Chapter20GirdingforWar:TheNorthandtheSouth,
1861–1865
I.TheMenaceofSecession
• Lincoln'sinauguraladdress:• Firm,yetconciliatory• NoconflictunlessSouthprovokedit• Secessionwhollyimpractical• NorthandSouthconjoinedtwins,boundinseparablytogether
– Secessionwouldcreatenewcontroversies:• WhatshareoffederaldebtshouldSouthbeforcedtotake?
I.TheMenaceofSecession (cont.)
• WhatportionofjointlyheldfederalterritoriesshouldConfederatestatesbeallotted?• Howwouldfugitiveslaveissueberesolved?
– AunitedUnitedStateshadbeenparamountrepublicinWesternHemisphere:• IfU.S.A.brokeintotwohostileparts,Europecould:
– Transplanttheirconceptofbalanceofpower– Playdivide-&-conquergame—creatingadis-UnitedStates– DefyMonroeDoctrineandseizeterritoryinWesternHemisphere
II.SouthCarolinaAssailsFortSumter
– IssueofdividedUnioncametoaheadovermatteroffederalfortsinSouth:• Assecedingstatesleft,theyseizedU.S.arsenals,mints,andotherpublicpropertywithintheirborders• FortSumter,inCharlestonharbor
– Withfortlowonsupplies,Lincolnadoptedmiddle-of-theroadsolution
– HenotifiedSouthCaroliniansthatanexpeditionwouldbesenttoprovisionthegarrison,thoughnottoreinforceit
– Hepromised“noefforttothrowinmen,arms,andammunition”
– ToSoutherneyes,“provision”stillspelled“reinforcement”
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II.SouthCarolinaAssailsFortSumter(cont.)
• UnionnavalforcestartedonitswaytoFortSumter—amoveSouthregardedasactofaggression• April12,1861:Caroliniansopenedfireonfort• After34-hourbombardment,noliveslost,dazedgarrisonsurrendered• Northelectrifiedandprovokedtofighting:
– Fortwaslost,butUnionsaved– Lincolnturnedtacticaldefeatintoacalculatedvictory
II.SouthCarolinaAssailsFortSumter(cont.)
– Lincoln(April15)issuedcalltostatesfor75,000militiamen:• Volunteerssprangtocolors• April19and27,presidentproclaimedblockadeofSouthernseaports• CallfortroopsarousedtheSouth• Lincolnnowwagingwar—fromSouthernviewanaggressivewar—onConfederacy• Virginia,ArkansasTennesseereluctantlyjoinedConfederacy,asdidNorthCarolina(seeMap20.1)
II.SouthCarolinaAssailsFortSumter(cont.)
– Sevenstatesbecameelevenas“submissionists”and“Unionshriekers”wereovercome
– Richmond,Virginia,replacedMontgomery,Alabama,asConfederatecapital—toonearWashingtonforstrategiccomfortoneitherside
Map 20-1 p423
III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood
• Borderstates:–Missouri,Kentucky,Maryland,andDelaware=onlyslavestatesleftinUnion
– Contained:• WhitepopulationmorethanhalfthatofentireConfederacy• WithMaryland,Kentucky,andMissouri,manufacturingcapacityofConfederacywouldhavedoubled
III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood(cont.)
• StrategicOhioRiverflowedalongnorthernborderofKentuckyandWestVirginia(“mountainwhite”areathattoreitselffromVirginiainmid-1861)• Twonavigabletributaries,CumberlandandTennesseeRivers,penetrateddeepintoDixie– AreaproducedmuchofConfederacy'sgrain,gunpowder,andiron
– TheBorderStates• Lincolnsuccessfullyusedmethodsofdubiouslegality• InMaryland,hedeclaredmartiallaw• DeployedUniontroopstowesternVirginiaandMissouri
III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood(cont.)
– StatementofNorth'swaraimsprofoundlyinfluencedbyneedtoholdBorderStates:• Lincolndeclaredhewasnotfightingtofreeslaves• Antislaverywarextremelyunpopularin“Butternut”regionofsouthernOhio,Indiana,Illinois– AreasettledbySouthernerswhocarriedracialprejudiceswiththem
– Hot-bedofpro-SouthernsentimentwithinUnion• Wardidnotbeginbetweenslavesoilandfreesoil,butbeganaswarforUnion—withslaveholdersonbothsides
III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood(cont.)
