Lecture Notes in Mobility

Gereon MeyerSven Beiker Editors

Road Vehicle Automation 2

Lecture Notes in Mobility

Series editor

Gereon Meyer, Berlin, Germany

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11573

Gereon Meyer • Sven BeikerEditors

Road Vehicle Automation 2

123

EditorsGereon MeyerVDI/VDE Innovation + Technik GmbHBerlinGermany

Sven BeikerStanford UniversityPalo Alto, CAUSA

ISSN 2196-5544 ISSN 2196-5552 (electronic)Lecture Notes in MobilityISBN 978-3-319-19077-8 ISBN 978-3-319-19078-5 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-19078-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014941235

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or partof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmissionor information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in thispublication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt fromthe relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in thisbook are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor theauthors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein orfor any errors or omissions that may have been made.

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Preface

The trend toward the introduction of automated driving has further accelerated inrecent months. Vehicle manufacturers around the world have announced plans todeploy highly automated functionalities building on recent successes in advanceddriver assistance systems. In addition to this evolutionary approach, a more radicalscenario of fully connected self-driving cars is heavily discussed. At the same time,public authorities have presented substantial plans for establishing test routes,settings standards and creating regulatory frameworks.

In this context, we are excited to present the second volume of “Road VehicleAutomation,” a publication as part of the Springer Lecture Notes in Mobility. Sameas last year’s volume, this publication gives an overview on the road vehicleautomation workshop held about one year ago. This year’s volume containsinformation from the Automated Vehicle Symposium 2014, held in Burlingame(CA), July 15–17, 2014. We are again very pleased and grateful that so manypresenters from the symposium responded to our call and offered a summaryof their talks and working groups.

This year, in order to ease the workload for the authors, we decided to offer theopportunity to publish just a six-page summary of the talks and working groups.Interestingly enough, many authors went beyond that mark, resulting in a level ofdetail in each contribution, which we as the editors appreciate. We are also glad tosee a sizable portion of the publications reflecting the increasing discussion ofhuman factors, clearly marking one of the key aspects on the path toward automateddriving. We hope you, the readers, will appreciate the spectrum of publications andthe structure that we chose; and we are sure that this publication is equally infor-mative to industry experts, academics, public servants, as well as media and generalpublic.

We truly enjoyed editing this book, and we clearly want to point out that ofcourse this publication would not have been possible without great support frommany different individuals and groups. First, we wish to thank all authors who tooktime out of their busy schedule and turned their talks and working group results intoessays that make this book what it is—a truly remarkable milestone on the pathtoward vehicle automation. Second, we are thanking the TRB and AUVSI

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representatives who organized the symposium in the first place, who graciouslyagreed to have us edit this book as a summary of the event, and who contributed toit as authors. Most notably we would like to thank Jane Lappin, Steven Shladover,and Bod Denaro.

We are also deeply indebted to Sebastian Stagl and Zakia Soomauroo atVDI/VDE-IT who proofread and thoughtfully edited all contributions to ensure aconsistently high level of publications. Their efforts and dedication is highlyappreciated. And also, we are tremendously thankful to Jan-Philip Schmidt atSpringer; without his advice this book would never have gone into print.

And finally, we would like to thank all readers for purchasing this book andthereby contributing to spreading results as well as still-unanswered questionsrelated to vehicle automation. We sincerely hope that this book will further energizethe dialogue around what might rightfully be called the next big chapter for theautomobile: Road Vehicle Automation.

