GeoWorld 7

Geovocab

continuous resource: resources always available e.g. sun, wind, tides and geothermal

developed countries: world’s richest countries, generally located in Northern America, Western Europe, Japan and Australia

developing countries: world’s poorest countries, generally located in Africa, Asia and Central and South America

ecological footprint (EF): area of land and water required to provide resources and services and to absorb wastes produced by humans

environmental resource: resources occurring naturally within environments: atmosphere (air), lithosphere (land, soil, minerals), hydrosphere (rivers, oceans) and biosphere (plants and animals)

fossil fuels: non-renewable resources such as coal, oil and natural gas

Geographic Information System (GIS): system for capturing, storing and analysing data about Earth

inquiry process: five stages in a geographical investigation

chap

ter Environmental

resources and water Only when the last tree has died and the last river

been poisoned and the last fish been caught will we realise that we cannot eat money.

Cree proverb

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200911_GeoWorld7AC_01_2pp.indd 4 27/10/13 3:10 PM

non-renewable resource: resources formed slowly—often over millions of years—and once used cannot be replenished in the short-term, e.g. gold, diamonds and coal

renewable resource: resource replenished in a relatively short period of time, e.g. plants and animals

sustainability: ongoing capacity of Earth to provide sufficient quantity and quality water to maintain human and environmental life now and in the future

water footprint (WF): volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by humans

Earth is a huge storehouse of environmental resources, classified as continuous (e.g. sun, tide, wind and geothermal), renewable (e.g. soil, plants and animals) and non-renewable (e.g. oil). Regardless of where we live, everyone requires air to breathe, soils to produce food, forests to generate oxygen, and water to drink. Water also can be classified as continuous (e.g. water cycle), renewable (e.g. river is constantly fed by precipitation) and non-renewable (e.g. overexploitation of fossil groundwater).

Everyday, everywhere, living things require water to survive. Humans depend on water to drink, grow food and mine minerals for computers, solar panels and ‘smart’ bombs. Farmers depend on water to irrigate crops, and industry requires water to produce energy from fossil fuels.

Sustainable management strategies aim to reduce the huge human water footprint to maintain healthy ecosystems. Otherwise, future generations may have difficulties accessing enough clean drinking water—something we take for granted today.

Think, puzzle, explore

• Place Why does the quantity of water consumed vary between places?

• Space Why does geothermal and tidal power vary over space?

• Environment What are the impacts of overuse of water on the environment?

• Interconnection How is water and energy interconnected?

• Sustainability How can humans sustainably manage garbage floating in the ocean?

• Scale How large is the human water footprint and why does it vary at different scales (local, national and global)?

• Change How are changes to food wastes and food miles connected to water?

Geoskills in focus

• Observing water use, misuse, overuse and sustainability using the inquiry process

• Collecting and analysing relevant geographical data on water

• Concluding different perspectives on the use and management of water resources

• Communicating ideas using web 2.0 tools, graphs, maps, statistics and photographs

• Reflecting on actions to ensure a sustainable water supply

Elephant shower in Kerala, India


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GeoWorld 7: Australian Curriculum

1.1 Water: use, misuse, overuse and sustainable use

The world’s fresh water supplies from rivers, lakes and groundwater are shrinking due to use, misuse and overuse. As a result, by 2025 approximately 33% of the world’s population will lack access to

adequate drinking water. Water shortages, conflicts over water use and the impacts of anticipated climate change require sustainable management strategies.

AgriculturalWater is used for:• crops: staple crops (rice,

potatoes, wheat) and organic crops

• animals: open grazing and feedlots (cattle)

• non crops: cotton, tobacco, opium, Christmas trees and biofuel

EnergyWater is used to produce energy:• Non-renewable resources: oil, natural

gas and coal; rare earth elements used in wind power

• Renewable resources: geothermal, tidal, hydropower

Transport Water is used by:• local communities e.g. canoes

used by indigenous people along the Amazon River

• container ships transporting goods such as cars

• tourism e.g. speed boats, cruise ships and sailing

EconomicWater is used:• to produce energy, which is

essential for economic growth • for irrigation to increase

agricultural goods for export• in industrial processes to

produce goods, and then to transport goods around the world

Healthy water is essential for:• the growth of the pearl industry• wetlands, which produce fish – a

source of food• tourism and recreation

(e.g. surfing)

Sustainable useIncrease in population, increased demand for water and anticipated climate change places pressure on water use. Sustainable strategies include:• recycling grey water, desalination

plants, storm water harvest and re-use, virtual trade in water, fog harvesting , inter-regional transfer of water, reducing water consumption

• use of hydropower, geothermal power and tidal power

EnvironmentThe environment requires water for the functioning of terrestrial (land) and marine ecosystems. Ecosystems support a diversity of species and food webs in wetlands, rivers and oceans (e.g. fish, shell fish and krill).

MiningWater is required to mine:• diamonds, gold, silver, copper

and rare earths• fossil fuels such as oil, coal and

natural gas

Misuse• pollution of water from arsenic,

mercury, radioactive materials, chemical wastes and sewage

• wasted water through vampire power or standby power (when electrical goods are not turned off)

• wasted food, which requires water for production

Overuse• fossil groundwater – more water is

taken out of the ground than renewed• over-irrigation caused decline in the

area of the Aral Sea and increased saline soils, killing plants and crops

IndustrialWater is used in:• the conversion of raw resources

into manufactured goods• production of mobile phones,

computers and microchips• making clothes (such as cotton

for jeans)• construction materials for roads,

homes and skyscrapers

Spiritual, cultural and aestheticWater has spiritual and cultural significance for: • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander

Peoples• Indigenous peoples around the world• religions such as Hinduism,

Christianity, Islam and JudaismWater has value for tourists visiting: • World Heritage Sites (e.g. Iguassu Falls) • frozen water environments such as

Antarctica and Mount Everest

DomesticWater is used for:• drinking• washing• cooking

1.1.1 Overview of the use, misuse, overuse and sustainable use of water in the world


Doing it wrong Doing it right

Rooftop runoff directed to street drain

Excessive use of herbicides and pesticides

Rooftop storm water into rain tank

Sweep driveway dirt to lawn or garbage not the road

Collect dog waste

Water is treated in the pond and recycled

Take hazardous household waste to waste depot

Roof top storm water onto gardens

Car washing

Wash car at the car wash

Excessive use of fertiliser

Thin soil stores little water

Oil and petrol residue

Rainwater infiltrates gravel

Rainwater infiltrates thick soil

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Environmental resources and waterC

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1.1.2 Sustainable and unsustainable use of water

Geoactivities 1.1

Knowledge and understanding 1 Why is water an environmental resource? 2 How is water connected to the production

of energy? 3 Describe the spiritual, cultural and aesthetic

values of water.

Inquiry and skills 4 Fieldwork: Driveways tend to direct water to the

street carrying a variety of pollutants. Check out where your driveway runoff goes and locate the nearest storm drain.

5 Refer to 1.1.1. a List the use of water for agriculture.b Name one example when water is misused. c What is the difference between misuse and overuse

of water?d What are two examples of the overuse of water?e List some sustainable water strategies for the home.f Explain how water is everywhere, all the time.

6 Refer to 1.1.2. a List how water is misused in the home.b Suggest strategies to use water more sustainably. c Draw a mind map of how water is used in your school.

Reducing water use and improving water quality starts at the local scale, such as around the home. Strategies include:

• purchasing rain tanks, recycling waste water, growing native plants to cover bare soil and using water efficient appliances

• covering roofs with vegetation to reduce precipitation run off

• installing permeable paths, patios and driveways, which allow more water to infiltrate into soil for plant growth

• revegetating bare soil to reduce erosion• collecting dog faeces, which contain similar

bacteria to human waste.


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1.2 Water: an environmental resource

Water is one of the valuable environmental resources used in the manufacturing of mobile phones, clothes and food. Regardless of where we live, everyone requires water to drink, water in soils to produce food, and water for forests to generate oxygen. Sustainability focuses on the ongoing capacity of Earth to provide sufficient quality water to maintain human and environmental life.

The Earth is a huge storehouse of environmental resources, classified as continuous (e.g. sun), renewable (e.g. plants) and non-renewable (e.g. oil). Water is an integral component of all three classifications:

• Continuous resource—the water cycle’s continual flow of water around Earth in the form of precipitation, evaporation, runoff, transpiration, infiltration and condensation (PERTIC).

• Renewable resource—the Amazon River in Brazil is constantly replenished by 8740 mm of precipitation a year. The river also provides renewable hydro-electricity.

• Non-renewable resource—– groundwater is withdrawn faster than

renewed. In Andhra Pradesh in India

depletion of groundwater resulted in the disappearance of springs and streams.

– toxic waste such as arsenic and mercury discharged into the Ok Tedi River in PNG made water undrinkable for 50 000 people.

– irrigation for cotton saw the southwest lake of the Aral Sea disappear.

Water moves between a renewable resource and a non-renewable resource and vice versa. For example, the Cheonggyecheon River, running through Seoul in North Korea, was covered and replaced by an elevated freeway in the 1970s. The process was reversed in 2005 when the stream was restored, creating clean water and natural habitats for fish and bird species.

Geoinfo

• Coal and nuclear power use over 15 times more water than renewable energy sources.

• Global consumption of cotton products requires 256 Gm3 of water per year.

1.2.1 Why water is an environmental resource

continuous or inexhaustibleResources will always exist. They are independent of human activity and will not run out in the foreseeable future. e.g. solar radiation, wind, tides, geothermal, air, waves, water

non-continuous or exhaustibleResources may not exist in the future. Availability of resources is dependent on human activity and could run out in the foreseeable short or long period of time. e.g. drawing limited water from a lake, leaving it dry

Water is an environmental resource because it is…

non-renewableResources replaced over a long period of time, such as millions of years. They are formed extremely slowly from a human perspective e.g. fossil groundwater, fossil fuels, such as oil and coal and minerals. Extinct plants and animal species will never return.

renewableResources are replaced over a short period of time as long as the rate of replenishment or recovery exceeds the rate of consumption. e.g. groundwater, lakes and rivers, soil, plants/trees, animals, fish


Wa t

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80% of water is hidden in products we consume from farms:1 kg pork – 5900 L1 kg rice – 2400 L1 kg apples – 70 L

Manufacturing – 10% of water is used in manufacturinge.g. houses, mobile phones

Steak dinner – 15 500 L

One barrel of oil –2.5 barrels of water

10-minute shower – 170 L

1.1 tonne car – 400 000 L

Old washing machine– 200 L per washModern models – 100 L

60W light bulb on for12 hours every day fora year – 12 000 L

One kilowatt hour of power:fossil fuel plant – 140 Lnuclear power plant – 205 L

Cotton used to produce:jeans (1 kg) – 10 850 Lbed sheet – 9 750 L

Toilet – 20 L per flush

One sheet of paper – 10 L

Cup of coffee – 1100 L

1 kg eggs – 3 300 L1 kg chicken – 4 500 L

Cup of tea – 30 L

Hamburger – 2400 L

Hydroelectric power provides 20% of the world's electricity

A lawn sprinkler running for 1 hour – 900 L

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Water footprintThe total amount of water used to produce goods and services consumed is referred to as the water footprint (WF). Agriculture contributes 70% to the global WF with cereals the largest contributor (27%), followed by meat (22%) and milk products (7%).

The footprint varies between countries: the USA has a large water footprint of 2483 m3 per year per person, Australia’s is 2315, China’s 1070 and Bangladesh’s 769. While the water footprint is

1.2.2 How much water is used in everyday things

Geoactivities 1.2

Knowledge and understanding 1 Why is water an environmental resource? 2 Explain how water as a renewable resource

becomes a non-renewable resource. 3 Describe how the water footprint varies between

countries. 4 Discuss why water leaves a large footprint. 5 Core geographical concepts are included in

this section. Give examples of environment, sustainability, place, change and interconnection.