– SlaveryalsoshapedcharacterofwarinWest:• InIndianTerritory,mostCherokees,Creeks,Choctaws,Chickasaws,andSeminolessidedwithConfederacy• SomeIndians,esp.Cherokees,ownedslaves• Tosecuretheirloyalty,Confederategovernmentagreedtotakeoverfederalpaymentstotribes• Inreturn,tribessuppliedtroops• SomeCherokeesandmostPlainsIndianssidedwithUnion
III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood(cont.)
– Conflictbetween“BillyYank”and“JohnnyReb”abrothers'war(seepp.426-427)
–ManyNorthernvolunteersfromSouthernstates–ManySouthernvolunteersfromNorthernstates– FromBorderStates,onebrotherrodenorth(Blue)andonebrotherrodesouth(Gray)
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IV.TheBalanceofForces
– Atfirst,Southseemedtohavegreatadvantages:• Couldfightdefensivelybehindinteriorlines• NorthhadtoinvadevastConfederacy,conquerit,anddragitbackintoUnion• Southonlyneedadrawtowinitsindependence• Southfoughtforself-determinationandpreservation• Southatfirstenjoyedhighmorale• Militarily,Southhadmosttalentedofficers,esp.Lee
IV.TheBalanceofForces(cont.)
• OrdinarySouthernersaccustomedtomanaginghorsesandbearingarms• Southseemedhandicappedbyscarcityoffactories,butmanagedtoobtainsufficientweaponry
– SouthernDrawbacks:• Graveshortagesofshoes,uniforms,andblankets• EconomywasSouth'sgreatestweakness,butNorth'sgreateststrength• Northnotonlyahugefarmbutalsoasprawlingfactory(seeTable20.1)
Table 20-1 p425
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IV.TheBalanceofForces(cont.)
• Yankeesboasted¾ofnation'swealthand¾ofits30,000milesofrailroads• Northcontrolledseaswithsuperiornavy• SeapowerenabledNorthtoexchangehugequantitiesofgrainformunitionsandsuppliesfromEurope• Unionenjoyedmuchlargerreserveofmanpower:
– 22millionpopulation– Secedingstates9million,including3.5millionslaves
• AddingtoNorth'sadvantages,EuropeanimmigrantscontinuedtopourintoNorth(seeTable20.2)
Table 20-2 p428
IV.TheBalanceofForces(cont.)
• 1/5ofUnionforceswereforeign-born• InitiallyordinaryNorthernboyslesspreparedthanSoutherncounterpartsformilitarylife• Northmuchlessfortunateinitshighercommanders• Lincolnusedtrial-and-errormethodstofindmosteffectiveleaders,finallyuncoveringUlyssesS.Grant• Northernstrengthsovertimeproveddecisive• Earlyinwar,Confederatewinquitepossible
IV.TheBalanceofForces(cont.)
– Fourfascinatingmight-have-beens:• IfBorderStateshadseceded• IfuncertainstatesofupperMississippiValleyhadturnedagainstUnion• IfwaveofNortherndefeatismhaddemandedanarmistice• IfBritainand/orFrancehadbrokenUnion'snavalblockadeofSouthernports• ThenSouthmightwellhavewon• Butasfourfailedtomaterialize,Southcouldnothopetowin
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V.DethroningKingCotton
• Successfulrevolutionsgenerallysucceedbecauseofforeignintervention:– OfConfederacy'spotentialassets,foreigninterventionwasmostimportant
– Europe'srulingclassesopenlysympathetictoConfederatecause:• HadlongabhorredAmericandemocraticexperiment• Cherishedfellow-feelingforSouth'ssemifeudal,aristocraticsocialorder
V.DethroningKingCotton (cont.)
–MostworkingpeopleinBritainpulledforNorth• HadreadUncleTom'sCabinandsensedthatwarmightextinguishslaveryifNorthwon
– Fearingoppositionandhome,EnglandandFrancedecidednottochallengeUnion'sblockade
– BritishtextilemillsdependedonSouthfor75%oftheircottonsupplies
V.DethroningKingCotton (cont.)
–WhydidKingCottonfailSouth?• Strongproductioninprewaryears,1857-1860• ExportshadpiledupsurplusesinBritishwarehouses• OnlylaterweremanyBritishworkersunemployed• Directeffectsof“cottonfamine”relievedby:
– UnionsentfoodstuffstofeedunemployedBritishworkers– UnionvictoriesgaveNorthcottontoshiptoBritain– Confederatesransomecottonthroughblockades– CottongrowersinEgyptandIndia,respondingtohighprices,increasedoutputandcapturedshareofworldcottonmarkets
V.DethroningKingCotton (cont.)
