GLOBALIZATION ANDLIVING TOGETHER:

THE CHALLENGES FOREDUCATIONAL CONTENT

IN ASIA

FINAL REPORT OF THE SUB-REGIONAL COURSE

ON CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT,

NEW DELHI, INDIA, 9–17 MARCH 1999,

ORGANIZED BY THE

INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATION

AND THE INDIAN MINISTRY

OF HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATION

CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, INDIA

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Authors are responsible for the choice and presentation of the facts contained in this publication and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO-IBE and do not commit the Organization. The designations employed and the presentation of thematerial in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO-IBE concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

To find out more about the International Bureau of Education, its programmes, activities and publications, see the IBE’s home page on the Internet : http://www.ibe.unesco.org

Published in 2000 by the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, Franceand the Central Board of Secondary Education,Siksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre,Preet Vihar, Delhi, 110092, India

© UNESCO 2000

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The development and reform of school curricula is an on-going preoccupation for educational authorities in allcountries. The approach of the new millennium has givennew urgency to efforts by governments to provide all cit-izens with access to quality education, at least for the basiclevel, while improving and widening access to secondaryeducation. More than ever before, governments are beingcalled upon to equip children and young people througheducation with the capacity to lead meaningful and pro-ductive lives in a world of bewilderingly rapid and com-plex change. Existing curriculum content and pedagogicalmethods are increasingly being called into account, as pu-pils leave schools ill-prepared for the world of work andadulthood, unready and unmotivated to carry on learningthroughout their lives. The meaning and role of education,of teaching and learning, are constantly being redefined inan effort to meet the real needs and demands of individu-als and society.

The implication of globalization for societies aroundthe world is at the heart of present concerns to improveand upgrade education systems. While globalization isoften defined primarily in terms of its economic dimen-sions, the Report to UNESCO of the International Com-mission on Education for the Twenty-first Century—theDelors report—sees the most important consequence ofthis complex phenomenon to be its socio-cultural andethical dimensions as regards the growing interdepend-ence and interrelationships between peoples and culturesthe world over: ‘the far-reaching changes in the tradi-tional patterns of life require of us a better understandingof other people and the world at large today; they demandmutual understanding, peaceful interchange and indeedharmony’.1 However, the report stresses that ‘learning tolive together’—one of the pillars of education—will onlyoccur through the possession of self-knowledge andunderstanding, and appreciation of one’s own origins andculture.

It is now widely recognized that designing a curricu-lum is mainly a national concern, normally sharedbetween educational protagonists at the central, local andschool level. The principle of subsidiarity suggests thatcurriculum issues should not be addressed at the supra-national level. Indeed, experience shows that, until quite

recently, international exchanges and co-operation in cur-riculum development were limited, being restricted toprofessional associations of curriculum specialists. How-ever, two recent trends have contributed to bringing inter-national attention to bear on curriculum matters: 1. The globalization of economies and societies raises a

new challenge, requiring the adaptation of educatio-nal content to meet both national demand and inter-national concerns;

2. The diversification of actors, both national and inter-national, involved in the delivery of education (in par-ticular with the growing use of information andcommunication technologies—ICTs), as illustrated bythe significant share of non-formal education, haveresulted in the emergence of new concepts and normsfor educational content; as indicated by such terms asthe ‘common core’, ‘universal values’, ‘basic lifeskills’, etc. Once again, this means sharing responsibi-lity for educational content, as well as presenting uswith new opportunities for international co-operation.

It is against this background and in an effort to respond tothe numerous contemporary concerns about the content ofeducation, that the International Bureau of Education(IBE), designated as the UNESCO institute responsiblefor strengthening the capacity of Member States in curric-ulum development, is focusing its new programme activi-ty on the adaptation of the content of education to thechallenges of the twenty-first century. The IBE’s pro-gramme is divided into two components: (i) integratingthe concern of living together into the content of educa-tion; and (ii) adapting the content of education in order tocope with some of the challenges raised by a globalizedworld.

The IBE programme of co-operation in ‘research andstudies’, ‘training and capacity building’; and ‘theexchange of information and expertise’ is based upon twomajor assumptions:(a) Although different Member States of UNESCO have

very uneven and heterogeneous experiences in thedesign and adaptation of their educational content,there is room for beneficial exchanges between coun-tries;

(b) Although there are some common views on how toaddress the demand that content should be modified,a great deal remains to be done to improve the pro-cess of adaptation.

The approach to implementing the programme followedby the IBE is based on the assumption that the pro-

1 Delors, J., et al. Learning: the treasure within. Paris,UNESCO, 1996, p. 22. (Report to UNESCO of the International Com-mission on Education for the Twenty-first Century.

Foreword

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gramme proposes to include: (a) an international platformof information on educational content; and (b) a numberof regional and sub-regional co-operation projects. Thepreparation of such programmes is carried out throughregional workshops.

After a first workshop held in 1998 for the MemberStates of the Mediterranean Region, a second sub-regional workshop took place in 1999 in New Delhi tocater to the concerns of South and South-East Asia. Thepurpose of the second workshop was:(a) To collect information about the status of educational

content in the region—a ‘fact-finding’ exercise;(b) To encourage the assessment of experiences, both

among Asian countries and a selected number ofcountries from other parts of the world; and

(c) To explore and map out some areas for potential co-operation among the participating Member States.

Two key phrases of the IBE’s new programmes were in-corporated into the umbrella theme of the course, whichwas The adaptation of content to the demands of the glo-balization and the need for learning to live together.

This publication is a compilation of the various pres-entations made during the workshop. Both through thediversity of topics covered and the list of issues raised, it

offers a rich and varied picture of the challenges facingAsian countries seeking to adapt educational content tomeet the social demand of the coming decade.

The IBE would like to thank all of the contributors,both from the participating countries and from other partsof the world, who have shared their information andexperience during the workshop. Indeed, the distinctionbetween ‘faculty’ and ‘participants’ proved to be of littlerelevance in this workshop, where all contributorslearned from each other.

On behalf of the International Bureau of Education, Iwould like to express our deep appreciation to the Gov-ernment of India—and in particular to the Central Boardof Secondary Education—for its generous support of theworkshop. India both financially supported and hostedthe meeting and contributed significantly to the debatesand to enriching the information shared among the partic-ipants. Finally, I should mention with thanks the financialand intellectual contribution of the Deutsche Stiftung fürinternationale Entwicklung, which ensured the success ofthe workshop.

Jacques HallakAssistant Director-General,Director of the IBE

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This publication is divided into five parts. In Part One, en-titled The impact of globalization on curriculum develop-ment, the keynote lecture by J. Hallak and M. Poissonoutlines the implications for education of the phenomenonof globalization, and stresses the renewed urgency for cur-ricula to promote peaceful coexistence and co-operationamong pupils.

The subsequent round-table debate examines the rel-evance of new trends in the teaching of science, socialscience and the humanities to the challenge of globaliza-tion and the principle of learning together. The presenterfor the humanities focuses on the primordial role of lan-guage instruction in the curriculum. The science pre-senter identifies the opening up of schools to society anda growing recognition of the need to develop scientificattitudes and behaviour in students as principal trends inscience teaching. The final presenter stresses how thesocial sciences are an ideal medium for transmitting thevalues and attitudes necessary for harmonious existencewithin society and the natural environment.

In the following working group discussions, the sci-ence group addresses the following four issues: the ade-quate coverage within the curriculum of both basicscientific knowledge and ongoing scientific develop-ments; the organization of experimental activities; the useof, and respect for, the environment; and bridging the gapbetween scientific and traditional knowledge. Thehumanities and social sciences groups discuss how bothsubject areas may support general education by definingnew opportunities for curriculum design, teaching/learn-ing methods, pupil assessment and implementation strat-egies.

Part Two, entitled Some challenges for the adapta-tion of content raised by the principle of learning to livetogether, is comprised of a number of presentations onvarious key current concerns in curriculum reform. R.H.Dave and J.S. Rajput stress the need for comprehensivereforms to existing approaches to teacher education, withthe emphasis to be put on career-long education andtraining, and the development of a professional ethicamong all teachers. J.-M. Sani and M.M. Pant outline thepossibilities which information and communication tech-nologies (ICTs) offer for innovating the educational proc-ess, underlining the need in this context for a redefinitionof the role of the teacher while stressing that this roleremains key to ensuring the effective exploitation of ICTsas tools for learning. The need for vocational education tomeet the demands of globalization is stressed by ArunK. Mishra, who points out not only the economic, but

also the social goals, of this essential area of education.His presentation indicates the possibilities which voca-tional education offers for promoting values of co-opera-tion and respect for others.

Part Three, Interdisciplinarity, school-based manage-ment and non-school science education: a few topics forreflection by curriculum developers, includes three casestudies from countries outside of the Asian region. Twocases examine major curriculum reforms, one at thenational, and the other at the provincial level. E.M.Skaflestad discusses how the new national curriculum inNorway was designed as a connective model establishingclear links between all educational levels and emphasiz-ing an interdisciplinary approach in subject teaching,with core values being taught across the curriculum.Though centrally prescribed, the curriculum provides forlocal and individual adaptation. Kenneth Ross describesthe introduction of the most decentralized system ofschooling in the history of public education in Australia,in the state of Victoria. Under this system, in which eachschool in collaboration with the community draws up itsown charter outlining its particular vision and aims, insti-tutions design their own educational programmes basedon a core curriculum and standards framework estab-lished by the Department of Education. The final countrystudy from France describes the valuable role played byone of the world’s major science and technology muse-ums, La Cité des sciences et de l’industrie (La Villette),in making available a wealth of educational resources tothe country’s schools. This study illustrates the impor-tance of collaboration between non-school institutionsproviding learning opportunities and schools, stressingthe need for schools to emerge from their traditional iso-lation and to become more involved in society.

In Part Four, Current trends in the adaptation of edu-cational content in South and South-East Asia, U. Bude’slecture focuses on the need for curriculum developmentto be a continuous holistic process aimed at real andmeaningful change in the classroom. The importance offlexibility and openness in curriculum policy and design,permitting regional and local adaptation of a core docu-ment, based on the needs of diverse socio-cultural groupswithin a country, is emphasized. The advisability of pro-viding for broad-based participatory approaches to thecurriculum development process is stressed, with the fun-damental importance of the teacher in successful curricu-lum design and implementation underlined.

The report concludes with an overview of the countryreports on curriculum development presented in Part Five.