April 2015 Gereon MeyerSven Beiker

vi Preface

Contents

Introduction: The Automated Vehicles Symposium 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . 1Steven E. Shladover, Jane Lappin and Robert P. Denaro

Part I Public Sector Activities

Automated Driving Activities in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Takumi Yamamoto

Regulations for Testing Autonomous Vehicles in California . . . . . . . . . 29Bernard C. Soriano, Stephanie L. Dougherty, Brian G. Soubletand Kristin J. Triepke

Part II Industrial Research and Innovation

Architecture and System Safety Requirementsfor Automated Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Jan Becker and Michael Helmle

A Location Cloud for Highly Automated Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Ogi Redzic and Dietmar Rabel

Thinking Intuitive Driving Automation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Patrice Reilhac, Nick Millett and Katharina Hottelart

Part III Human Factors and Challenges

The Human Side of Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73Donald A. Norman

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Human Factors Considerations for the Design of Level 2and Level 3 Automated Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Janet I. Creaser and Gregory M. Fitch

Part IV Legal, Business and Technology Perspectives

Legal Accelerators and Brakes for Deploymentof Automated Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93Karlyn D. Stanley, Ellen Partridge and Frank Douma

Technology Roadmap, Maturity and Performance: Identificationof Technology Issues to Realize Vehicle-Roadway Automation . . . . . . . 105James Misener and Wei-Bin Zhang

Integrated Assessment for Automated Driving Systemsin the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119Steven E. Underwood

Evolution–Revolution–Transformation: A Business StrategyAnalysis of the Automated Driving Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Sven A. Beiker

Elements of a European Roadmap on Smart Systemsfor Automated Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153Gereon Meyer, Jadranka Dokic and Beate Müller

Part V Vehicle Systems and Technologies Development

A Philosophy for Developing Trust in Self-driving Cars . . . . . . . . . . . 163Michael Wagner and Philip Koopman

Truck Automation Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173Mohammad Poorsartep and Thomas Stephens

Automated Vehicles from Modeling to Real World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187Ismail Zohdy, Raj Kamalanathsharma, Sudharson Sundararajanand Ram Kandarpa

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Part VI Transportation Infrastructure and Planning

Automated Road Transport Systems (ARTS)—The SafeWay to Integrate Automated Road Transport in Urban Areas. . . . . . . 195Adriano Alessandrini, Carlos Holguín and Daniele Stam

Freeway Traffic Management in Presence of Vehicle Automationand Communication Systems (VACS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205Markos Papageorgiou, Christina Diakaki, Ioannis Nikolos,Ioannis Ntousakis, Ioannis Papamichail and Claudio Roncoli

Towards Automated Transport Systems: EuropeanInitiatives, Challenges and the Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215Angelos Amditis and Panagiotis Lytrivis

Envisioning Automated Vehicles within the Built Environment:2020, 2035, and 2050 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225Shannon Sanders McDonald and Caroline Rodier

Contents ix

Introduction: The Automated VehiclesSymposium 2014

Steven E. Shladover, Jane Lappin and Robert P. Denaro

Abstract This chapter introduces the Automated Vehicles Symposium 2014(AVS14), which was the original source for the papers that are included in thisvolume. The structure and organization of the meeting are explained, describing itsmixture of plenary talks, breakout discussions, technical demonstrations andancillary meetings. The chapter concludes with a discussion of broader trends andconclusions based on the outcome of AVS14.

1 Overview

The 2014 Automated Vehicles Symposium (AVS14) was organized and producedthrough a partnership between the National Academies of Science and EngineeringTransportation Research Board (TRB) and the Association for Unmanned VehicleSystems International (AUVSI) to serve their shared constituencies’ interests inunderstanding the impact, benefits, challenges, and risks of increasingly automatedroad vehicles and the environments in which they operate. AVS14 built on the 2013TRB Vehicle Automation workshop and the AUVSI 2013 Driverless Car Summitto bring together key government, industry, and academic experts from around the

S.E. Shladover (&)TRB Committee on Vehicle-Highway Automation, California PATH Program,Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USAe-mail: steve@path.berkeley.edu

J. LappinTRB Committee on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Volpe National TransportationSystems Center, Cambridge, MA, USAe-mail: Jane.Lappin@dot.gov

R.P. DenaroTRB Joint Subcommittee on Challenges and Opportunities for Road Vehicle Automation,ITS Consultant, Washington D.C., USAe-mail: bobdenaro@aol.com

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015G. Meyer and S. Beiker (eds.), Road Vehicle Automation 2,Lecture Notes in Mobility, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-19078-5_1

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world with the goal of identifying opportunities and challenges and advancingautomated vehicle (AV) research in a range of disciplines.

