselves

as the most significant being in the biosphere. I will do this by subverting

anthropocentric views, and instead devote this essay to alternative ways of looking at

1 John Donne, ‘No Man is an Island’, in Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions, ed. Anthony Raspa

(Oxford: Oxford University Press 1987). Human beings have been thought of as islands; isolated,

separated from other entities. Due to this, humans have had a tendency to anthropocentrism; that they

are at the centre of the universe. I will consider how humans are not islands ‘entire of itself’ but part of

an interrelated and non-hierarchical ecosystem. Finally, I acknowledge the use of the word man as

inclusive of all human beings is outdated. 2 Shifting relationships between entities has a direct link to shifting relationships in politics.

Unfortunately, I will not have space here to further discuss this point.

Georgia Perkins

2

relationships between entities. The text will address five main topics in relation to the

two philosophers I have mentioned and the burgeoning research in epigenetics: “No

Man is an Island’: Human impact on other entities’, ‘Spinoza’s ‘One Substance’ and

the ‘Essence of Things”, ‘The Whole and its Parts’, ‘Self-Realization/ Perseverance in

the Face of Climate Change’, and ‘Epigenetics to the Rescue’ for ‘Self-Perseverance?”

‘No Man is an Island’: Human impact on other entities

How might one define an identity as ‘discrete’? I first ask what the entity is

discrete from, why should it be approached in this way, and what does one take from

this understanding? The scientific understanding of discreteness is something which is

distinct from others, but rather than thinking of isolated and separate individuals it is

more productive to consider an essential interrelatedness. The concept of discrete

entities simplifies categorisation, whether it be determined through their role in the

biosphere, their placement in the food chain or as a measure of their survival skills.

Thus, this term divides entities and potentially alienates one from another. This is

problematic since an examination of individuals and their situation on the planet

produces a hierarchy based on variables such as the dichotomy of predator versus prey,

their level of ‘cuteness’ and their ‘function’ or ‘worth’ in the biosphere.

The percentage of bacteria and water in mammals is much higher than anything

else, therefore the entity cannot be said to be discrete from liquid and microorganisms

normally understood as other if outside of the body.3 The category of mammal is

considered as dominant over water and bacteria, which should make one question why

3 ‘The Water in You’, USGS: Science for a Changing World, accessed on April 29, 2018.

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/propertyyou.html. On average, human bodies are approximately sixty

percent water.

Georgia Perkins

3

this might be the case. Furthermore, by arguing for the concept of ‘discreteness’ of

entities, this would suggest that the possible extinction of a species would not have a

direct effect on the food chain, or the genetic expression of other individuals. This

would suggest that humans do not need to address the changes in environmental

conditions which are unquestionably caused by human input and technological

development. Similarly, anthropocentrism effects animal populations through human

responses to their endangered status caused by climate change. This includes

charismatic megafauna, whereby only some species are considered as worthy of

environmentalist support. What is evident here, is the anthropocentric view that

humans are at the top of the hierarchy and can play God, by determining which animals

are worth saving from extinction based on their aesthetic appeal. This is problematic

with regards to global warming and understanding the ‘intrinsic value’ of all entities.

From this, I would argue that ‘discreteness’ of entities is not conceivably possible,

however still plays a major part in human’s interaction with other entities. The theories

of Spinoza and Naess resonate with the increased importance of discussions on climate

change and epigenetics, arguing against hierarchies of ‘value,’ and proposing ways of

negotiating human relationships with the ecosystem.

‘One Substance’ and the ‘Essence of Things’

Spinoza’s radical understanding of the concept of God involved the concept of

monism, dismissing any binaries particularly between God/nature, God/ humans, or

mind/body. Instead, his version of ethics, united these dichotomies as being part of

‘one substance.’4 This would have been perceived as revolutionary during the

4 Benedict Spinoza, Ethics, (Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Edition Limited, 2001), p.6.

Georgia Perkins

4

seventeenth-century, by insinuating that there is no difference between nature and God.

Indeed, Spinoza considers nature as all-encompassing, suggesting that it should be

understood as the ‘essence of things.’5 This definition of nature, includes the inherent

characteristics of entities rather than just the physical world ‘outside.’ This

interpretation prevents a dichotomy being produced, excluding what could be

considered in opposition to nature - if it was purely to be understood as the physical

world. Steven Nadler argues that God is not to be understood as a ‘transcendent creator,

a being who causes a world distinct from himself to come into being by creating it out

of nothing […] By contrast, Spinoza’s God is the cause of all things because all things

follow causally and necessarily from the divine nature.’6 Therefore, for Spinoza, this

would suggest that there are no definitive differences between all entities, human

beings included, as they all unite to produce a whole, which can be understood as ‘one

substance,’7 meaning ‘God or nature.’8 It also identifies why his thesis was considered

as exhibiting parallelism; the notion of interconnected relationships between entities.

In using Spinoza’s philosophy, one cannot conceive of the human-nature binary,

whereby nature is considered as less significant or opposite to the status of humans.

Naess was inspired by Spinoza’s Ethics, proposing that the Deep Ecology

Movement would outline the ‘intrinsic value’9 of all entities with or without their

relationship to human beings. Furthermore, the work of Spinoza has influenced many

other theorists to try and propose a more ‘equal’10 understanding of all entities. Spinoza

5 Spinoza, Ethics, p.25. 6 Steven Nadler, “Baruch Spinoza”, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, June 29, 2001, accessed on

January 7, 2018. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/#GodNatu 7 Spinoza, Ethics, p.6. 8 Spinoza, Ethics, p.162. 9 David R. Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, in Encyclopedia of Environmental Ethics and Philosophy, ed. J.

Baird Callicot and Robert Frodeman, (United States of America: Macmillan Reference, 2008 Volume

1), 206-211. p. 207. 10 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p. 207.

Georgia Perkins

5

and Naess challenge the notion of ‘discrete’11 entities which involve a hierarchical

order. Spinoza states that entities are unified as a whole. Naess argues that value can

be given to interconnected individuals, but as a unifying principle. Naess was inspired

by the work of Spinoza, through his emphasis on the need for a ‘deep approach’12 or an

immersed questioning of the world we live in. It is evident where Naess’ influence

over the Deep Ecology movement originated, by looking at Spinoza’s aim ‘to probe the

deep identity of God with Nature and, in doing so, to achieve a union with God-or-

Nature [my emphasis].’13 For both Spinoza and Deep Ecologists, it is apparent that

there is a rejection of the concept of ‘discreteness,’14 or separateness in entities, in

relation to the biosphere. For example, in David R. Keller’s Encyclopaedia of

Environmental Ethics and Philosophy, he defines the fundamental philosophy behind

the Movement as consisting of two bases:

an axiology (the study of the criteria of value systems in ethics) of “biocentric

egalitarianism” and an ontology (the study of existence) of metaphysical holism which

asserts that the biosphere does not consist of discrete entities [my emphases] but rather

internally related individuals make up an ontologically unbroken whole.15

The concept of “biocentric egalitarianism” can be understood as the assignment of

‘equal intrinsic value […which] denies differential valuation of organisms.’16 This

would suggest that for Deep Ecologists everything should be understood as having the

same worth. This would reject a hierarchical order, and challenge anthropocentricism.

