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Gross domestic product in 2011 US dollars per

capita, adjusted for inflation and purchasing power

parity (log scale) from 1860 to 2011, with

population (disk area) for the US (yellow), UK

(orange), Japan (red), China (red), and India

(blue).[1]

GlobalizationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Globalization (or globalisation—see spelling differences)is the process of international integration arising from theinterchange of world views, products, ideas, and other

aspects of culture.[2][3] Put in simple terms, globalizationrefers to processes that promote world-wide exchanges ofnational and cultural resources. Advances in transportationand telecommunications infrastructure, including the rise ofthe Internet, are major factors in globalization, generatingfurther interdependence of economic and cultural

activities.[4]

Though several scholars place the origins of globalization inmodern times, others trace its history long before theEuropean age of discovery and voyages to the New World.Some even trace the origins to the third millennium

BCE.[5][6] Since the beginning of the 20th century, the paceof globalization has intensified at a rapid rate and especially

during the Post Cold War era.[7]

The term globalization has been in increasing use since the

mid-1980s and especially since the mid-1990s.[8] In 2000,the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basicaspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital andinvestment movements, migration and movement of people

and the dissemination of knowledge.[9] Further, environmental challenges such as climate change, cross-boundary

water and air pollution, and over-fishing of the ocean are linked with globalization.[10] Globalizing processes affectand are affected by business and work organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, and the naturalenvironment.

Contents

1 Overview

1.1 Etymology and usage1.2 Dimensions

2 History

2.1 Archaic

2.2 Proto-globalization

2.3 Modern

3 Aspects

3.1 Global business organization

3.1.1 International trade

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3.1.2 Tax havens

3.1.3 International tourism

3.2 Economic globalization

3.2.1 Capital flight

3.2.2 Austerity

3.2.3 Measurement3.3 Sociocultural globalization

3.3.1 Culture

3.3.2 Politics

3.3.3 Internet

3.3.4 Population growth

3.3.5 Health

3.3.6 Sports

3.4 Global natural environment

3.5 Global workforce

3.5.1 International migration

4 Support and criticism4.1 Proponents

4.1.1 Economic liberalism and free trade4.1.2 Global democracy

4.1.3 Global civics4.2 Critiques

4.2.1 Anti-globalization movement

4.2.2 Opposition to capital market integration4.2.3 Global justice and inequality

4.2.4 Anti-consumerism4.2.5 Anti-global governance

4.2.6 Environmentalist opposition4.2.7 Movement tactics

5 Key journals6 See also

7 References8 Further reading9 External links

Overview

Humans have interacted over long distances for thousands of years. The overland Silk Road that connected Asia,Africa and Europe is a good example of the transformative power of translocal exchange that existed in the "OldWorld". Philosophy, religion, language, the arts, and other aspects of culture spread and mixed as nationsexchanged products and ideas. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Europeans made important discoveries in theirexploration of the oceans, including the start of transatlantic travel to the "New World" of the Americas. Globalmovement of people, goods, and ideas expanded significantly in the following centuries. Early in the 19th century,the development of new forms of transportation (such as the steamship and railroads) and telecommunications that

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Eastern Telegraph Company 1901 chart of

undersea telegraph cabling. An example of

modern globalizing technology in the beginning

of the 20th century.

"compressed" time and space allowed for increasingly rapid rates of global interchange.[11] In the 20th century,road vehicles and airlines made transportation even faster, and the advent of electronic communications, mostnotably mobile phones and the Internet, connected billions of people in new ways leading into the 21st century.

Etymology and usage

The term globalization is derived from the word globalize,which refers to the emergence of an international network of

social and economic systems.[12] One of the earliest knownusages of the term as the noun was in 1930 in a publicationentitled Towards New Education where it denoted a holistic

view of human experience in education.[13] A related term,corporate giants, was coined by Charles Taze Russell in

1897[14] to refer to the largely national trusts and other largeenterprises of the time. By the 1960s, both terms began to beused as synonyms by economists and other social scientists. Itthen reached the mainstream press in the later half of the 1980s.Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspiredcompeting definitions and interpretations, with antecedentsdating back to the great movements of trade and empire across

Asia and the Indian Ocean from the 15th century onwards.[15]

Due to the complexity of the concept, research projects,articles, and discussions often remain focused on a single aspect

of globalization.[2]

Roland Robertson, professor of sociology at University of Aberdeen, an early writer in the field, definedglobalization as "the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a

whole."[16]

Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as:

...all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world

society.[3]

In The Consequences of Modernity, Anthony Giddens uses the following definition:

Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distantlocalities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and

vice versa.[17]

In Global Transformations David Held, et al., study the definition of globalization:

Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening and speeding up of

global interconnection, such a definition begs further elaboration. ... Globalization can be located on a

continuum with the local, national and regional. At one end of the continuum lie social and economicrelations and networks which are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end lie social

and economic relations and networks which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and global

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interactions. Globalization can be taken to refer to those spatial-temporal processes of change which

underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding human

activity across regions and continents. Without reference to such expansive spatial connections, therecan be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A satisfactory definition of globalization must

capture each of these elements: extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and impact.[18]

Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization, statesthat globalization:

is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the

increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with

somebody on the other side of the world.[19]

The journalist Thomas L. Friedman popularized the term "flat world", arguing that globalized trade, outsourcing,supply-chaining, and political forces had permanently changed the world, for better and worse. He asserted that thepace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to

grow.[20]

Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined "economic globalization" as the opening and deregulation of commodity,capital and labor markets that led toward present neoliberal globalization. He used "political globalization" to referto the emergence of a transnational elite and a phasing out of the nation-state. "Cultural globalization", he used toreference the worldwide homogenization of culture. Other of his usages included "ideological globalization",

"technological globalization" and "social globalization".[21]

In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade andtransactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people and the dissemination of

knowledge.[9] With regards to trade and transactions, developing countries increased their share of world trade,from 19 percent in 1971 to 29 percent in 1999. However, there is great variation among the major regions. Forinstance, the newly industrialized economies (NIEs) of Asia prospered, while African countries as a wholeperformed poorly. The makeup of a country's exports is an important indicator for success. Manufactured goodsexports soared, dominated by developed countries and NIEs. Commodity exports, such as food and raw materialswere often produced by developing countries: commodities' share of total exports declined over the period.

Following from this, capital and investment movements can be highlighted as another basic aspect of globalization.Private capital flows to developing countries soared during the 1990s, replacing "aid" or development assistancewhich fell significantly after the early 1980s. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) became the most important category.Both portfolio investment and bank credit rose but they have been more volatile, falling sharply in the wake of thefinancial crisis of the late 1990s. The migration and movement of people can also be highlighted as a prominentfeature of the globalization process. In the period between 1965–90, the proportion of the labor forces migratingapproximately doubled. Most migration occurred between developing countries and Least Developed Countries

(LDCs). [22]

Dimensions

Manfred Steger, professor of Global Studies and research leader in the Global Cities Institute at RMIT University,compares the current study of globalization to the ancient Buddhist parable of blind scholars and their firstencounter with an elephant.

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"Since the blind scholars did not know what the elephant looked like, they resolved to obtain amental picture, and thus the knowledge they desired, by touching the animal. Feeling its trunk,one blind man argued that the elephant was like a lively snake. Another man, rubbing along itsenormous leg, likened the animal to a rough column of massive proportions. The third persontook hold of its tail and insisted that the elephant resembled a large, flexible brush. The fourthman felt its sharp tusks and declared it to be like a great spear. Each of the blind scholars heldfirmly to his own idea of what constituted an elephant. Since their scholarly reputation wasriding on the veracity of their respective findings, the blind men eventually ended up arguing

over the nature of the elephant."[23]

Similar to the blind scholars, some globalization scholars are too focused on compacting globalization into a singularprocess and clashes over “which aspect of social life constitutes its primary domain” prevail. In his book,Globalization: A Very Short Introduction, Steger argues that in order to fully understand and grasp the conceptand process of globalization, scholars of globalization need to take a multidimensional approach. Globalization iscomposed of five dimensions: economic, political, cultural, ecological, and ideological.

Economic globalization refers to the intensification and stretching of economic interrelations around the globe.[24]

It encompasses such things as the emergence of a new global economic order, the internationalization of trade andfinance, the changing power of transnational corporations, and the enhanced role of international economicinstitutions.

Political globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of political interrelations around the globe.[25]

Aspects of political globalization include the modern-nation state system and its changing place in today’s world, therole of global governance, and the direction of our global political systems.

Cultural globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe.[26] Culture is avery broad concept and has many facets, but in the discussion on globalization, Steger means it to refer to “thesymbolic construction, articulation, and dissemination of meaning.” Topics under this heading include discussionabout the development of a global culture, or lack thereof, the role of the media in shaping our identities anddesires, and the globalization of languages.

Ecological globalization refers to the global environmental issues. Topics of ecological globalization includepopulation growth, access to food, worldwide reduction in biodiversity, the gap between rich and poor as well asbetween the global North and global South, human-induced climate change, and global environmental degradation.

Globalization operates on “an ideological dimension filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs, and narratives

about the phenomenon itself. “[27] According to Steger, there are three main types of globalisms (ideologies thatendow the concept of globalization with particular values and meanings): market globalism, justice globalism, and

jihadist globalism. Steger defines them as follows:[28]

Market globalism seeks to endow ‘globalization’ with free-market norms and neoliberal meanings.

Justice globalism constructs an alternative vision of globalization based on egalitarian ideals of global

solidarity and distributive justice.

Jihadist globalism struggles against market- and justice globalism as it seeks to mobilize the global Muslimcommunity of believers (umma) in defense of Islamic values and beliefs that are thought to be under severe

attack by the forces of secularism and consumerism.

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Extent of the Silk Road and Spice trade

routes owned by the Ottoman Empire in

1453 spurring exploration

History

Main article: History of globalization

See also: Timeline of international trade

There are both distal and proximate causes that can be traced inthe historical factors affecting globalization. Large-scale

globalization began in the 19th century.[11]

Archaic

Main article: Archaic globalization

The German historical economist and sociologist Andre GunderFrank argues that a form of globalization began with the rise oftrade links between Sumer and the Indus Valley Civilization in the

third millennium B.C.E.[5] This archaic globalization existed during the Hellenistic Age, when commercialized urbancenters enveloped the axis of Greek culture that reached from India to Spain, including Alexandria and the otherAlexandrine cities. Early on, the geographic position of Greece and the necessity of importing wheat forced theGreeks to engage in maritime trade. Trade in ancient Greece was largely unrestricted: the state controlled only thesupply of grain.