– BoomingwarindustriesinEngland,whichsuppliedNorthandSouth,relievedunemployment
• KingWheatandKingCorn—themonarchsofNorthernagriculture—provedmorepotentpotentatesthanKingCotton• NorthproducedbountifulcropsofgrainandharvestedthemwithMcCormick'smechanicalreaper• becauseofbadharvests,BritainforcedtoimporthugequantitiesofgrainfromAmerica• Englandneededaccesstofoodmorethanaccesstocotton
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VI.TheDecisivenessofDiplomacy
• Trentaffair(1861)—– UnionwarshipinCubanwatersstoppedBritishmailsteamer,Trent• TooktwoConfederatediplomatsboundforEurope• Britonsoutraged• Warpreparationsbuzzed• Red-coatedtroopsembarkedforCanada• Lincolnreleasedtwoprisonersbecausenotwanttofacetwowarsatthesametime
VI.TheDecisivenessDiplomacy(cont.)
• Alabama—– SecondmajorcrisisinAnglo-Americanrelations:• Non-neutralbuildinginBritainofConfederatecommerce-raiders– Alabamaescapedin1862toPortugueseAzores,loadedweaponsandcrewsfromtwoBritishshipsthatfollowedit
– FlyingConfederateflagandofficeredbyConfederates,itwasmannedbyBritonsandneverenteredaConfederateport
• BritainwaschiefnavalbaseofConfederacy
VI.TheDecisivenessDiplomacy(cont.)
• “Britishpirate”capturedoversixtyvessels• AlabamafinallyacceptedchallengefromaUnioncruiseroffcoastofFrancein1864andwasdestroyed• IssueofBritish-builtConfederateraidersstayedalive• MinisterCharlesFrancisAdamsproddedBritishtoseethatallowingsuchshipswasdangerousprecedent:– Somedaycouldbeusedagainstthem
VI.TheDecisivenessDiplomacy(cont.)
• Britaindidnotremainneutral:– Confederatecommerce-destroyers,chieflyBritish-built,capturedover250Yankeeships
– SeverelycrippledAmericanmerchantmarine• AngryAmericanslookednorthandtalkedaboutgrabbingCanadawhenwarover
VII.ForeignFlare-ups
• FinalAnglo-Americancrisis:– Lairdrams—twoConfederatewarshipsbeingconstructedbyJohnLairdandSonsinGreatBritain
– DesignedtodestroyUnionwoodenshipswithironramsandlarge-caliberguns
–MinisterAdamswarned“thisiswar”ifshipsreleased
– Londonrelented;boughtthetwoshipsforRoyalNavy
VII.ForeignFlare-ups(cont.)
• Britain:– Agreedin1871tosubmitAlabamadisputetoarbitration
– In1872paidAmericanclaimants$15.5millionfordamagescausedbycommerce-raiders
– AmericanrancoralsodirectedatCanada:• ConfederateagentsplottedtoburnNortherncities• OneConfederateraidintoVermontleftthreebanksplunderedandoneAmericancitizendead
VII.ForeignFlare-up (cont.)
• DominionofCanada1867:– TwogreatnationsemergedfromfieryfurnaceofAmericanCivilWar:• OnewasreunitedUnitedStates• OtherwasaunitedCanada
• EmperorNapoleonIII:• DispatchedaFrencharmytooccupyMexicoCity• InstalledapuppetgovernmentwithAustrianarchdukeMaximilianasemperorofMexico
VII.ForeignFlare-up (cont.)
• BothactsflagrantviolationsofMonroeDoctrine– UnitedStatesaidedresistancemovementledbyMexico'snationalhero:BenitoJuarez• AfterCivilWarover,AmericanspreparedtoheadsouthtoMexico• Napoleonrealizedhisgamblewasdoomed• Abandonedpuppetgov'tin1867• MaximilianthenexecutedbyMexicanfiringsquad
VIII.PresidentDavisVersusPresidentLincoln
• Confederategovernmentweakness:– Itsconstitutioncontainedonedeadlydefect• Createdbysecession,itcouldnotlogicallydenyfuturesecessiontoitsconstituentstates
– JeffersonDaviswantedastrongcentralgovernment,butopposedbystates'righters
– Richmondencountereddifficultypersuadingsometroopstoserveoutsidetheirownstate
VIII.PresidentDavisVersusPresidentLincoln(cont.)
• Davisneverenjoyedpersonalpopularityandwasoftenatloggerheadswithhiscongress– Serioustalkofimpeachment– Heoverworkedhimself– Taskprovedbeyondhisabilities
VIII.PresidentDavisVersusPresidentLincoln(cont.)