The symposium took place over five days, 14–18 July, with three days of coreactivities and ancillary sessions on the first and last days. The morning plenarysessions included presentations from the public sector, automakers and suppliers,and research institutes and the afternoons were devoted to ten breakout sessions fordeeper investigation and discussion of selected topics. Receptions and poster ses-sions followed the close of the breakout sessions on Tuesday and Wednesdayafternoons.

The breakout sessions were each organized by committees of TRB volunteers toaddress the following topics:

1. Evolutionary and Revolutionary Pathways to Automated Transit and SharedMobility

2. Near-Term Connected/Automated Technology Deployment Opportunities3. Regional Planning and Modeling Implications of Driverless Cars4. Personal Vehicle Automation Commercialization5. Roadway Management and Operations with Automated Vehicles6. Truck Automation Opportunities7. Legal Accelerators and Brakes8. The State and Future Direction of Automated-Vehicle Human Factors9. Technology Roadmap, Maturity and Performance: Operational Requirements

for Vehicle-Road Automation Systems and Components10. Road Infrastructure Needs of Connected-Automated Vehicles

The workshop also included three ancillary sessions that met before and fol-lowing the symposium:

• Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) International On-Road AutomatedVehicle Systems (ORAVS) Standards Committee

• U.S. DOT Listening Session• Friday Ancillary TRB Workshop: Envisioning Automated Vehicles within the

Built Environment: 2020, 2035, 2050

In keeping with TRB practice, the plenary and break-out sessions were plannedand produced by volunteers whose expertise and interests informed the content ofthe sessions.In keeping with AUVSI practice, the production of the symposium wasprofessionally managed by dedicated conference and logistics managers. TheAVS14 Executive Committee reflected this mix of the two organizations:

David Agnew, Continental Automotive, Member, AUVSI Board of Directors;Richard Bishop, AUVSI subject matter expert on automation; Richard Cunard,Senior Program Officer, Traffic and Operations Engineer, TRB; Bob Denaro, ITSConsultant, Chair, TRB Joint Subcommittee on the Challenges and Opportunitiesfor Road Vehicle Automation; Jane Lappin, Volpe National Transportation SystemsCenter, Chair, TRB Intelligent Transportation Systems Committee (AHB15); JamesMisener, Qualcomm, Symposium Demonstrations Coordinator; Steven Shladover,

2 S.E. Shladover et al.

University of California PATH Program, Chair, TRB Vehicle-HighwayAutomation Committee (AHB30); Michael Toscano, President and CEO,AUVSI; Lindsay Voss, Senior Program Development Manager, AUVSI.

2 Symposium Attendees

More than 570 attendees participated in the symposium. Attendees represented awide range of organizations from government and industry to the academic-,public-, and private-sector research communities. One of the strengths of themeeting was the breadth of interests represented, with 44 % from industry, 22 %from public agencies and 34 % from academic and research institutions.

These participants represented disciplines ranging from engineering to psy-chology to law. Sixteen countries were represented among these participants:Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, theNetherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Sweden, South Korea, the United Kingdom andthe United States.

3 Survey of AVS14 Registrants

Dr. Steven Underwood from the University of Michigan-Dearborn administered anon-line survey among the AVS14 registrants regarding their opinions about likelyinitial deployment dates for automated vehicles at SAE Levels 3, 4, and 5. Thissurvey was administered to “take the temperature” of the group as a whole so thatthe symposium attendees would have an indication of the thinking of their peersbefore embarking on their breakout discussions. Because of the limited number ofresponses and the self-selected character of the respondents it should not beinterpreted as an authoritative prediction of future developments in road vehicleautomation.