There were trade links between the Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire, and the Han Dynasty. The increasingcommercial links between these powers took form in the Silk Road, which began in western China, reached the

boundaries of the Parthian empire, and continued to Rome.[29] As many as three hundred Greek ships sailed each

year between the Greco-Roman world and India. Annual trade volume may have reached 300,000 tons.[30]

By traveling past the Tarim Basin region, the Chinese of the Han Dynasty learned of powerful kingdoms in CentralAsia, Persia, India, and the Middle East with the travels of the Han Dynasty envoy Zhang Qian in the 2nd centuryBC. From 104 BC to 102 BC Emperor Wu of Han waged war against the Yuezhi who controlled Dayuan, aHellenized kingdom of Fergana established by Alexander the Great in 329 BC. Gan Ying, the emissary of GeneralBan Chao, perhaps traveled as far as Roman-era Syria in the late 1st century AD. After these initial discoveries thefocus of Chinese exploration shifted to the maritime sphere, although the Silk Road leading all the way to Europecontinued to be China's most lucrative source of trade.

From about the 1st century, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked Indiawith southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam and numerous urbanizedcoastal settlements were established there.

The Islamic Golden Age added another stage of globalization, when Radhanite (Jewish) and Muslim traders andexplorers established trade routes, resulting in a globalization of agriculture, trade, knowledge and technology.Crops such as sugar and cotton became widely cultivated across the Muslim world in this period, while widespread

knowledge of Arabic and the Hajj created a cosmopolitan culture.[31]

The advent of the Mongol Empire, though destabilizing to the commercial centers of the Middle East and China,greatly facilitated travel along the Silk Road. The Pax Mongolica of the thirteenth century included the firstinternational postal service, as well as the rapid transmission of epidemic diseases such as bubonic plague across

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Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki, 17th

century Japanese Nanban art

Animated map showing the

development of colonial empires from

1492 to present

Native New World crops exchanged

globally: Maize, tomato, potato,

vanilla, rubber, cacao, tobacco

Central Asia.[32] Up to the sixteenth century, however, the largest systems of international exchange were limited tosouthern Eurasia (an area where the Balkans and Greece interact with Turkey, Egypt, the Levant, Persia and theArabian Peninsula, continuing over the Arabian Sea to India).

Many Chinese merchants chose to settle down in the Southeast Asianports such as Champa, Cambodia, Sumatra, Java, and married the native

women. Their children carried on trade.[33][34]

Italian city states embraced free trade and merchants established tradelinks with faraway places, giving birth to the Renaissance. Marco Polo

was a merchant traveler[35] from the Venetian Republic in modern-dayItaly whose travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book that played asignificant role in introducing Europeans to Central Asia and China. The

pioneering journey of Marco Polo inspired Christopher Columbus[36]

and other European explorers of the following centuries.

Proto-globalization

Main article: Proto-globalization

The next phase, known as proto-globalization, was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the16th and 17th centuries, first the Portuguese and Spanish Empires, and later the Dutch and British Empires. In the17th century, world trade developed further when chartered companies like the British East India Company(founded in 1600) and the Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602, often described as the first multinational

corporation in which stock was offered) were established.[37]

The Age of Discovery added the New World to the equation,[38]

beginning in the late 15th century. Portugal and Castile sent the first

exploratory voyages[39] around the Horn of Africa and to the Americas,reached in 1492 by the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus. Globaltrade growth continued with the European colonization of the Americas

initiating the Columbian Exchange,[40] the exchange of plants, animals,foods, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, andculture between the Eastern and Western hemispheres. New crops thathad come from the Americas via the European seafarers in the 16th

century significantly contributed to world population growth.[41] ThePuritans migration to New England, starting in 1630 under JohnWinthrop with the professed mission of converting both the natives ofNorth America to Puritan Christianity and raising up a "City Upon a Hill"that would influence the Western European world, is used as an example

of globalization.[42]

Modern

In the 19th century, steamships reduced the cost of international transportsignificantly and railroads made inland transport cheaper. The transport

revolution occurred some time between 1820 and 1850.[11] More nations embraced international trade.[11]

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19th century Great Britain become the

first global economic superpower,

because of superior manufacturing

technology and improved global

communications such as steamships

and railroads.

Global Competitiveness Index (2008-

2009): competitiveness is an

important determinant for the well-

being of nation-states in an

international environment

Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-century imperialism such as in Africa and Asia. Theinvention of shipping containers in 1956 helped advance the globalization

of commerce.[43][44]

Globalization took a big step backwards during the First World War, theGreat Depression, and the Second World War. Integration of richcountries didn't recover to previous levels before the

1980s.[citation needed]

After the Second World War, work by politicians led to the BrettonWoods conference, an agreement by major governments to lay down theframework for international monetary policy, commerce and finance, andthe founding of several international institutions intended to facilitateeconomic growth multiple rounds of trade opening simplified and loweredtrade barriers. Initially, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT), led to a series of agreements to remove trade restrictions.GATT's successor was the World Trade Organization (WTO), whichcreated an institution to manage the trading system. Exports nearlydoubled from 8.5% of total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in

2001.[45] The approach of using global agreements to advance trade stumbled with the failure of the Doha round oftrade-negotiation. Many countries then shifted to bilateral or smaller multilateral agreements, such as the 2011South Korea–United States Free Trade Agreement.

Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to middle classes in developed countries. Open skiespolicies and low-cost carriers have helped to bring competition to the market.

In the 1990s, the growth of low cost communication networks cut the cost of communicating between differentcountries. More work can be performed using a computer without regard to location. This included accounting,software development, and engineering design. In late 2000s, much of the industrialized world entered into the

Great Recession,[46] which may have slowed the process, at least temporarily.[47][48][49]

Aspects

Global business organization

Main article: International business

With improvements in transportation and communication, internationalbusiness grew rapidly after the beginning of the 20th century.International business includes all commercial transactions (private sales,investments, logistics,and transportation) that take place between two ormore regions, countries and nations beyond their political boundary.

Usually, private companies undertake such transactions for profit.[50]

Such business transactions involve economic resources such as capital,natural and human resources used for international production of physicalgoods and services such as finance, banking, insurance, construction and

other productive activities.[51]

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Singapore, the top country in the

Enabling Trade Index, embraced

globalization and became a highly

developed country

International business arrangements have led to the formation of multinational enterprises (MNE), companies thathave a worldwide approach to markets and production or one with operations in more than one country. An MNEis often called multinational corporation (MNC) or transnational company (TNC). Well known MNCs include fastfood companies such as McDonald's and Yum Brands, vehicle manufacturers such as General Motors, FordMotor Company and Toyota, consumer electronics companies like Samsung, LG and Sony, and energy companiessuch as ExxonMobil, Shell and BP. Most of the largest corporations operate in multiple national markets.

Businesses argue that survival in the new global marketplace requires companies to source goods, services, laborand materials overseas to continuously upgrade their products and technology in order to survive increasedcompetition.

International trade

Main article: International trade

An absolute trade advantage exists when countries can produce acommodity with less costs per unit produced than could its tradingpartner. By the same reasoning, it should import commodities in which it

has an absolute disadvantage.[52] While there are possible gains fromtrade with absolute advantage, comparative advantage—that is, theability to offer goods and services at a lower marginal and opportunitycost—extends the range of possible mutually beneficial exchanges. In aglobalized business environment, companies argue that the comparativeadvantages offered by international trade have become essential toremaining competitive.

Trade agreements, economic blocks and special trade zones

A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a geographical region that has economic and other laws that are more free-market-oriented than a country's typical or national laws. "Nationwide" laws may be suspended inside these specialzones. The category 'SEZ' covers many areas, including Free Trade Zones (FTZ), Export Processing Zones (EPZ),Free Zones (FZ), Industrial parks or Industrial Estates (IE), Free Ports, Urban Enterprise Zones and others.Usually the goal of a structure is to increase foreign direct investment by foreign investors, typically an internationalbusiness or a multinational corporation (MNC). These are designated areas in which companies are taxed verylightly or not at all in order to encourage economic activity. Free ports have historically been endowed withfavorable customs regulations, e.g., the free port of Trieste. Very often free ports constitute a part of free economiczones.

A FTZ is an area within which goods may be landed, handled, manufactured or reconfigured, and reexportedwithout the intervention of the customs authorities. Only when the goods are moved to consumers within the countryin which the zone is located do they become subject to the prevailing customs duties. Free trade zones areorganized around major seaports, international airports, and national frontiers—areas with many geographic

advantages for trade.[53] It is a region where a group of countries has agreed to reduce or eliminate trade

barriers.[54]

A free trade area is a trade bloc whose member countries have signed a free-trade agreement, which eliminatestariffs, import quotas, and preferences on most (if not all) goods and services traded between them. If people arealso free to move between the countries, in addition to free-trade area, it would also be considered an open border.

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A Billboard in Jakarta

welcoming ASEAN Summit

2011 delegates.

The European Union, for example, a confederation of 27 member states, provides both a free trade area and anopen border.

Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) are industrial parks that house manufacturingoperations in Jordan and Egypt. They are a special free trade zones established incollaboration with neighboring Israel to take advantage of the free tradeagreements between the United States and Israel. Under the trade agreementswith Jordan as laid down by the United States, goods produced in QIZ-notifiedareas can directly access US markets without tariff or quota restrictions, subjectto certain conditions. To qualify, goods produced in these zones must contain asmall portion of Israeli input. In addition, a minimum 35% value to the goods mustbe added to the finished product. The brainchild of Jordanian businessman OmarSalah, the first QIZ was authorized by the United States Congress in 1997.

The Asia-Pacific has been described as "the most integrated trading region on theplanet" because its intra-regional trade accounts probably for as much as 50-60%

of the region's total imports and exports.[55] It has also extra-regional trade:consumer goods exports such as televisions, radios, bicycles, and textiles into the

United States, Europe, and Japan fueled the economic expansion.[56]

The ASEAN Free Trade Area[57] is a trade bloc agreement by the Associationof Southeast Asian Nations supporting local manufacturing in all ASEAN countries. The AFTA agreement wassigned on 28 January 1992 in Singapore. When the AFTA agreement was originally signed, ASEAN had sixmembers, namely, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Vietnam joined in 1995, Laosand Myanmar in 1997 and Cambodia in 1999.

Drug trade

In 2010 the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported that the global drug trade generated

more than $320 billion a year in revenues.[58] Worldwide, the UN estimates there are more than 50 million regular

users of heroin, cocaine and synthetic drugs.[59] The international trade of endangered species was second only to

drug trafficking among smuggling "industries".[60] Traditional Chinese medicine often incorporates ingredients fromall parts of plants, the leaf, stem, flower, root, and also ingredients from animals and minerals. The use of parts ofendangered species (such as seahorses, rhinoceros horns, saiga antelope horns, and tiger bones and claws) resulted

in a black market of poachers who hunt restricted animals.[61][62]

Tax havens

Main article: Tax haven

A tax haven is a state, country or territory where certain taxes are levied at a low rate or not at all, which are used

by businesses for tax avoidance and tax evasion.[65] Individuals and/or corporate entities can find it attractive toestablish shell subsidiaries or move themselves to areas with reduced or nil taxation levels. This creates a situation oftax competition among governments. Different jurisdictions tend to be havens for different types of taxes, and for

different categories of people and/or companies.[66] States that are sovereign or self-governing under internationallaw have theoretically unlimited powers to enact tax laws affecting their territories, unless limited by previousinternational treaties. The central feature of a tax haven is that its laws and other measures can be used to evade or

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The black market in rhinoceros horn

reduced the world's rhino population

by more than 90 percent over the past

40 years.[63]

The ratio of German assets in tax

havens in relation to the total German

GDP.[64] The "Big 7" shown are

Hong Kong, Ireland, Lebanon,

Liberia, Panama, Singapore, and

Switzerland.

avoid the tax laws or regulations of other jurisdictions.[67] In itsDecember 2008 report on the use of tax havens by American

corporations,[68] the U.S. Government Accountability Office was unableto find a satisfactory definition of a tax haven but regarded the followingcharacteristics as indicative of it: nil or nominal taxes; lack of effectiveexchange of tax information with foreign tax authorities; lack oftransparency in the operation of legislative, legal or administrativeprovisions; no requirement for a substantive local presence; and self-promotion as an offshore financial center.