• Lincolnhadhistroubles:– LessexperiencedbutmoreflexiblethanDavis– Abletorelaxatcriticaltimes– “OldAbe”grewaswardraggedon– Tactful,quiet,patient,yetfirm– Developedgeniusforinterpretingandleadingficklepublicopinion
– DemonstratedcharitablenesstowardSouthandforbearancetowardbackbitingcolleagues
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IX.LimitationsonWartimeLiberties
• CongressgenerallyacceptedorconfirmedLincoln'squestionablewartimeacts• Lincolndidnotexpecthisironhandedauthoritytocontinueoncewarended• Congressnotinsessionwhenwarstarted,soLincolngatheredreinsintohisownhands– Brushingasidelegalobjections,heproclaimedablockade(laterupheldbySupremeCourt)
– ArbitrarilyincreasedsizeofFederalarmy—somethingonlyCongresscandounderConstitution(seeArt.I,Sec.VIII,para12);Congresslaterapproved
IX.LimitationsonWartimeLiberties(cont.)
– DirectedTreasurytoadvance$2millionwithoutappropriationofsecurityto3privatecitizensformilitarypurpose:» GraveirregularitycontrarytoConstitution(seeArt.I,Sec.IX,para.7)
– Suspendedprivilegeofwritofhabeascorpussoanti-Unionistscouldbearrested» DefieddubiousrulingbychiefjusticethathabeascorpuscouldbesetasideonlywithauthorizationofCongress(seeArt.I.,Sec.IX,para.2)
– Hisregimewasguiltyofmanyotherhighhandedacts• DavislessablethanLincolntoexercisearbitrarypower,mainlybecauseofstates'righters
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X.VolunteersandDraftees:North andSouth
• Wardemandedmen—lotsofmen:– Northernarmiesfirstmannedsolelybyvolunteers• Eachstateassignedaquotabasedonpopulation
– 1863Congresspassedfirstconscriptionlaw• Grosslyunfairtopoor• Couldhireasubstituteorpay$300forexemptionrights• DraftopposedinDemocraticstrongholdsofnorth,esp.NewYorkdraftriotsof1863
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X.VolunteersandDraftees:NorthandSouth(cont.)
• Elsewhereinnorth,conscriptionmetwithresentmentandoccasionalminorriot• 90%ofUniontroopswerevolunteers• Socialandpatrioticpressuresaswellasgenerousbounties• Desertersstillplentiful—Unionarmyrecordedabout200,000deserters• Confederateauthoritiesplaguedwithdesertionproblemofsimilardimensions
X.VolunteersandDraftees:NorthandSouth(cont.)
• TheSouth:– Reliedmainlyonvolunteersatfirst:• MuchlesspopulousthanNorth(seeTable20.3)• Richmondresortedtoconscriptionin1862(nearly1yearbeforeUnion)• Robbedboth“cradleandgrave”(draftage17to50)
– Confederatedraftworkedseriousinjustices
Table 20-3 p434
X.VolunteersandDraftees:NorthandSouth(cont.)
• Amancouldhireasubstituteorpurchaseexemption• Slaveownersoroverseerswith20slavescouldalsoclaimexemption• Confederationconscriptionagentsavoidedareasinhibitedbysharpshootingmountainwhites
XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar
• Northerneconomy:– Hadaneasiertimefundingwar:• ExcisetaxesontobaccoandalcoholincreasedbyCongress• Incometaxleviedforfirsttime• Customsreceiptsprovidedimportantrevenue
– Congress1861passedMorrillTariffAct:• Increaseddutiessome5to10percent• Soonincreasedmorebynecessitiesofwar
XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)
– Partlytoraiserevenue– Partlytoprovidemoreprotectionforprosperousmanufacturershitbynewinternaltaxes
• ProtectivetariffbecameidentifiedwithRepublicanparty,asmostindustrialistswereRepublican
– Greenbacks:• Washingtonissuedpapermoney,totalingnearly$450millionatfacevalue• Printing-presscurrencyinadequatelysupportedbygold,hencevaluedeterminedbynation'scredit• Inflationundercutvalueofpapermoney
XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)
– Bonds=majorsourceofwarfunding:• Governmentnetted$2,621,916,786fromsaleofbonds• Methodsofsalethrough“drives”andpayrolldeductionsnotyetdevised• TreasuryforcedtomarketbondsthroughprivatebankinghouseofJayCookeandCompany,whichreceivedcommissionofthree-eightsof1%• Withprofitsandpatriotismatstake,bankerssucceededinmakingeffectiveappealstocitizenpurchasers
XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)
