Glass1.doc

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Glass

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This article is about the material. For other uses, see Glass (disambiguation.

!oldavite,a natural glass formed bymeteorimpact, from "esednice,"ohemia

#oman $age $upfrom the %th century $&
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#mw-navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#mw-navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besednicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besednicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cage_cuphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cage_cuphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kosta-window.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kosta-window.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_diatretglas.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_diatretglas.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moldavite_Besednice.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moldavite_Besednice.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#mw-navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besednicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cage_cup


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'ldest mouthblo)n )indo)glass in *)eden (+osta Glasbruk, -%. /n the middle isthepontil markfrom the glassblo)er0spipe.

Glassis an amorphous(noncrystalline solid material that e1hibits a glass transition,)hich is the reversible transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions )ithin

semicrystalline materials from a hard and relatively brittle state into a molten or rubberlike state. Glasses are typicallybrittleand can be optically transparent. The most familiartype of glass, used for centuries in )indo)sand drinking vessels, is sodalime glass,)hich is composed of about -23 *ilicon dio1ide(*i', sodium o1ide(4a' from sodaash, lime($a', and several minor additives. The termglassis often used to refer only tothis specific use.

/n the 5th century, various types of fancy glass became significant branches of thedecorative arts.Glass is used not only for traditional ob6ects such as vessels (bo)ls,vases,bottles, and other containers,paper)eights,marbles,andbeads, but also insculpture and installation artas )ell. While glass is sometimes painted, colored or stained

glassis also popular./n science, ho)ever, the termglassis defined in a broader sense, encompassing everysolid that possesses a noncrystalline (i.e. amorphous structure and e1hibits a glasstransition)hen heated to)ards the li7uid state. These sorts of glasses can be made of7uite different kinds of materials: metallic alloys, ionic melts, a7ueous solutions,molecular li7uids, andpolymers. For many applications (bottles, eye)ear polymerglasses (acrylic glass,polycarbonate,polyethylene terephthalate are a lighter alternativeto traditional silica glasses.

Contents

*ilicate glasso . 8istory

.. *elected chronology of advanceso . /ngredientso .9 $ontemporary production

.9. rchitectureo .% /n the laboratory

'ther typeso . 4et)ork glasseso . morphous metalso .9 &lectrolyteso .% 7ueous solutionso .2 !olecular li7uidso .;


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% $omparison )ith supercooled li7uido %. "ehavior of anti7ue glass

2


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4aturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glassobsidian,has been used by many*tone gesocieties across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due toits limited source areas, )as e1tensively traded. "ut in general, archaeological evidencesuggests that the first true glass )as made in coastal north *yria, !esopotamiaorncient&gypt.@AThe earliest kno)n glass ob6ects, of the mid third millennium "$&, )ere beads,

perhaps initially created as accidental byproducts of metal)orking(slags or during theproduction of faience, a preglass vitreous material made by a process similar to gla?ing.@A

Glass remained a lu1ury material, and the disastersthat overtook Bate "ron?e gecivili?ations seem to have brought glassmaking to a halt. /ndigenous development ofglass technology in *outh siamay have begun in -9> "$&.@9A/n ancient $hina, though,glassmaking seems to have a late start, compared to ceramics and metal )ork. /n the#oman &mpire, glass ob6ects have been recovered across the #oman &mpirein domestic,industrial and funeraryconte1ts. nglo*a1on glass has been found across &nglandduring archaeological e1cavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the

nglo*a1on period)as used in the manufacture of a range of ob6ects including vessels,beads, )indo)s and )as even used in 6e)elry.

The termglassdeveloped in the late #oman &mpire. /t )as in the #oman glassmakingcenter at Trier, no) in modern Germany, that the lateBatintermglesumoriginated,probably from a Germanic)ord for atransparent, lustroussubstance.@%A

Selected chronology of advances

*ource:@2A

; C D"road *heetD first produced in *usse1 99> C D$ro)n GlassD first produced in#ouen, France. D"road *heetD alsoproduced. "oth )ere also supplied for e1port

;> C D"lo)n


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uart? sand(silica is the main ra) material in commercial glass production

While fused 7uart?(primarily composed of *i' is used for some special applications, itis not very common due to its high glass transition temperatureof over >> $(5F.@;A4ormally, other substances are added to simplify processing. 'ne is sodiumcarbonate(4a$'9, DsodaD, )hich lo)ers the glass transition temperature. 8o)ever, thesoda makes the glass )ater soluble, )hich is usually undesirable, solime(calcium o1ide@$a'A, generally obtained from limestone, some magnesium o1ide(!g' andaluminium o1ide(l'9 are added to provide for a better chemical durability. Theresulting glass contains about -> to -%3 silica by )eight and is called a sodalime glass.@-A*odalime glasses account for about 5>3 of manufactured glass.