A 2012 report from the Tax Justice Network estimated that betweenUSD $21 trillion and $32 trillion is sheltered from taxes in unreported taxhavens worldwide. If such wealth earns 3% annually and such capitalgains were taxed at 30%, it would generate between $190 billion and

$280 billion in tax revenues, more than any other tax shelters.[69] If suchhidden offshore assets are considered, many countries with governments

nominally in debt are shown to be net creditor nations.[70] However, thetax policy director of the Chartered Institute of Taxation expressed

skepticism over the accuracy of the figures.[71] Daniel J. Mitchell of theUS-based Cato Institute says that the report also assumes, whenconsidering notional lost tax revenue, that 100% money deposited

offshore is evading payment of tax.[72]

Tax havens have been criticized because they often result in the

accumulation of idle cash[73] which is expensive and inefficient for

companies to repatriate.[74] The tax shelter benefits result in a tax

incidence disadvantaging the poor.[75] Many tax havens are thought to

have connections to "fraud, money laundering and terrorism."[76] While investigations of illegal tax haven abuse have

been ongoing, there have been few convictions.[77][78] Lobbying pertaining to tax havens and associated transfer

pricing has also been criticized.[79] Accountants' opinions on the propriety of tax havens have been evolving,[80] as

have the opinions of their corporate users,[81] governments,[82][83] and politicians,[84][85] although their use by

Fortune 500 companies[86] and others remains widespread.[87] Reform proposals centering on the Big Four

accountancy firms have been advanced.[88] Some governments appear to be using computer spyware to scrutinize

some corporations' finances.[89]

International tourism

Main article: Tourism

Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists aspeople "traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for

leisure, business and other purposes".[90] There are many forms of tourism such as agritourism, birth tourism,culinary tourism, cultural tourism, eco-tourism,extreme tourism, geotourism, heritage tourism, LGBT tourism,medical tourism, nautical tourism, pop-culture tourism, religious tourism, slum tourism, war tourism, and wildlifetourism

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Modern aviation has made it possible

to travel long distances quickly.

Imported crude oil as a percent of

U.S. consumption. In 2011, the

United States imported $332 billion

worth of crude oil, up 32% from

2010.[96]

Globalization has made tourism a popular global leisure activity. TheWorld Health Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 500,000 people

are in flight at any one time.[91] In 2010, international tourism reached

$919B, growing 6.5% over 2009.[92] In 2010, there were over 940million international tourist arrivals worldwide, representing a growth of

6.6% when compared to 2009.[93] International tourism receipts grew toUS$919 billion (€693 billion) in 2010, corresponding to an increase in

real terms of 4.7%.[93]

As a result of the late-2000s recession, international travel demandsuffered a strong slowdown from the second half of 2008 through theend of 2009. After a 5% increase in the first half of 2008, growth ininternational tourist arrivals moved into negative territory in the second

half of 2008, and ended up only 2% for the year, compared to a 7% increase in 2007.[94] This negative trendintensified during 2009, exacerbated in some countries due to the outbreak of the H1N1 influenza virus, resulting ina worldwide decline of 4.2% in 2009 to 880 million international tourists arrivals, and a 5.7% decline in

international tourism receipts.[95]

Economic globalization

Main article: Economic globalization

Economic globalization is the increasing economic interdependence ofnational economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross-

border movement of goods, service, technology and capital.[97] Whereasthe globalization of business is centered around the diminution ofinternational trade regulations as well as tariffs, taxes, and otherimpediments that suppresses global trade, economic globalization is theprocess of increasing economic integration between countries, leading to

the emergence of a global marketplace or a single world market.[98]

Depending on the paradigm, economic globalization can be viewed aseither a positive or a negative phenomenon. Economic globalizationcomprises the globalization of production, markets, competition,

technology, and corporations and industries.[97] Current globalizationtrends can be largely accounted for by developed economies integratingwith less developed economies, by means of foreign direct investment,the reduction of trade barriers as well as other economic reforms and, inmany cases, immigration.

In 1944, 44 nations attended the Bretton Woods Conference with a purpose of stabilizing world currencies andestablishing credit for international trade in the post World War II era. While the international economic orderenvisioned by the conference gave way to the neo-liberal economic order prevalent today, the conferenceestablished many of the organizations essential to the advancement towards a close knit global economy, such asthe World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Trade Organization.

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Shanghai becomes a symbol of the

recent economic boom of China. In

2011, China had 960,000

millionaires.[99]

The Argentine economic crisis of

2001 caused in a currency

devaluation and capital flight which

resulted in a sharp drop in imports.

As an example, Chinese economic reform began to open China to the globalization in the 1980s. Scholars find thatChina has attained a degree of openness that is unprecedented among large and populous nations", with

competition from foreign goods in almost every sector of the economy.Foreign investment helped to greatly increase quality, knowledge andstandards, especially in heavy industry. China's experience supports theassertion that globalization greatly increases wealth for poor

countries.[100] As of 2005–2007, the Port of Shanghai holds the title as

the World's busiest port.[101][102][103][104]

Economic liberalization in India is the ongoing economic reforms in Indiathat started in 1991. As of 2009, about 300 million people—equivalentto the entire population of the United States—have escaped extreme

poverty.[105] In India, business process outsourcing has been describedas the "primary engine of the country's development over the next fewdecades, contributing broadly to GDP growth, employment growth, and

poverty alleviation".[106][107]

Capital flight

Main articles: Capital flight and Liquidity crisis

See also: Sudden stop (economics), Tax exporting, Capital strike, and Illicit financial flows

Capital flight occurs when assets or money rapidly flow out of a countrybecause of that country's recent increase in taxes, tariffs, labor costs, orother unfavorable financial conditions such as government debt defaulting,which disturb investors. This leads to a sometimes very rapiddisappearance of wealth, and is usually accompanied by a sharp drop inthe exchange rate of the affected country, leading in turn to depreciationin a variable currency exchange rate regime, or a forced devaluationunder fixed exchange rates. This can be particularly damaging when thecapital belongs to the people of the affected country, because not onlyare the citizens now burdened by the loss of faith in the economy anddevaluation of their currency, but probably also their assets have lost much of their nominal value. This leads todramatic decreases in the purchasing power of the country's assets and makes it increasingly expensive to importgoods.

A 2008 paper published by Global Financial Integrity estimated capital flight, also called illicit financial flows to be

"out of developing countries are some $850 billion to $1 trillion a year."[108] But capital flight affects developingcountries, too. A 2009 article in The Times reported that hundreds of wealthy financiers and entrepreneurs hadrecently fled the United Kingdom in response to recent tax increases, and had relocated in low tax destinations such

as Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, and the British Virgin Islands.[109] In May 2012 the scale of Greek capital

flight in the wake of the first "undecided" legislative election was estimated at €4 billion a week[110] and later thatmonth the Spanish Central Bank revealed €97 billion in capital flight from the Spanish economy for the first quarter

of 2012.[111]

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Red: U.S. corporate profits after tax.

Blue: U.S. nonresidential business

investment, both as fractions of GDP,

1989-2012. Wealth concentration of

corporate profits in global tax havens

due to tax avoidance spurred by

imposition of austerity measures can

stall investment, inhibiting further

growth.[112]

Capital flight can cause liquidity crises in the affected countries from which capital is flowing, the countries in whichinvestors are trying to liquidate their assets, and other countries involved in international commerce such as shippingand finance. Market participants in need of cash find it hard to locate potential trading partners to sell their assets.This may result either due to limited market participation or because of a decrease in cash held by financial marketparticipants. Thus asset holders may be forced to sell their assets at a price below the long term fundamental price.Borrowers typically face higher loan costs and collateral requirements, compared to periods of ample liquidity, andunsecured debt is nearly impossible to obtain. Typically, during a liquidity crisis, the interbank lending market doesnot function smoothly either.

Austerity

Main article: Austerity

Governments sometimes impose austerity policies to reduce budgetdeficits during adverse economic conditions. These can include spending

cuts, tax increases, or a mixture of the two.[113][114][115] Austeritypolicies demonstrate governments' liquidity to their creditors and creditrating agencies by bringing fiscal income closer to expenditure.

The economic effects of austerity are unclear, due to its wide and non-specific definition, the limited historic sample of natural experiments andthe potential conflation with the effects of other events which tend toprecede austerity, such as recessions and financial crises. Inmacroeconomics, reducing government spending generally increasesunemployment. This increases safety net spending and reduces taxrevenues, to some extent. Government spending contributes to grossdomestic product (GDP), so the debt-to-GDP ratio which signifiesliquidity may not immediately improve. Short-term deficit spendingparticularly contributes to GDP growth when consumers and businesses

are unwilling or unable to spend.[116] Under the theory of expansionaryfiscal contraction (EFC), a major reduction in government spending can change future expectations about taxes and

government spending, encouraging private consumption and resulting in overall economic expansion.[117] Since2011, the International Monetary Fund has issued cautionary guidance against austerity measures imposed without

regard to underlying economic fundamentals[118][119][120] and many commentators have suggested that austerity

measures have indeed been misguided and harmful to the economies where they have been imposed.[121][122][123]

Measurement

Indices

Main article: Globalization Index

Measurement of economic globalization focuses on variables such as trade, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI),portfolio investment, and income. However, newer indices attempt to measure globalization in more general terms,

including variables related to political, social, cultural, and even environmental aspects of globalization.[124]

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One index of globalization is the KOF Index, which measures the three main dimensions of globalization: economic,

social, and political.[125]

2012 List by the KOF Index of Globalization 2006 List by the A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine

Rank Country

1 Belgium

2 Ireland

3 Netherlands

4 Austria

5 Singapore

6 Sweden

7 Denmark

8 Hungary

9 Portugal

10 Switzerland

Rank Country

1 Singapore

2 Switzerland

3 United States

4 Ireland

5 Denmark

6 Canada

7 Netherlands

8 Australia

9 Austria

10 Sweden

Free trade policies

Main article: Global Enabling Trade Report

The Enabling Trade Index measures the factors, policies and services that facilitate the trade in goods acrossborders and to destination. It is made up of four sub-indexes: market access; border administration; transport and

communications infrastructure; and business environment. The top 20 countries are:[126]

1. Singapore 6.062. Hong Kong 5.703. Denmark 5.41

4. Sweden 5.415. Switzerland 5.37

6. New Zealand 5.337. Norway 5.32

8. Canada 5.299. Luxembourg 5.28

10. Netherlands 5.26

11. Iceland 5.26

12. Finland 5.25

13. Germany 5.2014. Austria 5.1715. Australia 5.13

16. United Arab Emirates 5.1217. United Kingdom 5.06

18. Chile 5.0619. United States 5.03

20. France 5.02

Sociocultural globalization

Culture

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Shakira, a Colombian

multilingual singer-

songwriter, playing outside

her home country.