Inquiry and skills 6 Refer to 1.2.1 and distinguish between

continuous and non-continuous resources. 7 Refer to 1.2.2.

a Discuss how water is contained in everyday things.

b List the water in goods you used today.c Suggest strategies to reduce the water

footprint. 8 Imagine you were lost on a deserted island.

In groups list the environmental resources you need to survive. Present your findings to the class as an oral report or using PowerPoint.

high in most developed countries, water scarcity affects over 2.7 billion people for at least one month each year. Most people deprived of access to fresh water live in developing countries.

When the global population reaches 9 billion—predicted to happen in 2050—greater demands will be placed on water. Will Earth run out of water, and if so what should be done before it is too late?

Tread lightly The Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 and Rio+20 in 2012 challenged humans to tread more lightly on Earth by reducing their large water footprint and ensuring:

• non-renewable water resources are not exploited at or above rates of renewal

• environmental resources that support life are protected.

When the global population reaches 9 billion—predicted to happen in 2050—greater demands will be placed on water. Will Earth run out of water, and if so what should be done before it is too late?


Water footprint percapita, m3 per year

600-10001000-12001200-13001300-15001500-18001800-21002100-2500

global average waterfootprint is around

m3 per year per person1240

The ‘water footprint’ of a country is defined as the volume of water needed for the production of goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of the country.

USA19%

import dependency

Greece35%

import dependency

Malaysia28%

import dependency

Thailand8%

import dependency

Italy51%

import dependency

the highest water footprints per capita water footprint of different foods

24 000 L1kg of chocolate

15 500 L1kg of beef

4400 L1kg of olives

1,500 L1kg of sugar

140 L1 cup of coffee

2483m3 per year

2389m3 per year 2344

m3 per year

2322m3 per year 2223

m3 per year

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1.3 What is your water footprint?To produce 1 kg of beef requires 15 500 L of water—the equivalent of taking 57 baths, while producing 1 L of Coca-Cola takes 42 L of water. Can you imagine how many litres of water are required to produce 1.7 billion servings of Coca-Cola a day? Water is vital to Coca-Cola, which could not make its products without this precious resource. In India, Coca-Cola has created jobs, changed tastes, and they have been accused of draining water from poor communities leaving water shortages and health problems.

1.3.2 Coca-Cola in India

1.3.1 The global water footprint


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Components of the water footprintA water footprint encompasses direct and indirect water:

• Direct WF refers to the water consumed and the pollution from its use.

• Indirect WF refers to the water required to produce goods and services.

National water footprints are divided into internal and external components:

• Internal WF is the quantity of water used to produce goods and services within a country, which are consumed by the inhabitants of the same country. Australia is one of the world’s highest users of water per person.

• External WF is the quantity of water used to produce goods and services in one country, which are then exported to another country.

Saving waterThe Australian Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) scheme labels products for water efficiency, and by 2021 intends to save 800 000 megalitres of water a year from people using more efficient showers, washing machines and toilets. That is more than the water contained in Sydney Harbour.

1.3.3 Sales of Coca-Cola have increased in India

Geoinfo

• A low flow toilet saves 19 L per flush. • A five minute shower uses 95–190 L of water.

Geoactivities 1.3

Knowledge and understanding 1 Explain the water footprint. 2 Explain the difference between direct and

indirect water. 3 Describe the composition of the national WF. 4 Analyse how the variation of the WF across the

world impacts on people and places.

Inquiry and skills 5 Refer to 1.3.1.

a Record the WF range of Australia, the USA, India, China, Argentina and Sudan

b Calculate the difference in the WF between the USA and Thailand and the quantity of imported water.

c List the countries with the highest renewable water resources.

d List the countries dependent on imported water. Explain the reasons for their reliance.

e Using research from the internet, differentiate between the WF of chocolate, sugar and coffee. How is water used in the production of chocolate?

6 Refer to 1.3.2. a Describe the growth of Coca Cola in India and

its impacts on water availability. b Describe the message in the cartoon.

7 Inquiry research:a Use an online water footprint calculator to

calculate your WF. Compare your WF with the class. In groups design a plan to reduce your WF. Present your findings as an oral report.

b Use an online waterfootprint calculator to calculate the WF of Australia. Compare our WF with that of a country located in Asia, Africa and South America.

9 Using research from the internet, discuss the uneven WF around the world.

10 Using research from the internet, find out the global WF of different crops. List ten crops requiring large quantities of water.

11 Research the Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) scheme on the internet. What is the aim of the scheme?


Foundation: concrete (limestone, clay, shale)

Electric wiring: (copper, bauxite) aluminium

Carpet: (wool) or synthetic fibres (petroleum)

Driveway: concrete, asphalt (petroleum) or gravel (rocks, soil)

Mortgage or rental contract: written on paper (wood) using a computer (plastics, minerals)

Taps and pipes: brass (copper, zinc) or stainless steel (iron, nickel, chrome)

Windows: glass (silica, sand, feldspar)

Gutters: aluminium (bauxite) or plastic (petroleum)

Paint:mineral fillers

Door knobs: brass or steel (copper, zinc, iron ore)

Pool:plastic (petroleum and natural gas)

Interior walls: wall board (gypsum)

Exterior walls: stone, clay, concrete (or aluminium)

Toilets and bathtubs: porcelain (clay) over plastic (petroleum)

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1.4 Water used in skyscrapers, microchips, jeans

Dehydration and death follow if humans are deprived of water for a week. Similarly, farms are dependent on water to grow food, and industries require water to produce plastic, glass, oil, metals, wood, paper and chemicals. Without water these industries would disappear.

Industry’s thirstApproximately 22% of water humans use is devoted to industry around the world. Approximately 59% is consumed in rich developed countries compared to 8% in poor developing countries. With increasing demand for goods, the annual water use for industry is anticipated to increase from 752 km3/year back in 1995 to 1170 km3/year in 2025.

Invisible water is embedded in products we use every day. Water is required to produce aluminium, copper and iron ore used to construct skyscrapers

and homes, and to grow forests for wood used in furniture. The conversion of metals into products requires different quantities of water: 1 kg of steel consumes 260 L of water, copper 440 L and aluminium 410 L. When these resources end their useful life, many are either recycled or tossed in landfills where they sometimes release toxic chemicals into the water, air and land.

ChipsModern electronic devices such as the computer, 3DS and Wii contain microchips (chips) made by the semiconductor industry. The production of these chips requires water known as ultra-pure water (UPW), which contains no specks of dirt, salts, minerals or viruses. The production of chips uses between two to four million gallons of UPW per day—roughly equivalent to the amount of water used by 50 000 people.

1.4.1 Houses require water in the production process of many materials


Cotton (49%, 1704.0 L)Use (45%, 1575.2 L)Cut/ Sew/ Finish (3%, 110.8 L)Fabric (2%, 72.1 L)Logistics/ Retail (1%, 18.1 L)

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Water, the key ingredient in the semi conductor industry, requires sustainable strategies to reduce its large footprint. Some of Google’s data centres and many of the semiconductor industries are recycling water to keep more water in streams vital for fish species.

Blue jeans Approximately 11 000 L of water is required to produce a pair of jeans, including irrigating the cotton crop, bleaching and dying the cotton, and washing them at home. An additional 20 to 750 L of water is essential if they are stonewashed.

Imagine the water used every year as one billion pairs of cotton jeans are produced, making an $11 billion profit for the industry.

Levi Strauss & Co. developed a Water<Less™ jean that saves 20 ML (megalitres) of water per year. This is equivalent to the drinking requirements for 10 000 people over two years.

1.4.3 Levi’s® jeans cradle to grave water consumption

Geoinfo

Levi’s recommends placing jeans in the freezer to kill germs responsible for clothing odour, rather than constantly washing them.

Geoactivities 1.4

Knowledge and understanding 1 Why is water important to humans and industry? 2 Describe how water is linked to building materials. 3 Discuss the importance of ultra-pure water for

microchips. 4 Analyse water use and misuse in the production

and utilisation of jeans.


a List six environmental resources used in the construction of a home.

b Explain the links between the materials used in the construction of your home and the use of water.

6 Discuss how water is embedded in the goods we purchase.

7 Refer to 1.4.2 and explain why water consumption is highest at the cotton production and consumer phases of Levi’s jeans. Provide amounts and percentages in your answer.

8 List the advantages of purchasing Water<Less™ Levi jeans.

9 Write a diary on the water you use during one day. Present your diary summary as a poster or multimedia presentation such as a Prezi.

10 With a friend, read the labels on your clothes. List the materials written on the labels and write the environmental resources required to make these clothes from when they are created to when you wear them.

11 As a group research the car washing industry. In your answer include the key inquiry questions: How much water is used? What is the impact of car washing on rivers or lakes? How could you reduce the amount of water used to clean a car?

12 ICT: Using Wordle draw a word cloud of water in your daily life (see Geolinks).

13 Fieldwork: Using primary research, take photographs of water resources in your local area. Discuss whether they are continuous, renewable or non-renewable.

1.4.2 Water in our daily life


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1.5 Mobile phones: water thirsty gadgets

Smartphones and iPods maintain permanent residence in students’ pockets, with some sending 3000 text messages a month. With a tap of the finger these gadgets provide games and music as well as connect students with family and friends via social media. Interestingly, more people in the world have access to a mobile phone than clean water.

Mobile phones are made from a variety of non-renewable resources such as copper, gold, lead, nickel, zinc and petroleum. The ongoing conversion of these raw resources into mobile phones requires billions of gallons of water in mining, manufacturing and transport. Additionally, the birth to death lifecycle of the mobile phone has potential adverse impacts on water quality.

Water in mobile phonesIn the Democratic Republic of Congo the mining and processing of gold and coltan requires hundreds of thousands of gallons of water pumped out of local rivers. These resources are essential for mobile phones. Coltan is used in circuit boards and 3T—consisting of tungsten, tin and tantalum—enables the phones to be small and light and vibrate when someone calls. Mining of these minerals pollutes rivers and oceans through the disposal of cyanide-contaminated waste and acid. As a result it contaminates drinking water and is too toxic to irrigate crops.

Geoinfo

The manufacturing of a computer and monitor consumes approximately 1500 L of water.

1.5.1 Life cycle of a mobile phone and impacts on water

1 Begin lifeEnvironmental resources such as petroleum, copper, gold, silicon and 3Ts are mined and extracted from Earth requiring quantities of water.Large-scale mining results in deforestation, habitat destruction and declining water quality.

4 End lifeMobile phones can either be recycled or tossed in the garbage. About 90% are dumped in a landfill or incinerated. During the process toxic substances enter the soil, water and air. Corrosive acid from batteries leach into soil and groundwater, impacting on food produced.

3 Useful lifePeople purchase mobile phones. Batteries are recharged using environmental resources such as fossil fuels, which creates water pollution when discarded.

2 Change lifeManufacturers create products requiring water to generate energy. using fossil fuels, nuclear, hydropower, tidal power or geothermal power. Simultaneously, manufacturing creates water pollution.Phones packaged with plastic and cardboard require environmental resources such as trees and petroleum, all relying on water.

InterconnectionsTransport between each phase generates negative impacts on the environment from the burning of fossil fuels. All phases require water.


Circuit boards

Case

Wires

Screen

Chips

Batteries

Cell phone consumption

Plastics 50%

Copper 15%

Glass, Ceramics 15%

Cobalt or Lithium 4%Carbon 4%

Ferrous metal 3%Nickel 2%

Tin 1%

Other* 3%

*among them, less than 0.1% of antimony, gold and berrylium

0.5% Zinc0.5% Silver0.5% Chronium0.5% Tantalum0.5% Cadmium0.5% Lead

mostly contained in...