!ost common glass contains other ingredients added to change its properties. Bead glassor flint glassis more 0brilliant0 because the increased refractive inde1causes noticeablymore specular reflectionand increased optical dispersion.ddingbariumalso increasesthe refractive inde1. Thorium o1idegives glass a high refractive inde1 and lo) dispersionand )as formerly used in producing high7uality lenses, but due to its radioactivityhasbeen replaced by lanthanum o1idein modern eye glasses.@citation neededA/ron can beincorporated into glass to absorb infraredenergy, for e1ample in heat absorbing filters formovie pro6ectors, )hile cerium(/H o1idecan be used for glass that absorbs EH)avelengths.@=A

The follo)ing is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses, and their ingredients,properties, and applications:

. Fused silica glass, vitreous silica glass: silica (*i'. 8as very lo) thermale1pansion, is very hard and resists high temperatures (>>>C2>> $. /t is also

the most resistant against )eathering (alkali ions leaching out of the glass, )hilestaining it. /t is used for high temperature applications such as furnace tubes,melting crucibles, etc.

. Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass: silica -3 I sodium o1ide (4a' %.3I magnesia (!g' .23 I lime ($a' >.>3 I alumina (l'9 >.;3. /stransparent, easily formed and most suitable for )indo) glass. /t has a highthermal e1pansion and poor resistance to heat (2>>C;>> $. Esed for )indo)s,containers, light bulbs, table)are.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_quartzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_quartzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrenheithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_silicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_(mineral)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_(mineral)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-ullmann-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanthanum_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium(IV)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium(IV)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piasek_kwarcowy.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piasek_kwarcowy.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_quartzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrenheithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_silicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_(mineral)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-ullmann-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanthanum_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium(IV)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-8


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9. Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica =3 I boric o1ide ("'9 3 I soda(4a' %.23 I alumina (l'9 .>3. *tands heat e1pansion much better than)indo) glass. Esed for chemical glass)are, cooking glass, car head lamps, etc."orosilicate glasses(e.g. C;

K$@5A

as compared to about 5>L;

K$ for a typical sodalime glass@>A

,making them more dimensionally stable. The lo)er $T& also makes them lesssub6ect to stresscaused bythermal e1pansion, thus less vulnerable to crackingfrom thermal shock. They are commonly used for reagent bottles, opticalcomponents and household cook)are.

%. ead-oxide glass, crystal glass: silica 253 I soda (4a' .>3 I lead o1ide(.%3 I ?inc o1ide (Mn'.23. 8as a high refractive inde1, making the look of glass)are more brilliant(crystal glass. /t also has a high elasticity, making glass)are 0ring0. /t is also more)orkable in the factory, but cannot stand heating very )ell.

2. !luminosilicate glass: silica 2-3 I alumina ;3 I boric o1ide ("'9 %.>3 I

barium o1ide ("a' ;.>3 I magnesia -.>3 I lime >3. &1tensively used forfiberglass, used for making glassreinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc..lso for halogen bulb glass.

;. "xide glass: alumina 5>3 I germanium o1ide (Ge' >3. &1tremely clearglass, used for fiberoptic )ave guides in communication net)orks. Bight losesonly 23 of its intensity through km of glass fiber.@A

nother common glass ingredient is DculletD (recycled glass. The recycled glass saves onra) materials and energyN ho)ever, impurities in the cullet can lead to product ande7uipment failure. Fining agents such as sodium sulfate,sodium chloride, or antimonyo1idemay be added to reduce the number of air bubbles in the glass mi1ture. @-AGlass

batch calculationis the method by )hich the correct ra) material mi1ture is determinedto achieve the desired glass composition.