My own positioning to this statement is in agreement to the whole being made

11 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p.207. 12 Arne Naess, “The Deep Ecological Movement: Some Philosophical Aspects.” In Broader Concerns:

Thoreau, Deep Ecology, and Ecofeminism, 402-416. Essay originally in Philosophy Inquiry 8, no.1-2

(1986): 10-31. p.407. 13 Don Garrett, ‘Introduction’, in Ethics by Benedict Spinoza, Ethics, (Hertfordshire: Wordsworth

Edition Limited, 2001), p.vii. 14 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p.207. 15 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p.207. 16 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p. 207.

Georgia Perkins

6

up of ‘internally related individuals.’17 Primarily through the significance of thinking

of the other, and by doing this putting an end to feelings of being separate or alienated

by nature. To examine the study of epigenetics it is important to introduce it through

the lens of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck’s seminal text Philosophie Zoologique (1809), where

his discussion concluded that there was a direct link between inherited characteristics

and environmental conditions. Many theorists disregarded and mocked his thesis,

particularly his reasons behind the length of a giraffe’s neck caused by the animal

stretching to reach the trees. However, recently his hypothesis has been reconsidered

by transgenerational epigenetic theorists, through interpreting genetic and non-genetic

influences in organisms.18 This suggests that one cannot perceive entities as purely

discrete because the reality is much more complicated; according to Lamarck one can

affect and alter the structure of the other. From this understanding, I would question

whether gene expression can be altered by a supposed ‘external’ force. How can we

‘monitor’ anything which might possibly be understood as a solitary entity?19

The study of epigenetics is the investigation of the effects of environmental

conditions or factors on the expressions of genes. The term was originally coined by

Conrad H. Waddington, who detailed it as the impact on genetic behaviour from a

change in its environmental surroundings. As Denis Noble states Waddington

‘demonstrat[ed that] the inheritance of a characteristic acquired in a population [was]

in response to an environmental stimulus.’20 The Greek ‘epi’ means ‘in addition to’ or

‘above or upon’21 which suggests added characteristics. I would also argue that epi-

17 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p.207. 18 Including the philosopher of science John Dupré, who wrote Processes of Life: Essays in the

Philosophy of Biology, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). 19 As this example is particularly focused on genes, one cannot or should not presume that this can be

applied to all entities. 20 Denis Noble, ‘Conrad Waddington and the origin of epigenetics’, Journal of Experimental

Biology 2015 218: 816-818; doi: 10.1242/jeb.120071. http://jeb.biologists.org/content/218/6/816 21 “Epi-”, Online Etymology Dictionary, accessed on January 2, 2018,

https://www.etymonline.com/word/epi-.

Georgia Perkins

7

genetics, is used in a similar way to other compound words such as post-modernism or

post-structuralism, where it implies an enquiry be it positive or negative after the socio-

political uses of the original term. Therefore, epi-genetics originates from a rejection to

the Darwinian understanding of genetics, crucially the idea of the survival of the fittest

being at the heart of it.22 The Apple Dictionary definition of the term epigenetics is

‘the study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression

rather than alteration of the genetic code itself.’23 Therefore, it focuses more on the

behaviour, rather than coding of genes; and from this one can decipher that they are

entirely dependent on the ‘nature of things’ in the biosphere. Therefore, despite the

appearance of entities as having a concrete form which differentiates itself from one

another, the dichotomy of inside and outside of an organism is porous, permeable and

absorbent. This means that the genetic behaviour of an organism is not fixed or

permanent it can be altered depending on its surroundings. Therefore, if one were to

talk purely about genetic coding and not external surroundings, this would be to ignore

the external effects on our internal bodies and disregard the impact on us by other

entities.

Therefore, epigenetics can be considered as a scientific demonstration of the

philosophical approach of Spinoza’s ‘essence of things,’ where the inherent

characteristics of individuals comprises the whole biosphere. As a result, we can only

find feasible the notion that individuals form an unbroken whole.

22 Charles Darwin argued that gene mutation is caused by natural selection and the survival of the

fittest. The study of epigenetics opposes this idea, by arguing that changes happen in gene expression

rather than coding. See Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species (1859), ed. Gillian Bear, (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2008). 23 Apple Dictionary, “Epigenetics”, accessed on February 12, 2018.

Georgia Perkins

8

The Whole and its Parts

In the ‘Eight Point Platform of the Deep Ecology Movement,’ Naess details a

definition of the biosphere and all that is contained within it:

‘the biosphere, or more professionally […] the ecosphere as a whole […] includes

individuals, species, populations, habitat, as well as human and nonhuman cultures.

Given our current knowledge all-pervasive intimate relationships this implies a

fundamental concern and respect.’24

However, by assigning names to individualize entities in the ecosphere, inherently

suggests differences between them, but this should be understood as separate to the

concept of ‘discreteness,’ which entails a completely solitary unit. Furthermore, Don

Garrett states that Spinoza’s thesis considers everything as ‘modes,’25 or ‘internally

related individuals’26 within ‘one substance,’27 which prevents a hierarchy being

formed:

Spinoza’s straightforward and unequivocal assertion that God is the only substance […]

treat[s] human minds and bodies, along with everything else in the universe, as

properties or modes of the one substantial subject, God. Yet despite these seventeenth-

century origins, Spinoza’s resulting one-substance doctrine (or monism) strikingly

anticipates modern physical theories that construe the entire universe as a single space-

time entity that is not composed of discrete spatial parts [my emphases] but rather gives

rise to ordinary things as local modifications of fields within it.28

Garrett recalls Spinoza’s clear rejection of ‘parts’ as tantamount to ‘modes,’29 this is

because he interprets the phrase as a futile way of dividing the whole into sections,

which is articulated in the following:

Substance absolutely infinite is indivisible. […] For if it were divisible, the parts into

which it would be divided will or will not retain the nature of substance absolutely

infinite.30

Spinoza concludes that if the whole were divided, the parts would be separate entities

24 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement’, p. 405. 25 Spinoza, Ethics, p.49. 26 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p.207. 27 Spinoza, Ethics, p.6. 28 Garrett, ‘Introduction’, p.xi. 29 Spinoza, Ethics, p.49. 30 Spinoza, Ethics, p.13.