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Sustainable use of mobile phonesMobile phones are a necessity in a globalised world pressed for time. By 2015, mobiles in circulation and those hidden in drawers are expected to reach 15 billion.

The recycling of mobile phones reduces the quantity of water required in their production. However, only 10% of discarded mobiles are recycled. Approximately 92% of resources could be recycled into new products. For example one tonne of mobile phones yields 500–700 g of silver and 150–400 g of gold, saving billions of gallons of water. If phones are recycled, their materials can be used in new products such as batteries (cadmium) and stainless steel saucepans (nickel).

Approximately $15 billion a year of e-waste is exported from developed countries to developing countries for recycling. However, poor environmental standards, low wages and child labour are the downside of recycling in some countries.

An environmentally and socially responsible geographer asks questions when they purchase a mobile phone: How can I find out about the

Geoactivities 1.5

Knowledge and understanding 1 Describe how mobile phones consume large

quantities of water. 2 Discuss the environmental and social problems

of mining metals for mobile phones. 3 Discuss how mobile phone recycling offers a

viable way to conserve water and protect the environment.

Inquiry and skills 4 Refer to 1.5.1 and explain the environmental

problems from the beginning to end of a mobile phone’s life.

5 Refer to 1.5.2 and calculate the percentages of environmental resources in a circuit board, case and batteries.

6 As a group complete the cost benefit sheet of a mobile phone. Analyse the results. Discuss whether a mobile phone is worth the cost.

Costs/Disadvantages Benefits/Advantages

7 Design a survey on the use of mobile phones by youths. Include questions such as: a Do you have your own mobile?b How often do you use your mobile?c For what reasons do you use your mobile? d What functionality would you like to have on

your mobile? e When buying a mobile what would you

consider: Affordability? Popularity? Functionality? Others?

f What is the degree of parental control over your mobile phone?

g How can the mobile phone be used in the geography classroom?

Collate the answers and present your findings as a PowerPoint presentation, including one graph.

8 Can you imagine a time when there were no mobile phones? How did people communicate? Interview older people about the pre-mobile days and report back to the class as an oral presentation.

source of environmental resources in my mobile? Do I need the latest phone? Should I boycott companies using conflict minerals? How can water be used sustainably in the production of mobile phones?

1.5.2 Composition of environmental resources in a mobile phone. Water is required in the production of these resources


Underground mining / primary source: deposits under the Earth are generally carrot shaped. The larger top of the pipes (top of the carrot) yields large quantities of diamonds. Mining in the narrower end becomes less profitable

Surface mining / secondary source: erosion causes loose diamonds to move downhill and be deposited in rivers and then to the ocean

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1.6 Water and blood in diamondsDiamonds are a non-renewable resource, and huge quantities of water required in their mining and processing go into getting the ‘sparkle’ on an engaged woman’s finger.

Water-intensive mines Approximately 26 000 kg of diamonds are mined annually. To unearth one carat of primary source diamonds requires the removal of millions of tons of dirt by huge machines. Afterwards, large volumes of water are used to extract the diamonds from the gravel. Furthermore, secondary source diamonds involve labour-intensive work using shovels and sieves to scour away 2.5 million cubic metres of soil every day out of rivers and lakes.

De Beers’ companies dominate the global diamond mine industry—they are responsible for 43% of global diamond production (value) and 30% of carats (volume). Approximately 95% of its rough diamond production in southern Africa is located in dry environments. Ensuring more sustainable production, the water footprint has been reduced by recycling water, using seawater for processing alluvial mining operations and reducing waste into rivers aimed to protect aquatic life.

1.6.1 Formation of diamonds

1.6.2 The Kimberley Diamond mine South Africa is the biggest hand dug hole in the world with a depth of over 1,000 metres. The mine produced over 3 tonnes of diamonds until it was closed in 1914

Sustainable use of waterMost carats are mined in Africa (61%). Other large diamond mining countries include Russia (15%), Australia (14%) and Canada (9%).

The Argyle diamond mine located in the Kimberley region in Western Australia caused groundwater pollution and sedimentation in rivers resulting in the loss of marine species. Today the mine is self-sufficient in water—it no longer requires 3500 ML of water a year from Lake Argyle and most wastewater is recycled.

1.6.3 The Diavik diamond mine in Canada commenced production in 2001

left centre right

background

middle distance

foreground


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Blood diamonds and child labourThe movie Blood Diamond (2006), starring Leonardo DiCaprio, focused on blood diamonds or conflict diamonds, which are mined and sold secretly to finance wars. Millions of civilians have died in conflicts financed by diamonds in Sierra Leone, Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

In 1988 the United Nations banned countries from buying diamonds from Angola. In 2003, the Kimberley Process (KP) required diamonds to possess a certificate, guaranteeing they were not sourced from a conflict zone. As a result the number of conflict diamonds fell from 4% to less than 1%. Media and citizen response to the movie Blood Diamonds reinforced and strengthened the Kimberley Process.

Unfortunately, child labour exists in the diamond industry. During Sierra Leone’s ten-year civil war, seven-year-old children worked in mines from 8 am to 6 pm daily. In India between 20 000 and 100 000 child labourers cut and polish small diamond chips, nine hours a day, earning approximately $30 a month. Despite international laws on human rights and Indian laws prohibiting child labour, the practice continues.

Geoactivities 1.6

Knowledge and understanding 1 Explain why diamonds are classified as non-

renewable resources. 2 Describe how a diamond ring requires large

quantities of water. 3 Describe the impact of conflict diamonds on

people and countries. 4 ‘Child labour exists from mining to polishing

diamonds’. Outline the meaning of this statement.


a What are diamonds? b Where are diamonds formed? c What are the differences between primary and

secondary sources of diamonds? d Explain the diamond process from the earth to

the ocean. 6 Discuss the use of water in the production process

of diamonds. 7 Visit the De Beers website (see Geolinks) and

examine their strategies for sustainable use of water in diamond mining.

8 Refer to 1.6.3. The aerial photograph of the Diavik mine has been divided into nine sections: left (L), centre(C) and right (R) along the horizontal axis; foreground (F), middle distance (M) and background (B) along the vertical axis. a Compare the centre middle distance of the

Diavik diamond mine with the left foreground.b Draw a sketch of the Diavik diamond mine

labelling natural and human features. 9 Role play: The following people are part of the

diamond industry—child labourer in India, child solider in conflict wars, jewellery shop owner, head of a diamond company such as De Beers, Botswana Government, environmentalist, newly engaged woman and the electronic industry using diamonds. List the advantages and disadvantages of diamonds to their life, country or organisation. Present your findings as an oral report.

10 Research organisations that are working towards a better future for people working in the diamond industry, such as Amnesty International. What are they doing to help?

1.6.4 Global response to the movie Blood Diamond

Amnesty International and Global Witness publicly support the film

As a result the Kimberley Process was strengthened

Blood Diamond

Public responds by:• donating money• discussing issue with

friends• boycotting diamonds• Writing letters to the

media and politicians

Some seek further information to determine whether it is fact, fiction or biased

Viewers become interested in the issue

People watch the movie


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1.7 Vampire power: water–energy connections

The industrial sector consumes 20% of global fresh water, of which 57–69% is employed to generate power. As a result, water and energy are interconnected. For example, in the USA over 50% of the country’s water cools power plants, and 13% of its electricity moves, heats and treats water supplies. Consequently, conserving water saves energy and conserving energy saves water.

Different types of energy contribute to the production process in the following ways:

• Fossil fuels (non-renewable energy), such as oil, natural gas and coal, require large quantities of water in fuel extraction and processing.

• Nuclear power (non-renewable energy) requires large quantities of water to cool fuel rods and dispose of waste. As a result, many nuclear plants are located beside oceans, lakes and rivers.

• Hydroelectricity (renewable energy) or HEP is electricity generated using the energy of moving water. HEP provides 20% of the world’s energy. The Snowy Mountains contains Australia’s largest HEP scheme, and in Tasmania HEP provides most of the state’s electricity.

Hydroelectricity has a downside, as experienced in China. In 1975 the failure of the Banqiao Dam caused the death of 170 000 people. Additionally,

1.7.2 World power mix 2008 (actual) and 2035 (predicted)

1.7.1 Water and energy interconnections

Energy for water

• Energy is required to produce, process and distribute water

• Energy to pump water from dams to irrigated farms, provide fresh water to homes and pump groundwater

• Transport requires energy to move water embedded in goods such as rice and cotton around the world

• Air conditioning• Energy used to clean water • Energy used to desalinate water

Water for energy

• Hydropower• Tidal power• Geothermal power• Water required in the mining and

processing of Rare earth elements for wind power, solar panels and electric car batteries

• Water required for the extraction and processing of fossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas

• Irrigation required to grow crops for biofuels

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cordlessphone

basestation

laptop

plasmaTV

DVDplayer

gameconsole

28.9 ($8.67)

144.5 ($43.35)

1 452.4 ($435.72)

78.8 ($23.64)

233.9 ($70.17)

Costs calculated basedon 30 cents per kilowatt hour.

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the construction of the Three Gorges Dam flooded fertile farmland and 13 cities, forcing millions of people to move from their homes.

Different energy sources such as uranium and coal require different quantities of water for the production of power. Whatever the source of energy, the industrial sector’s reliance on scarce water resources makes it essential to conserve water and reduce water pollution.

Vampire powerCountless household items use standby electricity—or vampire power—when they are not in use, such as plasma TVs, cordless telephones, security systems, fire alarms, light sensors and automatic sprinklers. The average household consumes 10% more energy when goods are on standby mode, which could be saved by disconnecting these devices from the power points. Moving towards energy and water

sustainability requires reducing vampire electricity.

1.7.3 Vampire energy wastes electricity, and therefore water. This table shows how much electricity is wasted on average per year in kilowatt hours and what it costs. Red means passive standby, blue means active standby mode

Geoactivities 1.7

Knowledge and understanding 1 Describe the different sources of energy. 2 List advantages and disadvantages of three energy

sources. 3 Discuss why desalination of water is important to

water-scarce countries.

Inquiry and skills 4 Refer to 1.7.1 and explain how water and energy

are connected. 5 Refer to 1.7.2.

a List the energy source that increased from 2008–2035.

b Name the sources of energy that decreased from 2008–2035.

c Discuss whether the energy mix is more sustainable in 2035 than 2008.

6 Refer to 1.7.3. a List the items on active standby mode and the

electricity cost each year. b List the items on passive standby mode and the

electricity cost each year.c Name the items in your home using vampire

power. Suggest strategies to reduce wasting electricity possibly generated by fossil fuels.

7 As a group draw a diagram illustrating the water–energy connections in your school. Convert the diagram into a summary using Tagxedo (see Geolinks).

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1.8 Thirsty 21st century: hybrid cars and drones

Hybrid cars, computers, headphones, iPads, lasers for medical imaging, defence technologies (e.g. ‘smart’ bombs, unmanned drones) and ‘green technologies (e.g. solar panels, wind turbines) all require rare earth elements (REE). Their unique properties make digital images brighter and electronic parts faster, and they are sometimes referred to as 21st century gold. Water is a major component in the process of these products, as the small quantities of REE found in hard rock ore must be separated and purified using hydro-metallurgical (water power) techniques and complex chemical processes.

Rare earth elementsRare earth elements are non-renewable resources formed over hundreds of millions of years. Despite being called ‘rare’, they are relatively abundant in Earth’s crust, but can be difficult and costly to mine.

REE is a set of seventeen chemical elements, such as neodymium and lanthanum. China contains most of the worlds REE (48.3%) followed by the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). In Australia, significant REE deposits are located at Mount Weld (WA), Olympic Dam and Whyalla (SA), Nolans Bore (NT), Mt Isa (Queensland), Dubbo and Nyngan (NSW).