Contem#orary #roduction

modern greenhousein Wisley Garden, &ngland, made from float glass!ain articles: Glass production, Float glass, and Gla?ier
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borosilicate_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crack_propagationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crack_propagationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_shockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-ullmann-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-ullmann-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batch_calculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batch_calculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisley_Gardenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RHSGlasshouse.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RHSGlasshouse.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borosilicate_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crack_propagationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_shockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-ullmann-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batch_calculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batch_calculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisley_Gardenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazier


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/n order to make glass from materials )ith poor glass forming tendencies, noveltechni7ues are used to increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers.&1amples of these techni7ues includeaerodynamic levitation(cooling the melt )hilst itfloats on a gas stream, splat 7uenching(pressing the melt bet)een t)o metal anvils androller 7uenching (pouring the melt through rollers.

*ee also: 'ptical lens design, Fabrication and testing of optical components

"ther ty#es

$etwor% glasses

$O#W($O. $halcogenide glassesform the basis of re)ritable $O and OHO solidstate memory technology.@2A

*ome glasses that do not include silica as a ma6or constituent may have physicochemicalproperties useful for their application in fiber opticsand other speciali?ed technical

applications. These include fluoride glasses, aluminosilicates,phosphate glasses,borateglasses, and chalcogenide glasses.

There are three classes of components for o1ide glasses: net)ork formers, intermediates,and modifiers. The net)ork formers (silicon, boron, germanium form a highly crosslinked net)ork of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, ?irconium,beryllium, magnesium, ?inc can act as both net)ork formers and modifiers, according tothe glass composition. The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium, potassium alter thenet)ork structureN they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby nonbridgingo1ygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass net)ork and holding onenegative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby. *ome elements can play

multiple rolesN e.g. lead can act both as a net)ork former (


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The alkali metal ions are small and mobileN their presence in glass allo)s a degree ofelectrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility,ho)ever, decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allo)ing leaching by )ater andfacilitating corrosion. lkaline earth ions, )ith their t)o positive charges andre7uirement for t)o nonbridging o1ygen ions to compensate for their charge, are much

less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis. Themost common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usuallysodium and calcium, for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance.@;A$orrosion resistance of glass can be achieved by dealkali?ation,removal of the alkali ionsfrom the glass surface by reaction )ith e.g. sulfur or fluorine compounds. > times in comparison )ith soda glassesN this allo)s easierremoval of bubbles and )orking at lo)er temperatures, hence its fre7uent use as anadditive in vitreous enamelsand glass solders.The high ionic radiusof the =.2vs >;.2'hmPcm, O$at 2> $. For more details, see leadglass.@-A

ddition of fluorinelo)ers the dielectric constantof glass. Fluorine is highlyelectronegativeand attracts the electrons in the lattice, lo)ering the polari?ability of the

material. *uch silicon dio1idefluoride is used in manufacture ofintegrated circuitsas aninsulator. 8igh levels of fluorine doping lead to formation of volatile *iF' and suchglass is then thermally unstable. *table layers )ere achieved )ith dielectric constantdo)n to about 9.2C9.-.@=A

!mor#hous metals

*amples of amorphous metal, )ith millimeter scale
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dealkalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dealkalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_tangenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitreous_enamelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_solderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_solderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_radiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dealkalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_tangenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitreous_enamelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_solderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_radiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-18


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/n the past, small batches of amorphous metals)ith high surface area configurations(ribbons, )ires, films, etc. have been produced through the implementation of e1tremelyrapid rates of cooling. This )as initially termed Dsplat coolingD by doctoral student W.+lement at $altech, )ho sho)ed that cooling rates on the order of millions of degrees persecond is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic atoms become

Dlocked intoD a glassy state. morphous metal )ires have been produced by sputteringmolten metal onto a spinning metal disk. !ore recently a number of alloys have beenproduced in layers )ith thickness e1ceeding millimeter. These are kno)n as bulkmetallic glasses ("!G. Bi7uidmetal Technologiessell a number of ?irconiumbased"!Gs. "atches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanicalproperties far e1ceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.@5A@>A@A

/n >>%,4/*Tresearchers presented evidence that anisotropicnoncrystalline metallicphase (dubbed D7glassD could be gro)n from the melt. This phase is the first phase, orDprimary phase,D to form in the lFe*i system during rapid cooling. /nterestingly,e1perimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by afirst-order transition.