Georgia Perkins

9

divided in relation to their functions within the biosphere. What is evident here is a

questioning of who has the authority to detail the functioning of entities? Furthermore,

learning a ‘mode’s’31 function would suggest that it was prescribed by human language,

produce a hierarchy and impose meaning onto individuals. This would cause one entity

to have more significance than another. Similarly, learning of a particular function

might obscure its nature, or the ‘essence’32 of the entity. Gal Kober explains that for

Spinoza:

the idea of parts that cohere with each other so as to create a whole seems to imply a

teleology: every part has a certain place and a role in relation to the other parts and to

the whole.33

Therefore, a teleology would form an understanding of the whole, which is only defined

by the function of its parts.34 Thus, there is an inherent difference in the understandings

between Spinoza and Deep Ecologists. George Sessions comments that: ‘all organisms

and entities in the ecosphere, [are] parts of the interrelated whole, [and] equal in

intrinsic worth [my emphases].’35 In relation to the above, Spinoza would argue that

the use of the word ‘parts’ prescribes a division between things, even if they are equal.

Also, ‘intrinsic worth’ might suggest that the entities are defined by their function and

therefore this argument would produce a teleology directly opposed to Spinoza’s

thinking. Using words such as ‘value’ and ‘worth,’ infers that usefulness is assigned

in relation to others, but from an anthropocentric viewpoint. This is also concluded by

De Jonge, when he purports that ‘Nature for Spinoza is infinite, not composed of parts

and therefore not descriptive of non-human forms of deep ecology.’36

31 Spinoza, Ethics, p.49. 32 Spinoza, Ethics, p.25. 33 Gal Kober, ‘For They Do Not Agree in Nature: Spinoza and Deep Ecology’, Ethics & the

Environment 18, no. 1 (Spring 2013): 43-65. p.50 34 Kober, ‘For They Do Not Agree in Nature’, p.50. 35 Bill Devall and George Sessions, Deep Ecology: Living as if Nature Mattered, (Salt Lake City:

Peregrine Smith Books, 1985), p.67. 36 Eccy de Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology: Challenging Traditional Approaches to

Environmentalism, (Oxon and New York: Routledge, 2003), p.82.

Georgia Perkins

10

Therefore, if ‘parts’ and ‘discrete’ entities are to be disregarded in relation to

what the biosphere means, we must consider the significance of the term ‘mode’37 to

Spinoza. He argues that the phrase can be defined as individuals intrinsically related

to his notion of God, or nature. Spinoza states that ‘individual things are modes by

which the attributes of God are expressed in a certain and determinate manner.’38 From

this statement, ‘mode’ can be understood as the property of attributes. If ‘modes’ are

attributes of God, and by God we also mean nature, then the property, or ‘mode’ would

also relate to the ‘essence of things.’39 Furthermore, if ‘modes’ are ‘expressed in a

certain way’ this suggests that they are individual – but not discrete, as they are related

and comprise a ‘whole.’ Spinoza develops his thesis by suggesting that from ‘one

substance,’ stems two ‘attributes,’ including ‘thought’40 and ‘extension.’41 The ‘mode’

of the former attribute is understood to be the ‘mind,’42 and the latter ‘motion and

rest.’43 This is a move away from the Cartesian understanding of the division between

mind and body,44 where instead the Spinozist model suggests that the mental and

physical world exist at the same time. He suggests that they are ‘merely two ways (or

senses) denoting the same referent.’45

This links to the study of epigenetics through the notion that the cells in the

body all contain the same genetic coding. They make up a ‘whole’ in terms of their

coding, however it is their expressions which differ and has the ability to change. To

expand on the scientific theory behind this, epigenetic tags or the chemicals which

37 Spinoza, Ethics, p.49. 38 Spinoza, Ethics, p.105. 39 Spinoza, Ethics, p.25. 40 Spinoza, Ethics, p.100. 41 Spinoza, Ethics, p.100. 42 Spinoza, Ethics, p.68. 43 Spinoza, Ethics, p.58. 44 Unfortunately, I do not have space here to go into depth with regards to René Descartes cogito.

However, this is significant in understanding Western philosophy and traditional readings of humans

and their relationship to nature. 45 De Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology, p.87.

Georgia Perkins

11

signal to genes, are able to silence and/or activate them causing gene expressions to

change in cells in the body. In The Epigenetics Revolution: How Modern Biology is

Rewriting Our Understanding of Genetics, Disease and Inheritance, Nessa Carey

details that the study can be ‘defined as the set of modifications to our genetic material

that change the ways genes are switched on or off, but which don’t alter the genes

themselves.’46 Gene expression changes due to the epigenomes which latch on to the

DNA covered proteins called histones.47 As a result the functioning of cells can change,

their nature might transform but the coding stays the same.48 Therefore, some

epigenomes are switched on in order to activate them to become muscle cells and others

are switched off to produce liver cells.49

One could look at gene coding in relation to Spinoza’s theory on ‘modes’ which

are individual but not discrete. Cells in the body may have different behaviours but to

repeat they still have the same coding. Furthermore, genetic coding might differ

between each entity, however there are similarities in their organization. Therefore,

individuals because of this should be understood as ‘modes’ rather than separate beings,

through the study of epigenetics. It is also possible to insinuate similarities between

the attributes of ‘thought’ and ‘extension;’ to gene coding and its expression or

behaviour. The ‘mind’ or ‘thought’ can link to the idea of a nucleus for example or the

coding of genes. Moreover, the ‘extension’ or ‘motion’ can link to the changeable

nature of genetic behaviour. However, in the same way that Spinoza looks at the two

attributes, they are to be understood as looking and talking about the ‘same referent.’

46 Nessa Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution: How Modern Biology is Rewriting Our Understanding of

Genetics, Disease and Inheritance, (London: Icon Books, 2012) p.7. 47 “The Epigenome at a Glance”, Learn.Genetics: Genetic Science Learning Center, accessed on April

16, 2018. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/intro/ 48 This is why some identical twins end up looking very different, despite having the same genetic

coding. 49 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.6. Carey compares this process to the filming of various

versions of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, whereby the production vary although the play script

remains the same.