Introduction

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PART I:THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATIONON CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

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This text will first define the phenomenon of globaliza-tion, considered as the most widespread trend on the eveof the twenty-first century, and will present some of itsimplications for knowledge, employment and poverty.Second, it will identify some of the challenges raised byglobalization in the specific sphere of education. Third, itwill focus on the principle of teaching/learning to live to-gether. This is considered a key issue in helping younggenerations to cope with the challenges raised by globali-zation. This section will also cover, more precisely, thedifferent means of introducing teaching to live together ineducational content and the problems that this may entail.Fourthly, it will pay careful attention to the role of teach-ers in this context. They are undoubtedly the key actors inany reforms that may take place. In particular, we describehow to help them adapt their teaching methods and devel-op a ‘sense of ownership’ towards the curriculum, so thatchange can actually be guaranteed at the school level. Thissection will conclude with the main topics that were se-lected for debate during the course.

GLOBALIZATION, A NEW PHENOMENON

The phenomenon of globalization1 has resulted from theworldwide integration of economic and financial sectors.It has existed historically since the development of inter-national trade. However, it can be considered, to a certainextent, as a more recent phenomenon, since over the pastfew years it has experienced a high acceleration, due to thefollowing factors:l Geopolitical changes: the erosion of the power of

nation states, in a context of transfer of sovereigntyfrom governments to regional entities (ASEAN, CIS,

EU, MERCOSUR, SADC, etc.), and the develop-ment of multinational corporations have contributedto a dramatic increase in trans-border exchanges.

l A dominant ideology of regulation by market forces:the end of the regulation of monetary, financial andeconomic markets, following, in particular, the set-ting-up of the Bretton Woods system, the GATTagreements and, finally, the expansion of the free-market ideology after the collapse of the Soviet Bloc,has greatly contributed to the interpenetration ofnational economies;

l Fast and significant technological progress: technicalprogress in the communications field has permittedusers to access and exchange information at any timeand from any place in the world, which has largelyfacilitated the speeding-up of production, as well asthe sharing of goods, services, capital flows—andalso ideas.

l The aim of increasing return on capital investment,added to the possibility of locating the units of pro-duction of goods and services almost anywhere in theworld, have also contributed to uniting or globalizingour planet.

A few figures can illustrate the importance of the phenom-enon of globalization in Asia. Table 1 shows that the vol-ume of exchanges among the Asian countries hasmushroomed during the last decade. Thus, in developingAsia and the Pacific, the total value of imports increasedthreefold from 1986 to 1995 and the total value of exportsmore than quadrupled during the same period. About halfof these exports took place within the Asia region (52 %for 1995), which proves that the phenomenon of regional-ization is linked to globalization.

TABLE 1: Developing Asia and Pacific region: external trade–total value (millions of US$)

1986 1990 1995 1986-95

Imports 230 993 456 132 945 701 + 309 %

Exports 175 693 416 441 889 524* + 406 %

Exports to Asia, 52% ; North America, 21% ; Western Europe, 17%.Source : United Nations, 1997.

Education and globalization:learning to live together

Jacques Hallak and Muriel Poisson

1For more information on globalization, one can consult the followingbooklet: J. Hallak, Education and globalization. Paris, UNESCO: Inter-national Institute for Educational Planning, 1998. (IIEP contributions,no. 26.)

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FIGURE 1. Foreign direct investment in decline in EastAsia.

Figure 1 illustrates the fact that the development of theeconomies of different countries in Asia is linked to for-eign investment, and that, consequently, countries of theregion are integrated in the global economy and depend-ent on outside partners. Direct foreign investment has thusincreased from US$10 billion to US$60 billion between1990 and 1996 in East Asia and the Pacific, whereas inother regions, such as Europe and Central Asia, the Mid-dle East and North Africa or Sub-Saharan Africa, it hasstayed at the same level, or has only slightly increased.

Among the main implications of the phenomenon ofglobalization, one can mention:l the emergence of learning societies due to the multi-

plication of sources of information and communica-tion;

l the transformation of the nature of work with, in par-ticular, the need for more flexibility and mobility, theimportance of communication skills, the necessity

for teamwork, the increasing use of new technolo-gies, etc.,

l the progression of social exclusion—a large part ofthe world’s population does not participate in thisprocess.

In this context of a changing world, the central role playedby education to favour social and professional integrationappears to be hugely reinforced.

SOME OF THE EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGESRAISED BY GLOBALIZATION

The educational challenges raised by globalization are amultitude. We may mention the following as examples:l The need to rethink the delivery of content, integrat-

ing new sources of information. The multiplication ofsources of information (newspapers, radio, televi-sion, the web, CD-ROMs and other multimediamaterials, etc.) and the fast evolution of knowledge,in particular, in the fields of science and technology,imply not only the need to update educational con-tent regularly, but also to review the design of curric-ula and the teaching of subjects in aninterdisciplinary manner. This also raises the need forbetter co-operation with ‘information brokers’—suchas science museums—that can play the role of inter-mediaries between ‘knowledge producers’ (universi-ties) and ‘knowledge consumers’ (pupils/students).

l The need to favour the development of skills along-side knowledge. The fast evolution of today’s socie-ties—and, more specifically, of labour markets—requires new skills from individuals. These weresummarized in a report published by UNESCO in1996 as follows: learning to know, learning to do,learning to live together and learning to be (see Box1). They call for the redefinition of educational pro-grammes on a competency-based approach: thisimplies that from now on, curricula should focus onstudents attaining a stated number of clearly definedskills or competencies at the end of each stage andlevel of school education. This, of course, shouldhave consequences on teaching/learning methods,student assessment procedures and certification.

BOX 1.The four pillars of education, as defined by the Delors Commission.

l Learning to know, by combining a sufficiently broad general knowledge with the opportunity to work in depthon a small number of subjects.

l Learning to do, in order to acquire not only an occupational skill, but also the competence to deal with many sit-uations and to work in teams.

l Learning to live together, by developing an understanding of other people and an appreciation of interdepend-ence in a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual understanding and peace.

l Learning to be, so as better to develop one’s personality and be able to act with ever greater autonomy, judge-ment and learning responsibility (including memory, reasoning, and communication skills).

Source: J. Delors, et al. Learning: the treasure within, Paris, UNESCO, 1996. (Report to UNESCO of the Interna-tional Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century.)

60$ billions

East Asia and the Pacific

Latin America and the Caribbean

Europe andCentral Asia

South Asia

Sub-Saharan Africa

Middle East and North Africa

50

40

30

20

10

0

-10

1990

Source: World Bank, 1998

1992 1994 1996 1998

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l The need to adapt curricula to the needs of differentsocio-cultural groups, and to maintain the nationaland social cohesion of the country. The phenomenonof globalization has helped to widen the gap betweenthose who globalize, and those who are globalized—or left out—of the process at the local, national,regional and international levels. This raises theproblem for public authorities of how to maintain thecohesion of a country. As a result, there are implica-tions for education, since the situation and the socio-cultural background of learners are seldom taken intoconsideration when conceiving and implementingcurricula. Trying to cope with this situation meansnot only having to refer to the national identity orpromote the concept of citizenship, but also having toinclude the teaching of peaceful co-existence in edu-cational content.

HOW TO INTRODUCE TEACHINGABOUT LIVING TOGETHERINTO EDUCATIONAL CONTENT

If we refer to the definition given by the Delors Reportmentioned in Box 1, teaching to live together is synony-mous with developing an understanding of other peopleand an appreciation of interdependence in a spirit of re-

spect for the values of pluralism, mutual understandingand peace’. There are several ways of introducing thisconcept into educational content. The three main strate-gies are as follows:l By defining new scopes for ‘old disciplines’ (history

and geography, foreign languages, etc.): a study ledby the University of Geneva, under the leadership ofthe IBE, has shown that traditional subjects, such ashistory and geography, can contribute, to a greatextent, to teaching about living together. It thus cate-gorized three different ways of teaching geography(see the schemes included in Box 2). In the case ofthe ‘closed model’, a country is presented as ahomogenous space, delimited by its borders. The‘opposing model’ takes into account the existence ofseveral overlapping entities (geographical, adminis-trative, economic, linguistic, etc.) in the national ter-ritory. Finally, the ‘comprehensive model’ putsforward the existence of various entities, both insideand outside the national territory, and their mutualinteractions. The only model favouring learning tolive together is obviously the comprehensive one,which brings together different geographical scalesto permit an understanding of the continuity from thelocal to the global, and which allows not only theconcept of identity to develop, but also those of oth-erness, inter-dependency and universality.

l By introducing new subjects (i.e. education towardsactive citizenship, environmental issues, etc.) in cur-ricula: the widespread concern for global issues,such as population control, urbanization, environ-ment, consumption, citizenship, etc., favours theirintegration in educational programmes. The exampleof the project entitled ‘Educating towards active citi-zenship’, launched by Quebec (Canada) in 1998 (see

Box 3), shows that the introduction of these new con-cepts demands a review of curriculum design byadopting a comprehensive approach, developingmore participatory teaching/learning methods andworking in partnership with out-of-school actors soas to enable students to put what they have learnedinto practice.

BOX 2. The role played by geography in learning to live together

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6RXUFH��IBE-University of Geneva research project on ‘Learning to live together through the teaching ofhistory and geography’.

BOX 2. The role played by geography in learning to live together

Source: IBE-University of Geneva research project on ‘Learning to live together through the teaching of historyand geography'.

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TABLE 2. Towards charters of values in Australian states

Value States/years

WA 1985 SA 1989 Qld 1991 NSW 1991 Qld 1994

Adaptability ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Authority, respect for legitimate ■

Compassion ■

Concern for the welfare of others ■ ■ ■ ■

Co-operation ■ ■ ■ ■

Co-operation, international ■ ■

Creativity ■

Critical thinking ■

Diversity, cultural sub-groups, acceptance ■ ■

Ecological sustainability ■

Equality ■ ■ ■

Ethical standards ■

Excellence ■ ■

Family, place of, in society ■

Freedom, individual liberties ■ ■ ■

Honesty ■ ■ ■

Initiative, enterprise ■

Integrity ■ ■

Intellectual enquiry ■

Justice, fairness ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Lifelong learning ■

Life, respect for ■ ■

Partnership: school/home/community ■

Peaceful resolution of conflict ■ ■ ■

Rationality, respect for reasoning ■ ■ ■ ■

Responsibilities, social ■ ■ ■ ■

Rights, human, respect for ■ ■ ■

Self-respect ■

Sensitivity: physical, aesthetic, emotional,spiritual

■

Stewardship of the earth and its resources ■

Tolerance ■ ■

Truth, respect and search for ■ ■ ■

Sources: Education Western Australia (WA), 1985; Education South Australia (SA), 1991; Education Queensland(Qld), 1989; Education New South Wales (NSW), 1991; Queensland Curriculum Review, 1994.