Transmission electron microscopy(T&! images sho) that the 7glass nucleates fromthe melt as discrete particles, )hich gro) spherically )ith a uniform gro)th rate in alldirections. The diffraction patternsho)s it to be an isotropic glassy phase. Qet there is anucleationbarrier, )hich implies an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface bet)eenthe glass and the melt.@A@9A

&lectrolytes

&lectrolytesor molten saltsare mi1tures of different ions. /n a mi1ture of three or moreionic species of dissimilar si?e and shape, crystalli?ation can be so difficult that the li7uidcan easily be supercooled into a glass. The best studied e1ample is $a >.%+>.;(4'9.%.

!'ueous solutions

*ome a7ueous solutions can be supercooled into a glassy state, for instance Bi$l:R8' inthe composition range %RRR=.

(olecular li'uids

molecular liquidis composed of molecules that do not form a covalent net)ork butinteract only through )eak van der Waals forcesor through transienthydrogen bonds.!any molecular li7uids can be supercooled into a glassN some are e1cellent glass formers

that normally do not crystalli?e.

)idely kno)n e1ample is sugar glass.

Ender e1tremes of pressure and temperature solids may e1hibit large structural andphysical changes that can lead topolyamorphicphase transitions.@%A/n >>; /talianscientists created an amorphous phase ofcarbon dio1ideusing e1treme pressure. The
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidmetalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidmetalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NISThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_scattering_techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyamorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyamorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyamorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidmetalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NISThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_scattering_techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyamorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide


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substance )as named amorphous carbonia(a$' and e1hibits an atomic structureresembling that of silica.@2A

Polymers

This section does not citeany references or sources.


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ceramics have become e1tremely useful for countertop cooking. The negative thermale1pansioncoefficient ($T& of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced )ith thepositive $T& of the glassy phase. t a certain point (->3 crystalline the glassceramichas a net $T& near ?ero. This type of glassceramice1hibits e1cellent mechanicalproperties and can sustain repeated and 7uick temperature changes up to >>> $.@9>A@9A

The amorphous structure of glassy silica (*i' in t)o dimensions. 4o longrange orderis present, although there is local ordering )ith respect to the tetrahedralarrangement ofo1ygen (' atoms around the silicon (*i atoms.

Structure

!ain article: *tructure of li7uids and glasses

s in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks any longrangetranslational periodicity.8o)ever, due to chemical bondingcharacteristics glasses dopossess a high degree of shortrange order )ith respect to local atomicpolyhedra.@9A

Com#arison with su#ercooled li'uid

!ain article: Glass transition

/n physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid is a solid formed by rapidmelt 7uenching.@99A@9%A@92A@9;A@9-A8o)ever, the term glass is often used to describe any

amorphous solidthat e1hibits a glass transition temperature Tg. /f the cooling issufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystalli?ationtime then crystalli?ation isprevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooledli7uid isfro?en into the solid state at Tg. Generally, the structure of a glass e1ists in a metastablestate )ith respect to its crystallineform, although in certain circumstances, for e1amplein atacticpolymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase. @9=A
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass-ceramichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-KBU-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-MOD-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_liquids_and_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bondinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Zallen83-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Cusack87-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Elliot84-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooledhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastability_in_moleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atactichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Folmer-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silica.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silica.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass-ceramichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-KBU-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-MOD-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_liquids_and_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bondinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Zallen83-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Cusack87-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Elliot84-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooledhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastability_in_moleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atactichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Folmer-38


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*ome people consider glass to be a li7uid due to its lack of a firstorder phasetransition @95A @%>A )here certainthermodynamicvariablessuch as volume, entropyandenthalpyare discontinuous through the glass transition range. 8o)ever, the glasstransitionmay be described as analogous to a secondorder phase transition )here theintensive thermodynamic variables such as thethermal e1pansivityand heat capacityare

discontinuous.@%A

Oespite this, the e7uilibrium theory of phase transformations does notentirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of theclassical e7uilibrium phase transformations in solids.@9;A@9-A

Bist of unsolved problemsin physics

What is the nature of thetransitionbetween a fluid

or regular solid and a

glassy hase!