Georgia Perkins

12

They are interconnected, and because of that reject the theory of the Cartesian

‘cogito.’50 51

What is particularly relevant here to the rejection of the concept of ‘discrete

entities’ is the notion that ‘a change in the environment has biological consequences

that last long after the event itself has vanished into distant memory.’52 The

environment can have a direct impact on our lives and can change the lives of our

grandchildren too. It can alter through the effect of instances such as interaction with

others, human disasters,53 treatment as children, and environmental changes. For

example, one can see the ‘epigenetic effect in action’54 through the treatment of

children and the effect this has on the rest of their lives. 55 Researchers found that the

behaviour of rats differed due to their treatment from their mothers. Nessa Carey

examines that it has been proved that pups who were nurtured by their mothers caused

them to have low stress levels and be more relaxed in their adult life. In comparison

50 René Descartes, Discourse on Method (1870), ed. Pamela Kraus and Frank Hunt, trans. Richard

Kennington (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2012). 51 In conjunction with Spinoza, Naess and the study of epigenetics, my argument is a radical alteration

to the way in which science determines entities as easily divisible. 52 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.6. 53 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.94. One of the most famous examples and often mentioned in

relation to epigenetics is Audrey Hepburn and the event of the Dutch Hunger Winter in the year 1944.

Due to the German blockade in the Second World War, the Dutch population suffered malnutrition

from the lack of available food until May 1945. As a result Hepburn suffered from poor health

throughout her whole life after the war. During this period, the undernourishment of women in the first

three months of their pregnancy had a direct impact their own lives as well as their children and

grandchildren. Significantly, the majority of babies born of women who suffered from starvation in the

last three months of the pregnancy had a normal body weight. 54 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.6. 55 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.6. For instance, if a child is abused but is then taken into care

and adopted by a loving family, they are still more likely to suffer from mental health problems as an

adult. However, I must point out that this is clearly not always the case.

Georgia Perkins

13

rats who were abandoned by their mothers, would most likely have high stress

levels.56 57

Similarly, another example where the ‘epigenetic effect’58 is evident after the

event has taken place, is when a female water flea grows a protective helmet because

of nearby predators. The children and grandchildren of this water flea are born with

the helmets too, without any experience of the predator.59 This is the effect of

epigenetic inheritance whereby information is passed to the offspring other than purely

by gene coding. A similar process happens with wild radishes when attacked by

caterpillars. As a response, ‘they produce distasteful chemicals and grow protective

56 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.242. 57 This study of nature and nurture is not new, it links to the psychoanalytical approaches from theorists

such as Sigmund Freud, Melanie Klein and Jacques Lacan. 58 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.6. 59 “Epigenetics & Inheritance”, Learn.Genetics: Genetic Science Learning Center, accessed on April

12, 2018. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/inheritance/.

Figure 1: Diagram from Nessa Carey’s The Epigenetic Revolution, (UK: Icon Books, 2012), 242.

Georgia Perkins

14

spines.’ The offspring ‘produce these defences’60 despite having never been in contact

with a caterpillar. The reasoning behind this is when the chromosomes join to form an

embryo many epigenetic tags are removed, however some remain and these are called

imprinted genes which then specialize into various areas in the body. Therefore, in this

case the natural defences are inherited by the offspring. This could link to the idea of

self-realization or self-perseverance, where it embodies Spinoza and Naess’ intended

future for entities. I would argue that it is through changes in character and our

relationship to nature, that humans may address individual’s self-perseverance in form

particularly through the study of epigenetics.

Self-Realization/ Perseverance in the Face of Climate Change

The simultaneous movement of both the mental and physical world has an

affinity to Naess’ personal philosophy, which he called ‘Ecosophy T.’61 Naess argued

that through ‘embrac[ing] all the life forms on the planet […] As a result, we

increasingly see ourselves in other beings, and others see themselves in us. In this way,

the self is extended and deepened as a natural process of the realization of its

potentialities in others.’62 The concept where the ‘self is extended,’ unites both the

mental and physical world, and stretches out to other entities. This united assemblage

relates to Spinoza’s notion of ‘one substance.’63

For the Deep Ecology movement, ‘self-realization’64 can take place in the

pursuit to return to a ‘simpler way of life.’ Eccy de Jonge suggests that this can take

place if factors such as technological growth and human overpopulation were

60 “Epigenetics & Inheritance”, Learn.Genetics: Genetic Science Learning Center,.

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/inheritance/. 61 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement”, p.412. 62 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement”, p.413. 63 Spinoza, Ethics, p.6. 64 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p. 207.

Georgia Perkins

15

abandoned. For Spinoza, these would be called ‘inadequate ideas,’65 which should be

abandoned and replaced with something more adequate. Naess argues that in order to

do this:

Policies must therefore be changed. These policies affect basic economic,

technological, and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be deeply

different from the present.66

Naess’ own philosophy ‘Ecosophy T,’67 is different in its ‘personal’ rather than

‘political’ objective. This can be identified from the listed intentions of the Eight Point

Platform of the Deep Ecology movement. By considering Naess’ views of the personal

and the political, and seeing ‘ourselves in others,’68 reveals an emotional relationship

to animals, especially those close to extinction. This would bring about a desire to

greatly change the effect human culture has on the biosphere.69 Naess understands that

a fulfilment of concerns proposed by the movement would help ‘self-realization’70 to

occur whether this was individual or collective, in appreciating the ‘potentialities in

others.’71 This could be otherwise defined as the second basis of Deep Ecology;

‘metaphysical holism,’72 which is defined by Keller as an ‘ontological

interconnectedness through ‘enlightenment of “self-realization.”’73 The concept of

‘enlightenment’74 is used here, to indicate insight and awareness of other entities in

Naess’ notion of ‘self-realization;’75 rather than referring to the eighteenth-century Age

65 De Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology, p.94. 66 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement’, p.405. 67 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement’, p.413. 68 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement’, p.413. 69 In T. J. Demos’ book Decolonizing Nature, he mentions the Barbican Art Gallery exhibition ‘The

Oil Show,’ which is described as ‘an examination of our culture’s economic, political, and social

entanglements with fossil fuels.’ Reference: T. J. Demos, Decolonizing Nature: Contemporary Art and

the Politics of Ecology (Berlin: Sternberg Press, 2016), p. 33. 70 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement’, p.413. 71 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement’, p.413. 72 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p.207. 73 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p. 207. 74 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p. 207. 75 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p. 207.

Georgia Perkins

16

of Enlightenment, which aimed for industrial growth and scientific progress.

Technological developments are something in which the Deep Ecology movement is

trying to revoke and undo.