A McDonald's in Osaka, Japan

illustrates the McDonaldization of

global society

Main article: Cultural globalization

Cultural globalization has increased cross-cultural contacts but may beaccompanied by a decrease in the uniqueness of once-isolated communities: sushiis available in Germany as well as Japan, but Euro-Disney outdraws the city of

Paris, potentially reducing demand for "authentic" French pastry.[127][128][129]

Globalisation's contribution to the alienation of individuals from their traditionsmay be modest compared to the impact of modernity itself, as alleged byexistentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. Globalization hasexpanded recreational opportunities by spreading pop culture, particularly via theInternet and satellite television.

Religious movements were among the earliest cultural forces to globalize, spreadby force, migration, evangelists, imperialists and traders. Christianity, Islam,Buddhism and more recently sects such as Mormonism have taken root and

influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins.[130]

Conversi claimed in 2010 thatglobalization was predominantly drivenby the outward flow of culture and economic activity from the United

States and was better understood as Americanization,[131][132] orWesternization. For example, the two most successful globalfood/beverage outlets are American companies, McDonald's andStarbucks, are often cited as examples of globalization, with over

32,000[133] and 18,000 locations operating worldwide, respectively as

of 2008.[134]

The term globalization implies transformation. Cultural practices includingtraditional music can be lost and/or turned into a fusion of traditions.Globalization can trigger a state of emergency for the preservation ofmusical heritage. Archivists must attempt to collect, record or transcribe

repertoire before melodies are assimilated or modified. Local musicians struggle for authenticity and to preservelocal musical traditions. Globalization can lead performers to discard traditional instruments. Fusion genres can

become interesting fields of analysis.[135]

Globalization gave support to the World Music phenomenon by allowing locally-recorded to reach westernaudiences searching for new ideas and sounds. For example, Western musicians have adopted many innovations

that originated in other cultures.[136]

The term was originally intended for ethnic-specific music, though globalization is expanding its scope; it now often

includes hybrid sub-genres such as World fusion, Global fusion, Ethnic fusion[137] and Worldbeat[138][139]

Music flowed outward from the west as well. Anglo-American pop music spread across the world through MTV.Dependency Theory explained that the world was an integrated, international system. Musically, this translated into

the loss of local musical identity.[140]

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A Coca-Cola stall outside the Grand

Gateway 66 shopping mall in

Xujiahui, Shanghai

Bourdieu claimed that the perception of consumption can be seen as self-identification and the formation of identity.Musically, this translates into each being having his own musical identity based on likes and tastes. These likes andtastes are greatly influenced by culture as this is the most basic cause for a person's wants and behavior. Theconcept of one's own culture is now in a period of change due to globalization. Also, globalization has increased the

interdependency of political, personal, cultural and economic factors.[141]

A 2005 UNESCO report[142] showed that cultural exchange isbecoming more frequent from Eastern Asia but Western countries are stillthe main exporters of cultural goods. In 2002, China was the third largestexporter of cultural goods, after the UK and US. Between 1994 and2002, both North America's and the European Union's shares of culturalexports declined, while Asia's cultural exports grew to surpass NorthAmerica. Related factors are the fact that Asia's population and area areseveral times that of North America. Americanization related to a periodof high political American clout and of significant growth of America'sshops, markets and object being brought into other countries. Soglobalization, a much more diversified phenomenon, relates to amultilateral political world and to the increase of objects, markets and soon into each other's countries. The Indian experience particularly revealsthe plurality of the impact of cultural globalization (Biswajit Ghosh 2011'Cultural Changes in the Era of Globalisation', Journal of Developing Societies, 27 (2): 153-175).

Multilingualism and the emergence of lingua francas

Main articles: Multilingualism, Lingua franca, and List of lingua francas

Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population.[143] Multilingualism is becoming a

social phenomenon governed by the needs of globalization and cultural openness.[144] Thanks to the ease of accessto information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages is getting more and morefrequent, and triggering therefore the need to acquire more and more languages.

A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a

mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.[145]

Today, the most popular second language is English. Some 3.5 billion people have some acquaintance of the

language.[146] English is the dominant language on the Internet.[147] About 35% of the world's mail, telexes, and

cables are in English. Approximately 40% of the world's radio programs are in English.[citation needed]

Language contact occurs when two or more languages or varieties interact. Multilingualism has likely been common

throughout much of human history, and today most people in the world are multilingual.[148] Language contactoccurs in a variety of phenomena, including language convergence, borrowing, and relexification. The most commonproducts are pidgins, creoles, code-switching, and mixed languages.

Politics

Main article: Global politics

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The United Nations

Headquarters in New York

City.

In general, globalization may ultimately reduce the importance of nation states.Sub-state and supra-state institutions such as the European Union, the WTO, theG8 or the International Criminal Court, replace national functions with

international agreement.[149] Some observers attribute the relative decline in USpower to globalization, particularly due to the country's high trade deficit. This ledto a global power shift towards Asian states, particularly China, which unleashedmarket forces and achieved tremendous growth rates. As of 2011, China was on

track to overtake the United States by 2025.[150]

Increasingly, non-governmental organizations influence public policy across

national boundaries, including humanitarian aid and developmental efforts.[151]

As a response to globalization, some countries have embraced isolationistpolicies. For example, the North Korean government makes it very difficult forforeigners to enter the country and strictly monitors their activities when they do.Aid workers are subject to considerable scrutiny and excluded from places andregions the government does not wish them to enter. Citizens cannot freely leave

the country.[152][153]

Media and public opinion

Main articles: Media (communication) and Public opinion

A 2005 study by Peer Fiss and Paul Hirsch found large increase in articles negative towards globalization in the

years prior. By 1998, negative articles outpaced positive articles by two to one.[154] In 2008 Greg Ip claimed this

rise in opposition to globalization can be explained, at least in part, by economic self-interest.[155] The number ofnewspaper articles showing negative framing rose from about 10% of the total in 1991 to 55% of the total in 1999.This increase occurred during a period when the total number of articles concerning globalization nearly

doubled.[154]

A number of international polls have shown that residents of developing countries tend to view globalization more

favorably.[156] The BBC found a growing feeling in developing countries that globalization was proceeding toorapidly. Only a few countries, including Mexico, the countries of Central America, Indonesia, Brazil and Kenya,

where a majority felt that globalization is growing too slowly.[157]

Philip Gordon stated that "(as of 2004) a clear majority of Europeans believe that globalization can enrich theirlives, while believing the European Union can help them take advantage of globalization's benefits while shielding

them from its negative effects."[158] The main opposition consisted of socialists, environmental groups, andnationalists.

Residents of the EU did not appear to feel threatened by globalization in 2004. The EU job market was morestable and workers were less likely to accept wage/benefit cuts. Social spending was much higher than in the

US.[159]

In a Danish poll in 2007, 76% responded that globalisation is a good thing.[160]

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Global Internet usage: Percent

connected

Fiss, et al., surveyed U.S. opinion in 1993. Their survey showed that in 1993 more than 40% of respondents wereunfamiliar with the concept of globalization. When the survey was repeated in 1998, 89% of the respondents had apolarized view of globalization as being either good or bad. At the same time, discourse on globalization, whichbegan in the financial community before shifting to a heated debate between proponents and disenchanted studentsand workers. Polarization increased dramatically after the establishment of the WTO in 1995; this event and

subsequent protests led to a large-scale anti-globalization movement.[154] Initially, college educated workers werelikely to support globalization. Less educated workers, who were more likely to compete with immigrants andworkers in developing countries, tended to be opponents. The situation changed after the financial crisis of 2007.According to a 1997 poll 58% of college graduates said globalization had been good for the U.S. By 2008 only

33% thought it was good. Respondents with high school education also became more opposed.[155]

According to Takenaka Heizo and Chida Ryokichi, as of 1998 there was a perception in Japan that the economywas "Small and Frail". However Japan was resource poor and used exports to pay for its raw materials. Anxietyover their position caused terms such as internationalization and globalization to enter everyday language.

However, Japanese tradition was to be as self-sufficient as possible, particularly in agriculture.[161]

The situation may have changed after the 2007 financial crisis. A 2008 BBC World Public Poll as the crisis begansuggested that opposition to globalization in developed countries was increasing. The BBC poll asked whetherglobalization was growing too rapidly. Agreement was strongest in France, Spain, Japan, South Korea, andGermany. The trend in these countries appears to be stronger than in the United States. The poll also correlated thetendency to view globalization as proceeding too rapidly with a perception of growing economic insecurity and

social inequality.[157]

Many in the Third World see globalization as a positive force that lifts countries out of poverty.[162] The oppositiontypically combined environmental concerns with nationalism. Opponents consider governments as agents of neo-

colonialism that are subservient to multinational corporations.[163] Much of this criticism comes from the middleclass; the Brookings Institute suggested this was because the middle class perceived upwardly mobile low-income

groups to threaten their economic security.[164]

Although many critics blame globalization for a decline of the middle class in industrialized countries, the middle

class is growing rapidly in the Third World.[165] Coupled with growing urbanization, this led to increasing disparities

in wealth between urban and rural areas.[166] In 2002, in India 70% of the population lived in rural areas and

depended directly on natural resources for their livelihood.[163] As a result, mass movements in the countryside at

times objected to the process.[167]

Internet

Main articles: World Wide Web and Internet

See also: List of countries by number of Internet users

Both a product of globalization as well as a catalyst, the Internet connectscomputer users around the world. From 2000 to 2009, the number of

Internet users globally rose from 394 million to 1.858 billion.[168] By2010, 22 percent of the world's population had access to computers with1 billion Google searches every day, 300 million Internet users reading

blogs, and 2 billion videos viewed daily on YouTube.[169] According to

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World energy consumption &

predictions, 1970-2025. Source:

International Energy Outlook 2004.

research firm IDC, the size of total worldwide e-commerce, when global business-to-business and -consumertransactions are added together, will equate to $16 trillion in 2013. IDate, another research firm, estimates theglobal market for digital products and services at $4.4 trillion in 2013. A report by Oxford Economics adds thosetwo together to estimate the total size of the digital economy at $20.4 trillion, equivalent to roughly 13.8% of global

sales.[170]