DThe deepest and mostinteresting unsolvedproblem in solid statetheory is probably thetheory of the nature ofglass and the glasstransition.D -C>=


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The observation that old )indo)s are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than atthe top is often offered as supporting evidence for the vie) that glass flo)s over atimescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass )as once uniform but hasflo)ed to its ne) shape, )hich is a property of li7uid.@%;A8o)ever, this assumption isincorrectN once solidified, glass stops flo)ing. The reason for the observation is that in

the past, )hen panes of glass )ere commonly made by glassblo)ers, the techni7ue used)as to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the cro)nglassprocess, described above. This plate )as then cut to fit a )indo). The pieces )erenot, ho)ever, absolutely flatN the edges of the disk became a different thickness as theglass spun. When installed in a )indo) frame, the glass )ould be placed )ith the thickerside do)n both for the sake of stability and to prevent )ater accumulating in the leadcamesat the bottom of the )indo).@%-A'ccasionally such glass has been found thinnerside do)n or thicker on either side of the )indo)0s edge, the result of carelessness duringinstallation.@%=A

!ass production of glass )indo) panes in the early t)entieth century caused a similar

effect. /n glass factories, molten glass )as poured onto a large cooling table and allo)edto spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center ofthe large sheet. These sheets )ere cut into smaller )indo) panes )ith nonuniformthickness, typically )ith the location of the pour centered in one of the panes (kno)n asDbull0seyesD for decorative effect. !odern glass intended for )indo)s is produced asfloat glassand is very uniform in thickness.

*everal other points can be considered that contradict the Dcathedral glass flo)D theory:

Writing in the merican Journal of


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Physical #ro#erties

*ee also: Bist of physical properties of glass

"#tical #ro#erties

Glass is in )idespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that aretransparent to visible )avelengths of light. /n contrast,polycrystallinematerials do not ingeneral transmit visible light.@2>AThe individual crystallites may be transparent, but theirfacets (grain boundaries reflect or scatter light resulting indiffuse reflection. Glass doesnot contain the internal subdivisions associated )ith grain boundaries in polycrystals andhence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline material. The surfaceof a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the supercooledli7uid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follo) surface tension,)hich imposes a microscopically smooth surface. These properties, )hich give glass itsclearness, can be retained even if glass is partially lightabsorbing i.e. colored.@2A

Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light follo)inggeometrical optics,)ithout scattering it. /t is used in the manufacture of lensesand )indo)s. $ommon glasshas a refraction inde1around .2. ccording to Fresnel e7uations,the reflectivityof asheet of glass is about %3 per surface (at normal incidence in air, and the transmissivityof one element (t)o surfaces is about 5>3. Glass also finds application inoptoelectronicse.g., for lighttransmittingoptical fibers.

Color

!ain article: Glass coloring and color marking

$ommon sodalime float glass appears green in thick sections because of Fe Iimpurities.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_properties_of_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-O-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-O-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrical_opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrical_opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refraction_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflectivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmittancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmittancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optoelectronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optoelectronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_coloring_and_color_markinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Green_color_of_float_glass.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Green_color_of_float_glass.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_properties_of_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-O-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrical_opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refraction_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflectivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmittancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optoelectronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_coloring_and_color_marking


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*tudio glassor art glassoften includes multiple colors, )hich increases the difficulty ofproduction, as each color has different chemical and physical properties )hen molten.

$olor in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (orcolor centersthat are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles(such as inphotochromic glasses.@2A'rdinary sodalime glassappears colorless to thenaked eye )hen it is thin, althoughiron(// o1ide(Fe' impurities of up to >. )t3@29Aproduce a green tint, )hich can be vie)ed in thick pieces or )ith the aid of scientificinstruments. Further Fe' and $r'9additions may be used for the production of greenbottles. *ulfur, together )ith carbonand iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides andproduce amber glass ranging from yello)ish to almost black.@2%A glass melt can alsoac7uire an amber color from a reducing combustion atmosphere. !anganese dio1idecanbe added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(// o1ide. When used inart glassor studio glassglass is colored using closely guarded recipes that involvespecific combinations of metal o1ides, melting temperatures and 0cook0 times. !ostcolored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors )ho serve thismarket although there are some glass makers )ith the ability to make their o)n colorfrom ra) materials.