However, this does not mean we should reject the significance of the

Enlightenment as both a concept and movement. The Age of Enlightenment, otherwise

known as the Age of Reason, was influenced by philosophers such as Spinoza, in

attempting to intellectually make sense of the world, and to propose a way in which

humanity could attain perfection. Spinoza proposed the notion of ‘conatus essendi,’

which means ‘a thing […] endeavours to persevere in its own being.’76 This suggested

a method of ethical improvement through rationality, by reaching a point where one is

no longer encumbered by emotions. He suggests that in order to reach a state of

improvement, we have to reach intellectually adequate ideas, to no longer have

emotions, and reject the Cartesian ‘cogito.’ Spinoza termed this ‘intuitive science.’ He

argued that one should ‘seek one’s own advantage is to also to seek the advantage of

others.’77 Adequate ideas would reveal the ‘true […] essence of things,’ and

understand the ‘attributes of God and the infinite modes.’78 He purports that this pursuit

is very much a process of advancement which does not suggest an elevation to become

a heavenly creature. This is different to Naess’ argument through the dismissal of

emotional responses, however similar in looking toward the ‘potentialities in others.’79

Spinoza deals with difference in his understanding of entities and their perseverance,

by stating:

Hence we see not only that the human mind is united to the body, but also what is to be

understood by the mind and body. But no one can understand it adequately or distinctly

without knowing adequately beforehand the nature of our body; for those things which

76 Spinoza, Ethics, p.105. 77 Nancy K. Levene, Spinoza’s Revelation: Religion, Democracy, and Reason, (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2004) p.70. 78 Nadler, “Baruch Spinoza”, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/. 79 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement’, p.413.

Georgia Perkins

17

we have proved hitherto are altogether general, nor do they refer more to man than to

other individuals, all of which are animate, although in different degrees.80

Spinoza argues that one cannot understand the ‘essence’81 of the body, if one does not

know the nature of the mind. He goes on to state that this understanding is not more

significant for humans, since it is a universal desire to persevere and survive. However,

he does recognise that this will be different for us all. Eccy de Jonge suggests that this

also has a resemblance to the positioning of Deep Ecologists:

In its emphasis on self-realization, deep ecology attempts to grasp something

fundamental […] namely: an emphasis on characterizing a deeper sense of self than

mind/body relation.82

However, what is different between the types of realization for both, is the fact that

Spinoza’s perseverance does not indicate a sense of worth, by suggesting that you

persevere in your own way. This is different from the way that Naess looks at entities,

instead he ‘preempts invariable attacks on this idea of the equal worth of all organisms

by adding the qualifier ‘‘in principle’’ because ‘‘any realistic praxis necessitates some

killing, exploitation, and suppression.’’’83 This is because Spinoza, does not produce a

contradiction by arguing that some entities may have to be eradicated.

As previously mentioned, Naess argues that the self is extended to other entities.

However, the self is also understood for Deep Ecologists as being divided into two

because of this, into the ‘narrow self’ and the ‘mature self.’84 De Jonge suggests that

the ‘narrow self’ can be regarded as a ‘temporal, finite psycho-physical entity,’ along

with ‘a particular being determined by certain emotions and ideas […] defined by deep

ecologists as ‘alienated’, ‘isolated’, ‘atomistic’ and ‘separate’ from nature.’85 This

80 Spinoza, Ethics, pp.56-7. 81 Spinoza, Ethics, p.25. 82 De Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology, p.1 83 Keller, ‘Deep Ecology’, p.207. 84 De Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology, p.86. 85 De Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology, p.90.

Georgia Perkins

18

could perhaps suggest why, for ecologists, it is only through producing a better

understanding of a relationship with other entities, that they can be united and

understood as equal, which is seen as a definition for the ‘mature self.’ The concept of

the splitting of self recalls the Cartesian understanding of mind and body, which would

be in contrast to Spinozist thinking. This is why De Jonge suggests that the grounding

of Deep Ecology is problematic, as there is no obvious reconciliation between the two

selves:

Deep ecologists regard the narrow self as […] separate from nature, in contrast to the

mature self, which identifies with nature as a whole […] According to this objection,

the task of distinguishing between these two ‘selves’ is only necessary because deep

ecologists have created an ontological gap, a gap which separates the self into two

distinct natures […] The manner in which these two ‘selves’ can be reconciled is left

open and therefore mysterious.86

Therefore, the pursuit of ‘self-realization’87 would have to include the rejection of ‘the

narrow self.’88 Deep Ecologists would argue that a split self would have to take place,

in order to move toward ‘self-realization.’ In contrast, Spinoza’s thesis would argue

that a movement towards ‘contatus essendi’ can only be achieved by uniting ‘modes.’

However, if we suggest that for Spinoza, the ‘narrow self’ would instead be called

‘inadequate ideas,’89 this would then prevent a split self to take place. Furthermore, De

Jonge argues that:

Deep ecologists may want us […] to identify with nature as a whole, but for those of

us who desire affection and fulfilment in human relationships (which themselves seem

fraught and tangible), the prospect of developing a compassionate outlook for non-

human beings sounds both daunting and undesirable. […] the narrow from the

transpersonal self, this created the problem of how the pursuit of wide-identifications

could be made attractive to those whose concerns are limited to egotistical self-

interest.90

This recalls Spinoza’s dismissal of emotions in relation to ‘seeking the advantage of

86 De Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology, p.86. 87 Naess, ‘The Deep Ecological Movement’, p.413. 88 De Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology, p.87. 89 Spinoza, Ethics, p.76. 90 De Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology, p.92.

Georgia Perkins

19

others.’91 Moreover, it is problematic to consider a more direct and ‘compassionate’

relationship between entities, as it could necessitate one to prescribe meaning onto other

entities, through applying one’s own experience, in relation to them. ‘Seeking

advantages in others’92 could be understood as something which is not emotional but

having links to scientific understandings. Detailing the effect of climate change on

individuals can help us aim to fight global warming, for example learning of toxins and

pollutants caused by technological development and its epigenetic effect on entities:

Environmental signals can […] affect the imprinting process itself. Imprinting happens

during egg and sperm formation, when epigenetic tags are added to silence specific

genes. Diet, hormones and toxins can all affect this process, impacting the expression

of genes in the next generation.93

In an essay on ‘Epigenetics and environmental chemicals,’ A Baccarelli and V. Bollati

detail the various toxic chemicals which can change genetic expression, as a cause of

climate change. This includes metals, cadmium, arsenic, nickel, chromium,

Methylmercury, trichloroethylene, air pollution, and benzene. One example given was

the exposure of inflammation onto bodies, as a result of overcrowding which can cause

infections or diseases. Infections can have an effect on the food chain. As a result of

this, climate change can cause poor nutrition due to the change in the bioavailability of

food.94 This suggests that the interconnectedness of all entities is possibly a negative

aspect in face of climate change. However, by looking at Waddington’s theory on

epigenetics and stem cells, one can look at how they are a natural ‘regenerative

medicine […] as a cell-replacement therapy’95 in response to environmental stimuli.