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l By promoting social consensus on a common core ofvalues: The teaching of specific values, such as theacceptance of diversity, fairness, tolerance, etc., canhelp in learning to live together. Australia has devel-oped an innovative project in this area. A ‘charter ofvalues’, including a list of values (see Table 2), hasthus been set up. Each Australian state has the possi-bility of selecting values from the list: the state ofQueensland, for instance, has agreed to teach in itsschools, among other things, the values of compas-sion, equality, respect for human rights and respectand the search for truth.

Nevertheless, a few warnings can be issued about the in-troduction of teaching to live together in curricula. Theyare summarized in Table 3

The development of new teaching/learning methodsappears to be fundamental in obtaining a significantchange in learners’ behaviours. An article published inthe Journal of vocational education and training gives agood illustration of the importance of the pedagogy used(see Box 4): students from the Hong Kong PolytechnicUniversity were failing to integrate into the food andmanagement sector, although they had been trained to doso. This was partly due to the irrelevancy of the teachingmethods used, which did not help them feel sufficientlyconfident to communicate in English with foreigners,who were to be their main customers..

HOW TO HELP TEACHERSADAPT THEIR TEACHING METHODS

Teachers are the key actors if any actual reform of educa-tional programmes is to take place. Several policies can befollowed in order to help them adapt their teaching meth-ods, three of which are presented hereafter:l To help them develop new skills through initial and

in-service training (involvement in teamwork, etc.).

The most obvious strategy consists of renewing theirinitial training through in-service courses designed tointegrate new subjects that will be taught in an inter-disciplinary way, at the same time familiarizing themwith participatory and student-centred approaches.Regular in-service training should help teachers toupdate their knowledge and share their experiencewith others.

BOX 3. Educating towards active citizenship—the experience of Quebec (Canada)

To respond to its linguistic, cultural and ethnic diversity, in 1998 Quebec launched an innovative programme on ed-ucation towards active citizenship. It was based on a comprehensive approach, involving all school subjects and thedifferent levels of education. It emphasizes the use of participatory pedagogical approaches, aimed at encouragingdebate, decision-making, mutual understanding, etc. It also favoured opportunities to put citizenship into practice outof school, thanks to the co-operation of parliament, associations, etc.

Source: Eduquer à la citoyenneté, Quebec. (Rapport annuel du Conseil supérieur de l’éducation, 1997-98.)

TABLE 3. Risks and remedies of teaching about living together

Risks Remedies

The ‘Panic approach’ Rigorous planning of the development of curricula

Over-loading of curricula Focus on the basicsReview the balance between subjects.Inter-disciplinarity

Accumulation of a fragmented knowledge Bridges between general education and the world of work

Limited impact on learners’ behaviour Modern teaching/learning methods

BOX 4. Food and beverage management teaching in Hong Kong

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University offers training in food and management. But as much of the terminologyused in this sector is derived from Western cultures, Chinese students had difficulty in communicating. To help stu-dents fit better with the needs of their future employers, it was proposed:l to improve their listening skills in English;l to develop their confidence in speaking, thanks to a student-centred learning methodology.In other words, learning how to interact with the Western system.

Source: Journal of vocational education and training, vol. 49, no. 3, 1997.

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l To modify the design of textbooks to allow them to beused differently. In order to modify their teachingmethods, teachers should be given the opportunity touse newly-designed educational materials. A reportpublished by the French Ministry of National Educa-tion contains recommendations to review the designand use of textbooks (see Box 5). It suggests, in par-ticular, that textbooks should be defined as ‘a refer-ence tool’, summarizing the main concepts whichchildren should acquire. They should not to be toolong, nor contain too many pictures, quotations, etc.This would enable teachers to organize their courseautonomously, referring to textbooks, but using othermaterials as well—in particular, multi-mediasources—to illustrate their presentation as they want.

l To make new evaluation means available to teachers,defined together with different actors. In order to beready to adopt ‘competency-based’ curricula, teach-ers should be provided with new evaluation tools.The example of the United States’ General Educa-tional Development Testing (called GED Testing)

can give a few ideas on this point (see Box 6). In its2000 version, it includes a series of tests aimed atevaluating the capacity of students on informationprocessing and at assessing their communicationskills. A cross-disciplinary test also makes it possibleto see if students are able to solve a global problem,by making use of what they have learned in differentsubjects.

l By giving them the possibility of resorting to non-for-mal educational resources (science museums, etc.):The creation of innovative science museums—suchas the Exploratorium in San Francisco, USA, or LaCité des Sciences de la Villette, in Paris, France—should be regarded as key partners for teachers toaccess the most recent knowledge and to experienceother ways of teaching (development of projects,group work, etc.).

But above all, favouring a ‘sense of ownership’ towardsthe curriculum on the part of teachers should be looked atas a key factor for change. Two main strategies can be ex-plored in this area:

BOX 5. A few recommendations to review the design and use of textbooks

Prepare textbooks for each educational level with a view to ensuring the coherence of the teaching of a disciplineover several years.Encourage school principals and teachers to define an educational project, so that the selection of books should bemade according to a global—and not a disciplinary—approach.Make the textbook, defined as a reference tool, separate from other sources of information (documents, images, mul-timedia), so that teachers may create their own pedagogy.

Source: Inspection générale de l’éducation nationale, Le manuel scolaire, Paris, Ministère de l’éducation nationale,1998.

BOX 6. General Educational Development Testing in the United States

GED Testing is designed to measure the academic outcomes traditionally acquired by the end of a typical high schoolstudy programme. The GED 2000 series tests should take into account:information processing, including knowing how to determine what information is needed, how to conduct a searchfor that information, how to synthesize information from diverse materials and in different media, and how to organ-ize and present that information,communication skills, including knowing how to develop a message for a variety of audiences and purposes.A cross-disciplinary test will allow examinees to use information processing skills from a variety of academic dis-ciplines to interpret the material.

Source: Connections, Philadelphia, PA, NCAL, University of Pennsylvania, 1998.

BOX 7. Curriculum conferences in Sub-Saharan Africa

Curriculum conferences offer opportunities for active participation for all those involved in reforming primary edu-cation (practising teachers, subject specialists, teacher trainers, etc.). The main emphasis of such conferences is thetransformation of nationally prescribed curriculum guidelines into practical lesson units that reflect local conditionsand concentrate on prevailing cultural trends. By favouring ‘a sense of ownership’ of the reform among those in-volved in transforming curricula into action at school level, curriculum conferences facilitate the implementation ofthe recommended core curriculum.

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l To involve teachers in the development of curricula:Innovative experiments have been conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa in order to enable teachers to takepart actively in the setting-up of educational pro-grammes (see Box 7). Curriculum conferences havethus been organized to allow teachers to decide howprescribed curriculum guidelines should be put intopractice. These conferences have proved to be suc-cessful, helping teachers to feel involved and, as aresult, responsible for what they teach.

l To favour school-based curricula: an example fromScotland illustrates another way of associating teach-ers with the development of educational programmes(see Box 8). For a while, Scottish teachers have beenauthorized to select, adapt and develop, at schoollevel, the limited guidelines provided to them by thegovernment. They have had, for instance, no text-books available to help them. This experience wassaid not only to favour a sense of ownership of cur-ricula among teachers, but also to help improve the

relevance of what was taught, by adapting it both tolocal and school needs.

To conclude, from all the topics presented above, a select-ed number were chosen to be discussed during the sub-re-gional course on curriculum development, namely:l The relevance of new trends in the teaching of sci-

ence, social science and humanities to the challengesof globalization and the principle of living together.

l Decentralization of curriculum development to localor school level.

l Integrated and interdisciplinary approaches in curric-ulum reform.

l The adaptation of teacher training to curriculumchange.

l The potentials and challenges of information andcommunication technologies in the adaptation of cur-ricula.

l Non-school science resources and collaborationbetween formal and non-formal educational institu-tions.

l The need for vocationalizing curricula.

BOX 8. School-based curriculum development in Scotland

In Scotland, schools are free to develop their own curriculum, within the limits of a broad, nationally prescribedframework. From the national curriculum framework, each school selects, adapts and develops courses and modules.The central educational authorities assist schools by making guidelines, course materials, nationally approved fullcourses, short courses and modules available to them. It permits the development of curricula that are more relevantto local and school needs.

Source: A. Lewy, National and school-based development, Paris, IIEP, 1991.

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Four resource persons participated in the round-table de-bate, which was then followed by group discussions on is-sues relating to the three broad subject areas examined:humanities, science and social science. The full text of thepresentation on the humanities (language and the schoolcurriculum by C.J. Daswani) is included below, followedby summaries of the other presentations.

THE HUMANITIES: LANGUAGE AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

C.J. Daswani

The human child is born to learn. The learning process be-gins at birth and continues throughout life. The human ca-pacity to learn is best demonstrated by the child’s abilityto learn a first language. Bombarded with ungrammatical,incomplete and mutilated baby talk, neverthelessthe child learns to speak his/her mother-tongue perfectlyby the age of 4 or 5. In this way, the child is able to controlhis or her total environment—social, emotional, and psy-chological—through language. A child is even able tolearn more than one language—two, sometimes more—ifthe social environment so requires.

Very few of us realize or appreciate that ‘normal’children perform a miracle in mastering their mother-tongue so quickly, and can learn more than one languageif they are exposed to more languages. We can appreciatethis miracle when we see the problems that adults have intrying to learn a ‘new’ language.

By age 4 or so, every child has learned to speak themother-tongue or home language perfectly; understandswhat others say, and makes himself/herself understood.By this age, the child is able to use the language crea-tively and may be likened to a ‘born’ poet. The only dif-ference between the child and the adult is in the range ofvocabulary that a child controls. And, of course, the childhas yet to learn to read and write.

The child and the school

When children enter school they are already accomplishedusers of the mother-tongue or the home language. But theschool often ignores this linguistic competence of thechild, since a uniform standard form of language is‘taught’ to all children. Often this standard language is sodifferent from the child’s home language that the child hasproblems comprehending it—as well as the school itself.

It is bad enough when the child’s home language issimply a social or regional dialect of the standard schoollanguage. The problem is compounded when the schoollanguage is totally different from the home language ofthe child.

In many bi- or multi-lingual countries, children haveto start school using a language that is entirely differentfrom their mother tongue. When this happens the childnot only feels lost, but is traumatized. In such a situation,linguistically the child becomes an infant again, whilestill actually being an accomplished user of the mother-tongue.