While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence thatsome aspects of the internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality

and the digital divide.[171] Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-and-

pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality.[172][173][174]

An online community is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence throughtaking part in membership ritual. Significant socio-technical change may have resulted from the proliferation of such

Internet-based social networks.[175]

Population growth

Main articles: World population and Overpopulation

The world population has experienced continuous growth since the end of the Great Famine and the Black Death in

1350, when it stood at around 370 million.[176] The highest rates of growth – global population increases above1.8% per year – were seen briefly during the 1950s, and for a longer period during the 1960s and 1970s. Thegrowth rate peaked at 2.2% in 1963, and had declined to 1.1% by 2011. Total annual births were highest in the

late 1980s at about 138 million,[177] and are now expected to remain essentially constant at their 2011 level of134 million, while deaths number 56 million per year, and are expected to increase to 80 million per year by

2040.[178] Current projections show a continued increase in population (but a steady decline in the population

growth rate), with the global population expected to reach between 7.5 and 10.5 billion by 2050.[179][180]

With human consumption of seafood having doubled in the last 30 years,seriously depleting multiple seafood fisheries and destroying the marineecosystem as a result, awareness is prompting steps to be taken to create

a more sustainable seafood supply.[181]

The head of the International Food Policy Research Institute, stated in2008 that the gradual change in diet among newly prosperouspopulations is the most important factor underpinning the rise in global

food prices.[182] From 1950 to 1984, as the Green Revolutiontransformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by

over 250%.[183] World population has grown by about 4 billion since thebeginning of the Green Revolution and without it, there would be greaterfamine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents (approximately

850 million people suffering from chronic malnutrition in 2005).[184][185]

It is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain food security in a world beset by a confluence of "peak" phenomena,namely peak oil, peak water, peak phosphorus, peak grain and peak fish. Growing populations, falling energysources and food shortages will create the "perfect storm" by 2030, according to UK chief government scientistJohn Beddington. He noted that food reserves were at a 50-year low and the world would require 50% more

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SARS checkpoint at Taiwan Taoyuan

International Airport's International

Arrivals in Terminal 1

energy, food and water by 2030.[186][187] The world will have to produce 70% more food by 2050 to feed aprojected extra 2.3 billion people and as incomes rise according to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture

Organisation (FAO).[188] Social scientists have warned of the possibility that global civilization is due for a period ofcontraction and economic re-localization, due to the decline in fossil fuels and resulting crisis in transportation and

food production.[189][190][191] Helga Vierich predicted that a restoration of sustainable local economic activities

based on hunting and gathering, shifting horticulture, and pastoralism.[192]

Health

Main articles: Global health and Globalization and disease

Global health is the health of populations in a global context and transcends the perspectives and concerns of

individual nations.[193] Health problems that transcend national borders or have a global political and economic

impact, are often emphasized.[194] It has been defined as 'the area of study, research and practice that places a

priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide'.[195] Thus, global health is aboutworldwide improvement of health, reduction of disparities, and protection against global threats that disregard

national borders.[196] The application of these principles to the domain of mental health is called Global Mental

Health.[197]

The major international agency for health is the World HealthOrganization (WHO). Other important agencies with impact on globalhealth activities include UNICEF, World Food Programme (WFP),United Nations University International Institute for Global Health and theWorld Bank. A major initiative for improved global health is the UnitedNations Millennium Declaration and the globally endorsed Millennium

Development Goals.[198]

International travel has helped to spread some of the deadliest infectious

diseases.[199] Modern modes of transportation allow more people andproducts to travel around the world at a faster pace, but they also openthe airways to the transcontinental movement of infectious disease

vectors.[200] One example of this occurring is AIDS/HIV.[201] Due toimmigration, approximately 500,000 people in the United States are

believed to be infected with Chagas disease.[202] In 2006, the tuberculosis (TB) rate among foreign-born persons in

the United States was 9.5 times that of U.S.-born persons.[203] Starting in Asia, the Black Death killed at least one-

third of Europe's population in the 14th century.[204] Even worse devastation was inflicted on the Americansupercontinent by European arrivals. 90% of the populations of the civilizations of the "New World" such as theAztec, Maya, and Inca were killed by small pox brought by European colonization.

Sports

Main articles: Olympic Games and List of world championships

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1996 Summer Paralympics

Plot based on the NASA GISS

Surface Temperature Analysis

(GISTEMP) data set.

The Ancient Olympic Games were a series of competitions held between representatives of several city-states andkingdoms from Ancient Greece, which featured mainly athletic but also combat and chariot racing events. Duringthe Olympic games all struggles against the participating city-states were postponed until the games were

finished.[205] The origin of these Olympics is shrouded in mystery and

legend.[206] During the 19th century Olympic Games became a popularevent.

Globalization has continually increased international competition in sports.The FIFA World Cup is the world's most widely viewed sporting event;an estimated 715.1 million people watched the final match of the 2006

FIFA World Cup held in Germany.[207]

International sports do influence globalization as well as the political,economical, and other cultural aspects of the countries around the world.Especially with Politics and sports, we can see how sports can affect countries, their identities, and in consequence,the world through globalization. Looking at football, its status as the most popular global sport was not inevitable,consequential of both historical forces and the intrinsic qualities that appeal to both players and watchers of the

game.[208] Football or any other kind of sport, therefore, has seeped deeper than we think into our lives, sometimeseven bringing out of us the nationalistic character, and/or the good sportsmanship. Both help finding the identities ofcountries.

Global natural environment

Main articles: Global warming, Climate change, and Deforestation

Environmental challenges such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution and over-fishing of theocean, require trans-national/global solutions. Since factories in developing countries increased global output andexperienced less environmental regulation, globalism substantially increased pollution and impact on water

resources.[209]

State of the World 2006 report said India and China's high economicgrowth was not sustainable. The report stated, The world's ecologicalcapacity is simply insufficient to satisfy the ambitions of China,India, Japan, Europe and the United States as well as the

aspirations of the rest of the world in a sustainable way[210] In a2006 news story, BBC reported, "...if China and India were to consumeas much resources per capita as United States or Japan in 2030 together

they would require a full planet Earth to meet their needs.[210] In thelongterm these effects can lead to increased conflict over dwindling

resources[211] and in the worst case a Malthusian catastrophe.

The advent of global environmental challenges that might be solved withinternational cooperation include climate change, cross-boundary waterand air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive

species. Since many factories are built in developing countries with less environmental regulation, globalism and free

trade may increase pollution and impact on precious fresh water resources.[209][212]

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Burning forest in Brazil. The removal

of forest to make way for cattle

ranching was the leading cause of

deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon

from the mid-1960s. Soybeans have

become one of the most important

contributors to deforestation in the

Brazilian Amazon.[214]

International foreign investment in developing countries could lead to a "race to the bottom" as countries lower their

environmental and resource protection laws to attract foreign capital.[10][213] The reverse of this theory is true,however, when developed countries maintain positive environmental practices, imparting them to countries they are

investing in and creating a "race to the top" phenomenon.[10]

The distances are shrinking between continents and countries due toglobalization, causing developing and developed countries to find ways tosolve problems on a global rather than regional scale. Agencies like theUnited Nations now must be the global regulators of pollution, whereas

before, regional governance was enough.[215] Action has been taken bythe United Nations to monitor and reduce atmospheric pollutants throughthe Kyoto Protocol, the Clean Air Initiative, and studies of air pollution

and public policy.[216] Global traffic, production, and consumption arecausing increased global levels of air pollutants. The northern hemisphere

is the leading producer of carbon monoxide and sulfur oxides.[217]

Changes in natural capital are beginning to erode the economic logic ofone major aspect of economic globalization: an international division of

labor and production based on global supply chains.[218] Over time,peak oil and climate change will result in "peak globalization," measuredin terms of decreasing ton-miles of freight transported, particularly acrossoceans and continents. The economic logic of the comparative advantageof global supply chains will be overcome by both increasingtransportation costs and interruptions and delays in the transit of

freight.[218]

China and India substantially increased their fossil fuel consumption as their economies switched from subsistence

farming to industry and urbanization.[219][220] Chinese oil consumption grew by 8% yearly between 2002 and

2006, doubling from 1996–2006.[221] In 2007, China surpassed the United States as the top emitter of CO2.[222]

Only 1 percent of the country's 560 million city inhabitants (2007) breathe air deemed safe by the European Union.In effect, this means that developed countries may "outsource" some of the pollution associated with consumption incountries where pollution-intensive industries have been moved.

Societies utilize forest resources in order to reach a sustainable level of economic development. Historically, forestsin earlier developing nations experience "forest transitions", a period of deforestation and reforestation as asurrounding society becomes more developed, industrialized and shift their primary resource extraction to othernations via imports. For nations at the periphery of the globalized system however, there are no others to shift theirextraction onto, and forest degradation continues unabated. Forest transitions can have an effect on the hydrology,climate change, and biodiversity of an area by impacting water quality and the accumulation of greenhouse gases

through the re-growth of new forest into second and third growth forests.[223][224] A major source of deforestation

is the logging industry, driven by China and Japan.[225]

Without more recycling, zinc could be used up by 2037, both indium and hafnium could run out by 2017, and

terbium could be gone before 2012.[226]

In 2003, 29% of open sea fisheries were in a state of collapse.[227] The journal Science published a four-year study

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In 2003, 29% of open sea fisheries were in a state of collapse.[227] The journal Science published a four-year studyin November 2006, which predicted that, at prevailing trends, the world would run out of wild-caught seafood in

2048.[228] Conversely, globalisation created a global market for farm-raised fish and seafood, which as of 2009

was providing 38% of global output, potentially reducing fishing pressure.[229]

The global trade in goods depends upon reliable, inexpensive transportation of freight along complex and long-

distance supply chains.[218] Global warming and peak oil undermine globalization by their effects on bothtransportation costs and the reliable movement of freight. Countering the current geographic pattern of comparativeadvantage with higher transportation costs, climate change and peak oil will thus result in peak globalization, after

which the volume of exports will decline as measured by ton-miles of freight.[230]

Global workforce

Main article: Global workforce

The global workforce is the international labor pool of immigrant workers or those employed by multinationalcompanies and connected through a global system of networking and production. As of 2005, the global labor pool

of those employed by multinational companies consisted of almost 3 billion workers.[231]

The current global workforce is competitive as ever. Some go as far as to describe it as "A war for talent."[232] Thiscompetitiveness is due to specialized jobs becoming available world wide due to communications technology. Asworkers get more adept at using technology to communicate, they give themselves the options to be employed in anoffice half way around the world. These newer technologies not only benefit the workers, but companies may nowfind highly specialized workers that are very skilled with greater ease, as opposed to limiting their search locally.