91 Levene, Spinoza’s Revelation, p.70. 92 Levene, Spinoza’s Revelation, p.70. 93 ‘Epigenetics: Imprinted Genes are Sensitive to Environmental Signals’, Learn. Genetics: Genetic

Science Learning Centre, http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/imprinting/. 94 The collective ‘Cooking Sections’ explores the future of food due to the ever changing climate in

their project Climavore (2015). They mention various recipes such as ‘Oxidising Chips’ and include

seasons such as ‘Polluted Shores’ and ‘Movement of Deserts.’ 95 Bhairavi Srinageshwar, Panchanan Maiti, Gary L. Dunbar, Julien Rossignol and Wilhelm Bloch,

‘Role of Epigenetics in Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation: Implications for Treating

Georgia Perkins

20

‘Epigenetics to the Rescue’ for ‘Self-Perseverance?’

Waddington’s idea of an epigenetic landscape, now commonly referred to as

the ‘Waddington epigenetic landscape,’96 is a diagram which manifests as a metaphor

for the process of ‘cellular development,’ in organisms. The representation comprises

of a ball on top of a hill, about to roll down to either of the ‘several troughs toward the

bottom.’ Carey argues that the top of hill closely resembles ‘stem cells’97 and the

bottom is the division of cell types. This, I would argue, holds some similarities to

Spinoza’s concept of ‘conatus essendi,’98 the significance of one’s own perseverance

in life can link to the fundamental role and function of stem cells which react to

environmental stimuli. Furthermore, the idea that one reacts differently or perseveres

in different ways, links to the individualistic assignment of cells in relation to separate

bodies.

Figure 2: Conrad Waddington’s diagram for ‘The Epigenetic Landscape’ (1940), image found on Research Gate,

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-epigenetic-landscape-proposed-by-C-H-Waddington-1940-in-Organisers-genes_fig1_230718157.

Neurodegenerative Diseases’, US National Library of Medicine – National Institutes of Health, Int J

Mol Sci 2, vol.17, doi: 10.3390/ijms17020199,

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4783933/. 96 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.19. 97 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.22 98 Whilst I understand the phrase ‘conatus essendi’ as primarily a type of perseverance which rejects

‘inadequate ideas’ or being controlled by emotions, I believe that elements of its meaning can be linked

to the study of epigenetics.

Georgia Perkins

21

However, the classification of cells divided in each trough is not entirely fixed,

it is possible for them to alter if effected by a dramatic change in the entity. ‘The

epigenetic system controls how the genes in DNA are used, in some cases for hundreds

of cell division cycles, and the effects are inherited from when cells divide.’99 Whilst

stem cells can be useful in helping self-perseverance, this is not the answer to dealing

with climate change. By looking at entities as being part of an unbroken whole, one

has to look at ways of combatting climate change through extreme alterations to

technological advancements. Whilst epigenetics may help some entities to persevere,

for example through ‘modifying’ the ‘proliferation’ of stem cells,100 in response to the

rapidly changing conditions of the environment, this is not always the case.

Natalie Crowley discusses in her recent article on epigenetics ‘to the rescue,’101

that adaptations in entities can occur quickly in one generation rather than traditionally

understanding species as evolving gradually over time.102 Crowley continues: ‘most

researchers believe that the rate in which our climate is changing now may be too rapid

for many species to keep up.’103 However, entities such as winter skates are

increasingly changing in size in order to survive in the warmer oceans. Smaller sized

winter skates can ‘withstand lower oxygen concentrations.’104 This suggests that some

entities can alter their gene expression quickly in response to the climate. However, this

is not always the case, which we will see in examples including green sea turtles, polar

99 Carey, The Epigenetic Revolution, p.18. 100 Srinageshwar et al., ‘Role of Epigenetics in Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation’,

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4783933/ 101 Natalie Crowley, ‘Epigenetics to the Rescue on Climate Change’, What is Epigenetics?, last

modified on April 4, 2017, https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/epigenetics-rescue-climate-change/ . 102 Srinageshwar et al., ‘Role of Epigenetics in Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation’,

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4783933/ 103 Crowley, ‘Epigenetics to the Rescue on Climate Change’,

https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/epigenetics-rescue-climate-change/ . 104 Crowley, ‘Epigenetics to the Rescue on Climate Change’,

https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/epigenetics-rescue-climate-change/

Georgia Perkins

22

bears and coral reef.

Pollution from petrol and diesel cars, along with fossil fuels, has resulted in the

O-zone layer increasingly being destroyed and because of this has caused more sun

exposure to radiation and increased temperatures.105 Recent research has shown that

Green Sea Turtles are on the edge of extinction because of the rise in temperatures. As

Craig Welch states:

Since the sex of a sea turtle is determined by the heat of sand incubating their eggs,

scientists had suspected they might see slightly more females. Climate change, after

all, has driven air and sea temperatures higher, which, in these creatures, favors

female offspring.106

They have become an endangered species because of the change in climate, and through

the inability to reproduce. This has also coincided with the bleaching of the Great

barrier reef which has caused fifty percent of the coral to die, as a consequence to the

rising temperatures.107 Furthermore to continue primarily look at ocean temperatures,

the melting of ice in the Arctic sea has significantly impacted on the lives of polar bears.

However, Dirk Notz notes that:

By cutting our greenhouse gas production, Arctic sea ice would almost immediately

stabilize. “If we could halve our emission rates magically next year,” Notz says,

“then we would have twice as long until the ice is gone.”108

105 This alludes to another example mentioned in T. J. Demos’ Decolonizing Nature, Hans Haacke’s

Rhine-Water Purification Plant (1972), which deals with the problematic effects of polluted waters.

‘The artist set up a chemical plant with chemical treatment plant with charcoal and sand filtration to

process polluted water from the Rhine River. The purified water collected in a large acrylic basin

containing goldfish, demonstrating the successful construction of a life-supporting habitat using

technology. Another interesting installation is RANDOM INTERNATIONAL’s Rain Room which

was exhibited at the Barbican in 2012. The installation was described as ‘an amplified representation

of our environment. Human presence prevents the rain from falling, creating a unique atmosphere

and exploring how human relationships to each other and to nature are increasingly mediated

through technology.’ Reference: RANDOM INTERNATIONAL, ‘Rain Room, 2012’, accessed on

April 19, 2018, https://www.random-international.com/rain-room-2012. 106 Craig Welch, ‘99% of These Sea Turtles Are Turning Female—Here’s Why’, National

Geographic, last modified on January 8, 2018,

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/01/australia-green-sea-turtles-turning-female-climate-

change-raine-island-sex-temperature/, last accessed April 19, 2018. 107 Brian Clark Howard, ‘Corals are Dying on the Great Barrier Reef’, National Geographic, last

modified March 21, 2016, https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/03/160321-coral-bleaching-

great-barrier-reef-climate-change/, last accessed April 19, 2018. 108 Tim Folger, ‘Arctic Ice Isn't Doomed Yet—Here's How to Save It’, National Geographic ,

last modified February 8, 2017, https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/02/arctic-sea-ice-tipping-

point-climate-science/ , last accessed April 19, 2018.