Of the 200 respondents to the survey, 54 % believe that conditional automation,such as that represented by SAE level 3, is not practical. Approximately two-thirdsof respondents believe that vehicle-to-vehicle communication is necessary for SAELevel 5 automation. Approximately half of the attendees responding believe thatpedestrian zone shuttles, freeway driving, and truck platooning will be introducedbefore 2020. Figure 1 shows the distribution of AVS14 survey responses regardingthe periods of initial deployment of specific vehicle automation systems. Note thatwhile very few respondents considered urban driving or taxi automation to neverhappen, that opinion changed when asked if they trusted an automated vehicle totake their child or grandchild to school!

Introduction: The Automated Vehicles Symposium 2014 3

4 Demonstrations

Direct experience with automated vehicles and their components makes a strongimpression. Demonstrations were first introduced at the 2013 automated vehiclesworkshop at Stanford [1], and participants rated their experience with the vehiclesas one of the highlights of that workshop. The following snapshots summarize thedemonstrations at AVS14 (Fig. 2).

5 Keynote Talks

Dr. Ralf Herrtwich, Director of Driver Assistance and Chassis Systems, Researchand Advanced Engineering Group from Daimler Automotive Group, spoke aboutThe Promises and Pitfalls of Vehicle Automation. Key points from his talkincluded:

• In the near term, the focus of automation is to enhance existing products butlonger term automation may ultimately reshape and transform mobility.

• Level 2 is arguably the safest form of automation, but only if drivers payattention. The driver is supposed to be in the control loop and able to supervisethe system. The problem is that drivers are increasingly distracted.

• For the near term, because of technology constraints, it will be necessary to limituse of automation to certain operating conditions (e.g., roads, speeds, weather).

Fig. 1 Distribution of survey responses regarding introduction of vehicle automation capabilities

4 S.E. Shladover et al.

• While avoidance of crashes may be a realized benefit of automation, main-taining the human record of 7.5 million kilometers of travel between crashes is asignificant challenge.

• Safe driving is not just about crash avoidance, it is also about obeying trafficrules and understanding when a red light is coming up ahead.

• There is a need for a validation debate—how do we ensure a vehicle is safe inany traffic conditions in which it could be used by the customer?

• Level 4 automation features such as automatic valet parking would significantlychange the economics of car sharing services.

Fig. 2 Demonstrations at AVS14

Introduction: The Automated Vehicles Symposium 2014 5

Don Norman, the Director of the Design Lab at the University of California SanDiego and author of “The Design of Future Things, gave the Clifford NassMemorial Lecture: The Human Side of Automation. Key points from his lectureincluded:

• Incorporate human factors considerations into the system design from day one.• We want collaboration between the person and the technology driving the

vehicle.• People are creative, flexible, imaginative, and handle unexpected events, while

machines, in contrast, like control, accuracy, and consistency.• If 95 % of crashes today are attributed to human error, it means that humans are

being asked to do things they are not good at.• Aviation is still not fully automated.• A need exists to develop more natural ways of communicating between vehicles

and drivers, such as haptic warnings for lane departure.• “Technology is designed for people. It isn’t enough to be a technologist, you

have to understand people.”• He is in favor of full automation; the problem is when we have partial

automation.