In art
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparent_materials#Absorption_of_light_in_solidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparent_materials#Absorption_of_light_in_solidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochromic_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-vogel-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-seward-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foglio_-_David_Patchen_9416.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foglio_-_David_Patchen_9416.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparent_materials#Absorption_of_light_in_solidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochromic_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-vogel-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-seward-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_glass


17/27

vasebeing created at the#ei6myre glass)orks, *)eden

>> separate

glass ob6ects.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosta_Glasbrukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosta_Glasbrukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperweighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Museum_of_Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Chihulyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paperweight,_Corning_Museum_of_Glass.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paperweight,_Corning_Museum_of_Glass.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glass_worker,_Reijmyre_glasbruk,_Sweden.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glass_worker,_Reijmyre_glasbruk,_Sweden.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosta_Glasbrukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperweighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Museum_of_Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Chihuly


18/27

Glass tilesmosaic(detail.

display at $anberra Glass)orks, ustralia!ain articles: *tudio glass, rt glass, and Glass art

From the 5th century, various types of fancy glass started to become significantbranches of the decorative arts.$ameo glass)as revived for the first time since the#omans, initially mostly used for pieces in a neoclassicalstyle. The rt 4ouveaumovement in particular made great use of glass, )ith #enV Bali7ue,mile GallV,andOaum of 4ancyimportant names in the first French )ave of the movement, producingcolored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using lustre techni7ues.Bouis $omfort Tiffanyin merica speciali?ed in secular stained glass, mostly of plantsub6ects, both in panels and his famous lamps. From the >th century, some glass artists

began to class themselves as in effect sculptors )orking in glass, and as part of thefinearts.

*everal of the most common techni7ues for producing glass art include: blo)ing, kilncasting, fusing, slumping, patedeverre, flame)orking, hotsculpting and cold)orking.$old )ork includes traditional stained glass )ork as )ell as other methods of shapingglass at room temperature. Glass can also be cut )ith a diamond sa), or copper )heelsembedded )ith abrasives, and polished to give gleaming facetsN the techni7ue used in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_tilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra_Glassworkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorative_artshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassicismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Nouveauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Laliquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gall%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gall%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gall%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daum_(studio)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_blowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GlassworksCanb.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GlassworksCanb.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hakatai_mosaic_glass_tile_mural.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hakatai_mosaic_glass_tile_mural.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_tilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra_Glassworkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorative_artshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassicismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Nouveauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Laliquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gall%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daum_(studio)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_blowing


19/27

creating Waterford crystal.@22Art is sometimes etched into glass via the use of acid,caustic, or abrasive substances. Traditionally this )as done after the glass )as blo)n orcast. /n the 5>s a ne) mouldetch process )as invented, in )hich art )as etcheddirectly into the mould, so that each cast piece emerged from the mould )ith the imagealready on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined )ith

a )ider use of colored glass, led to cheap glass)are in the 59>s, )hich later becamekno)n as Oepression glass.@2;As the types of acids used in this process are e1tremelyha?ardous, abrasive methods have gained popularity.

'b6ects made out of glass include not only traditional ob6ects such as vessels (bo)ls,vases,bottles, and other containers,paper)eights,marbles,beads, but also an endlessrange of sculpture and installation artas )ell. $olored glass is often used, thoughsometimes the glass is painted, innumerable e1amples e1ist of the use of stained glass.

(useums

part from historical collections in general museums, modern )orks of art in glass canbe seen in a variety of museums, including the $hrysler !useum, the !useum of Glassin Tacoma, the !etropolitan !useum of rt, the Toledo !useum of rt, and $orning!useum of Glass, in $orning, 4Q, )hich houses the )orld0s largest collection of glassart and history, )ith more than %2,>>> ob6ects in its collection.@2-A/n February >>> the*mith !useum of *tained Glass Windo)s,located in $hicago0s4avy


20/27

*eferences

. +um# u# DGlass 'nline: The 8istory of GlassD. #etrieved >>->5.. +um# u# True gla?ing over a ceramic body )as not used until many

centuries after the production of the first glass.

9. +um# u# Go)lett, J..J. (55-."igh #efinition $rchaeology% &hreads&hrough the 'ast. #outledge. /*"4>%2=%5>.

%. +um# u# Oouglas, #. W. (5-.$ history of glassmaing. 8enleyonThames: G T Foulis X $o Btd. /*"4>=2%5-.

2. +um# u# 8istory of Glass !anufacture: Bondon $ro)n Glass co.;. +um# u# !. /. '6ovan (>>%. DGlass Formation in morphous *i'as

a .9%K.-5>>.