While there are many REE projects around the world, China dominates the global market, accounting for 97% of world’s supplies. In Inner Mongolia, minerals are mined at Bayan Obo then brought to Baotou for processing.

Radioactive elementsOur modern lifestyles increasingly depend on the availability of REE. Unfortunately they contain radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium. In most Western nations, the handling and disposal of these elements are carefully regulated, however in some countries they have contaminated rivers and groundwater. Malaysian community groups oppose the plan to ship REE from Mt Weld in Western Australia for refining due to the adverse impacts of radioactivity on the environment and on people’s health. After residents in Bukit Merah, Malaysia, experienced an increase in birth defects and leukaemia,

1.8.2 A man working at a rare earth metals mine in Jiangxi province, China

1.8.1 REE in hybrid and electric cars

Toxic wastes from the mining and production of REE in China has polluted rivers, soil and groundwater. Crops died and farmers moved from the area, reportedly causing a decline in the population from 2000 to 300 people.

Geoinfo

• Kenya, South Africa, Malawi and Greenland possess large deposits of REE.

• Electric and hybrid cars have twice as many REE as standard cars.

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$100 million was spent cleaning a REE contaminated site. Today mines are developing more environmentally friendly mining and processing techniques, such as recycling water back into the process and converting metals removed from rivers into saleable products.

Geoactivities 1.8

Knowledge and understanding 1 Define REE. 2 Explain why REE are non-renewable resources. 3 Describe the interconnections between REE

and water. 4 China has a disproportionate share of world’s

supply of REE but is restricting their export. Explain how the world is responding.

5 Describe why REE are referred to as 21st century gold.

6 Discuss how REE mining has created a huge industry for China at the cost of the environment.

7 Summarise how using REE could shift a world dependant on fossil fuels to using alternative green energy.

Inquiry and skills 8 Refer to 1.8.1 and explain how hybrid and electric

cars depend on REE. 9 Refer to 1.8.3.

a Compare the reserves of REE in the USA with China and the rest of the world.

b List three places in Australia with REE projects.c Calculate the total production of REE in tons

in Australia. d List in order the production of REE in tons from

largest to smallest locatione Research one Australian and one overseas REE

project and answer the following inquiry questions: – Where is it? – What are the environmental issues? – Using an atlas or the internet, draw a map

locating the mine including scale, latitude and longitude.

10 Construct a table with two columns detailing the costs and benefits of REE.

11 Suggest actions for the sustainable use of REE. 12 While REE plays a pivotal role in many ‘green

technologies’, the mining of these metals is dirty business that pollutes the environment. Discuss.

1.8.3 Spatial distribution of REE

Long-term challenges with REE involve reducing the use of fresh water, avoiding the deterioration of water quality, ensuring ample availability of REE to continue shifting to green energy options.

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1.9 What you wear requires waterClothes require water in their production, whether they are made from natural fibres (e.g. wool) or synthetic fibres derived from petrochemicals (e.g. polyester). The textile industry is the third largest consumer of water in the world after the paper and oil industries. The industry produces 70 million tons of waste water in a year and up to 600 L of water to dye 1 kg of fabric. When clothes are purchased, additional water is used to wash clothes and at the end of their life they are often buried in landfill or recycled.

Thirsty cotton Natural fibres are renewable resources. These fibres are divided into two components requiring different quantities of water:

• plant fibres e.g. cotton, flax, hemp, sisal and coconut

• animal fibres e.g. wool and silk

In Australia, traditional Aboriginal societies separated plant fibres by soaking stems, leaves and bark in water until the non-fibrous tissue rotted away. Afterwards they were used for bags and ritual objects in religious ceremonies.

Approximately 700 gallons of water or 22 bathtubs of water are used to manufacture one cotton T-shirt, and 17–20% of industrial water pollution comes from textile dyeing and treatment. The unsustainable use of irrigation led to the decline of the Aral Sea when cotton, referred to as ‘white gold’, became a major crop for former Soviet Russia.

In Australia there are 361 cotton farms located in NSW and Queensland. The largest cotton farm in Australia is Cubbie Station. The station has permits to divert and store more than 500 GL (gigalitres) of water, which is about the same quantity of water required to fill Sydney Harbour.

1.9.1 Use of natural fibres—renewable resources

Cotton: world’s most widely used natural fibre

Wool: excellent insulation in cold temperatures

Silk: developed in ancient China

Jute: strong threads used in sackcloth sustains the livelihoods of millions of small farmers in developing countries

Abaca: once a source of rope could become an energy-saving replacement for glass fibre in automobiles

Sisal: too coarse for clothing and upholstery is replacing asbestos and fibreglass in buildings

Coir: extracted from the outer shell of coconuts, used in ropes, mattresses and automobile seats

Mohair: fine and silky and receptive to rich dyes comes from the Angora goat

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China 34%

India 25%

USA 13%

Pakistan 11%Brazil 6%Uzbekistan 5%Australia 2%Turkey 2%Turkmenistan 1%Syria 1%

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Natural fibres and ecofashionNatural fibres play an important role in conserving global, for example:

• Hemp: the ecological footprint of hemp is smaller than most plants used for fibre. The plant does not require irrigation.

• Organic cotton: uses less fertilisers and pesticides and as a result protects the quality of surface and groundwater.

Technology is developing self cleaning wool and silk, insect-resistant fibres and plants requiring less water. The Cleaner Cotton™ project aims to produce cotton using less water and chemicals.

The fashion industry contributes to soil degradation and water pollution. Pesticides are used on crops and chemicals are used to bleach colour textiles. Consumer pressure has led to the development of ecofashion, where manufacturers use organic cotton, hemp, recycled polyester, bamboo and corn fibre.

The fashion industry is highly competitive so it reduces costs by using sweatshop labour (low pay and poor working conditions) and child labour. Organisations such as Clothes for a Change promote non-sweatshop and non-child-labour clothes, and support sustainable cotton production and organic fibres.

Geoactivities 1.9

Knowledge and understanding 1 Explain why natural fibres are an environmental

resource and require water. 2 Distinguish between natural and synthetic fibres

and whether they are renewable or non-renewable. 3 Explain how fibres were produced by traditional

Aboriginal societies. 4 Discuss the importance of promoting

environmentally sustainable fibres.


a Which fibre could possibly replace glass fibres in automobiles?

b List the fibres from goats, sheep and silkworms.c Name the fibre suitable to make mattresses.

6 Refer to 1.9.2 and calculate the total percentage of cotton grown in China, India and the USA.

7 Investigate ten clothes in your cupboard. Draw a table with two columns: a) where they are made, and b) what fibres are used in their production. Calculate the proportion of clothes made from natural fibres, synthetic fibres and a mixture of the two.

8 Design a collage of different clothes and the resources used in their production. Use magazines or the internet and present your findings as a Prezi (see Geolinks).

9 Imagine you are employed as a socially and environmentally conscious worker selling clothes. Explain what this means.

10 Draw up a cost and benefit table for the fashion industry. Include environmental, economic and social aspects.

11 Research Cubbie Station in Australia. Include location, size, use of water and economic returns.

12 Inquiry task: In pairs select one natural fibre and answer the inquiry questions. What is it? Where is it grown or grazed? How does it become a fibre? What is it used for? How much water is used in its production? Why is it a sustainable or unsustainable fibre? Present your report as an essay or web page to the class.

13 Research the use of camel hair for clothing. Where it is produced? How it is made into clothing? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using this fibre for clothes?

14 ICT: Using research from the internet, briefly outline the process of wool from the farm to clothes.

Geoinfo

In the production of a cotton T-shirt approximately 60 kg of water is used and about 45 kg of waste water is discharged per kg of output.

1.9.2 Top 10 cotton producing countries


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1.10 Irrigation for food and fibreIrrigation refers to the application of water to the land in order to grow crops or pastures. Although only 18% of cultivated land is irrigated, agriculture accounts for 70% of water withdrawn from rivers and aquifers. Approximately 68% of the world’s irrigated area is located in Asia, with large areas located along the Ganges, Indus and Yangtze Rivers.

Irrigation is important as it contributes to 40% of global food production. In developing countries irrigation increases crop yields between 100% and 400%, and it accounts for 80% of food production in Pakistan and 70% in China. About 50% to 80% of water is wasted when crops are over-irrigated, pipes leak and water flowing through open channels is evaporated. Improved water management is important to increase food production for a growing global population.

Traditional irrigations systems Ancient Egyptians used the flooding of the Nile River to irrigate fields, and the Incas developed terrace irrigation in the Andes Mountains of Peru. Qanats were used in ancient Persia (Iran) to provide water to settlements located in dry environments. Otherwise referred to as falaj (in Oman), foggara (in Africa), or subak (in Bali),

these irrigations systems impacted on the development of settlements and agriculture:

• The falaj system in Oman, dating back to 2500 bc. Five of the country’s 3000 functioning irrigation systems were listed as World Heritage sites in 2006. Water is channelled from underground to provide water for domestic purposes and to grow date palms, vegetables and corn. Today a full-time falaj worker ensures water sharing is fair and equitable.

• The subak system in Bali was used in Bali about 1000 years ago. It moved water from Mt Batur and Mt Agung to the ocean, via an elaborate system of canals, dams, bamboo pipes and tunnels through rice fields. The subak system plays an important role in rice production and improved quality of life for farmers. It distributes irrigation water equitably and is part of Hindu ceremonies. Some areas are divided into areas of 100 ha with 350–400 members. The elected head of each subak (pukasi) is responsible for allocating water to the farms. If a person was murdered over a water conflict, locals believed the evil spirits would disturb the serenity of the rice field, so a cock fight would be performed in the village to appease the spirits.

1.10.1 The Falaj irrigation in Oman

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Geoactivities 1.10

Knowledge and understanding 1 What is irrigation? 2 Where are most irrigated areas located? 3 Explain how irrigation contributes to food

production. 4 Describe two different traditional irrigation systems. 5 Discuss how modern irrigation systems aim to

reduce water waste.

Inquiry and skills 7 Refer to 1.10.1 and explain the movement of

water in the falaj system from A to B. 8 Inquiry task: Refer to 1.10.2 and answer the

questions on irrigation. 9 Investigate the irrigation system at home, in the

school and used by the local council. Determine whether the systems are water-efficient. If not, suggest solutions to reduce water wastage.

10 ‘Irrigation is critical to providing fresh and affordable food’. Discuss this quote.

11 Discuss the contribution of irrigation to the Australian economy and its impacts on rural areas.

Geoinfo

• 15% of irrigated land is degraded.• Irrigated land is twice as productive as rain-fed or

dry land irrigation.• Most irrigation farms use two to three times more

water than required.

Modern irrigation systems The nature of irrigation has changed with the construction of huge dams and thousands of kilometres of pipes, and the ability to monitor water measuring instruments from satellites. The Great Man-Made River in Libya is the world’s largest irrigation project. It consists of 4000 km of pipes supplying 6 500 000 m3 of fresh water per day to Libya’s cities.

Irrigation occupies a small area of land in Australia but provides large quantities of food and fibre for domestic purposes and exports. There are 40 000 irrigators in Australia. The Murray Darling Basin is Australia’s largest irrigation region, valued at $11 billion per year for products and crops produced. Modern irrigation technology includes

Where are the world’s main irrigation areas?

Does irrigation increase crop production? If so, by how much?

What are the advantages of irrigation?

What are the disadvantages of irrigation?

How much of the world’s land is irrigated?