• NationalBankingSystem– Financiallandmarkofthewar• AuthorizedbyCongressin1863• Launchedasstimulanttosaleofgovernmentbonds• Alsoestablishedstandardbank-notecurrency• BanksthatjoinedNationalBankingSystemcouldbuygovernmentbondsandissuesoundpapermoneybackedbythem
XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)
– Firstsignificantsteptowardaunifiedbankingnetworksince1836:• Existedfor50years,untilreplacedbyFederalReserveSystemin1913
• Southernfinancialwoes:– CustomdutiescutoffbyUnionblockade– Confederatebondssoldamountedto$400million– Increasedtaxessharply– Imposed10%levyonfarmproduce
XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)
– Shortonrevenue,governmentforcedtoprintblue-backedpapermoney
– “Runawayinflation”occurredwithtreasurynotes,totalingmorethan$1billion
– Confederatedollareventuallyworthonly1.6cents– InflationrateinConfederacyeventually9,000%– Contrastonly80%forUnion
XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom
• WartimeprosperityinNorthwaslittleshortofmiraculous:– Newfactories,shelteredbynewprotectivetariffs,mushroomed
– Soaringpricespincheddaylaborerandwhite-collarworkertosomeextent
–Manufacturersandbusinesspeoplerakedin“thefortunesofwar”
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XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)
– CivilWarbredamillionaireclassforfirsttimeinAmericanhistory:• GraftmoreflagrantinNorthpartlybecausetherewasmoretosteal• Greedyputprofitsabovepatriotism
– NewlaborsavingmachineryenabledNorthtoexpandeconomically:• Eventhoughwardrainedoffmanpower• Sewingmachinewroughtwondersinfabricatinguniformsandmilitaryfootwear
XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)
• Marriageofmilitaryneedandinnovativemachineryendedproductionofcustom-tailoredclothing– Graduatedstandardmeasurementsintroduced
• Mechanicalreapersnumbered250,000by1865– Releasedtensofthousandsoffarmboysforarmyandfedthemtheirfieldrations
– Producedvastsurplusesofgrainforexport– HelpeddethroneKingCotton– Providedprofitstobuymunitionsandsuppliesfromabroad– ContributedtoprosperityofNorth—aprosperitythatenabledUniontoweatherwar
XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)
• Otherindustrieshummed:– Discoveryofpetroleum(1859)• “Fifty-Niners”toPennsylvania• Birthof“petroleumplutocracy”and“coaloilJohnnies”
– 300,000pioneerscontinuedtopushwestward• HomesteadAct(1862)
– Onlyocean-carryingtradesufferedcripplingsetback
XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)
• CivilWarawomen'swar,too:• Womenoftenassumedmen'sjobsasmenwenttowar• Washington,D.C.,500womenbecamegovernmentclerks,withmorethan100inTreasuryDepartment• Countlesswomendrawnintoindustrialemployment• Somesteppeduptofightingfront:
– Dr.ElizabethBlackwell,America's1stfemalephysicianhelpedorganizeU.S.SanitaryCommissiontoassistUnionarmies
XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)
– U.S.SanitaryCommission:• Trainednurses,collectedmedicalsupplies,andequippedhospitals• Helpedwomenacquireorganizationalskillsandself-confidencethatwouldpropelwomen'smovement• ClaraBartonandDorotheaDixhelpedtransformnursingintorespectfulprofession• EquallyrenownedwasSallyTompkins,whoraninfirmaryforwoundedConfederates
–Womenorganizedbazaarsandfairstoraisemoney
XIII.ACrushedCottonKingdom
• Southfoughttopointofexhaustion:– Suffereddestructionofwarandsuffocationofblockade
– Possessed30%ofnationalwealth(1860),Southclaimedonly12%in1870
– CivilWarsqueezedaverageSouthernincometo2/5ofNorthernlevel(hadbeen2/3in1860)
– Bidforindependenceexacteddevastatingcost
XIII.ACrushedCottonKingdom(cont.)
– Transportationcollapsed:• Driventoeconomiccannibalismofpullinguprailstorepairmainones
–Windowweightsmelteddownintobullets– Gourdsreplaceddishes
• Toend,Southmusteredremarkablespirit:–Womenbuoyedupmenfolk– Proposalmadethatwomencutlonghairandsellitabroad,butstoppedbyblockade
XIII.ACrushedCottonKingdom(cont.)
–WomentookprideindenyingthemselvessilksandsatinsofNorthernsisters
• Atwar'send,North'sCaptainsofIndustryhadconqueredSouth'sLordsoftheManor
• Cottoncapitalismlostouttoindustrialcapitalism
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