However, production workers and service workers have been unable to compete directly with much lower-cost

workers in developing countries.[233] Low-wage countries gained the low-value-added element of work formerlydone in rich countries, while higher-value work remained; for instance, the total number of people employed in

manufacturing in the US declined, but value added per worker increased.[234]

Chinese success cost jobs in developing countries as well as in the West.[235] From 2000 to 2007, the U.S. lost a

total of 3.2 million manufacturing jobs.[236] As of 26 April 2005 "In regional giant South Africa, some 300,000

textile workers have lost their jobs in the past two years due to the influx of Chinese goods".[237]

International migration

Main articles: Immigration, Emigration, Foreign worker, and List of countries by net migration rate

Many countries have some form of guest worker program with policies similar to those found in the U.S. that permitU.S. employers to sponsor non-U.S. citizens as laborers for approximately three years, to be deported afterwardsif they have not yet obtained a green card. As of 2009, over 1,000,000 guest workers reside in the U.S.; the

largest program, the H-1B visa, has 650,000 workers in the U.S.[238] and the second-largest, the L-1 visa, has

350,000.[239] Many other United States visas exist for guest workers as well, including the H-2A visa, whichallows farmers to bring in an unlimited number of agricultural guest workers. The United States ran a Mexicanguest-worker program in the period 1942–1964, known as the Bracero Program.

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About 85% of Dubai's population

consists of migrant workers, a

majority of whom are from

India.[240]

An article in The New Republic criticized a guest worker program byequating the visiting workers to second-class citizens, who would neverbe able to gain citizenship and would have less residential rights than

Americans.[241]

Migration of educated and skilled workers is called brain drain. Forexample, the U.S.welcomes many nurses to come work in the

country.[242] The brain drain from Europe to the United States meansthat some 400,000 European science and technology graduates now live

in the U.S. and most have no intention to return to Europe.[243] Nearly

14 million immigrants came to the United States from 2000 to 2010.[244]

Immigrants to the United States and their children founded more than 40percent of the 2010 Fortune 500 companies. They founded seven of the

ten most valuable brands in the world.[245][246]

Reverse brain drain is the movement of human capital from a more developed country to a less developed country.It is considered a logical outcome of a calculated strategy where migrants accumulate savings, also known as

remittances, and develop skills overseas that can be used in their home country.[247]

Reverse brain drain can occur when scientists, engineers, or other intellectual elites migrate to a less developedcountry to learn in its universities, perform research, or gain working experience in areas where education andemployment opportunities are limited in their home country. These professionals then return to their home countryafter several years of experience to start a related business, teach in a university, or work for a multi-national in their

home country.[248]

A remittance is a transfer of money by a foreign worker to his or her home country. Remittances are playing anincreasingly large role in the economies of many countries, contributing to economic growth and to the livelihoods ofless prosperous people (though generally not the poorest of the poor). According to World Bank estimates,remittances totaled US$414 billion in 2009, of which US$316 billion went to developing countries that involved

192 million migrant workers.[249] For some individual recipient countries, remittances can be as high as a third of

their GDP.[249] As remittance receivers often have a higher propensity to own a bank account, remittances promoteaccess to financial services for the sender and recipient, an essential aspect of leveraging remittances to promoteeconomic development. The top recipients in terms of the share of remittances in GDP included many smaller

economies such as Tajikistan (45%), Moldova (38%), and Honduras (25%).[250]

The IOM found more than 200 million migrants around the world in 2008,[251] including illegal immigration.[252][253]

Remittance flows to developing countries reached $328 billion in 2008.[254]

A transnational marriage is a marriage between two people from different countries. A variety of special issues arisein marriages between people from different countries, including those related to citizenship and culture, which addcomplexity and challenges to these kinds of relationships. In an age of increasing globalization, where a growingnumber of people have ties to networks of people and places across the globe, rather than to a current geographiclocation, people are increasingly marrying across national boundaries. Transnational marriage is a by-product of themovement and migration of people.

Support and criticism

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Reactions to processes contributing to globalization have varied widely with a history as long as extraterritorialcontact and trade. Philosophical differences regarding the costs and benefits of such processes give rise to a broad-range of ideologies and social movements. Proponents of economic growth, expansion and development, in

general, view globalizing processes as desirable or necessary to the well-being of human society[255] Antagonists

view one or more globalizing processes as detrimental to social well-being on a global or local scale;[255] thisincludes those who question either the social or natural sustainability of long-term and continuous economicexpansion, the social structural inequality caused by these processes, and the colonial, Imperialistic, or hegemonicethnocentrism, cultural assimilation and cultural appropriation that underlie such processes.

As summarized by Noam Chomsky:

The dominant propaganda systems have appropriated the term "globalization" to refer to the specificversion of international economic integration that they favor, which privileges the rights of investors and

lenders, those of people being incidental. In accord with this usage, those who favor a different formof international integration, which privileges the rights of human beings, become "anti-globalist." This issimply vulgar propaganda, like the term "anti-Soviet" used by the most disgusting commissars to referto dissidents. It is not only vulgar, but idiotic. Take the World Social Forum (WSF), called "anti-globalization" in the propaganda system – which happens to include the media, the educated classes,

etc., with rare exceptions. The WSF is a paradigm example of globalization. It is a gathering of hugenumbers of people from all over the world, from just about every corner of life one can think of, apartfrom the extremely narrow highly privileged elites who meet at the competing World Economic

Forum, and are called "pro-globalization" by the propaganda system.[256]

Proponents

In general, corporate businesses, particularly in the area of finance, see globalization as a positive force in the world.Many economists cite statistics that seem to support such positive impact. For example, per capita Gross DomesticProduct (GDP) growth among post-1980 globalizing countries accelerated from 1.4 percent a year in the 1960sand 2.9 percent a year in the 1970s to 3.5 percent in the 1980s and 5.0 percent in the 1990s. This acceleration ingrowth seems even more remarkable given that the rich countries saw steady declines in growth from a high of 4.7percent in the 1960s to 2.2 percent in the 1990s. Also, the non-globalizing developing countries seem to fare worsethan the globalizers, with the former's annual growth rates falling from highs of 3.3 percent during the 1970s to only1.4 percent during the 1990s. This rapid growth among the globalizers is not simply due to the strong performancesof China and India in the 1980s and 1990s—18 out of the 24 globalizers experienced increases in growth, many of

them quite substantial.[257]

Economic liberalism and free trade

Main article: Economic liberalism

Economic liberals generally argue that higher degrees of political and economic freedom in the form of free trade inthe developed world are ends in themselves, producing higher levels of overall material wealth. Globalization is seen

as the beneficial spread of liberty and capitalism.[258] Jagdish Bhagwati, a former adviser to the U.N. onglobalization, holds that, although there are obvious problems with overly rapid development, globalization is a verypositive force that lifts countries out of poverty by causing a virtuous economic cycle associated with faster

economic growth.[162] Economist Paul Krugman is another staunch supporter of globalization and free trade with arecord of disagreeing with many critics of globalization. He argues that many of them lack a basic understanding of

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George W. Bush and Hu Jintao of

China meet while attending an APEC

summit in Santiago de Chile, 2004

comparative advantage and its importance in today's world.[259]

The flow of migrants to advanced economic countries has been claimed to provide a means through which globalwages converge. The IMF study noted a potential for skills to be transferred back to developing countries aswages in those a countries rise. Lastly, the dissemination of knowledge has been an integral aspect of globalization.Technological innovations (or technological transfer) is conjectured to benefit most the developing and least

developing countries (LDCs), as for example in the adoption of mobile phones.[22]

There has been a rapid economic growth in Asia after embracing marketorientation based economic policies that encourages private propertyrights, free enterprise and competition. In particular, in East Asiandeveloping countries, GDP per head rose at 5.9% a year from 1975 to

2001 (according to 2003 Human Development Report[260] of UNDP).Like this, the British economic journalist Martin Wolf says that incomesof poor developing countries, with more than half the world’s population,grew substantially faster than those of the world’s richest countries thatremained relatively stable in its growth, leading to reduced internationalinequality and the incidence of poverty.

Certain demographic changes in the developing world after activeeconomic liberalization and international integration resulted in rising welfare and hence, reduced inequality.According to Wolf, in the developing world as a whole, life expectancy rose by four months each year after 1970and infant mortality rate declined from 107 per thousand in 1970 to 58 in 2000 due to improvements in standardsof living and health conditions. Also, adult literacy in developing countries rose from 53% in 1970 to 74% in 1998and much lower illiteracy rate among the young guarantees that rates will continue to fall as time passes.Furthermore, the reduction in fertility rate in the developing world as a whole from 4.1 births per woman in 1980 to2.8 in 2000 indicates improved education level of women on fertility, and control of fewer children with more

parental attention and investment.[261] Consequentially, more prosperous and educated parents with fewer childrenhave chosen to withdraw their children from the labor force to give them opportunities to be educated at schoolimproving the issue of child labor. Thus, despite seemingly unequal distribution of income within these developingcountries, their economic growth and development have brought about improved standards of living and welfare forthe population as a whole.

Global democracy

Main article: Democratic globalization

Democratic globalization is a movement towards an institutional system of global democracy that would giveworld citizens a say in political organizations. This would, in their view, bypass nation-states, corporate oligopolies,ideological Non-governmental organizations (NGO), political cults and mafias. One of its most prolific proponentsis the British political thinker David Held. Advocates of democratic globalization argue that economic expansionand development should be the first phase of democratic globalization, which is to be followed by a phase ofbuilding global political institutions. Dr. Francesco Stipo, Director of the United States Association of the Club ofRome, advocates unifying nations under a world government, suggesting that it "should reflect the political andeconomic balances of world nations. A world confederation would not supersede the authority of the Stategovernments but rather complement it, as both the States and the world authority would have power within their

sphere of competence".[263] Former Canadian Senator Douglas Roche, O.C., viewed globalization as inevitable

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Of the factors influencing the

duration of economic growth in both

developed and developing countries,

income equality has a more beneficial

impact than trade openness, sound

political institutions, and foreign

investment.[262]

Monument to Multiculturalism by

Francesco Perilli in Toronto, Canada.