The situation is even more complex, because theschoolteacher believes that the child has to be taughtbasic language skills—listening and speaking, followedby reading and writing—in a language that the child doesnot actually understand in the first place. Very soon, theteacher becomes convinced that the child will not be ableto learn the school language efficiently and writes him/her off as a poor learner. In the absence of basic vocabu-lary, grammatical intuition and communication skills, thechild will not able to take on the other school subjectseither.

In some school systems this complex problem is by-passed by a simple strategy whereby the teacher trains thechild to memorize facts and standard responses whichcan be reproduced during examinations. And this ispassed off as formal learning. The child learns to don twopersonalities: one of limited competence in the school,and another of fluent communication at home.

Unfortunately, in such bi- or multi-lingual settingsthe school language, which can be regional, pan-nationalor international, often enjoys social prestige and leads toeconomic advantage. Consequently, the child graduallylearns to favour the prestigious ‘other’ tongue in prefer-ence to the mother-tongue. As a result, by the time theycomplete their formal education children end up as lin-guistic cripples, having poor competence in the other lan-guage, and having allowed their mother tongue toatrophy through disuse.

Place of language in school

The place and function of language in school ought to bevery different from this situation, especially in bi- andmulti-lingual school systems. Language education inschool must primarily aim at sharpening the linguisticskills that children bring with them. Primary education

Round-table: The relevanceof new trends in the teaching of science,social science and humanitiesto the challenge of globalizationand the principle of learning to live together

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should essentially be focused on language education, be-cause at this stage children need to build on the linguisticabilities that they have already acquired.

If the child is functioning in a monolingual setting,he/she has to transit gradually from the oral mode ofcommunication to the written mode, which can take fouror five years of formal primary school. During thisperiod, children should not only acquire basic literacyskills, but should be allowed to build on their intuition inthe mother-tongue. Children should be made aware of theimmense power of language and the potential that theyalready possess to use that language creatively. Childrenhave to build on their lexical resources, experiment withdescriptive devices, and learn to reflect on their environ-ment—physical, social, psychological and emotional.

On the other hand, if the child has to acquire a newlanguage in school, the school should build on the child’sexisting skills in the mother-tongue when learning thenew language. Although languages appear to be differentfrom each other, there are crucial underlying similaritiesin the manner in which human languages are organized.The structures of the mother-tongue can be exploited toteach a second and even a third language. All young chil-dren have a natural ability to learn other languagesquickly, provided they perceive them as essential for day-to-day communication.

What young children do not understand is why theyshould learn a new language, which is obviously notneeded for communication. If left to themselves, childrenwould learn a new language only if it hastened their inte-gration into a milieu. The motivation to learn a languagefor instrumental purposes comes at a later stage. How-ever, the school curriculum can be designed so that youngchildren can become motivated to learn a second lan-guage that will be useful to them later in life.

The language curriculum

In order to plan and implement a creative language curric-ulum, it is necessary to understand how children learn lan-guages. It is necessary to map the communicativestrategies that children naturally employ and to build onthese so that they internalize their expanding experiencesin school.

The first step in the language curriculum should be toenlarge the child’s vocabulary in the mother-tongue andlink it to the language used in school. If the school lan-guage is different from the mother-tongue, the curriculumshould allow the child to use the mother-tongue vocabu-lary as a basis for learning the lexicon of the languageused in school. The enriching of the child’s vocabularycan be achieved in various creative ways.

The second step is to ensure that children perceivethe linguistic/cultural categories that their mother tongueemploys for looking at the real world. This is significant,especially in bilingual and multilingual settings. Differentcultures categorize reality in different ways. Colourterms, relational terms and spatio-temporal relationshipsare perceived differently by different cultures, and thesedifferences are reflected in the languages. For children toacquire intuition in a second or third language, it is cru-cial that they should apprehend the linguistic/cultural cat-egories of a language.

The third step is to equip children with adequatedescriptive devices so that they can describe their experi-ences and their environment. In the current school curric-ula, children are seldom encouraged to give expression totheir thoughts, perceptions, feelings or emotions. Instead,they are given samples of excellent writing by well-known authors that they are required to emulate. Thisresults in a reluctance on the part of the children to exper-iment with language. In bilingual and multilingual set-tings, children can be guided to discover how differentlanguages employ descriptive devices. It is possible for achild to enrich his/her linguistic repertoire by personallycomparing two or more languages.

The fourth step is to enable the child to reflect on his/her reality in the mother-tongue and the other tongue(s).Children learn to ask ‘why?’ at a very early age. Unfortu-nately, the school often drills out this natural inquisitive-ness in the child. This happens when children areexpected to conform to the standard norm, and are notallowed to be different from each other.

Language education is inadequate if children do notlearn to reflect and work out, on their own, equationssuch as ‘X ... therefore Y’, ‘if not X … then what?’, andmany more. Reflection is the ultimate goal of languageeducation.

A language curriculum that enables and supports thechild’s natural capacity to learn can be designed, pro-vided the school system sees the child as the focus ofeducation. Education is clearly unsatisfactory if it con-sists merely of learning information and superficial facts.

The language teacher

No curriculum will suffice unless the teacher is sensitiveand innovative. A language teacher has a major role toplay in enabling the child to become an excellent commu-nicator. In fact, all teachers are language teachers, no mat-ter what subject(s) they may teach. Each discipline usesthe resources of language to impart knowledge. Thereforeit is incumbent on every teacher to become aware of thevast potential of a language.

Language teachers need to be trained to transact thelanguage curriculum creatively. They must understandthat the four fundamental skills of listening, speaking,reading and writing are merely teaching devices, and notends in themselves. The goal of language education is toenlarge the natural resources of the mother-tongue thatthe child brings to school.

The teacher’s job is to ensure that children are pro-vided with sufficient opportunities to practice andsharpen their natural skills. One way of ensuring that thishappens is to encourage children to read on their own.Reading stimulates the imagination. Reading enableseach child to create magnificent images in the mind, anability that can be severely impaired by the more modernpractice of watching television images created by someother person.

In order to ensure all this, the teacher must also be alearner and observe what the child is capable of doing.The teacher must continuously enlarge his/her capacity toenthuse children to use their natural language skills inorder to understand the world.

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Language globalization

In the present information age, the vast reservoir of humanknowledge is available in a dominant international lan-guage. It is not surprising, therefore, that many school sys-tems find it both necessary and profitable to teach aninternational language. Currently, the most profitable glo-bal language is English.

However, it is important to be alive to the dangers ofadopting an international language at the cost of indige-nous languages. While English may assist in the processof globalization, neglect of local and national languagesmay result in their marginalization. And, of course, theimpact of such neglect on human cultures the world overcannot even be imagined or calculated.

SCIENCE

Two principal new trends in the teaching of science arethe opening up of schools to society and an increasing rec-ognition of the importance of developing scientific meth-odology and ways of thinking among students.

The opening up of schools to society

For the past twenty years the school has grown to recog-nize the need to keep up with changes taking place in so-ciety. This trend can be observed through the evolution ofthe subjects in the curriculum, the participation of differ-ent actors from the wider community in the classroom,and the increasing use in the classroom of technical toolsused in the world of work, in particular information andcommunication technologies. Seven characteristics of thisnew trend may be identified:l The end of isolation between school and the rest of

the society. If the school is to prepare a largernumber of pupils for adult life more effectively, theeducation system must be less isolated from the restof the society. This end of isolation is characterizednot only by the evolution of the teaching tools availa-ble in school, but by all the following points.

l The increasing incorporation of global and inter-disciplinary topics into the curriculum. To under-stand the effects of science and technology onsociety, it is necessary to teach these subjects in aninterdisciplinary manner, relating specific themes tothe broader subject and showing their relevance toother disciplines in the curriculum.

l Vocational education and lifelong learning. One ofthe new demands on the school is adequate prepara-tion of pupils for the world of work. The right bal-ance has to be found between general education andthe vocational preparation for working life. Thereneeds to be better knowledge of the job market, itsstructure and organization, and the training requiredto enter it.

l Citizenship education. Another new role for schoolsis to prepare children to assume their responsibilitiesas citizens. This should involve not only learningabout the organization of society and the role of itsinstitutions, but should also provide models of demo-cratic behaviour, foster rigorous moral attitudes andgenerate debates on subjects of general interest. All

of these concerns are relevant to the effective teach-ing of science and technology.

l The new function of non-school organizations. Tohelp schools assume their new role, diverse non-school organizations can be solicited: the media,museums, libraries, trade unions, businesses andindustries can all help schools in this new mission.

l Basic knowledge versus ‘up-to-date’ contents. Thevast amount of available knowledge creates the prob-lem of what to include in the science and technologycurriculum and what to leave out. Fundamentalknowledge is essential, but it is also necessary to befamiliar with the latest developments in science inorder to understand the society we live in. Thesedevelopments often differ from basic knowledge inthat they are evolving and our understanding of themis constantly being modified. Therefore we need anincreasing quantity of knowledge. One of the solu-tions (but not the only one) would be to determinewhat basic knowledge is required, as well as the prin-cipal new developments to be taught in the class-room. In addition, students must be taught the skillsof research, inquiry and interpretation so that theymay continue learning and expanding their knowl-edge beyond the classroom and beyond the school.

The increasing importance of scientific methodologyand ways of thinking

The second main trend for teaching science is the impor-tance of training in scientific attitudes and the ability to re-late these to the real world around us. Today, it is vital toacquire a general and scientific education at school, butalso crucial to have the skills and rigorous attitudes re-quired for research and lifelong learning. Seven aspects ofthis scientific behaviour can be identified:l Skills of observation, analysis, comparison and

classification. These intellectual skills are as impor-tant as acquiring and owning knowledge. Developingthem demands rigour and objectivity.

l Carrying out experiments to understand andrespect reality. Experimental activity is one of themost important approaches in science. Starting froma question, students have to be taught to state ahypothesis, to establish the experimental protocol toconfirm or invalidate the hypothesis and, armed withthe outcome, to progress from this new temporaryunderstanding of reality to another question.

l Documentary research. Developing informationresearch skills is essential to learning science. Stu-dents must be taught universal research methods,including the selection of appropriate keywords andthe identification of suitable sources and resources.This method can draw on books, documents andnewspapers, but also on the huge quantity of infor-mation available on the Internet.

l Developing critical thinking skills. One importantattitude to be developed in conjunction with docu-mentary research is the training of a critical mind.Pupils must be taught to check and assess all theinformation they encounter, compare it with othersources, and weigh up the probability of truth ineach. This behaviour is not only useful in documen-

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tary research, but also during any activity in whichinformation is being transmitted: debates, meetings,radio, television, etc.

l Active learning and collaborative learning. For allthe types of activities described above, the pupilshave to be active learners and participants in theprocess. The advantage in working in small groups isthat it makes possible the sharing of intellectualresources and supports each other’s learning.

l Developing a pedagogy of the project. The globaldimension of a project, with the involvement of allpupils throughout its development is a vital means ofgiving pupils a sense of ownership, of meaningfulparticipation in the learning process.

l Starting from the pupils’ representations/initialknowledge as the starting point for differentiatedlearning. It is essential to take into account the dif-ferences among pupils’ initial representations of sci-ence and technology and the diversity of theirlearning styles. It is very important to adapt thelearning process to the initial conceptions of individ-ual pupils and assess the evolution of their represen-tations at the end of the lesson. This presentationclearly underlines the urgent need to change tradi-tional approaches to teaching, and to pay attention tothe selection and use of instructional materials, andto the organization of the class. For these changes tobe carried out in schools, innovation and reform inteacher education are vital.