Compare centre pivot irrigation with the falaj and subak irrigation system.

drip irrigation monitored from satellite, which informs farmers when to irrigate their crops and as a result reduces water waste. To control the overuse of water, the majority of irrigated water is controlled by regulations and licences. Sustainable irrigation practices are the key to Australia’s ability to continue to produce food and fibre as well as conserve the environment.

1.10.3 The Subak irrigation in Bali

1.10.2 Aerial view of centre pivot irrigation on the Lachlan River, NSW. Crops are watered by sprinklers pivoting in a circular pattern around a centre point

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1.11 Agriculture: wasted food wastes water

Agriculture is a water-thirsty industry, accounting for 70% of water consumed compared to 20% for industry and 10% for domestic use. The challenge to feed 9.2 billion people by 2050 requires increased agricultural production using less water. More efficient use of water is possible by expanding drip irrigation, recycling waste water, growing drought resistant crops, mulching crops to reduce evaporation of water from the soils, and reducing wasted food.

New technologies saving water In the past, farmers depended on experience and advice of friends to determine when to irrigate crops and locate water for animals. Today, technology enables farmers to be informed about improved agricultural practices, particularly water conservation. For example, soil moisture sensors send data to irrigation control systems to minimise water waste. Precision agriculture maximises food production, minimises water use and reduces adverse environmental impacts. This is possible using satellite imagery, a Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS). The outcome is higher yields using less water.

Agriculture accounts for 65% of water use in Australia. KISSS, an irrigating and water technology company in Australia, provides farmers with a sub surface irrigation system. The technology reduces water use by 60% as water is delivered directly to the plant’s roots to minimise evaporation and surface runoff.

Food waste and food miles Approximately 33% of food produced globally is wasted or lost each year. Wasted food also wastes water—throwing a kilogram of beef into the garbage wastes 15 000 L of water used to produce the meat.

The average Australian household wastes $616 of food a year, or 136 kg per person per annum. About 30% of food produced is rejected before it

1.11.1 Cost of food waste in Australia

reaches the shop, and less than 3% of food waste is recycled. Both developed and developing countries waste food, however 25% of food waste in developed countries could feed one billion undernourished people.

Food miles is the distance food is transported from production to consumption. Water is essential to produce the energy required to transport the food, and more is required if food requires refrigeration. As many products are transported over long distances, the average Australian supermarket basket contains food that has travelled 70 000 km. Chocolate travels around 13 000 km and tea 8000 km depending on where it is produced. Buying local food is more sustainable as it reduces water use and greenhouse gases.

To ensure availability of water for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water from an ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate. Next time you eat, bring your sustainability conscience to the table—waste less, buy locally and compost food scraps.

Geoinfo

In Malawi, Oxfam’s community-based irrigation improved the lives of 900 families by transforming low yield crops into high yield harvests providing food and income.

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Grain products 2% Seafood 0.5% Fruits and vegetables 3% Meat 2% Milk 0.25%

Grain products 10% Seafood 5% Fruits and vegetables 1% Meat 4% Milk 0.5%

Grain products 2% Seafood 9.6% Fruits and vegetables 12% Meat 4% Milk 0.25%

Grain products 27% Seafood 33% Fruits and vegetables 28% Meat 12% Milk 17%

Grain products 2% Seafood 11% Fruits and vegetables 20% Meat 3% Milk 3%

Consumer losses*

*Includes out-of-home consumption

Distribution and

retail losses

Processing and

packaging losses

Post harvest, handling

and storage losses

Production losses

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Geoactivities 1.11

Knowledge and understanding 1 Name the largest water-thirsty industry. 2 Explain the terms ‘precision agriculture’, ‘geographical

information systems’ and ‘global positioning system’. 3 Describe how technology reduces water used

for agriculture. 4 Discuss the water-energy problems of importing

food from overseas countries or hauling it by transport from distant parts of Australia.


a Rank the states and territories in order from the most food wastage to the least wastage per household per year.

b About one third of food produced is lost or squandered. Suggest strategies to reduce food waster and save water.

6 Refer to 1.11.2.a At what stage in the supply chain is most food

wasted?b Explain the loss of seafood and meat from

production to consumption. Include figures in your answer.

7 Explain the advantages of purchasing local food or food produced within Australia.

8 Refer to the picture and explain the message.

9 Inquiry process: Examine one meal. Where does the food come from? How far away are these places located? How much food do I throw away? Why do I throw food away? Where does food waste end up? How could I eat more sustainably?

10 In groups design an advertisement showing how agriculture could increase yields and at the same time minimise water use.

1.11.2 Food waste as a percentage calculated collectively from production to consumption for USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand

Data sourced from Food and Agriculture Organization, 2011

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1.12 Ocean garbage patches: misuse of water

Every year 7 billion kilograms of rubbish such as cardboard, plastic cups, bottles and cans are dumped into the ocean. Leaking containers of radioactive waste and nerve gas disposed at sea contaminate fish and cause death to consumers. Medical wastes wash up on beaches, while a 3000-passenger cruise ship produces 8 tons of solid waste a week.

The top five marine debris items are: cigarettes (28%), plastic bags (12%), plastic food wrappers/containers (8%), caps and lids (8%) and plastic beverage bottles (6%).

Great Pacific Garbage Patch The Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans are important environmental resources but are

threatened by floating garbage—90% of which is plastic. Over 18 000 pieces of plastic per square kilometre bobs around in oceans and is consumed by 44% of seabirds and 267 marine species.

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch, located in the North Pacific Ocean, was formed by slow swirling ocean currents called gyres. These currents move garbage from the coasts of Asia and North America towards the centre of the ocean, referred to as the ‘patch’. It is difficult to clean up, because ‘out of sight and out of mind’ mentality pervades most organisations. What’s more, micro-plastics released by synthetic clothing during washing end up in the oceans, where they enter the marine food chain.

1.12.1 The Great Pacific Garbage Patch

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Plastic from petroleumPetroleum is vital for the production of nail polish, lipstick, synthetic clothing fibres and plastics. All these consumer goods require water. About 8% of the world’s annual oil production is used to manufacture plastic. Due to its low cost and ease of manufacture, 33% of plastic is a ‘single life product’. The average plastic bag is used for 12 minutes and only one in 200 is recycled. What a waste of water!

Humans produce 20 times more plastic than 50 years ago. Asia accounts for 30% of the global consumption followed by North America (26%) and Western Europe (23%). Plastic degrades slowly in landfills, but on the other hand it does make cars lighter so they require less oil and emit less CO2. Some plastics are biodegradable and break down upon exposure to water, sunlight, bacteria or algae.

Australians consume 4.5 billion plastic bags each year. Biodegradable plastic bags and paper bags are alternatives to plastic bags but have other environmental problems. The Say NO to

1.12.2 Impact of different bags (per 1000 bags)

Paper bag Compostable** plastic

Recyclable bag

Municipal waste

33.9 kg 1.28 kg 4.7 kg

Water 3800.6 L 2543.8 L 151.4 L

Electricity 649 mJ* 325 mJ 148 mJ

Fossil fuels

922 mJ 1219 mJ 457 mJ

*mJ: millijoule is a unit of energy ** Compostable: 90% biodegradation of plastic bags within 180 days

in compost

Geoinfo

Enough plastic bags are produced globally every year to circle the planet four times.

Geoactivities 1.12

Knowledge and understanding 1 Explain how rubbish ends its life in the ocean—

an important water resource. 2 List the advantages and disadvantages of plastic. 3 Describe the links between water and plastic. 4 Discuss how individuals, retailers and companies

could reduce the use of plastic and as a result conserve water.

Inquiry and skills 5 List the top five marine debris items.

a Draw the data as a column graph.b Design an advertisement showing how these

five items can be reduced. 6 Refer to 1.12.1.

a What is the latitude and longitude of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?

b Why is it hard to find the exact location of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?

c How large is the patch?d What is the source of the rubbish?e How long does a disposable diaper (nappy) take

to photo degrade?

f What are the impacts of plastic on marine and bird species?

g Why are ocean patches difficult to clean? 7 Refer to 1.12.2.

a What are the advantages of plastic bags over paper bags and vice versa?

b What are the advantages of recyclable bags over paper and plastic bags?

c Compostable bags sound environmentally friendly as they self destruct after a few months. Explain their problems.

8 Inquiry task: Research how many plastic bags you use in your home over a week. Report the statistics back to the class. Collate class statistics. Analyse the results. Suggest solutions to reduce their use.

9 ICT: View satellite imagery showing ocean deserts online (see Geolinks). What is meant by an ‘ocean desert’ and how does it impact on other environmental resources?

10 Research the organisation Save the Plastic Bag on the internet (see Geolinks). What is its aim and how effective is its campaign?

Plastic Bags campaign contributed to 45% reduction in plastic bags provided by supermarkets over the past few years.


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1.13 Overuse and misuse of seas Water sources have been overused and misused by humans over time. Most water hotspots occur in regions with well-developed irrigated agriculture, such as the Indo-Gangetic Plain in South Asia, parts of the Middle East, the North China Plain and the High Plains of North America. They also occur in areas with rapid urbanisation and industrial development. The overuse and misuse of water threatens the functioning of ecosystems and food security.

Coloured seas: red, yellow and blackThe Dead Sea is noted for its salinity, in which animals cannot flourish; the Yellow Sea refers to the colour of silt in its water; and the Aral Sea translates as the ‘Sea of Islands’, due to the 1534 or so islands that once dotted its waters. The Black Sea was called inhospitable because it was difficult to navigate; and the Red Sea is named for its seasonal red algal blooms. These seas differ in name, but all have been overused and misused by humans.

Major threats to the Red Sea include urbanisation, desalination plants, oil refineries, tourism, waste-water treatment facilities, power plants, coastal mining and clearing wetlands. One of the main sources of pollution on Egypt’s Red Sea coast is the discharge of sewage effluents into the marine environment.

The Aral Sea When I was a boy the ponds and waterholes used to last the whole year. Now they are dry and empty. When the rains came and filled the oshanas (streams), we used to take our baskets and go fishing. Now the fish baskets hang from the roof poles as ornaments.

New Internationalist, 1 May 2005

The Aral Sea was the fourth largest sea in the world, but over time it has lost 80% of its water. The shrinking Aral Sea is an example of the overuse and misuse of scarce water resources in an arid region. In the 1960s the Soviet Government diverted 90% of the Aral Sea’s two inflowing rivers (the Amu Darya and Syr Darya) to provide irrigation water for rice and cotton. Originally the

1.13.1 Fishing boats lie stranded on the dry bed of the Aral Sea as a result of overuse of water for irrigation

1.13.2 Satellite image of Aral Sea in 1989 (left) and 2008 (right)

sea brought wealth to communities. However, over 40 years the sea area decreased 65% and the sea volume dropped 80%. As a result salinity increased, killing plants and marine species.

Runoff of fertilisers and pesticides from farms and toxins from industry caused deterioration in water quality and increased diseases. A once thriving fishing industry was destroyed and the vessels were left to rust on the former seabed. Winds eroded the salt and polluted the surrounding farmland, killing pasture and leaving little food


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for grazing animals. Agricultural productivity declined, unemployment increased and people moved away to find jobs. In 1997 the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea began a recovery plan. However, it is unlikely the Aral Sea will be completely restored. Additionally, climate change is anticipated to lower precipitation causing further water problems.

Dead Sea The Dead Sea lies 426 m below sea level at the Earth’s lowest point on land. Tourists flock to the sea to bob up and down in its mineral-rich waters. The Jordan River supplies the Dead Sea with water but it has been reduced to less than 10% over the last 60 years. The decline in water availability is due to:

• the construction of dams, reducing water inflows to the Dead Sea

• industrial pollution• sewage disposal• mineral extraction.

The fall in the level of the Sea has caused the lowering of the water tables (see chapter 3).