Four identical sculptures are located

in Buffalo City, South Africa;

Changchun, China; Sarajevo, Bosnia

and Sydney, Australia

and advocated creating institutions such as a directly elected UnitedNations Parliamentary Assembly to exercise oversight over unelected

international bodies.[264]

Global civics

Main articles: Global civics

and Multiculturalism

Global civics suggests thatcivics can be understood, in aglobal sense, as a socialcontract between worldcitizens in the age ofinterdependence andinteraction. The disseminators

of the concept define it as the notion that we have certain rights andresponsibilities towards each other by the mere fact of being human on

Earth.[265] World citizen has a variety of similar meanings, often referringto a person who disapproves of traditional geopolitical divisions derivedfrom national citizenship. An early incarnation of this sentiment can befound in Socrates, who Plutarch quoted as saying: "I am not an Athenian,

or a Greek, but a citizen of the world."[266] In an increasinglyinterdependent world, world citizens need a compass to frame their mindsets and create a shared consciousness

and sense of global responsibility in world issues such as environmental problems and nuclear proliferation.[267]

Cosmopolitanism is the notion that all human ethnic groups belong to a single community based on a share morality.A person who adheres to the idea of cosmopolitanism in any of its forms is called a cosmopolitan or

cosmopolite.[268] A cosmopolitan community might be based on an inclusive morality, a shared economicrelationship, or a political structure that encompasses different nations. The cosmopolitan community is one in whichindividuals from different places (e.g. nation-states) form relationships based on mutual respect. For instance,Kwame Anthony Appiah suggests the possibility of a cosmopolitan community in which individuals from varyinglocations (physical, economic, etc.) enter relationships of mutual respect despite their differing beliefs (religious,

political, etc.).[269]

Canadian philosopher Marshall McLuhan popularized the term Global Village beginning in 1962.[270] His viewsuggested that globalization would lead to a world where people from all countries will become more integrated and

aware of common interests and shared humanity.[271]

Critiques

Main article: Criticisms of globalization

Critiques of globalization generally stem from discussions surrounding the impact of such processes on the planet aswell as the human costs. They challenge directly traditional metrics, such as GDP, and look to other measures, such

as the Gini coefficient or the Happy Planet Index,[272][273] and point to a "multitude of interconnected fatal

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Differences in national income

equality around the world as

measured by the national Gini

coefficient, 2009

consequences–social disintegration, a breakdown of democracy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of the

environment, the spread of new diseases, increasing poverty and alienation"[274] which they claim are theunintended consequences of globalization.

Criticisms have arisen from church groups, national liberation factions,peasant unionists, intellectuals, artists, protectionists, anarchists, those insupport of relocalization (e.g., consumption of nearby production) andothers. Some have been reformist in nature, (arguing for a moremoderate form of capitalism) while others are more revolutionary (powershift from private to public control) or reactionary (public to private).

[275] Some critics of globalization argue that it can harm the diversity ofcultures. As a dominating country’s culture is introduced into a receivingcountry through globalization, it can become a threat to the diversity oflocal culture. Some argue that globalization may ultimately lead towesternization or Americanization of culture, where the dominating

cultural concepts of economically and politically powerful Western countries spread and cause harm on localcultures.

Some opponents of globalization see the phenomenon as the promotion of corporatist interests.[276] They also claim

that the increasing autonomy and strength of corporate entities shapes the political policy of countries.[277][278] Theyadvocate global institutions and policies that they believe better address the moral claims of poor and working

classes as well as environmental concerns.[279] Economic arguments by fair trade theorists claim that unrestricted

free trade benefits those with more financial leverage (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.[280]

Critics argue that globalization results in:

Poorer countries suffering disadvantages: While it is true that free trade encourages globalization amongcountries, some countries try to protect their domestic suppliers. The main export of poorer countries isusually agricultural productions. Larger countries often subsidise their farmers (e.g., the EU's Common

Agricultural Policy), which lowers the market price for foreign crops.[281]

Joseph Stiglitz argues that countries that have managed globalization on their own have succeeded in reapingbenefits from globalization, while countries that were economically managed by international institutions such as the

IMF have not gained as much from globalization.[282]

The shift to outsourcing: Globalization allowed corporations to move manufacturing and service jobs from

high cost locations, creating economic opportunities with the most competitive wages and worker

benefits.[106]

Weak labor unions: The surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever growing number of companies intransition weakened labor unions in high-cost areas. Unions lose their effectiveness and workers their

enthusiasm for unions when membership begins to decline.[281]

An increase in exploitation of child labour: Countries with weak protections for children are vulnerable toinfestation by rogue companies and criminal gangs who exploit them. Examples include quarrying, salvage,

and farm work as well as trafficking, bondage, forced labor, prostitution and pornography.[283]

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Immigrant rights march for

amnesty, Los Angeles, on

May Day, 2006

Helena Norberg-Hodge, the director and founder of ISEC, criticizes globalization in many ways. In her bookAncient Futures, Norberg-Hodge claims that "centuries of ecological balance and social harmony are under threatfrom the pressures of development and globalization." She also criticizes the standardization and rationalization ofglobalization, as it does not always yield the expected growth outcomes. Although globalization takes similar stepsin most countries, scholars such as Hodge claim that it might not be effective to certain countries, for globalization

has actually moved some countries backward instead of developing them.[284]

Anti-globalization movement

Main article: Anti-globalization movement

Anti-globalization, or counter-globalisation,[285] consists of a number of criticismsof globalization but, in general, is critical of the globalization of corporate

capitalism.[286] The movement is also commonly referred to as the alter-globalization movement, anti-globalist movement, anti-corporate globalization

movement,[287] or movement against neoliberal globalization. It can be explainedas encompassing the ideologies present in the following other “movements”,which will be discussed below: opposition to capital market integration, socialjustice and inequality, anti-consumerism, anti-global governance andenvironmentalist opposition. Each of these ideologies can be framed around aspecific strand of the anti-globalization movement, but in general the movementgears their efforts towards all of these primary principles. It is considered a rathernew and modern day social movement, as the issues it is fighting against arerelevant in today’s time. However, the events that occurred which fuels themovement can be traced back through the lineage of the movement of a 500-year

old history of resistance against European colonialism and U.S. imperialism.[288] This refers to the continent ofAfrica being colonized and stripped of their resources by the Europeans in the 19th century. It is also related closelywith the anti-Vietnam war mobilizations between 1960 and1970, with worldwide protests against the adjustment ofstructure in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Although British sociologist Paul Q. Hirst and political economist

Grahame F. Thompson note the term is vague;[289] "anti-globalization movement" activities may include attempts todemonstrate sovereignty, practice local democratic decision-making, or restrict the international transfer of people,goods and capitalist ideologies, particularly free market deregulation. Canadian author and social activist NaomiKlein argues that the term could denote either a single social movement or encompass multiple social movements

such as nationalism and socialism.[290] Bruce Podobnik, a sociologist at Lewis and Clark College, states that "thevast majority of groups that participate in these protests draw on international networks of support, and theygenerally call for forms of globalization that enhance democratic representation, human rights, and

egalitarianism."[291] Economists Joseph Stiglitz and Andrew Charlton write:

The anti-globalization movement developed in opposition to the perceived negative aspects of

globalization. The term 'anti-globalization' is in many ways a misnomer, since the group represents awide range of interests and issues and many of the people involved in the anti-globalization movementdo support closer ties between the various peoples and cultures of the world through, for example,

aid, assistance for refugees, and global environmental issues.[292]

In general, opponents of globalization in developed countries are disproportionately middle-class and college-educated. This contrasts sharply with the situation in developing countries, where the anti-globalization movement

has been more successful in enlisting a broader group, including millions of workers and farmers.[293]

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World Bank Protester, Jakarta,

Indonesia.

These supporters of the movement are aware of the unequal power and respect in terms of international trade

between the developed and underdeveloped countries of the world.[294] The activists that support the AGM, asmentioned previously before, can range in terms of the specific issue(s) that they oppose. Again, there are a fewdifferent dimensions of globalization: economic, political, cultural, ecological and ideological. The diverse subgroupsthat make up this movement include some of the following: trade unionists, environmentalists, anarchists, land rightsand indigenous rights activists, organizations promoting human rights and sustainable development, opponents of

privatization, and anti-sweatshop campaigners.[288]

Opposition to capital market integration

Main article: Anti-capitalist movements

Capital markets have to do with raising and investing moneys in varioushuman enterprises. Increasing integration of these financial marketsbetween countries leads to the emergence of a global capital marketplaceor a single world market. In the long run, increased movement of capitalbetween countries tends to favor owners of capital more than any othergroup; in the short run, owners and workers in specific sectors in capital-exporting countries bear much of the burden of adjusting to increased

movement of capital.[295] It is not surprising that these conditions lead topolitical divisions about whether or not to encourage or increaseinternational capital market integration.

Those opposed to capital market integration on the basis of human rightsissues are especially disturbed by the various abuses which they think areperpetuated by global and international institutions that, they say, promote neoliberalism without regard to ethicalstandards. This can also be referred to as “corporate capitalism”, as previous mentioned, which are money drivenorganizations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, along with many of the popular andcompetitive multinational corporations, like Nike and other institutions. Common targets include the World Bank(WB), International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) and free trade treaties like the North American Free TradeAgreement (NAFTA), Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), the Multilateral Agreement on Investment(MAI) and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). In light of the economic gap between rich andpoor countries, movement adherents claim "free trade" without measures in place to protect the under-capitalizedwill contribute only to the strengthening the power of industrialized nations (often termed the "North" in oppositionto the developing world's "South"). Some of the powerful Northern corporations have implemented policies likeprivatizing public industry and reducing tariffs. By doing this it has created a growth in sweatshops in the developingworld, where wages are minimal and unfair, and conditions are unsafe to the workers’ health and psychologicalstate. The global North can benefit from this by getting goods for a cheaper monetary amount. However, this is atthe expense of these impoverished people and the community or country as a whole. Now, fair trade has beenintroduced in order to attempt to rebuild the economies of third world countries by paying employees, who work to

produce goods to be exported, a fair price for their efforts.[296]

Global justice and inequality

Main article: Global justice movement

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The global digital divide: Computers

per 100 people.

General Assembly meeting of the

Occupy movement in Washington

Square Park, New York City, USA,

on 8 October 2011

The global justice movement is the loose collection of individuals andgroups—often referred to as a "movement of movements"—whoadvocate fair trade rules and perceive current institutions of global

economic integration as problems.[297] The movement is often labeled ananti-globalization movement by the mainstream media. Those involved,however, frequently deny that they are anti-globalization, insisting thatthey support the globalization of communication and people and oppose

only the global expansion of corporate power.[298] The movement isbased in the idea of social justice, desiring the creation of a society orinstitution based on the principles of equality and solidarity, the values of

human rights, and the dignity of every human being.[299][300][301] Socialinequality within and between nations, including a growing global digitaldivide, is a focal point of the movement. Many nongovernmentalorganizations have now arisen to fight these inequalities that many in Latin America, Africa and Asia face. A fewvery popular and well known NGOs include: War Child, Red Cross, Free The Children and CARE International.They often create partnerships where they work towards improving the lives of those who live in third worldcountries by building schools, fixing infrastructure, cleaning water supplies, purchasing equipment and supplies forhospitals, etcetera.

Inequality

Main articles: Economic inequality and International inequality

Increasing international commerce with high barriers to entry, corporateconsolidation, tax havens and other methods of tax avoidance, andpolitical corruption have all caused increases in income inequality andwealth concentration: the increasingly unequal distribution of economicassets (wealth) and income within or between global populations,countries, and individuals. Economic inequality varies between societies,historical periods, economic structures or systems (for example,capitalism or socialism), ongoing or past wars, between genders, and

between differences in individuals' abilities to create wealth.[302] Thereare various numerical indices for measuring economic inequality. Aprominent one is the Gini coefficient, but there are also many other methods.