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND RELIGIOUS/MORALEDUCATION

Focusing on the recent curriculum reform in Norway, thespeaker discussed how subject syllabi in the social scienc-es, humanities and religious/moral education can supportgeneral education especially in the light of the principle oflearning to live together.

General concerns

A major concern of curriculum development should behow the various subject areas can support general educa-tion for lifelong learning. The curriculum should ideallybe seen as a document not just for schools and teachers,but for, and belonging to, society. The ultimate aim of cur-riculum development should be the achievement of edu-cation for all in a unified system, which at the same timeacknowledges and caters to difference and diversity.

A major preoccupation is how to develop a balancedcurriculum while avoiding overload. How does onedecide what to exclude? One way of coping with theexcessive amount of knowledge is to develop and foster aspirit of inquiry in the student which will permit him/herto go on learning throughout life. The best approach is tofirst assist pupils to discover the reality around them andthen to expand their inquiry to the wider, global environ-ment. The development of research skills should be anintegral part of the core curriculum.

The curriculum should focus on the all-round devel-opment of the individual. Students should be taught to

see themselves as both citizens of their own country andof the world.

Social studies in compulsory school

It is a prerequisite for a truly democratic society that itsmembers are familiar with, and support, certain democrat-ic values. Each new generation needs to learn the value ofparticipation, and to uphold the democratic rules that gov-ern various sectors of the society. Social studies are in-tended to prepare pupils for different tasks in society byequipping them with knowledge, confidence in their ownvalues, and the desire to undertake tasks for the commongood. These aims must be achieved in close co-operationwith the wider society outside school.

The social studies disciplines show how people,through their interaction with nature and with each other,have developed different kinds of social life and forms ofsociety. Developing considered attitudes to society pastand present is an important aim of social studies.

The methods used in social studies must provide thepupils with an opportunity to gain insight into the subjectmatter, relevant skills and the ability to co-operate withothers, as well as preparing them for action. Their workmust stimulate their curiosity and ability to ask questions.Pupils must be given scope to learn to conduct argu-ments, to exercise critical analysis, to work independ-ently, and to experience how to organize work in co-operation with others.

Throughout schooling, social studies are based onclose contacts and co-operation between schools andtheir local communities. Active participation in schoolaffairs through pupil council and other co-operative bod-ies makes school work in a wider sense of the term animportant feature of training in social studies.

The structure of the subject

In the social studies syllabus, objectives and areas of studyare arranged and presented under the disciplines history,geography and society.

‘History’ covers the chronological dimension, dis-cusses different views of people and different forms ofsociety through the years, and considers the drivingforces behind social development.

‘Geography’ deals with space and changes in space,and the localization and distribution on the Earth’s sur-face of natural and man-made phenomena and processes.Geography discusses and explains society as it appears atthe intersection between people and nature, and surveysthe world’s living conditions, ways of life and standardsof living.

‘Society’ deals with politics and socialization andshows why society needs laws and rules, organizationand government in order to function. Society studieshuman interplay and conflict, and discusses the rights andobligations, the influences and challenges that individu-als encounter as participants in various communities.

At the primary stage, social studies to a large extentform integrated parts of broad inter-disciplinary areas.Later on, these three disciplines emerge more clearly asseparate units, but social studies should aim throughoutto combine history, geography and society into an overallpicture.

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Religious and moral education

In Norway, the study of this subject is intended to give thepupils a thorough insight into the State religion and whatthe Christian view of life implies, as well as familiaritywith other world religions and philosophies. The subjectis to be approached openly and contribute to insight, re-spect and dialogue across the boundaries between faithsand philosophies, and promote understanding and toler-ance in religious and moral questions. The subject medi-ates knowledge of a faith—the classroom is not intendedto be a place for the preaching of any particular faith. Itmust respect each pupil’s identity in terms of his or herfaith, while at the same time furthering dialogue within ashared culture.

In order to meet other faiths and views of life withunderstanding, one needs to be able to place them in acontext that is already familiar. The subject thus has vari-ous functions in basic schooling: to transmit a tradition,to maintain a sense of identity, and to build bridges whichadvance insight and dialogue.

It is natural to have links between the religious andaesthetic heritage, for instance by giving emphasis tographic arts, architecture, music, drama and literary texts.At the lower secondary stage, the pupils are better able toadopt a critical approach to both the teaching materialand divergant opinions, and understand both metaphorsand symbols. Discussions, lectures, and excursions alloffer relevant approaches to the subject. More weight isgiven at this stage to comparing various features of reli-gions and philosophies.

In view of its aesthetic dimension, this subject invitesco-operation with art and crafts, music and drama, addingvariety and raising pupils’ levels of activity. What pupilslearn about religion and philosophy also brings them intocontact with social circumstances and literature, so thatan interdisciplinary approach with social studies andmother-tongue instruction is relevant. The human view ofnature, and developments in cosmology, research and sci-ence, have also depended on religious outlook; co-opera-tion can also be envisaged with natural sciences andtechnology.

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GROUP ONE: SCIENCE

This group addressed four issues related to the improve-ment of science education:1. How to cover both basic scientific knowledge and

on-going scientific developments in the curriculumin an adequate manner.

2. The role of experimental activities and how theyshould be arranged.

3. How to teach about the concepts of exploiting andrespecting the environment as necessary comple-ments of each other.

4. How to bridge the gap between scientific knowledgeand aspects of traditional knowledge, attitudes andbeliefs.

Question One: Scientific knowledge and on-going scien-tific developments

First, it was necessary to define ‘basic scientific knowl-edge’ or what was meant by a core curriculum. It was im-mediately recognized that decisions about the corecurriculum are not neutral and objective but raise funda-mental value-laden issues. One suggestion was for thiskind of knowledge to consist of matters that had continuedrelevance over time and would likely remain relevant forthe future. Another suggestion was that ‘core’ should bedefined as ‘processes’ and ‘competencies’ rather than as‘content’.

The basic science curriculum should be realistic andpragmatic in its aims. Rather than seeking to prepare allstudents for a career as scientists, it should focus onteaching students the fundamentals of science in order tobe able to interpret their environment and effectivelyfunction within society. Students leaving school shouldbe able to make informed decisions about issues relatedto science which affect their daily lives, whether or notthey go on to study science at a higher level.

Core contents are essential if students are to learn toapply scientific processes. At the same time, they are fun-damental to the understanding of new ideas and develop-ments in science. Core elements of the curriculum andcurrent developments in science should therefore not beconsidered as separate issues but should be seen as com-plementary, in the sense that the core can be taught withina contemporary framework. The curriculum should seekto teach basic knowledge with reference to its relevancein contemporary society.

The key concerns that should inform decisions aboutthe broader curriculum include an awareness of the cross-curricular nature of many everyday science issues and theuniversal implications of science.

An essential component of the regular inclusion ofon-going scientific developments into the curriculum isthe in-service training of teachers. Countries describedthe problems of inadequately trained teachers and of lim-ited facilities for science teaching. It was agreed thatteachers need to be trained in the management of infor-mation if they are to stay abreast of developments in sci-ence.

It was suggested that one way of teaching about newdevelopments in science is through project work in whichstudents work on both individual and group projects. Theprovision of extra-curricular activities, such as scienceclubs, also provides opportunities for discussion anddebate on current issues.

Question Two: the organization of experimental activi-ties

Related to this first issue was a fundamental question: areschools providing adequate opportunities for learning sci-ence? Experimentation should be considered as not sim-ply the ‘hands-on’ approach to learning science but shouldbe taught as a whole process. From this perspective, theavailability of expensive state-of-the-art equipment is notthe priority. It is rather a matter of providing adequate op-portunities for experimentation. Experimental activitiesmust be adapted to the available resources and may takeplace in a number of settings, not simply in the traditionallaboratory environment; for example they can take placethrough play and outdoor activities.

The overall objectives of any experimental activitiesshould be: (a) to help students understand concepts; and(b) to teach them to check theories through the resultsthey obtain themselves. It is essential for the teacher todefine the specific objectives of the experimental activitywhen designing it and for these to be made clear to thestudent.

The role of the imagination in the development ofscientific thought was discussed. From this perspectivescience should not be taught simply as a precise, rationalsubject, but should provide room for hypothesis and crea-tivity through experimentation. The need for scienceinstruction to be made enjoyable is vital to improvedlearning. Experimental activities, if properly designed,

Summary of the round-tableworking-group discussions

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can aid students’ enjoyment of science, while leading tomeaningful learning. From this perspective, pedagogyneeds to be more child-centred.

Three types of ‘doing’ activity were identified,namely: (a) simple manipulation or the ‘hands-on’ tech-nique; (b) investigation and enquiry through researchprojects; and (c) experimental activities providing elabo-rate processes of confronting students with reality. All ofthese may be combined in the experimental process.Experimentation clearly calls for varied teaching meth-ods, once again pointing to the need for the adequatetraining of science teachers. Teachers should ideally beboth specialists in their subject and trained in up-to-datepedagogical methods. The lack of a suitably trainedteaching force is one of the major obstacles to theimprovement of educational quality in developing coun-tries.

Question Three: Use of, and respect for,the environment

The concepts of use of, and respect for, the environmentshould be taught as complementary to each other andshould be integrated into the whole curriculum, becomingpart of the ‘school ideology’. Environmental education isintegral to the issues of globalization and of learning tolive together.

Environmental education should focus on relevantissues found in the locality, relating them in turn to theglobal context and showing the interconnectedness of thenatural world and of human activity. In defining the envi-ronmental education curriculum, a distinction should bemade between the science of ecology (nature study) andthe much broader spectrum of environmental issues andconcerns which enter all aspects of daily life and shouldbe integrated across the curriculum. Environmental edu-cation should thus be taught as a systemic discipline.Some participants indicated that this approach is alreadyused in their countries. Integrating the environmentaleducation curriculum also assists in reducing curriculumload.