Geoactivities 1.13

Knowledge and understanding 1 What is the difference between overuse and

misuse of water resources? 2 Describe the effects of the overuse and misuse

on freshwater resources by humans. 3 Explain how the unsustainable use of water

changed the Aral Sea from a wealthy to a poor area.

4 Discuss how humans are changing the Dead Sea.

Inquiry and skills 5 Refer to 1.13.1

a Draw and label a line drawing of the photograph (see p. 298).

b Describe the scene. 6 Refer to 1.13.2.

a What is a satellite image? b What are the advantages and disadvantages

of satellite images?c Describe the difference in the area of the Aral

Sea from 1989 to 2008. 7 Refer to 1.13.3.

a Name the countries surrounding the Dead Sea.b What is the latitude and longitude of the

Dead Sea? 8 Investigate the specific recovery plans for the

Aral Sea. What success have they had? What will the predicted effects of climate change in the region?

9 Investigate other lakes that are suffering from drying because of irrigation projects, including the Dead Sea, Lake Chad, Mono Lake, Tulare Lake and Urmia Lake. Choose one and prepare a PowerPoint presentation for your class.

1.13.3 Location of the Dead Sea at global and national scale

1.13.4 High salinity keeps people afloat in the Dead Sea

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1.14 Using geothermal waterGeothermal energy is a continuous water resource, generated and stored in Earth’s crust. When groundwater is heated from deep within Earth it moves to the surface to form hot springs or geysers, in countries such as Iceland and New Zealand. Geothermal activity ranges in scale from slow flows suitable for bathing and swimming like at Bath in UK, Beppu in Japan and Mataranka in the Northern Territory, to jet like propulsions towards the sky like in Yellowstone National Park, USA.

Sustainable energyApproximately 99.9% of Earth’s crust is hotter than 100 °C. Not far below our feet is the power to boil unlimited water and generate renewable energy for our homes. The most active geothermal resources are found along plate boundaries where volcanoes are concentrated, such as the Ring of Fire circling the Pacific Ocean.

For centuries New Zealand Maoris cooked ‘geothermally’ and today geothermal resources produce electricity around the world, such as in Landrello (Italy) and Wairekei (New Zealand).

1.14.1 Geothermal house

Vents to house

Heat pump/exchanger

Ground loop

Pipes are buried to a depth below the freezing line, where the ground temperature isconstant

3 m

1.14.3 Global geothermal electricity production

Mexico 10.67%Indonesia 8.92%Italy 8.85%Japan 5.99%New Zealand 4.87%Iceland 2.26%Costa Rica 1.82%El Salvador 1.69%Kenya 1.44%Others 3.17%

USA28.70%

Philippines 21.60%

1.14.2 Geothermal tourism in Iceland

Geoskills in focus

A pie graph is drawn from the top of the circle at 12 o’clock. In a clockwise direction the largest segment is drawn first (e.g. USA 28.7%). This is followed from the next largest to the smallest.


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In Australia, geothermal energy heats swimming pools, powers 25% of Birdsville in Queensland, and heats the Geoscience building in Canberra. Geothermal power ranges in scale:

• from large projects e.g. generating electricity to power 725 000 homes from The Geysers in California

• to small projects e.g. the Oserian flower farm in Kenya, utilising steam wells to power greenhouses.

As Iceland has extensive volcanic activity, about 26% of the nation’s energy is produced by geothermal power plants providing heat and hot water to 87% of the country’s buildings. Geothermal energy heats pavements in the capital city, Reykjavík, and is utilised by the high water-energy consuming Alcoa aluminium processing plant.

Hot rocks—future energyEnergy from subterranean heat is no longer limited to volcanic regions. By drilling deep holes into the ground, geothermal energy is available everywhere. Referred to as the Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS), the hot rock project in South Australia’s Cooper Basin sends cold water down to hot rocks via drill holes. The water heats up and returns to the surface, where the heat is extracted to generate electricity. Critics argue the process increases the risk of earthquakes.

Geothermal resources could supply humans’ energy needs, but only a small percentage has been profitably exploited. In the future, when you blow dry your hair or turn on the air conditioner you may be using sustainable geothermal energy rather than non-renewable fossil fuels.

1.14.4 Benefits and challenges of geothermal power plants and hot rock technology

Benefits Challenges

• generally, water drawn from Earth is injected back down to resupply the source

• does not produce pollution• does not contribute to

greenhouse gases• power plants relatively

inexpensive to operate• ‘hot rock’ technology not as

restricted to location

• site may run out of steam• hazardous gases and

minerals may come up from underground

• initial drilling costs are expensive ($100 million) and process is complex

• restricted to certain places e.g. need hot rocks of a suitable type, at a depth where a drill can go down to them

• ‘hot rock’ technology can cause earthquakes

Geoactivities 1.14

Knowledge and understanding 1 List the advantages of geothermal water as a

source of energy. 2 Explain why geothermal energy is a continuous

environmental resource. 3 Core geographical concepts are included in this

text. Give examples of scale, change, environment, sustainability and place in the text.

4 Discuss how Iceland uses geothermal energy. 5 Explain what is meant by sustainable energy.

Inquiry and skills 6 Refer to 1.14.1 and explain how a geothermal

house operates. Discuss the advantages of this type of energy in your home.

7 Refer to 1.14.2. Imagine you are the manager of a tourist business. Suggest strategies to promote Iceland as an eco-tourist destination. Present findings as an advertisement.

8 Refer to 1.14.3.a List three countries with the highest use of

geothermal electricity production.b Refer to an atlas or the internet and locate

the countries on a world map. Analyse the correlation of the location of the countries with plate boundaries and volcanic activity.

9 Refer to 1.14.4 and discuss the challenges facing the geothermal industry.

10 ‘Geothermal power is considered renewable because heat extraction is small compared to Earth’s heat content’. Explain this statement.

11 Design a webpage or poster promoting the concept ‘geothermal energy is free and forever’.

13 Go on a virtual fieldwork trip to a geothermal plant (see Geolinks) and explain how a geothermal plant generates electricity to homes.

14 ICT tasks: a List eight hot springs located across

Australia. Using the internet (see Geolinks), research one hot spring, such as Mataranka in the Northern Territory, and answer key questions: Where is it? What is its significance? How is it used?

b Geothermal energy in New Zealand provides a substantial quantity of electricity. Research online (see Geolinks) and draw a map locating geothermal resources in New Zealand. Discuss the relationship between geothermal resources and the tourist industry.


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1.15 Surfing tidal bores: using renewable water

Moving water is able to generate hydropower to produce goods and provide recreational experiences such as white water rafting. Imagine the thrill surfers experience when they ride tidal bores 4 m high, for 40 minutes, travelling at 30 km/h along the Araguari River in Brazil. Surfers also encounter 250 tidal bores a year, which carry the adventurous 10 km up the Severn River in UK.

Tidal bore surfing sounds fun, but along the Qiantang River in China tragic accidents arise when curious spectators stand too close to the annual 9 m tidal bore travelling at 40 km/h. Tidal bores only take place during extreme tidal ranges and when an incoming tide is funnelled into a shallow, narrow river causing the water to pile up high. These events occur across the world and in rivers such as the Ganges–Brahmaputra (India–Bangladesh), Seine (France) and Daly (Northern Territory).

Tireless tidesTides are a continuous environmental resource. They are used for personal (e.g. fishing), economic (e.g. electricity) and environmental (e.g. mangroves) reasons. Areas adjacent to the sea experience tidal

1.15.1 High potential areas for tidal resources

1.15.2 China’s legendary tidal bore sending massive swells down the Qiantang River and through Hangzhou City

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changes ranging from a few centimetres in the Mediterranean Sea to 15 m in the Bay of Fundy in Canada and 12 m in King Sound, Derby (north-western Australia) during the bi-annual king tide.

Tidal power stations are located around the world. Not all coastal places are suitable for producing electricity, as they require a tidal range greater than 7 m and a narrow entrance into an inlet or bay. The largest station is in the La Rance estuary (France), supplying 0.012% of the county’s power requirements. The USA and UK have sufficient tidal power to meet 15% of their total power needs. A potential tidal power site is Doctor Creek in Derby, Western Australia, which could provide electricity to remote Aboriginal communities.

Tidal islands attract tourists A tidal island is a portion of land connected to the mainland by a natural or built causeway exposed at low tide and submerged at high tide. Mont Saint-Michel in France, nicknamed ‘St. Michael in peril of the sea’ is an island connected to the mainland during low tide. As the tide varies 14 m in a few hours, a causeway was built to prevent the annual three million tourists walking across the hazardous sands.

In Australia, Penguin Island in Western Australia and Bennelong Point in Sydney are examples of tidal islands attracting tourists. Tourists travel by ferry to Penguin Island—home to a colony of Little Penguins—since walking across the sandbar is hazardous. Sydney Opera house was formerly on Bennelong Island—a small tidal island used by the Indigenous Eora peoples for its oysters. In the early 1800s the tidal area between Bennelong Island and the mainland was filled in with rocks —today it is a cultural centre attracting tourists.

Geoactivities 1.15

Knowledge and understanding 1 Answer the following inquiry questions.

a What are tides? b Why do tides occur? c What are the impacts of tides on coasts, rivers

and plants?d What are the conditions required for tidal bore

surfing?e Why are tidal islands dangerous?f How can tides be sustainably managed?

2 Describe the economic, social and environmental advantages of tides.


a Not all coasts are suitable for tidal energy. Explain their uneven global distribution.

b List four areas where tidal energy is a potential source of electricity.

4 Refer to 1.15.3. Draw and label a sketch showing how the changing tide impacts on the local community over 6 hours.

5 In groups, mind-map the impact of a king tide occurring at the same time as a cyclone on Australia’s coastal communities.

6 Fieldwork: Travel on a virtual or actual fieldwork trip to a mangrove (see Geolinks).a Describe the links between tides and mangroves.b Why are mangroves important resources?c Discuss how mangroves can be managed

sustainably.

Geoinfo

A tidal wave is not a tsunami; it occurs in a river and is predicable with known time and date.

1.15.3 Two photographs taken six hours apart at St Peter Port, Guernsy. There was an 8 m difference between high and low tide


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1.16 Maps—be lost without them!Whether lost in a shopping centre, requiring the exit in a burning hotel, need directions to the World Cup, or locating important environmental resources such as clean water—maps are your answer!

A globe is a true representation or model of Earth’s surface, unlike a map, which is a visual representation of Earth’s natural and human elements. Because Earth is round and maps are flat it is impossible to create a map with perfect scale. Maps are drawn to a smaller scale to fit the paper or the computer screen, and a curved shape has to be represented on a flat surface.

Which map will I use?A variety of maps can be used to show the same place, from a simple sketch map to a complex topographic map or Google Earth. Maps communicate

Geoinfo

McArthur’s Universal Corrective Map locates Australia at the top of a world map.

1.16.1 There is a huge variety of maps

Sketch maps are also called mud maps as they are drawn in the dirt or sand during fieldwork. These maps are roughly drawn without scale.

Topographic maps are used when bushwalking, planning roads or participating in orienteering. They show height above sea level as well as physical (buildings) and natural (landforms, rivers) features.

Geographical Information System (GIS) maps show layers of natural and cultural information on top of each other e.g. landforms and population density.

Google Earth maps provide fly-over access to nearly any spot on Earth.

information for different purposes, for instance: meteorologists refer to weather maps and charts; Indigenous Australians draw sketch maps to show the location of campsites; engineers study topographic maps before building dams.

Today cartographers generate maps using computer programs to such as Google Earth, the Geographical Information System (GIS) and the Global Positioning System (GPS).


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Geoactivities 1.16

Knowledge and understanding 1 Explain why maps are inaccurate pictures of

the world. 2 In your own words explain the terms GPS

and GIS. 3 List the advantages of Google Earth for military

purposes, synoptic charts for sailors, and GIS for planning the location of homes.