6 Plenary Panel Sessions

Vehicle Manufacturers and Suppliers I:

• Richard Bishop, Moderator• Dr. Jan Becker, Director, Automated Driving Engineering, Robert Bosch, LLC• Cris Pavloff, Advanced Technology Engineer, Technology Office, BMW Group• Dr. Maarten Sierhuis, Director, Nissan Research Center Silicon Valley

Digital Infrastructure:

• Bob Denaro, Moderator• Ogi Redzic, Vice President, Connected Driving, HERE/Nokia• Andrew Chatham, Principal Engineer, Self-Driving Cars, Google[X]

Technology Challenges:

• Dr. Steven Shladover, Moderator• Dr. Alberto Broggi, Vislab, University of Parma• Dr. Markos Papageorgiou, Director, Dynamic Systems and Simulation

Laboratory, Technical University of Crete• Dr. John Leonard, Professor of Mechanical and Ocean Engineering,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology• Michael Wagner, Carnegie Mellon University

6 S.E. Shladover et al.

Vehicle Manufacturers and Suppliers II

• Richard Bishop, Moderator• John Capp, Director, Electrical and Controls Systems Research and Active

Safety Technology Strategy, General Motors• Steffen Linkenbach, Director, Systems and Technology, North American

Region, Continental• Patrice Reilhac, Innovation and Collaborative Research Director, Comfort and

Driving Assistance Business Group, Valeo• Dr. Chris Urmson, Director, Self-Driving Cars, Google[X]

Societal and Non-Technical Challenges

• Jane Lappin, Moderator• Ginger Goodin, Texas A&M Transportation Institute• Michael Gucwa, Management Science and Engineering Department, Stanford

University• Dr. Ken Laberteaux, Toyota Research Institute North America• Mike Van Nieuwkuyk, Executive Director of Global Automotive, J.D. Power

and Associates.

7 Plenary Presentation Sessions

Automation Project Updates from Europe:

• CityMobil2: Automated Road Transport Systems in Urban Environments, Dr.Adriano Alessandrini, Universita degli Studi di Roma

• The AdaptIVe Project on Research, Legal, and Deployment Issues in Europe forAutomated Vehicles, Dr. Angelos Amditis, Research Director, I-Sense Group,Institute of Communication and Computer Systems

• The Drive Me Project: Autonomous Driving by Volvo, AndersTylman-Mikiewicz, General Manager, Volvo Monitoring and Concept Center,Volvo Car Corporation

Public Sector Addresses:

• Kevin Dopart, Program Manager for Connected Vehicle Safety and Automation,Intelligent Transportation Systems Joint Program Office, U.S. Department ofTransportation

• Nathaniel Beuse, Associate Administrator, Vehicle Safety Research, NationalHighway Traffic Safety Administration

• Patrick Davis, Director, Vehicle Technologies Office, Energy Efficiency andRenewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy

Introduction: The Automated Vehicles Symposium 2014 7

• Joakim Svensson, Director, Volvo Group Trucks Technology (on behalf of theEuropean Commission)

• Takumi Yamamoto, Director, ITS Policy and Program Office, Road Bureau,Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Japan

• Dr. Bernard C. Soriano, Deputy Director, Risk Management, CaliforniaDepartment of Motor Vehicles.

8 Breakout Sessions

The breakout sessions covered a wide range of topics, both technical and institu-tional, and also adopted diverse formats depending on the preferences of theirorganizers. Some were organized as mini-conferences to provide updates on thelatest technical findings, while others had more interactive discussions to identifyresearch needs or to explore specific topics in depth. Some of the primary obser-vations from those breakouts, by session, follow. For greater detail from the pro-ceedings of each of the breakout sessions, please consult http://www.auvsi.org/avs2014/proceedings for the session materials and summaries.

8.1 Near-Term Connected/Automated TechnologyDeployment Opportunities

There is a need for deployment champions, especially in state departments oftransportation. They will have to reach out to other agencies within their states atmultiple levels of government and to consumers to explain the benefits that con-sumers and the general public as a whole will gain.

8.2 Road Infrastructure Needs for Connected/AutomatedVehicles

Digital mapping was identified as an important need for both the public and privatesectors, to solve problems on both vehicle and infrastructure sides. Improvements toroadway markings, signage and lighting can be beneficial to both vehicle andinfrastructure operators, and will benefit regular drivers using the roads as well asthe automated driving systems. Common standards will need to be developed todefine the digital data elements and the attributes of the signage and markings sothat they can be easily understood by all.