The evaluation of the effect of environmental educa-tion on individual attitudes and behaviour is difficult tomeasure. It is easier to evaluate the students’ grasp of theconcepts taught, but measuring application of this learn-ing on daily behaviour would require another type ofevaluation over a long-term period. It was suggested thatteaching aspects of environmental law within the localcontext would assist in developing environmental aware-ness and changing behaviour.

It is very important for students to be aware of thedifference between scientific knowledge and social opin-ion and choice. The evolution of science does not occurin a vacuum but is influenced by a range of political andsocial issues. Science needs to be taught with the aim ofhelping students to become informed decision-makerswith respect to these complex issues and their impact onpeople’s lives. They need to be aware of the many differ-ent actors involved in these issues and the roles they play.Scientific knowledge is essential for true social participa-tion and thus should be considered as part of educationfor democratic citizenship.

Question Four: scientific/traditional knowledge

While it should be recognized that not all traditionalknowledge is opposed to scientific knowledge, this ques-tion was considered to be a sensitive and difficult area inthe curriculum, because of the potential conflict betweenscientific belief and socio-cultural (particularly religious)values.

While the universal application and relevance of sci-entific findings should be stressed, students should bemade aware that science itself is not exact but is con-stantly changing and being revised—uncertainty andhypothesis being integral parts of scientific thought. Itshould be recognized that scientific thought and tradi-tional knowledge and beliefs involve differing ways oflooking at the world. Teachers should be trained toacknowledge both viewpoints and to exercise objectivitywith respect to both in the classroom.

It is valuable to deal with these conflicting points ofview with respect to traditions, some of which may infact be harmful to individual or collective survival inareas such as health and the environment. An examplewas given in a project called ‘science across the world’project where opportunities were provided for both scien-tific and traditional beliefs and knowledge to be exploredin an objective manner. When teaching these issues, thelevel of maturity of the students must be taken intoaccount.

The media can play an important role in changingtraditional beliefs that may stand in the way of develop-ment. However, if the curriculum is to foster democraticattitudes, care should be taken for ideas and beliefs to bediscussed and not to be imposed.

One effect of globalization on science is that scien-tific knowledge is penetrating traditional societies muchmore rapidly. Care should be taken to examine both thebeneficial and the harmful effects of science.

GROUPS TWO AND THREE—SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

Social studies—from core values to classroom practice

Based on national experiences, the group discussed howsocial sciences (history, geography, society) can supportgeneral education (values education, socio-civics, citizen-ship education) by defining new opportunities for curric-ulum design, teaching/learning methods, pupil assessmentand implementation strategies.

It was recognized that the aims and content of gen-eral education need to be clearly defined. General educa-tion was seen not simply as the set of compulsorysubjects to be studied by all students, but also as the corevalues to be taught through the curriculum. The issue ofcurriculum overload was a common concern.

The group made the following recommendationswith regard to the curriculum:l The existing curriculum should undergo review in

order to define minimum learning competencies(MLCs) for general secondary education.

l Social studies are an ideal area for teaching aboutlearning to live together and should inculcate a con-cept of global citizenship.

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l The teaching of the social sciences, particularly atprimary level, should follow an integrated approach.A key example of where an integrated approach maybe adopted is in the broad issue of the interdepend-ence among countries, and the need for respecttowards other cultures. This should be taught acrosssubjects, with the key thematic areas already identi-fied during curriculum design.

l Teaching of the social sciences should progress fromthe immediate to the more distant environment.

l Human rights education should be a component ofthe social sciences curriculum.

l Citizenship/civic education should include the teach-ing of values.

l Religious education should perhaps be taught sepa-rately from social science subjects, although valuesfound within religion can also be integrated acrossthe curriculum.

The group made the following recommendations with re-gard to teaching/learning methods:l There is a need for new methodologies, with the

focus being on child/student-centred learning. Strate-gies should include activity-based learning, co-oper-ative learning and individualized learning. Role-playand simulation should also be used. Process skillsand higher-order thinking skills should be taught.

l In implementing the strategies, the teacher’s rolemust become a more flexible one ranging from a lec-turer to a motivator, guide and facilitator.

The group recommended that pupil assessment shouldaim to move towards a formative mode of assessmentthrough continuous assessment using:l regular feedback;l possibilities for self-evaluation;l portfolios;l formal marking of work;l project reports.In the same way, summative assessment should use:l paper and pencil tests;l formal marking.The group made the following recommendations with re-gard to implementation strategies:l new/supplementary learning materials should be pre-

pared, including parents’ books (guides to the curric-ulum), teacher’s guides, textbooks and pupils’manuals;

l teacher orientation/training on new teaching methodsshould be provided, both in terms of pre-service andin-service teacher education (INSET);

l alternative assessment processes should be intro-duced;

l monitoring/follow-up in schools should be guaran-teed.

A phase should be foreseen during which a widely appliedtrial scheme would be implemented, allowing for ade-quate review and revision. Heads of schools should be

given curriculum frameworks so that they would be in aposition to monitor implementation. The process shouldtake place over a period of five to ten years.

Humanities—from core values to classroom practice

The group was given the objective of discussing how theteaching of languages can be adapted to the needs of dif-ferent socio-cultural groups for developing communica-tive competence and participation. This includes thefollowing questions: what are the implications for curric-ulum design, teaching/learning methods, pupil assessmentand implementation strategies?

In the field of curriculum design, the principal con-cerns were:l The complex situation in multilingual societies lead-

ing to a diversity of socio-cultural groups in theclassroom;

l The need to develop adequate communication skillsamong the students.

The group made the following recommendations with re-gard to the humanities:l when designing curricula, the local environment

(natural, social, and cultural) should be borne inmind;

l within the perspective of language as a tool for learn-ing, the mother-tongue should be the medium ofinstruction at the primary level;

l set priorities with regard to the choice of languagesto be taught;

l develop a language curriculum that will seek to pro-mote communicative competence among all learners;

l develop, select and use stimulating instructionalmaterials.

The group made the following recommendations with re-gard to methods of teaching and learning:l modify teaching/learning methodologies;l strengthen mother-tongue competence.

Teacher competence—from core values to teachingpractice

The group was given the objective of discussing the chal-lenge of developing teacher competence in relation togeneral education. It was decided that there was a need forteachers to use different methodologies and it was expect-ed that teachers should be competent communicators. Thegroup made the following recommendations:l teachers should be properly prepared to implement a

revised language education curriculum;l the curriculum of pre-service teacher education pro-

grammes should be reformed/adapted to accommo-date the concerns of general education;

l there should be adequate development of in-serviceteacher education programmes to equip teachers tohandle the concerns of general education more effec-tively.

24

PART II:SOME CHALLENGES FOR THE

ADAPTATION OF CONTENTRAISED BY THE PRINCIPLE

OF LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER

25

EFFECTIVE TEACHER EDUCATION:A CORE CONDITION FOR THE QUALITYOF SCHOOL EDUCATION

Education is a process of human enlightenment and em-powerment for the achievement of a better and a higherquality of life. A sound and effective system of educationresults in the continuous development of learners’ poten-tialities, the strengthening of their skills and the fosteringof positive interests, attitudes and values.

All progressive societies have recognized the enor-mous potential of education and have committed them-selves to the universalization of elementary educationwith the explicit aim of providing ‘quality education forall’. They have also recognized the need to expand sec-ondary education to as near universal levels as possible,while simultaneously improving its quality for theincreased empowerment and advancement of an ever-increasing percentage of the population. While highereducation also has great potential in this respect, it isoften accessible to only a small section of society. How-ever, at present, primary education can be provided topractically all members of society and, therefore, its qual-ity and efficiency attain a special significance within thepersonal, social and national context.

Thus, effective teacher education acquires an evenmore crucial importance, becoming a key factor in ensur-ing quality school education. In other words, effectiveformal education implies effective teacher education.

Teachers can act as trail-blazers in the lives of learn-ers and in the process of education for development. Ifthey acquire the professional competence and attitudesthat enable them to effectively perform their multipletasks in the classroom, in the school and in the commu-nity, teachers become the single most important contrib-uting factor in ensuring quality educational provision atprimary and secondary levels.

There was a time, in most countries, when teachereducation was just a single event that took place at thebeginning of a career. But this once-in-a-lifetime modelis utterly inadequate for the needs of contemporary soci-eties. In the last decades of the twentieth century, societyhas witnessed unprecedented technological advance-ments and economic, political and socio-cultural changes

that must be reflected in the school. Indeed, these eventshave already had a very significant impact on schoolsaround the world. In an effort to better meet the diverseneeds of learners and ultimately of society, there havebeen numerous curricular reforms and the introduction ofa range of new approaches and strategies in instructionand evaluation.

A COMPREHENSIVE PARADIGM

Clearly, all of these changes have profound implicationsfor the content and processes of teacher education. Ifteachers are to be able to provide quality education in theface of these challenges, there is an urgent need for on-go-ing reform of teacher education. Effective teacher educa-tion for both elementary and secondary stages ofschooling has now to be conceived within a more compre-hensive paradigm encompassing a number of interrelatedcomponents. These components include the following:l Pre-service and initial teacher education: To be pro-

vided in a systematic, professional way to all newteachers entering the teaching profession.

l Recurrent in-service teacher orientation: To beoffered on a recurrent basis and in an organized man-ner to practising teachers through orientation semi-nars, workshops, tele-conferences and other suchprogrammes in response to new professional needsand to ensure continued teacher motivation.

l Continuing professional self-learning: According totheir individual needs, interests and specific profes-sional responsibilities, teachers should pursue theirown self-directed and lifelong learning throughbooks, journals, audio-visual aids and other availableinformation and communication technologies. Theestablishment of adequately equipped resource cen-tres is essential if teachers are to profit from this typeof professional development.

Professional orientation for school principals and depart-ment heads: When promoted or newly recruited as princi-pals, supervisors, co-ordinators, etc., they should benefitfrom:l Recurrent organized professional development

opportunities.

Adaptation of content to address the principle of learning to live together:the challenge for teacher training1

R.H. Dave and J.S. Rajput

1998), National Council for Teacher Education, C-2/10, SafdarjungDevelopment Area, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi-110016, India.

1Revised from ‘Competency based and commitment orientedteacher education for quality education’ (pre-service education,

2

6

l Continuous self-directed professional learning andenrichment.

l Opportunities for learning about international experi-ences and contacting colleagues in other countries.