Inquiry and skills 4 In groups brainstorm the types of maps you have

seen and used. Present your findings as a Tagxedo.

5 Discuss the importance maps play in everyday lives and the increasing use of technology such as the mobile phone.

6 List ten different types of maps used in the textbook. Compare two maps and explain why they illustrate different information.

7 Draw a pictorial map of your local area or shopping centre.

Global Positioning System (GPS) maps are on mobile phones and in cars. They are linked to satellites to enable people to somewhere in relation to their current location.

Thematic maps show a range of themes such as political boundaries, climate, vegetation, mining and population density.

Diagram map or network map shows positions of stations along the line and links with each other.

Weather maps or synoptic charts are seen on television and the internet. These maps show low and high air pressure systems, cold and warm fronts, temperature, rainfall, wind direction and speed. They are useful for tracking cyclones and working out what we should wear and if the weather is suitable for our favourite sport.

Australian indigenous maps show an aerial view of campsites and location of water and hunting grounds.

Pictorial maps are called illustrated maps. They provide a simple overview of a place. Often used as tourist maps

Street directory has maps showing roads, shopping centres, sporting facilities, schools, hospitals and parks in a suburb or city.


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1.17 Fun with map projectionsFor over 2000 years people have seen a distorted world through maps, as it is impossible to accurately represent Earth on a flat piece of paper or on a computer screen. Imagine peeling an orange and pressing the orange peel flat on a table. The peel would break as it was flattened. Making accurate maps of the world is also difficult, because it is mathematically impossible to flatten a sphere onto a piece of paper without distorting or cracking it. Geographers aim to choose the best map projection for a topic such as environmental resources studied in this topic.

Limitless mapsMap projections represent a three-dimensional surface of the Earth on a two-dimensional plane. The transformation includes distortion such as area, shape, direction and distance. Map projections are constructed to preserve one or more of these properties—though not all simultaneously. The challenge when selecting a map projection is whether the information requires accurate shape or size of

objects, but not both. By blending maps or hybrid maps it is possible to create a map balancing the distortion of both size and shape.

There are limitless maps, each presenting its own point of view or perspective. As an Australian have you wondered why our island continent is generally located at the bottom or at the edge of world maps? Why not top and centre?

Old Mercator projectionMercator published his map projection in 1569. It was a map for the sailor, navigator and world traveller. The scale and shape of regions near the equator are accurate but regions closer to the poles appear larger. The Mercator projection is unusable when latitudes are greater than 70° north or south of the equator, at it distorts countries. Greenland is as large as Africa, when in reality it is closer to Mexico in size, while Antarctica appears the largest continent on Earth. Despite these faults, Google Maps and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) use variations of Mercator projections for map images.

Map Projection Use Strengths Weaknesses

Mercator Popular for navigation Scale and shape of regions near the equator more accurate

Regions near the poles appear larger than in reality

Mollweide Thematic maps such as distribution of rainforests and population

Area more accurate Distortion towards the poles. Poles not shown

Peters Popular for determining flooded area or area under crops

Area more accurate, represents developing countries more fairly

Shape exaggerated in the Southern Hemisphere

McArthur’s Southern hemisphere at top of map

Different perspective Can be any projection type, with the same weaknesses of that projection

1.17.1 Common map projections


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Future mapsIn the past the shape of Earth and its continents were constructed by map-makers using a pen while walking through isolated places, such as the rainforests in Papua New Guinea. Today remote sensing uses satellites and computers to measure Earth and identify physical and human features. Map-makers in hot air balloons used to use primitive cameras to acquire aerial photographs, whereas today high-tech cameras in aeroplanes capture photographs at different angles to create detailed maps of different places.

Infrared sensing detects the temperatures of different objects on the ground and helps map living objects, such as the distribution of plant and animal species. A microwave cooks meals, but also provides a map of what exists beneath the Earth’s surface e.g. the distribution of non-renewable minerals. Places can now be mapped using radar sensing when obscured by clouds and rain.

A variety of maps, photographs and satellite images help geographers map the world more accurately. By using both technology and fieldwork a clearer picture of Earth emerges, for instance the impact of humans on environmental resources.

1.17.2 What a human head would look like if it were ‘unwrapped’ like a Mercator map projection. Which is more disturbing: the world presented this way or a human head?

Geoactivities 1.17

Knowledge and understanding 1 ‘There is no perfect map’. Explain this statement. 2 Discuss why different maps are used for different

geography topics.

Inquiry and skills 3 Peel an orange into segments and press it flat

on a table. Explain the relationship between this activity to globes and maps.

4 Inquiry task: Refer to the photo and answer the inquiry questions.

a What is a map projection?b What occurs when you flatten a globe onto

a flat piece of paper?c Why are their different map projections? d What are the strengths and weaknesses of

four different map projections?e Do countries look their true size on all

projections? Explain your answer.f Why is Australia at the bottom of most world

projections? What projection has Australia at the top?

g Why does this textbook have Australia in the centre of many of its world maps?

h How has technology enabled geographers to obtain a more accurate view of the world?

i Imagine you were an alien: what does the Earth look like from space?


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1.18 Perspectives—the world you’ve never seen

Maps help us understand the world around us and our place in it. Maps not only show continents and oceans but a view of the world from a variety of perspectives. Maps generally display one layer of information but GIS integrates many layers, such as landforms, transport routes and land use.

Large and small maps Maps can be drawn on paper, bodies, garments and sand. They are drawn using pens or using modern technologies such as Google Earth and Geographical Information Systems (GIS). And they can vary greatly in size. Earth Platinum is the world’s largest atlas. The book is 1.8 m high by 1.4 m wide and weighs 150 kg. As a contrast, Ghent University fabricated a world map on a scale of 1 trillionth, referred to as ‘Terra’ scale. The 40 000 km circumference of the Earth at the equator was scaled down to 40 micrometres. This is half the width of a human hair. The world map is placed in the corner of a silicon chip to enable complex telecommunications, high-speed computing and healthcare functions to operate.

Strange mapsThere are an endless number of maps depicting geographical information from a variety of perspectives, as shown in the examples below.

• Population size rearranged according to country size. Monaco is the world’s most densely populated country with 16 923 people per km2, contrasting with Mongolia containing 1.7 people per km2. On the map a country with a high

population moves to a country containing a larger area. As a result China, with the world’s largest population, is transferred to Russia, which has the largest area. Australia’s 22.5 million inhabitants move to Spain, and Pakistan moves to Australia. The map illustrates how global population realignment would involve massive migration and changes to lifestyles.

• Size of country reflects population size. This map leaves the country where it is geographically located and redraws it in proportion to the population size. Australia is a big country with a small population compared to India—a small country with a large population.

• A map of the world of Facebook. Visualisation of Facebook connections around the globe show that the USA has the highest concentration of Facebook friendships and Africa the lowest concentration. While most of Russia and Antarctica are not found on the map, the rest of the world is identifiable.

1.18.1 Map extremes: a World map on body; b World’s largest Atlas; c World’s smallest map of the world

1.18.2 World according to Facebook: the brighter the line the more friendships

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Geoactivities 1.18

Knowledge and understanding 1 Name the largest and smallest maps. 2 Scale varies between the largest and smallest

map. Record the map with the largest scale. 3 Answer true or false to the following statements.

a There is more land in the northern hemisphere.b Most people live between 20ºN and 40ºN.


a List countries where Facebook is popular.b Locate the greatest Facebook links in Australia.

5 Refer to 1.18.3 and explain what happened to Australia. Where did Australia go? What country replaced Australia? What would be the impact of

a larger population on Australia’s environmental resources?

6 Refer to 1.18.4 and list five countries that appear larger on this map than on a Mercator projection.

7 Not everyone in the world has access to ‘all’ the internet. This is referred to as ‘black holes’—some countries have eliminated freedom of press and expression within cyberspace to control information and communication. Research online which countries have black holes (see Geolinks). a List 5 countries with internet black holes.b Discuss how limited information impacts on

students. 8 Australia is considered a big country. Research

the size of Australia in relation to Europe and the USA (see Geolinks).

1.18.3 Map of the world’s countries rearranged by population size

1.18.4 The size of countries reflect their population size


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1.19 Spy in the sky: geospatial revolution

You may have dreamed of riding camels through the Sahara desert, surfing giant waves in Hawaii, floating in hot air balloons above the Grand Canyon or climbing Mt Everest. Most people, unable to participate in these activities, instead travel the world via Google Earth. With a finger tap on the computer, Google Earth lets you fly, spin and zoom down to any place on Earth and experience virtual fieldwork by wandering through the Amazon jungle exploring rivers, forests and remote villages.

The geospatial revolution uses Google Earth satellite images, aerial photographs and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to create geographical knowledge vital to the interconnected global community. Google Earth technology enables people to observe an approaching cyclone on a mobile phone, and a Global Positioning System (GPS) in your car helps you find where to go for your sports match.

Google, a corporation specialising in internet searches, processes over one billion search requests a day. It provides geographical information from a variety of perspectives and includes geographical tools such as photographs, graphs and statistics. The Google Earth Blog shares satellite images and the Google Earth Community adds place markers such as mines, roads, forests, restaurants and hospitals onto these maps.

1.19.1 Google Earth showing tropical cyclone Yasi approaching Australia on 1 February 2011

1.19.2 A big herd of hippopotamuses swimming in a river in Tanzania caught on Google Earth

Earth observation satellitesEarth observation satellites show changes in environmental resources, such as deforestation in the Amazon rainforest, melting glaciers, impacts of oil drilling in the Arctic and damage to coral reefs. Satellites track wildlife such as polar bears and hippopotamuses and show the impact of natural disasters such as tsunamis and cyclones. Instant disaster information on an earthquake allows quick emergency responses from international organisations (e.g. United Nations), governments (AusAID) and non-government organisations (e.g. World Vision).

Google Earth monitors the environment. It shows before and after satellite images of changing environmental resources via the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and is used by conservation organisations promoting sustainability, such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF).

Geoinfo

• Some 6578 satellites have launched into orbit since 1957.

• Since 2002, all geostationary satellites move to a graveyard orbit at the end of their operational life.


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High-tech tribes Google Earth Outreach provides non-profit organisations with resources to visualise environmental problems and potential solutions. The Surui in Brazil and the Wayana and Trio in Suriname face threats to their forest and culture. These tribes have been trained to use GPS, map their land and locate resources such as medicinal plants and hunting grounds. Additionally, GPS assists these tribes to guard against threats to their environmental resources from logging, drug lords and mining operations.

The Jane Goodall Institute uses Google Earth to monitor forest projects and chimpanzee populations in Tanzania and Uganda. Using satellite collars, Save the Elephants organisation uses Google Earth to track and protect elephants from poaching. In 2010, Defenders of Wildlife used Google Earth to view millions of litres of crude oil gushing out of the BP well in the Gulf of Mexico and to show its impacts on marine and bird species.

Fieldwork: geocachingGeocaching is an outdoor game using GPS coordinates (latitude and longitude) to find the geocache hidden at a location. Geocaches are placed in over 100 countries and there are more than five million geocachers worldwide. The geocache contains geographical questions for students to answer before moving onto the next location.

Geoactivities 1.19

Knowledge and understanding 1 ‘Smile, you’re on satellite imagery!’ What do you

think this means? 2 Explain how Google Earth can be used in the

geography classroom. 3 Google Earth helps geographers understand the

use and misuse of environmental resources. What does this mean?

4 Discuss the advantages of Google Earth Outreach to indigenous communities in isolated locations.

Inquiry and skills 5 Refer to 1.19.2 and estimate how many

hippopotamuses are in the photograph. Explain why they congregating at this place.