Georgia Perkins

23

This links to Naess’ statement that if policies were significantly changed, it might be

possible to change the rate of the melting of ice.109 However, this is not to suggest that

the environment will automatically change to the way it was before human’s use of

fossil fuels.

Therefore, the study of epigenetics is significant in terms of its implications

regarding internally related individuals. However, it should not be understood as the

answer to global warming, whereby we should simply allow entities to change. This is

because it would suggest that human beings do not need to aim for a change when

challenging our contribution to polluting the atmosphere. This is not to suggest we

need to have an emotional affinity in order to combat the extinction of species, such as

the idea of charismatic megafauna which is clearly an anthropocentric perspective.

Instead, Crowley argues that it is through scientific study on which entities cannot adapt

in the change in climate which could help to conserve wildlife. She states that: ‘Studies

that identify which species can cope and which are vulnerable to environmental

changes could prove invaluable for preserving our current ecosystems.’110 Rather than

choosing the entities we want to keep, why not help conserve those which cannot adapt

in the face of climate change.

Conclusion

I believe that ‘discreteness’ allows one to differentiate, and in effect categorise

and produce a hierarchy from the information given regarding the more ‘favourable’

characteristics entities might have, which is entirely subjective. It is by undermining

109 Olafur Eliasson is known for his ongoing project Ice Watch, where he installs blocks of ice in cities

which are then left to melt. It was first shown in 2015 outside the Place du Panthéon, and more recently

seen in 2018 outside the Tate Modern in London. 110 Crowley, ‘Epigenetics to the Rescue on Climate Change’,

https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/epigenetics-rescue-climate-change/.

Georgia Perkins

24

anthropocentrism that we may think of the other as an internally related individual. By

doing this we can reject the ‘narrow self’ or ‘inadequate ideas’ of being, and reject

separating ourselves from nature.

In this way, we might be able to deal with climate change more effectively. To

do this, it is important to focus on other entities and the experience of others. This is

why the study of epigenetics is so significant, and is a way of undermining the

importance of human experience by including that of others. By changing perspectives

in our positioning and the standing of others, we will combat the problematic grounding

of anthropocentrism and produce a more productive apprehension of the rapidly

changing environment. Spinoza argues that individuals should reject emotional

responses, and rather that to ‘‘seek ones advantage is to also seek the advantage of

others.’ By doing this, humans would actively oppose anthropocentrism including

hierarchical notions of species involving charismatic megafauna, and instead use the

study of epigenetics to invest in all entities which struggle to adapt to the change in

climate. Furthermore, rejecting the importance of emotional perspectives of the most

‘cuddly’ looking animals, would inevitably undermine the dominance of humans and

human brains over other brains and bodies.111 This links to Spinoza’s opposition to the

Cartesian ‘cogito,’ and suggests an interconnectedness of the mind and body as part of

the ‘same referent.’ As a result, individuals will be able to see ‘the potentiality of

others,’ and look at themselves as internally related.

111 I am aware of emotional responses being solely linked to the mind is a controversial topic.

Georgia Perkins

25

List of Illustrations

Figure 1: Diagram from Nessa Carey’s The Epigenetic Revolution. UK: Icon Books,

2012. p. 242.

Figure 2: Conrad Waddington’s diagram for ‘The Epigenetic Landscape’ (1940).

image found on Research Gate, https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-epigenetic-

landscape-proposed-by-C-H-Waddington-1940-in-Organisers-genes_fig1_230718157

Bibliography

Books

Allison, Stuart K. Ecological Restoration and Environmental Change: Renewing

Damaged Ecosystems. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis, 2012.

Bennett, Jane. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things. Durham: Duke

University Press, 2010.

Brown, Charles S., and Ted Toadvine, ed. Eco-Phenomenology: Back to the Earth

Itself. New York: State University of New York Press, 2003.

Caquard, Sebastien, Laurene Vaughan, and William Cartwright, eds. Mapping

Environmental Issues in the City: Arts and Cartography Cross Perspectives. London:

Springer Science and Business Media, 2011.

Carey, Nessa. The Epigenetic Revolution: How Modern Biology is Rewriting Our

Understanding of Genetics, Disease and Inheritance. London: Icon Books, 2012.

De Jonge, Eccy. Spinoza and Deep Ecology: Challenging Traditional Approaches to

Environmentalism. Oxon and New York: Routledge, 2003.

De Paolo, Charles. Pandemic Influenza in Fiction: A Critical Study. United States of

America: McFarland & Company, 2015.

Descartes, René. Discourse on Method (1870). Edited by Pamela Kraus and Frank

Hunt. Translated by Richard Kennington. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2012.

Devall, Bill and George Sessions. Deep Ecology: Living as if Nature Mattered, Salt

Lake City: Peregrine Smith Books, 1985.

Dobrin, Sidney I., John Parham, Terry Gifford, David Ingram, Laurence Coupe,

Adeline Johns-Putra, and Wendy Wheeler, ed. Green Letters: Studies in Ecocriticism.

Oxon: Taylor & Francis, 2015.

Dupré, John. Processes of Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Georgia Perkins

26

Fowkes, Maja. The Green Bloc: Neo-Avant-Garde Art and Ecology under Socialism.

New York: Central European University Press, 2015.

Garrard, Greg. Ecocriticism. Oxon and New York: Routledge, 2012.

Goodbody, Axel, and Kate Rigby, ed. Ecocritical Theory: New European Theory.

Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 2011.

Guattari, Félix. The Three Ecologies. Translated by Ian Pindar and Paul Sutton.

London: The Athlone Press, 2000.

Harding, Stephan. Animate Earth: Science, Intuition and Gaia. Cambridge: Green

Books, 2013.

Hiltner, Ken. What Else Is Pastoral? Renaissance Literature and the Environment.

Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2011.

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de. Philosophie Zoologique. France:

Dentu, 1809.

Levene, Nancy K. Spinoza’s Revelation: Religion, Democracy, and Reason.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Love, Glen A. Practical Ecocriticism: Literature, Biology, and the Environment.