������� ������� �� ���� ����� Planning and provisionfor increased access to higher education (diploma, bache-lor, master and doctoral levels).l Planning and provision for training of high-level spe-

cialists in different fields, such as curriculum devel-opment, textbook writing and preparation of otherteaching/learning materials, evaluation and monitor-ing, planning and management, research and statis-tics, etc.

l Adequate planning and provision to prepare teachereducators and resource persons to provide effectivepre-service and in-service teacher education at theelementary and secondary levels.

l Provision of opportunities for internationalexchange.

Enrichment opportunities for teacher educators.l Provision of opportunities for periodic enrichment of

teacher educators through seminars, workshops, pre-sentations and discussion of papers, etc.

l Facilities and opportunities for research and debateon different aspects of education including teachereducation.

l Facilities for publication of different kinds of materi-als on diverse issues relating to school and teachereducation.

l Encouraging international contacts.A sound programme of teacher education needs to includeall of these components in a comprehensive and multi-di-mensional manner. The first three components citedabove are directly focussed on the education of all teach-ers. The other three components are essential for improv-ing the quality of teacher education in various ways. Aneffective pre-service teacher education programme servesas a sound basis for implementing and developing each ofthese additional components.

THE FIRST THREE COMPONENTSOF THE PARADIGM

Within this comprehensive scenario, the first three com-ponents call for further examination in view of the urgentneed for revision and renewal of teacher-education curric-ula. The overall objectives are to ensure that elementaryand secondary schoolteachers are professionally well-equipped so that they may become increasingly autono-mous in their professional growth and, ultimately, main-tain their motivation and effectiveness in their role andperformance in the classroom, school and wider commu-nity.

Pre-service teacher education should be the start of aprocess of transforming lay persons into competent andcommitted professional educators. The untrained entrantsshould possess the requisite educational background andstipulated qualifications. The aim of pre-service teachereducation is to prepare the uninitiated to become soundprofessional practitioners. In the light of this definitionthe new curriculum for teacher education must be compe-tency-based and commitment-oriented.

In-service teacher education refers to a recurrent,organized and needs-based continuing education forpractising teachers so that they may update and enrichtheir professional competence, strengthen their commit-ment and enhance their role and performance in the class-room, school and wider community. As newdevelopments take place in the curriculum, educationaltechniques, evaluation procedures, classroom manage-ment and other aspects of school education, new needswill constantly arise for in-service training, calling forrecurrent provision.

In addition to these organized efforts, all teachersshould be encouraged and given opportunities for contin-uous self-study related to their own professional needs,interests and responsibilities. A successful and dynamicteacher remains a self-motivated and self-directed learnerthroughout his/her career. It is this self-directed and life-long learning that supplements and complements theorganized sector of teacher education and becomes animportant dimension in a comprehensive paradigm ofprofessional education for teachers in contemporary soci-ety.

If these three components of teacher education are tobe realized, a major review of existing teacher educationprovision needs to be undertaken. Any such effort mustclearly establish and define the basic competenciesrequired by teachers within prevailing social, economic,and cultural conditions, and also foresee the new educa-tional needs and challenges likely to arise within the ini-tial decades of the twenty-first century.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF A COMPETENCY-BASEDAND COMMITMENT-ORIENTED CURRICULUM

As one of the important dimensions of renewing the cur-riculum, five performance areas were identified on the ba-sis of job analysis and needs analysis. The purpose was toimprove the quality and efficiency of school education.

It may be noted that these performance areas willgive rise to a series of practical activities which includethe present programme of ‘teaching practice’, but in amore realistic and effective manner will cover evaluationprocedures and classroom management in different situa-tions, such as multi-grade teaching. However, they alsoinclude other important educational responsibilities inwhich the teacher should be given adequate practicaltraining to develop pertinent skills. Thus, in the field ofpractical training, these performance areas mark a majorshift from teaching practice to broader educational prac-tice in which pedagogical skills remain an integral part,but where the development of other significant practicalskills are also given their due place.1. Performance in the classroom: includes teaching and

learning processes, evaluation techniques and class-room management.

2. School-level performance: for greater all-round con-tribution to school organization and management.

3. Performance in extra-curricula and out-of-schoolactivities.

4. Performance related to parental contact and co-operation: for improved enrolment, attendance andstudent achievement.

27

5. Performance related to community contact and co-operation: should focus on improving school-com-munity relationship for mutual development andenrichment.

In order to equip teachers adequately in these performanceareas, ten sets of competencies have been identified forcurriculum renewal. These are designed to provide ade-quate theoretical and conceptual understanding, empow-ering teachers to perform their responsibilities withprofessional insight and confidence. In essence, these areteacher competencies that should aim at the developmentof learner competencies and qualities at school. Toachieve these multiple goals, teacher competencies in-clude relevant conceptual elements, content elements,contextual aspects, transactional and evaluation aspects,etc. All the ten competency areas thus identified convergeon one or more of the performance areas and interrelatetheory and practice in a focused manner.

These competencies are first to be developed duringpre-service teacher education and further updated andstrengthened during recurrent in-service teacher orienta-tion, as well as through continuing and self-directed pro-fessional enhancement.

TEN COMPETENCY AREAS

1. Contextual competencies. To provide a wider view ofthe development of education in society and theteachers’ role in it.

2. Conceptual competencies. Includes the concepts ofeducation and learning, psychological, sociologicaland neuro-physiological aspects of education, etc.

3. Curricular and content competencies. According tospecific levels of education.

4. Transactional competencies.

5. Competencies related to the organization of schoollevel and extra-curricular activities.

6. Competencies related to teaching/learning materials.Includes their selection, use and preparation andshould include new information and communicationtechnologies, where applicable, and existing localresources.

7. Evaluation competencies.8. Management competencies.9. Competencies related to parental contact and co-

operation.10. Competencies related to community contact and co-

operation.While every teacher must master professional competen-cies, such as those enumerated above, it has been observedthat, by themselves, they do not necessarily result in effec-tive performance. The actual performance of trained teach-ers in the classroom or school is equally dependent—if notmore dependent—on their levels of commitment and moti-vation. The task of fostering professional commitmentamong teachers must become an integral part of pre-serviceand in-service teacher education. Towards this end, fivecommitment areas have been identified.1. Commitment to the learner: concern for the all-round

development of all pupils.2. Commitment to the society: awareness of, and con-

cern about, the impact of the teaching profession onthe development of the community and the nation.

3. Commitment to the profession: development of a pro-fessional ethic and sense of vocation.

4. Commitment to excellence: in all aspects of ateacher’s roles and responsibilities.

5. Commitment to basic human values: to become arole model in the classroom and community throughgenuine and consistent practice of professional val-ues, such as impartiality, objectivity and intellectualhonesty.

28

Introduction

Information and communication technologies (ICTs)have a number of characteristics that permit significant in-novation in pedagogical methods at all levels of educa-tion. These include the following:l The digitalized form of information allows storage

and dissemination of all types of data on computers(text, sound, still pictures, moving pictures), since allare encoded in the same format—a succession of dig-its (0, 1).

l New possibilities for distance communication,whether simultaneous or deferred, permitting collabo-rative projects between classes, schools or the devel-opment of professional networks among teachers.

l The development of these distance communicationtechniques has led to a new structuring of informa-tion, bringing with it a new way of reading and dis-covering texts. ‘Hypertext’ permits the combinationof linear reading with rapid connection to relatedtexts, each linked to the other. Multimedia encyclo-paedias are a good example of the very useful hyper-textual organization of information.

l Multimedia is becoming the principal way of pre-senting information, allowing information to be pre-sented in different forms, with the result that it ismore diverse and take up less space.

New classroom practices with ICTs

In the classroom, two main tasks may be identified in theuse of these technologies:1. Mastering the technology: the use of ICTs in educa-

tion can permit both pupils and teachers to acquireskill in the use of these technologies, particularly inexploiting the computer, as these machines becomeessential everyday tools in contemporary societies.This objective is in accordance with the aims ofvocational education, i.e. to teach skills that willequip learners to enter the job market.

2. Tools for learning: if used effectively, ICTs canenhance the possibilities for instruction and learningfor all pupils at all levels of schooling. They should,however, be seen as supplementing rather thanreplacing the more traditional but proven educationaltools and methods. They may be used in the instruc-tion of all disciplines, as well as for interdisciplinaryor cross-curricular projects. ICTs may also enhancelearning in the following ways:

l Searching for information: The use of CD-ROMs orthe Internet requires knowledge of research methods,such as those used in traditional library research, i.e.documentary research. To find the right answers tospecific questions, it is necessary to identify key-words, find appropriate sources, and select relevantinformation from the identified resources. This pro-cess requires the development of critical abilities inorder to assess the quality and validity of the infor-mation retrieved. The teacher’s role is essential so asto develop documentary research and critical think-ing skills in students. This responsibility cannot sim-ply be delegated to the computer, which remains atool to be suitably exploited.

l Summarizing the information. As with the above, theability to summarize the information obtained is nota new objective of schooling. Again, it is the technol-ogy that allows a new way of formulating and pre-senting the information (as in an HTML file).Developing the ability to summarize and reformulateretrieved information should be one of the majorobjectives of learning. ICTs are ideal tools for devel-oping this skill.

l Distance communication. Several sorts of communi-cation are possible :(a) Among teachers. Using electronic mail, news-groups or websites, teachers can share their ideas,experience and innovations. This may be a veryeffective and rewarding means of professional devel-opment, as there are already numerous sites, news-groups and networks devoted to education coveringwide geographical areas and subject ranges.(b) Among classes or pupils. This use is less devel-oped because it is more difficult to realize. However,it has tremendous potential for developing the con-cept and practice of living together, of interculturalcommunication and international understanding.Classes in diverse geographical locations may col-laborate together on a project, with the contributionof not only individual and collective student abilities,but also context-specific knowledge and data fromthe participating regions/localities. For this type ofactivity to be carried out successfully, teachers mustbe properly trained and the technical possibilities ofnetworks and the available software (in particular thetransmission speed) must be improved.(c) Between teachers and groups of learners. A newstyle of communication is being invented between

The potentials and challengesof information and communication technologies (ICTs) for education: the training of teachers

Jean-Marie Sani

29

teachers and learners in a distance-learning context.It no longer should be considered sufficient, forinstance, to follow a lecture via a video-conferencingsystem. Nowadays, multimedia materials may beused to enhance instruction. Teaching styles have toevolve to keep pace with these technologies.