-. Y Jump up to: a bc". 8. W. *. de Jong, DGlassDN in DEllmann0s&ncyclopedia of /ndustrial $hemistryDN 2th edition, vol. , H$8 %;>;>-. #etrieved = February >.

5. +um# u# $orning, /nc. 22.

>. +um# u# @A*chott, 4.., /nc data sheet. +um# u# !ining the sea sand. *eafriends.org.n? (55%>>=.

#etrieved on >>22.. +um# u# D5>%.9. Y Jump up to: a bDGlass melting, >5>%.%. +um# u# le1ander Fluegel. DGlass melting in the laboratoryD.

Glassproperties.com. #etrieved >>5>%.2. +um# u# Greer, . BindsayN !athur, 4 (>>2. D!aterials science:

$hanging face of the chameleonD.ature/0(->;9: %;C%-."ibcode:>>24atur.%9-.%;G.doi:>.>9=K%9-%;a.

;. +um# u# &ric Be "ourhis (>>-. .lass% Mechanics and &echnology.WileyH$8. p. -%. /*"492-92%5-.

-. +um# u# James F. *hackelford, #obert 8. Ooremus (>>=. /eramicand .lass Materials% ,tructure 'roerties and 'rocessing. *pringer. p. 2=./*"4>9=--99;.

=. +um# u# #obert Ooering, Qoshio 4ishi (>>-."andboo ofsemiconductor manufacturing technology. $#$ 4atur.=-..=;5+.doi:>.>9=K=-=;5b>.

>. +um# u# Biebermann, 8.N Graham, $. (5-;. D


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. +um# u# H. %.DFebased bulk metallic glasses )ith diameter thickness larger than onecentimeterD.ournal of Materials Research1.(2: 9>."ibcode:>>%J!at#..5.9>.22-KJ!#.>>%.>-;.

. +um# u# D!etallurgy Oivision >;. D/nterface !obility and the Bi7uidGlass Transition in a 'ne$omponent*ystemD.'hysical Reiew 4/(>."ibcode:>>;%>;.

%. +um# u# >%. D: 2>;C2.doi:>.>95Kb%>9>=p.

2. +um# u# carbon dio1ide glass created in the lab2 June >>;,))).ne)scientisttech.com. #etrieved 9 ugust >>;.

;. +um# u#

))).eastman.comK"randsKTheZGlassZ.>9=Knmat-9-.

99. +um# u# *T!definition of glass from 5%2N also: O/425, Glas C"egriffe f\r Glasarten und Glasgruppen, *eptember 5=;

9%. +um# u# Mallen, #. (5=9. &he 'hysics of $morhous ,olids. 4e)Qork: John Wiley. /*"4>%->5;=.

92. +um# u# $usack, 4. &. (5=-. &he hysics of structurally disorderedmatter% an introduction. dam 8ilger in association )ith the Eniversity of *usse1press. /*"4>=2-%=55.

9;. Y Jump up to: a b&lliot, *. #. (5=%.'hysics of $morhous Materials.Bongman group ltd.

9-. Y Jump up to: a b8orst *chol?e (55. .lass 6 ature ,tructure and'roerties. *pringer. /*"4>9=-5-95;;.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JMatR..19.1320Phttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1557%2FJMR.2004.0176http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-22http://www.metallurgy.nist.gov/techactv2004/TechnicalHighlights.html#glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhRvB..74j4206Mhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.74.104206http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1039%2Fb401308phttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-25http://www.newscientisttech.com/article.ns?id=dn9339http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987PhRvL..59.2083Phttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.59.2083http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10035413http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993PhRvE..47..248Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevE.47.248http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-29http://www2.thphy.uni-duesseldorf.de/~hlowen/doc/ra/ra0005.pdfhttp://www2.thphy.uni-duesseldorf.de/~hlowen/doc/ra/ra0005.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-KBU_30-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-KBU_30-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-KBU_30-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-KBU_30-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-KBU_30-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471478607http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471478607http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-MOD_31-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-MOD_31-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-MOD_31-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-MOD_31-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-MOD_31-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8247-8634-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmat737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12618817http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsches_Institut_f%C3%BCr_Normunghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Zallen83_34-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-01968-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-01968-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Cusack87_35-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85274-829-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Elliot84_36-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Elliot84_36-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Elliot84_36-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Elliot84_36-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Elliot84_36-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_37-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_37-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_37-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_37-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_37-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-97396-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-97396-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JMatR..19.1320Phttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1557%2FJMR.2004.0176http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-22http://www.metallurgy.nist.gov/techactv2004/TechnicalHighlights.html#glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhRvB..74j4206Mhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.74.104206http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1039%2Fb401308phttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-25http://www.newscientisttech.com/article.ns?id=dn9339http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987PhRvL..59.2083Phttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.59.2083http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10035413http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993PhRvE..47..248Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevE.47.248http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-29http://www2.thphy.uni-duesseldorf.de/~hlowen/doc/ra/ra0005.pdfhttp://www2.thphy.uni-duesseldorf.de/~hlowen/doc/ra/ra0005.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-KBU_30-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-KBU_30-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471478607http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-MOD_31-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-MOD_31-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8247-8634-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmat737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12618817http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsches_Institut_f%C3%BCr_Normunghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Zallen83_34-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-01968-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Cusack87_35-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85274-829-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Elliot84_36-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Elliot84_36-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_37-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_ref-Horst_Scholze_1991_37-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-97396-6