8 S.E. Shladover et al.

8.3 Roadway Management and Operations with AutomatedVehicles

Connected vehicle technology (V2V and V2I/I2V communication and cooperation)is needed to enable automation to improve traffic flow. New modeling and simu-lation tools will be needed to support design and evaluation of transportationsystems when automation is deployed because of the changes it will produce intraffic flow dynamics. When the vehicle technology advances to support entirelydriverless vehicle operations, new traffic management challenges are expected.

8.4 The State and Future Direction of Automated VehicleHuman Factors

The key challenges are associated with deterring misuse and abuse of the auto-mation functions by drivers, managing the transfers of control between the auto-mation system and the driver, and trying to ensure that the driver can retain somevigilance while monitoring the operation of an automation system that is actuallydoing the driving. There was a lot of emphasis on human-centered designapproaches that make it more likely that drivers will continuously understand theirroles and responsibilities.

8.5 Evolutionary and Revolutionary Pathways to AutomatedTransit and Shared Mobility

The main opportunities for automation in transit were seen to be in automation ofbuses, safety warning and crash avoidance systems for buses, and more highlyautomated systems to provide first mile and last mile access to and from line-haultransit systems. Transit was seen as the best environment in which to introduceautomation, but with the caution that automation also blurs the traditional bound-aries among the different modes of transportation.

8.6 Truck Automation Opportunities

There is a need to clarify the business cases for investing in truck automation onboth the public and private sector sides. Standards are needed to support interop-erability of trucks that are electronically coupled into platoons, and standardmethods need to be developed and adopted for measuring the energy savings thatcan be gained from truck platooning.

Introduction: The Automated Vehicles Symposium 2014 9

8.7 Personal Vehicle Automation Commercialization

This session focused on the business case for private purchase of automatedvehicles. The safety benefits are expected to be gained largely from the advanceddriver assistance systems at the lower levels of automation (warnings and controlassistance). For commercialization of higher levels of automation for light dutyvehicles, more attention needs to be given to the market for shared vehicles in fleetsthan for personal vehicle ownership.

8.8 Technology Roadmap, Maturity and Performance

The technology requirements cannot be specified for automation in general, butrather specific use cases need to be defined as the starting point for definition ofsystem requirements. The major challenges are seen in definition of standards,testing methods and certification.

8.9 Legal Accelerators and Brakes

The legal issues could both help and hurt the deployment of automation systems.Work is needed on defining what kind of laws need to be made uniform nationallyor internationally to facilitate widespread deployment of automation. It is still notentirely clear how to manage risks and the associated liability.

8.10 Regional Planning and Modeling Implicationsof Driverless Cars

The big uncertainties are associated with how travel behavior (trip-making choices)will change when drivers are able to do other things at the higher levels of auto-mation and the disutility of travel time is likely to decrease significantly. There aremany unknowns at this point, including the degree of acceptance of automationamong the general public.

8.11 Envisioning Automated Vehicles Within the BuiltEnvironment in 2020, 2035 and 2050

This was the topic of a special full-day workshop at the end of the Symposium,bringing together a cross-section of Symposium participants from multiple breakout

10 S.E. Shladover et al.

groups and an outside group of architects and urban planners for whom the subjectwas new. They explored a wide range of possible outcomes, from utopian todystopian, depending on how the automation technology is actually deployed.

9 Cross-Cutting Themes

With this being the third in the series of annual automation meetings for both TRBand AUVSI, it became possible to discern a few general trends across the three-yearperiod. These are a product of maturing of thinking about the topic of automationand some gradual convergence in the thinking of the broad community of stake-holders in this topic area.