Economic inequality affects equity, equality of outcome, and equality of opportunity. Although earlier thought

considered economic inequality as necessary and beneficial,[303] it has more recently come to be seen as a growing

social problem.[304] Early studies suggesting that greater equality inhibits economic growth have been shown to beflawed because they did not account for the many years it can take inequality changes to manifest in growth

changes.[305] In fact, one of the most robust and important determinants of sustained economic growth is the level

of income inequality.[262]

International inequality is inequality between countries. Economic differences between rich and poor countries arevery large. According to the United Nations Human Development Report for 2004, the GDP per capita incountries with high, medium and low human development (a classification based on the UN Human DevelopmentIndex) was 24,806, 4,269 and 1,184 PPP$, respectively (PPP$ = purchasing power parity measured in United

States dollars).[306]

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Gender inequality in the global workforce

Main article: Gender inequality

Women often participate in the workforce as casual labor. Evidence suggests that while globalization has expandedwomen’s access to employment, the long-term goal of transforming gender inequalities remains unmet and appearsunattainable without regulation of capital and a reorientation and expansion of the state’s role in funding public

goods and providing a social safety net.[307]

Anti-consumerism

Main article: Anti-consumerism

Anti-consumerism is the socio-political movement against the equating of personal happiness with consumption andthe purchase of material possessions. The term "consumerism" was first used in 1915 to refer to "advocacy of therights and interests of consumers" (Oxford English Dictionary), but here the term "consumerism" refers to thesense first used in 1960, "emphasis on or preoccupation with the acquisition of consumer goods" (Oxford EnglishDictionary). Concern over the treatment of consumers has spawned substantial activism, and the incorporation ofconsumer education into school curricula.

Anti-consumerist activism draws parallels with environmental activism, anti-globalization, and animal-rights activismin its condemnation of modern corporations, or organizations that pursue a solely economic interest. One variationon this topic is activism by postconsumers, with the strategic emphasis on moving beyond addictiveconsumerism.[9] (http://www.postconsumers.com)

In recent years, there have been an increasing number of books (Naomi Klein's 2000 No Logo for example) andfilms (e.g. The Corporation & Surplus), popularizing an anti-corporate ideology to the public.

Opposition to economic materialism comes primarily from two sources: religion and social activism. Some religionsassert materialism interferes with connection between the individual and the divine, or that it is inherently an immorallifestyle. Social activists believe materialism is connected to global retail merchandizing and supplier convergence,war, greed, anomie, crime, environmental degradation, and general social malaise and discontent.

Anti-global governance

Main article: Global governance

Since the two world wars, there has been solid opposition to the idea of a world government, as advocated byorganizations such as the World Federalist Movement (WFM). Those who oppose global governance do so on

objections that the idea is infeasible, inevitably oppressive, or simply unnecessary.[308] In general, these opponentsare wary of the concentration of power or wealth that such governance might represent. Religious reasons are alsocited, in which global governance is seen as the Biblical Antichrist or a representation thereof (see New WorldOrder (conspiracy theory)). Such reasoning dates back to the founding of the League of Nations and the UnitedNations.

Environmentalist opposition

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Deforestation of the Madagascar

Highland Plateau has led to extensive

siltation and unstable flows of

western rivers.

Main article: Environmentalism

Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology[309][310][311] and socialmovement regarding concerns for environmental conservation andimprovement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measurefor this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements.Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration and/orimprovement of the natural environment in an attempt to balance relationsbetween humanity and their broader natural environment. The exactnature of this balance is controversial and there are many different waysfor environmental concerns to be expressed in practice.Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often represented by

the color green,[312] but this association has been appropriated by themarketing industries and is a key tactic in the art of Greenwashing.Environmentalist concerns with globalization include issues such as globalwarming, climate change, global water supply and water crises, inequityin energy consumption and energy conservation, transnational air pollution and pollution of the world ocean,overpopulation, world habitat sustainability, deforestation, biodiversity and species extinction.

Also, another concern about globalization is an environmental apartheid. Excluding majority, resources and wealthof society is appropriated by a small minority group of privileged race or class, which are so much under protection.Then, excluded majority never gets chance to access to resources necessary for well-being and survival.Globalization has in a deep sense been a globalization of apartheid. Globalization is restructuring the control overresources in such a way that the natural resources of the poor are systematically taken over by the rich and thepollution of the rich is systematically dumped on the poor. In the pre-Rio period, it was the North that contributedmost to the destruction of the environment. For example, 90 percent of historic carbon dioxide emissions have beenby the industrialized countries. The developed countries produce 90 percent of the hazardous wastes producedaround the world every year. Global free trade has globalized this environmental destruction in an asymmetricpattern. While the economy is controlled by Northern corporations, they are increasingly exploiting Third Worldresources for their global activities. It is the South that is disproportionately bearing the environmental burden of the

globalized economy. Globalization is thus leading to an environmental apartheid.[313]

Movement tactics

The anti-globalization movement is an example of a new social movement, which uses tactics that are unique and

use different resources than previously used before in other social movements.[314] Actors of the movementparticipate in things such as disruptive tactics. These include flash mobs for example, which work extremely well incatching the attention of others and spreading awareness about the issue of globalization. There is also the spreadingof information about the social movement through social media and word of mouth about NGOs, organizations andmovement groups working to help alleviate the effects of globalization. Websites such as Twitter and Facebookhave become a useful outlet for people to become aware of what is going on around the globe, any protests ortactics taking place and the progress of non-governmental organizations aiding in these impoverished countries.

One of the most infamous tactics of the movement is the Battle of Seattle in 1999, where there were protests

against the World Trade Organization's Third Ministerial Meeting.[288] It can be described as being a massivegroup of passionate, grass roots people within the anti-globalization movement protesting against the WTO’scorporate rule. All over the world, the movement has held protests outside meetings of institutions such as the

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WTO, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the World Economic Forum, and the Group of

Eight (G8).[288] Within the Seattle demonstrations the protesters that participated used both creative and violenttactics to gain the attention towards the issue of globalization. It is still one of the most significant and memorablesocial movement protests in the past 20 years.

Key journals

Main article: List of globalization-related journals

Key academic journals examining globalization include:

Antipode

Development and ChangeEconomic GeographyGlobalization and HealthJournal of World-Systems Research

World Development

See also

Civilizing missionColumbian ExchangeDeglobalizationDevelopment criticism

Global civicsGlobalityGreat TransitionInterdependenceJet Age

Lisbon StrategyMiddle East and globalizationMundializationTechnocapitalism

Transnational cinemaTransnational citizenshipTriadizationVermeer's HatUnited Nations Millennium Declaration

Washington ConsensusWorld Englishes

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Further reading

Barbara, Christopher (2008). International legal personality: Panacea or pandemonium? Theorizing about theindividual and the state in the era of globalization (http://www.amazon.com/International-legal-personality-pandemonium-globalization/dp/3639115147/). Saarbrücken: Verlag Dr. Müller. ISBN 3-639-11514-7.von Braun, Joachim; Eugenio Diaz-Bonilla (2007). Globalization of Food and Agriculture and the Poor(http://www.ifpri.org/PUBS/otherpubs/globalpoor.asp). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-569528-1.Carpenter, John. "Puritan Missions as Globalization," Fides et Historia. 31:2, 1999 pp. 103–123.Chanda, Nayan (2007). Bound Together: How Traders, Preachers, Warriors and Adventurers ShapedGlobalization. Yale University Press, New Haven. ISBN 978-0-300-11201-6.Fernando, Salvetti (ed.) (2010). "Glocal" Working. Living and Working across the World with CulturalIntelligence (http://www.cultural-intelligence.info). Milan: Franco Angeli. ISBN 978-88-568-2733-0.Glyn, Andrew (2006). Capitalism Unleashed: Finance, Globalization, and Welfare(http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Economics/International/?view=usa&ci=9780199226795).Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-922679-2.Kitching, Gavin (2001). Seeking Social Justice through Globalization. Escaping a Nationalist Perspective(http://www.gavinkitching.com/africa_3.htm). Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-02162-4.Kohler, Gernot; Emilio José Chaves (eds.) (2003). Globalization: Critical Perspectives(http://www.novapublishers.com/). Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 1-59033-346-2. Withcontributions by Samir Amin, Christopher Chase-Dunn, Andre Gunder Frank, Immanuel WallersteinMander, Jerry; Edward Goldsmith (1996). The case against the global economy: and for a turn toward the local.San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. ISBN 0-87156-865-9.Moore, Karl; David Charles Lewis (2009). Origins of Globalization(http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415805988/). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-80598-8.Murray, Warwick E. (2006). Geographies of Globalization. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31799-1.Neumann, Iver B.; Ole Jacob Sending (2010). Governing the Global Polity: Practice, Mentality, Rationality(http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=371804). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-07093-0.Osterhammel, Jürgen; Niels P. Petersson (2005). Globalization: A Short History(http://www.amazon.com/Globalization-Short-History-Jurgen-Osterhammel/dp/0691121656/). Princeton, NewJersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12165-6.Pfister, Ulrich (2012). Globalization (http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012060507). Mainz: Institute ofEuropean History,.

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Reinsdorf, Marshall and Matthew J. Slaughter (2009). International Trade in Services and Intangibles in the Eraof Globalization. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70959-8.Sen, Amartya (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0375406190.Sirkin, Harold L; James W. Hemerling and Arindam K. Bhattacharya (2008). Globality: Competing with Everyonefrom Everywhere for Everything (http://www.bcg.com/globality). New York: Business Plus. p. 292. ISBN 0-446-17829-2.Smith, Charles (2007). International Trade and Globalisation, 3rd edition. Stocksfield: Anforme. ISBN 1-905504-10-1.Steger, Manfred (2002). Globalism: the new market ideology. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & LittlefieldPublishers. ISBN 0-7425-0072-1.Steger, Manfred (2003). Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-280359-X.Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2002). Globalization and Its Discontents. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-32439-7.Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2006). Making Globalization Work. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-06122-1.Tausch, Arno (2008). Multicultural Europe: Effects of the Global Lisbon Process. Hauppauge, New York: NovaScience Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60456-806-6.Osle, Rafael Domingo (2010). The New Global Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 9780521193870.Wolf, Martin (2004). Why Globalization Works. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10252-9.

External links

Comprehensive discussion of the term at the Site Global Transformations

(http://www.polity.co.uk/global/whatisglobalization.asp)

Globalization Website (Emory University) Links, Debates, Glossary etc.

(http://www.sociology.emory.edu/globalization/)BBC News Special Report – "Globalisation"

(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/business/2007/globalisation/default.stm)

Globalization (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/globalisation) collected news and commentary at TheGuardian

"Resilience, Panarchy, and World-Systems Analysis"(http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art24/main.html), from the Ecology and Society Journal

"Globalization" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/globalization/)

Analysis of the idea and its history.OECD Globalization statistics (http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=AFA_CALC_IN3)

"Globalization" (http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0010595), from The Canadian Encyclopedia

YaleGlobal Online (http://yaleglobal.yale.edu)

Global 3000 (http://www.dw.de/program/global-3000/s-11487-9798/) Globalization Program by DeutscheWelle-TV

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Globalization&oldid=552638971"

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