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Further reading

Ghosh, malananda (55>.$n *ncycloaedia of ndian $rchaeology."#/BB./*"45>>%>5;2.

Go)lett, J. . J. (55-."igh #efinition $rchaeology% &hreads &hrough the 'ast.

#outledge./*"4>%2=%5>. 4oel $. *tokesN &he .lass and .la:ing "andbooN *tandards ustraliaN *

8"2C55= staff ( 4ov >.Robot seeds u glass deeloment(press release.

Fraunhofer /nstitute. #etrieved > Oec >. (reprinted byR;# Maga:ine *tookey, O. Oonald.*>>.

/*"4 5-=2-%5=%- Hogel, Werner. /hemistry of .lass. Wiley, 5=2./*"4 5-=>5;>5%-9-

&xternal lin%s

Wikimedia $ommons has media related to Glass.

Wikisourcehas the te1t of the 5*ncyclo=dia 4ritannica article Glass.

Glass &ncyclopedia C comprehensive guide to all types of anti7ue andcollectable glass, )ith information, pictures and references

The $anadian !useum of $ivili?ation C The *tory of Glass !aking in $anada $orning !useum of Glass >"ow 8our .lass Ware s Made>by George W. Walt?, February 52,


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Glass ma%ers and

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http://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glashttp://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AChttp://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AChttp://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidrehttp://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%99%DC%93%DC%98%DC%93%DC%9D%DC%AC%DC%90http://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidriuhttp://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itaverahttp://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9E%C3%BC%C5%9F%C9%99http://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%9Ahttp://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%9Ahttp://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BEhttp://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BEhttp://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BEhttp://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklohttp://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwerhttp://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidrehttp://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%C4%83%D0%BAhttp://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%C4%83%D0%BAhttp://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%C4%83%D0%BAhttp://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklohttp://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwydrhttp://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glashttp://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glashttp://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaashttp://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CF%85%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AFhttp://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%93derhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidriohttp://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrohttp://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidriuhttp://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirahttp://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%87http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrehttp://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloinehttp://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidrohttp://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BBhttp://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%A6%AChttp://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%A6%AChttp://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%ABhttp://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9Ahttp://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9Ahttp://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklohttp://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrohttp://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarming_(materiales)http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kacahttp://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrohttp://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B3http://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glerhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetrohttp://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AAhttp://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelashttp://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glashttp://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AChttp://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidrehttp://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%99%DC%93%DC%98%DC%93%DC%9D%DC%AC%DC%90http://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidriuhttp://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itaverahttp://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9E%C3%BC%C5%9F%C9%99http://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%9Ahttp://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BEhttp://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BEhttp://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BEhttp://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklohttp://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwerhttp://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidrehttp://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%C4%83%D0%BAhttp://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklohttp://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwydrhttp://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glashttp://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glashttp://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaashttp://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CF%85%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AFhttp://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%93derhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidriohttp://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrohttp://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidriuhttp://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirahttp://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%87http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrehttp://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloinehttp://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidrohttp://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BBhttp://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%A6%AChttp://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%ABhttp://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9Ahttp://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklohttp://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrohttp://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarming_(materiales)http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kacahttp://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrohttp://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B3http://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glerhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetrohttp://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%AAhttp://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelas


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