9.1 Convergence on Three Primary Directions

There was some convergence on three primary directions for the initial deploymentof automation within the next decade:

1. Passenger cars driving on limited-access highways, enabling the driver totemporarily disengage from driving to do other things, while being prepared tointervene when necessary (SAE Level 2 or 3). This will occur at both low speed(e.g., traffic jam assist) and high speed (e.g., highway cruise automation).

2. Truck platoons driving on limited-access highways, possibly even on dedicatedtruck lanes in locations where those become available (SAE Level 1 or 2).

3. Low-speed shuttles operating without any driver onboard in carefully con-strained campus or urban environments, largely segregated from other vehiculartraffic (SAE Level 4).

9.2 Increasing Recognition of Human Factors Challenges

Awareness has been growing about the technological challenges to ensuring safeoperation of a vehicle when a driver is not available to serve as the safety backupand about the human factors challenges of transitioning control to a driver who hasbeen disengaged from the driving task. These challenges arose in discussionsthroughout the Symposium, since they affect the viability of any vehicle automationuse case. Some speakers suggested that an integrated driver monitoring system mayhelp to keep the driver aware and prepared to take control.

Introduction: The Automated Vehicles Symposium 2014 11

9.3 Communications and Enabling Technologies

More attention has been devoted to the use of V2V and I2V/V2I communications tosupport the higher levels of automation and to enable it to produce transportationsystem-level benefits. Likewise, digital mapping and positioning technologies havealso been gaining more attention, with varying opinions on its usefulness to supportautomation based on its reliability. There is a growing recognition that road vehicleautomation will require the integration of a broad spectrum of technologicalcapabilities, rather than any single technological advance. Technological challengesfor higher levels of automation continue to be significant in a variety of hardwareand software domains. Some of the vehicle technological challenges can be miti-gated through reliance on certified or protected roadway infrastructure.

9.4 New Transportation Services

The shared-use concepts for vehicles gained substantially more attention, particu-larly in the context of automated repositioning of empty vehicles, making vehiclesharing business concepts more economically viable. This has also permeatedthinking about transportation as a service provided to users on a per-trip basis ratherthan a vehicle purchase or lease plus annual insurance and operating costs.

9.5 Assessing Societal Impact

While it continues to be difficult to reach agreement on the impacts of increasinglyautomated vehicles, it is clear that there will be meaningful societal impact in theareas of the environment, economy, land use, personal mobility, and social equity.Future scenarios have emerged as a facilitative analytical method to identifypotential conflicts between individual gain and societal benefit and to assess ben-efits, disbenefits, and costs.

9.6 State and Local Issues in the U.S.

A handful of states and municipalities are aggressively addressing the challenge ofcertifying and licensing automated vehicles. These lead adopters see near-termopportunities for their economy and traffic safety, and overall competitiveness. Butthe greater majority of states and localities are focused on basic funding and othercore issues unrelated to vehicle technology. National leadership from the USDOT,

12 S.E. Shladover et al.

from national associations representing key transportation constituencies, and inpartnership with the lead adopters, will help to leverage the experience of thesepioneers towards harmonized road vehicle automation policies and regulations.

9.7 Consumer and Market Acceptance

Great interest was expressed in the need to understand consumer perceptions andattitudes toward automation, including acceptance of relinquishing vehicle controland willingness to pay for different levels of vehicle capability. There is alsogrowing concern about the mismatch between consumer expectations andreal-world technology capabilities.

9.8 Deployment Challenges

There has been growing focus on defining the specific context for automationsystems, since technological constraints limit the ability of any single system towork on all roads, under all conditions, from any origin to any destination. This isparalleled by increasing recognition of the need to determine what processes can beapplied to verify and certify the ability of an automation system to operate safely inthe context for which it was designed.

Reference

1. Shladover SE et al (2014) Introduction: the transportation research board’s 2013 workshop onroad vehicle automation. In: Meyer G, Beiker S (eds) Road vehicle automation. Springer, Cham

Introduction: The Automated Vehicles Symposium 2014 13