United States: University of Virginia Press, 2003.

Morton, Timothy. Ecology without Nature: Rethinking Environmental Aesthetics.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.

Morton, Timothy. The Ecological Thought. London: Harvard University Press, 2010.

Schliephake, Christopher. Urban Ecologies: City Space, Material Agency, and

Environmental Politics in Contemporary Culture. New York: Lexington Books, 2014.

Spinoza, Benedict. Ethics (1677). Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Edition Limited, 2001.

Book Chapters

Burnside, John. “A Science of Belonging: Poetry as Ecology”. In Contemporary

Poetry and Contemporary Science, edited by Robert Crawford, 91–106. Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2006.

Donne, John. “No Man is an Island (1624)”. In Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions.

Edited by Anthony Raspa. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1987.

Garret, Don. “Introduction”. In Ethics (1677), by Baruch Spinoza. Hertfordshire:

Wordsworth Edition Limited, 2001.

Gibson, James J. “The Animal and the Environment (1979)”. In The Ecological

Approach to Visual Perception, 7–15. London: Houghton Miffin, 1986.

Georgia Perkins

27

Gibson, James J. “The Meaningful Environment (1979)”. In The Ecological

Approach to Visual Perception, 36–42. London: Houghton Mifflin, 1986.

Keller, David R. “Deep Ecology”. In Encyclopedia of Environmental Ethics and

Philosophy. Edited by J. Baird Callicot and Robert Frodeman. United States of

America: Macmillan Reference, 2008. Volume 1. 206-211.

Morton, Timothy. “Strange Strangers: The Politics and Poetics of Coexistence”. In

The Ecological Thought, 38–50. London: Harvard University Press, 2010.

Naess, Arne. “The Deep Ecological Movement: Some Philosophical Aspects.” In

Broader Concerns: Thoreau, Deep Ecology, and Ecofeminism, 402-416. Essay

originally in Philosophy Inquiry 8, no.1-2 (1986): 10-31.

Pepper, David. “Eco-Socialism”. In International Encyclopedia of Environmental

Politics, edited by John Barry and E. Gene Frankland. London: Routledge, 2002.

http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/routenvpol/eco_socialism/0?searchId=

a58 08dbc-fb27-11e5-bae1-1207b0fa605f&result=0.

Rawes, Peg. “Spinoza’s geometric and ecological ratios.” In The Politics of

Parametricism: Digital Technologies in Architecture, edited by Matthew Poole and

Manuel Shvartzberg, 213-230. London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2015.

Spinoza, Baruch. “Preface to Part IV & Propositions 35-37”. In Ethics, translated by

Samuel Shirley. Location: Hackett, 1992. 152-55 & 171-76.

Stewart, Matthew. “A Secret Philosophy of the Whole of Things”. In The Courtier

and the Heretic. Location: Norton, 2006. 156-82.

Journal Articles

Bennett, Jane. “The Force of Things: Steps toward an Ecology of Matter.” Political

Theory 32, no. 3 (June 2004): 347-372.

Bostad, Inga. “The Life and Learning of Arne Naess: Scepticism as a Survival

Strategy.” Inquiry 54, no. 1 (February 2011): 42-51.

Changeux, Jean-Pierre. “Reflections of a neuroscientist on the origins of ethics.”

European Review 7, no. 3 (1999): 351-358.

Gamlund, Espen. “Living Under the Guidance of Reason: Arne Naess’s Interpretation

of Spinoza.” Inquiry 54, no. 1 (February 2011): 2-17.

Ghiselin, Michael T. “Categories, life, and thinking.” The Behavioural and Brain

Sciences, no. 4 (1981): 269-313

Kober, Gal. “For They Do Not Agree in Nature: Spinoza and Deep Ecology.” Ethics

& the Environment 18, no. 1 (Spring 2013): 43-65.

Georgia Perkins

28

Meloni, Maurizio, Simon Williams and Paul Martin, “The biosocial: sociological

themes and issues.” The Sociological Review Monographs 64, no. 1, (2016): 7–25.

Noble, Denis. “Conrad Waddington and the origin of epigenetics”, Journal of

Experimental Biology 218 (2015): 816-818; doi: 10.1242/jeb.120071.

http://jeb.biologists.org/content/218/6/816

Srinageshwar, Bhairavi, Panchanan Maiti, Gary L. Dunbar, Julien Rossignol and

Wilhelm Bloch, ‘Role of Epigenetics in Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation:

Implications for Treating Neurodegenerative Diseases’, US National Library of

Medicine – National Institutes of Health, Int J Mol Sci 2, no.17, doi:

10.3390/ijms17020199, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4783933/.

Websites

Crowley, Natalie. ‘Epigenetics to the Rescue on Climate Change’. What is

Epigenetics?. Last modified on April 4, 2017.

https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/epigenetics-rescue-climate-change/.

“Epi-”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Accessed on January 2, 2018.

https://www.etymonline.com/word/epi-.

“Epigenetics & Inheritance”. Learn.Genetics: Genetic Science Learning Center.

Accessed on April 12, 2018.

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/inheritance/.

‘Epigenetics: Imprinted Genes are Sensitive to Environmental Signals’. Learn.

Genetics: Genetic Science Learning Centre. Accessed on April 12, 2018.

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/imprinting/.

Folger, Tim. ‘Arctic Ice Isn't Doomed Yet—Here's How to Save It’. National

Geographic. Last modified February 8, 2017. Accessed on April 19, 2018.

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/02/arctic-sea-ice-tipping-point-climate-

science/ .

Howard, Brian Clark. ‘Corals are Dying on the Great Barrier Reef’. National

Geographic. Last modified March 21, 2016. Accessed on April 19, 2018.

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/03/160321-coral-bleaching-great-barrier-

reef-climate-change/.

Nadler, Steven. “Baruch Spinoza”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. June 29,

2001. Accessed on January 7, 2018. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/.

Sarkar, Sahotra. “Ecology”. December 23, 2005. Accessed February 15, 2016.

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ecology/.

“The Epigenome at a Glance”. Learn.Genetics: Genetic Science Learning Center.

Accessed on April 16, 2018. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/intro/

Georgia Perkins

29

‘The Water in You’. USGS: Science for a Changing World. Accessed on April 29,

2018. https://water.usgs.gov/edu/propertyyou.html.

Welch, Craig. ‘99% of These Sea Turtles Are Turning Female—Here’s Why’.

National Geographic. Last modified on January 8, 2018. Accessed on April 19,

2018. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/01/australia-green-sea-turtles-

turning-female-climate-change-raine-island-sex-temperature/