6 ‘The Geospatial Revolution examines the world of digital mapping and how it changes the way we think, behave, and interact’ (National Geographic). Explain this quote.

7 Fieldwork: Organise a geography geocache activity at your school.

8 ICT tasks: Google Earth (see Geolinks).a Using Google Earth track the routes of

chimpanzees in the Gombe Forest in Tanzania. What should be done to conserve the chimpanzee?

b Measure the distance from home to a mine in the Pilbara using a Google Earth ruler.

c Plan a holiday to three countries. Collect three photographs of each country and write a summary of their main environmental resources.

9 Virtual fieldwork:a Take a virtual trip in the Amazon (see

Geolinks) and describe what you observed. b Take a virtual ride in the Tour de France (see

Geolinks). What environmental resources do you pass on your journey?

10 ICT task: Refer to the Google Earth Blog (see Geolinks) and complete the following activities. a Tour with geographers on the job around the

world. Describe the different jobs requiring geography.

b Take a tour of Asian countries. Provide an overview of the environmental resources in three countries.

c Complete the orientation quiz. 11 Why is the United Nations Environment

Programme Atlas of our Changing Environment a useful site for environmental managers and geography students (see Geolinks)?

1.19.3 GPS helps Amazon tribes fight exploiters


only>


Inquiry process

• Observe

• Question

• Plan • Collect

• Record

• Evaluate

• Represent

• Interpret

• Analyse

• Conclude

• Communicate

• Reflect

• Respond

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1.20 Inquiry process: dung beetles improve water quality

Geographers are curious people who ask endless questions about environmental resources such as water: Some questions covered in this chapter include: What are the different uses of water? When does water change from a renewable resource into a non-renewable resource? How much water is used in a pair of jeans? How is water embedded within modern gadgets such as mobile phones? Why should we manage water sustainably?

Finding answers to these questions involves working through the inquiry process.

Inquiry processThere are five stages in a geographical investigation or inquiry process:

• Observing, questioning and planning• Collecting, recording, evaluating and respresenting• Interpreting, analysing and concluding• Communicating• Reflecting and responding

Investigations need not follow every step in the diagram, but may follow loops where geographers return to ask more questions and undertake more analysis, similar to an interconnected jigsaw puzzle.

After observing environmental resources, geographers generate questions to be addressed in the inquiry, for example an inquiry into how dung beetles conserve water (1.20.2). Now, fired with questions, information is collected from different sources using primary and secondary data then collated and processed into maps, tables, graphs and diagrams. The information is analysed and a conclusion made after balanced judgement. Research findings are communicated using a variety of methods, such as verbal, audio, text, graphs, statistics, photographs, maps and information and communication technologies (ICT).

At the conclusion of the investigation geographers reflect on research findings and decide if action is required in relation to the sustainability of environmental resources.

1.20.1 Jigsaw inquiry process


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1.20.3 Primary and secondary sources

Primary sources Secondary sources

Original material collected by the researcher

Collected by someone else besides the researcher

Interviews, surveys, questionnaires, measurements and photographs. Also field sketches, diagrams, maps and statistics

Internet material, newspapers, journals, magazines, photographs and images from Flikr and Wikipedia, maps, diagrams, sketches, tables, statistics

1 Why are dung and dung beetles environmental resources?

2 What is the relationship between dung and dung beetles?

3 How are dung beetles conservers of water?

4 How do dung beetles improve water quality and soil health and reduce diseases?

5 Why are dung beetles in demand around the world?

7 What primary and secondary sources would you use to find out further details on dung and dung beetles?

6 What should I do about promoting dung beetles as conservers of water and excellent recyclers?

8 How will I present my research?

1.20.2 Geographical inquiry questions on dung beetles

Dung beetles: the clean team

Dung beetles do not drink water. They reduce nutrient runoff into rivers and dams and reduce algal blooms in water sources. They assist root penetration, increase water infiltration through the soil, decrease irrigation and decrease water contamination.

Dung or animal faeces have been used as fertilisers on farms for centuries. Today the Maasai in Africa burn cow dung to repel mosquitoes and in Tibet cow dung lines walls to keep homes warm and produce biogas to generate electricity and heat.

Dung beetles recycle animal faeces. Within a few hours of elephant dung hitting the ground, beetles turn the dung into balls and bury them. As a result the soil becomes more fertile and crop productivity increases reducing the need for artificial fertilisers. In Kruger National Park in South Africa more than 7000 beetles in a single pad of elephant dung are found busy recycling waste.

In Australia, every hour 12 000 000 cow pats are dropped on the ground. Dung beetles recycle cow dung contributing to the decline in dung feeding flies. Buffalo flies attracted to the pats cost the Northern Territory beef industry $13 million a year due to hide damage and lost production.

Geoactivities 1.20

Knowledge and understanding 1 List the main stages in the inquiry process. 2 Distinguish between primary and secondary

sources.

Inquiry and skills 3 Refer to the information on these pages and on

the internet (see Geolinks) and answer the inquiry questions in figure 1.20.2.

4 Numerous questions on water were mentioned on the previous page. Investigate two of these questions following the inquiry process.


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1.21 Fieldwork: resources in your school

Water is interconnected with other environmental resources, including the atmosphere (air), lithosphere (land and soil) and biosphere (plants and animals). Water cannot be studied in isolation if it is to be managed sustainably.

1.21.1 Environmental resources in your yard or playground

1 Geographical skill: location and mapsa Draw a map locating your school or home with

surrounding streets, transport routes, shopping centres, sports facilities and parks. Use a key to identify natural and cultural features, and include a scale to measure distance.

b What direction does your school ground face? Draw in the north direction on the map.

c Use an atlas or Google Earth to locate your home and school and record their latitude and longitude.

d Calculate the distance from school to your home using both roads and as the crow flies (straight distance).

e If you used an atlas in question c, find your school on Google Earth.

2 Geographical skill: photograph interpretation a Sketch the school ground in this photograph and

label the natural and human features. Include terms such as left, centre, right, foreground, middle distance and background.

b After this activity sketch your school ground and label the natural and human features.

c Is this photograph an aerial or ground photograph?

3 Lithosphere (land) and hydrosphere (water) a Describe the landform of your backyard or school

ground, e.g. flat, gentle, steep or split levels.b Do you have a creek running through your yard/

school ground? Are the creeks permanent or intermittent? In which direction does the water run when it rains?

c Collect water after it has rained and flowed across your yard/school ground. Measure its pH. Does the water contain fertilisers, pesticides or sewerage sludge?

d Can the drains cope with heavy rain?

Are water resources managed sustainably? If not, as active citizens what can we do to conserve the use of water for future generations?


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Geoinfo

• Not in my backyard—or NIMBY—is a phrase used when people do not want something near them, like a nuclear power station or a garbage tip.

• The Sustainable Schools Project cultivates responsible, informed citizens, engaged in building sustainable communities.

Geoskills in focus

Photographs and satellite images are important geographical tools. They provide a visual picture and make it easier to determine differences or changes over time to natural and human landscapes. A satellite image (like the one on this page) consists of a photograph of Earth produced by artificial satellites.

Aerial photographs (like the photos in 1.6.2) are taken from an elevated position. The scale is larger in the foreground of the photograph compared to the background.

Geoactivities 1.21

Knowledge and understanding 1 Distinguish between actual and virtual fieldwork. 2 List the advantages of seeing something in the

field over reading about it in a textbook.

Inquiry and Skills 3 Fieldwork: primary research

a Refer to 1.21.1 and research the environmental resources in your home or school by completing the inquiry questions.

b Prepare an environmental audit on your home or school to determine whether environmental resources such as water are managed sustainably. For example: i hydrosphere: water use—recycle waste

water, drip watering system, half flush toilet system?

ii Lithosphere: saving water—use of mulch? iii Atmosphere: water use—air conditioners

(CFCs), solar or fossil fuel energy? iv Biosphere: water use—native versus

introduced species? v Others: saving water—recycle waste,

reduce water pollution by using phosphorous free detergents? Water–energy links—how many cars, refrigerators, computers, TVs, computers and mobile phones in the family?

c Present your findings to the class either using PowerPoint, web 2.0 tools or as a play.

4 Primary and secondary research in groups:a Secondary research: describe your local

council’s programs that aim to conserve water resources and reduce water pollution.

b Primary research: interview the mayor about the council’s water resource program.

Present your findings as an oral report.

4 Atmospherea Temperature: Using a thermometer, record the

indoor temperature and outside temperature in the shadiest and the most exposed area in your yard/playground. Record your three findings on a chart for two weeks. Calculate the range in temperature (difference in temperature).

b Precipitation: Use two rain gauges or two small jars. Place one jar under trees and another in an exposed area. Record your findings for two weeks. Give reasons for the differences in the precipitation at different places in your yard/school ground.

5 Biosphere: Plants and animalsa Describe the type of plants found in your yard/

school groundb Collect vegetation samples. Place on cardboard.

Press and label them. Describe their leaves (e.g. thin, broad, waxy and hard). Determine whether they are native (e.g. acacia) or introduced (e.g. lantana) species.

c Describe the animals and birds in your yard/school ground and whether they are native or feral (e.g. rabbits).

d Explain the problems of introduced and exotic species.

6 Human interactions a Who originally inhabited your backyard/school

ground?b What changes have occurred in this place over time?c What sustainable projects are taking place in your

home/school?


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GeothinkEco-energy island conserves waterSamsø is an energy self-sufficient Danish island. Wind turbines and solar power produce energy for the 4000 inhabitants, and 40% of the energy produced is exported to the mainland. The island obtains hot water from renewable energy, and saves water because the transport of fossil fuels from the mainland is no longer required. Wastewater and sewage is recycled using renewable energy and food scraps are composted.

Samsø is experiencing seawater intrusion into its freshwater aquifers. With rising sea levels, salt penetrating the aquifers could present a future risk to available water.

Knowledge and understanding1 Where is Samsø located?2 Why is Samsø called an energy self-sufficient island?

Inquiry and skills3 Refer to 1.22.1.

a Calculate the combined number of offshore and onshore wind turbines on Samsø

b How many households receive heating from straw fired plants?

c What happens to excess energy produced? d Why are wind turbines and solar power panels

referred to as renewable resources?e Explain how reducing food wastes and

composting food scraps reduces water used or improves the environment.

f Explain the interconnections between energy and water on Samsø.

g Discuss the energy processes operating on Samsø compared to your home.

1.22.1 Samsø: The energy self-sufficient island

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Multiple uses of water1 Refer to 1.22.2.

a From the diagram, list two environmental resources for each type of resource—continuous, non-renewable and renewable.

b List the different uses of water.c Explain the interconnections between water

and mining minerals for goods such as mobile phones.

d How can energy-efficient buildings reduce the use of water?

e Describe where water could be overused and misused unless managed sustainably.

f Identify the factors that enrich human life.

What did I learn?1 Refer to 1.22.3.

a Answer the inquiry questions around the photograph.

b Discuss why environmental resources such as water should only be exploited at of below their rates of renewal.

1 What are the different types of environmental resources?

6 What are the different uses of environmental resources such as water?

4 How can water resources be overused and misused?

2 What are the water-energy interconnections?

7 How can water be managed sustainably?

3 How does water enrich our lives?

5 How does water affect people’s perceptions of places?

1.22.3 What did I learn?

1.22.2 Water use in daily life

Forests

Water

Energy-efficient buildings

Processing natural gas

Smelting and refining

Hydroelectricity

Export natural gas

Wind energy

Farm crops and cattle

Geothermal energy

Mineral processing

Underground mining

Coal-fired power

Solar energy

Open cut miningSpecies

Coal seam gas

Underground coal gasification

Rehabilitation wetlands absorb wastes

AirSun

Gas


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