However, three principal challenges confront the effectiveexploitation of these technologies in schools:l the price (of computers, of software and of communi-

cations);l the capacity of telecommunications—which should

exceed 2Mbit/sec;l the development of software with greater capacities,

especially for the sharing of documents.In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the use ofICTs as a tool, like any other means of instruction, such asbooks, videos or mere observation:

l may be used for all disciplines: science, technology,languages, history, geography, art, as well as fortransdisciplinary projects.

l should supplement—not replace—other tools forteaching and learning. Pupils need to remain in closetouch with the reality around them; they need totouch, manipulate, build and experiment with thenatural world.

The changing role of the teacher

In the traditional teaching-learning relationship, the rela-tion between the teacher and the pupil is frontal—the roleof the teacher is to deliver knowledge to the pupil. Thereis some co-operation among pupils.

FIGURE 2. The new pedagogical relationshipFIGURE 1: The traditional frontal pedagogical relationship

Teacher

Pupil Pupil

Knowledge transmission

Co-operation

FIGURE 2: The new pedagogical relationship

Knowledge transmission

Teacher

Pupil

Pupil Information resource

Knowledge transmission

Knowledge transmission

Co-operation (plus information transfer)

Co-operation(plus information transfer)

• Method learning • Critical mind training • Knowledge transmission

30

Often teachers do not possess adequate knowledgeand skills for the effective exploitation of ICTs. In manycases, they are less expert than their pupils. Furthermore,there is likely to be confusion in the teacher’s mind abouthis/her new role in relation to the use of these technolo-gies, i.e. teachers find themselves in a situation wherethey are no longer the principal source and deliverer ofinformation. If teachers are going to find themselves lesscapable of making effective use of ICTs in the classroom,they need first to be properly trained in pedagogicalskills, so as to have adequate knowledge for developingpupils’ learning abilities. The skills needed to use com-puters as tools for learning are similar to those needed toexploit other more traditional tools: how to transforminformation into knowledge; how to develop a criticalmind; how to make links among different sources andtypes of information; how to find the right answers to thequestions rapidly. The teacher’s role remains vital intransmitting and developing these skills.

The effects on the organization of the class

With these technologies, the traditional way of organizingteaching/learning activities may change, with many formsbeing used in different combinations: individual or wholeclass work; small group research; out-of-classroom activ-ities, such as research in libraries. This would lead tochanges in the organization of the class, the duration oflessons—perhaps even in the architecture of the school.

New teacher profiles?

This evolution of the teaching/learning process may even-tually lead to a transformation of the teaching profession,with new teacher profiles emerging.l The subject specialist. A situation may develop

where there are a limited number of specialists inspecific subjects in different parts of the world.Schools may enter into distance education relation-ships with these experts.

l The expert in the learning process. This second typeof teacher will have expertise in the learning process.His/her relationship with the learner will be face-to-face.

l The evaluation specialist. A third type of teacher pro-file may evolve: the evaluation specialist. Evaluationis going to become an increasingly complex opera-tion demanding specific skills and the trend may befor pupils to be evaluated by persons other than theirteachers.

The training of teachers

Considering these possible important transformations, theadaptation of the teacher-training system becomes a fun-damental issue. Two aims of training may be identified:Preparing teachers for the introduction of ICTs in theclassroom:l It is necessary for teachers to become skilled in oper-

ating the new technologies and in exploiting themeffectively as educational tools.

l Teachers must master the use of information—skillsof research, critical analysis, linking diverse typesand sources of information, reformulating retrieveddata—if they are to teach their pupils to developthese same skills.

l There needs to be more emphasis placed on trainingin pedagogy, as opposed to the current trend in manyeducation systems where the major focus is on spe-cialized knowledge in specific curricular subjects.Teachers must be adequately equipped with moredidactic competencies so as to assume their new roleas experts in the learning process.

Using ICTs as tools for the training of teachers. As sourc-es of information and expertise, as well as tools fordistance communication, ICTs offer many new possi-bilities for teacher education. Teachers may learn newforms of communication through the regular use ofthese technologies. Use of new media, new rules ofcommunication—even a new language—have to belearned.

Conclusion

A possible economic counterbalance. ICTs are expensiveand at present are very unequally distributed aroundthe world, with the developed world having by far thegreater share. Nevertheless, it must be recognized thatthese technologies offer great possibilities for poorercountries, with a reduction in the importance of dis-tance and an increase in the potential for new compet-itivity. In the coming years, considerable investmentsin infrastructure, equipment and training are needed ifcountries are to incorporate the use of ICTs intoschools as an integral part of the teaching/learningprocess.

A real stake in the process of globalization. These tech-nologies offer vast opportunities for the developmentof contacts and exchanges with the rest of the world.For this to become a possibility for all, however, itwill be necessary for prices to fall, a transfer of thenecessary technical knowledge, as well as the con-stant need to keep pace with the evolution of existingtechnologies. These factors are all realizable and,when they come about, all countries in the world mayshare a major transformation of education—as weknow it today.

31

Introduction

All new technologies initially provoke reactions rangingfrom apprehension, to caution, to curiosity, to excitementand expectation. There is considerable scepticism on thepart of educators with regard to the potential impact of thenew technologies on schooling, since the anticipated im-pact of earlier communication technologies—such as ra-dio and television—has not been realised.

While communication between learners and mentorsis the essence of education, in the traditional learner/teacher paradigm, teachers largely dictate facts (that theythemselves may not necessarily comprehend) to pupilswho often just reproduce them on paper without inter-preting or understanding them. For education to be effec-tive, it is essential that there be more opportunities forstudent participation in the learning process, more team-work, more self-study and self-evaluation, as well asmore peer-evaluation, and less examination-orientedteaching and learning. It is felt that the new technologiescan assist in the promotion of more student-centred andinteractive learning.

What are ICTs?

ICTs can be briefly summarized as the result of the con-vergence of technologies—telecommunications and tele-vision have merged with informatics. The computer,which can be described as an engine of the mind, has tre-mendous capacity to store and process data, to produceand disseminate information. With the emergence of di-verse multimedia and networking possibilities, computershave increasing potential as tools for innovative teachingand learning.

The new technologies have enormous potential torevolutionize education as we know it, dramaticallytransforming schools. For the first time in the history ofeducation students are proving more adept at masteringdelivery systems than their teachers. It is obvious that themonopolies enjoyed by schools as formal education pro-viders will diminish, with a lot of educational exposureand experience in future being provided outside theseinstitutions. The scope of the new technologies for trans-forming existing educational provision is enormous andincludes the globalization of education, the adaptation ofcurricula, new teaching materials and the networking ofschools.

The impact of the Internet on education

The development of the Internet has already had a verysignificant impact on the structure of higher educationprovision. Traditional distance education institutions arefast changing to leading-edge ‘virtual universities’. Todaythere are about 800 ‘cyber colleges’ in the United States,with approximately 1 billion students plugged into ‘virtu-al classrooms’ compared to 13 million enrolled in tradi-tional institutions. By the year 2000, this number isexpected to triple. It is anticipated that fifty years fromnow, most of the professions will be taught through the In-ternet, causing many regional institutions and smaller uni-versities to disappear. Bureaucratic structures are likely todiminish and there will be increasing use of informationtechnologies and resultant networking and partnerships toconvey resources for the running of institutions.

Technological developments are leading to accelerat-ing convergence between education and industry andbetween formal and non-formal education:l Business organizations are becoming learning orga-

nizations;l Distinctions between formal education and distance

education are being reduced resulting in integratedclassrooms;

l Lifelong education and training will become increas-ingly the norm;

l Through technology, education is becoming moreclosely linked to entertainment.

Some of these changes taking place at the level of highereducation are likely to filter down to schools. Already inthe United States, ‘virtual high schools’ are being estab-lished. Liberal entry and exit between the school systemand the world of work may become increasingly possible.

Syllabi and courses

It is foreseen that traditional educational institutions, bothuniversities and schools, will have to make important ad-aptations to the new technologies. Their offerings will be-come diverse and flexible. Courses of studies intraditional classrooms will no longer meet the public de-mand for tailored educational services, especially at uppersecondary and higher education levels. There is likely tobe a move from rigid one-time, full-time, on-campus edu-cation to diverse programmes of lifelong learning. Thecontent of courses will need to assume a more global di-

The potentials and challengesof information and communicationtechnologies for education:globalization of education, adaptation of curricula, new teaching materials and the networking of schools

M.M. Pant

32

mension, with cross-cultural variations becoming moreevident

The new educational enterprise will be developedaround student outcomes and rigorous evaluation ofachievement. The new technologies are also creating ademand for a range of basic competencies, including:improved numeracy skills, communication skills, techni-cal skills and skills in creativity and design, the ability towork with and relate to others, to manage tasks and solveproblems, and to foster one’s self-development throughlifelong learning. In the area of vocational education,there is scope for many new courses including Webdesign and Web publishing, repair and maintenance ofpersonal computers, office records management andretrieval systems.

These changes are likely to lead to the developmentof outcomes-based education where each learning out-come will be defined, assessment criteria for each out-come will be clearly stated and guidelines for generatingevidence of learning achievements will be laid down.

Teaching methods and strategies, as well as accredi-tation and certification, will have to change significantlyto meet these new demands. The professor/teacher willno longer dominate the teaching/learning process: Stu-dents will assume greater autonomy and responsibilityfor their learning. The teacher will become more of acoach, animator and co-explorer with his/her pupils. Theprocess of learning will be emphasized more than spe-cific detailed subject content, while learning will becomemore flexible and interactive. In some situations, thetechnologies make education more affordable.

With the use of a variety of new technologies ininstruction, it is imperative to assess the extent to whichtrue learning occurs. Sophisticated assessment methodsneed to be developed to measure and certify learningcompetencies.

Challenges to the introduction of ICTs in education

Incorporating the technologies successfully into schoolsrequires careful advance planning and preparation. Signif-icant financial and human resources are required, withtraining an essential component of the process. Redundantand robust systems must be put in place. Innovators haveto be prepared to confront bureaucracy and conservativeattitudes, including resistance by teachers and other edu-cational staff.

Summary and conclusions

l ICTs will have a deep impact on the way formal edu-cation is carried out;

l The rate at which we have to respond to changesaffecting education is much faster than ever before;

l It is urgent to realign the curriculum framework toprovide outcome-based, flexible learning paths lead-ing to mastery learning;

l Training and orientation of teachers, administratorsand students to the new learning technologies is animmediate requirement;

l By sharing courseware and learning resources devel-oped in different parts of the globe, innovative andrelevant curricula can be rapidly developed and madeavailable to learners in poor as well as rich countries.

33

Although the objective of developing employable skills andcompetencies during upper secondary education is includedin Indian national education policy documents and the cur-riculum framework, in reality skill development courses atthis level are virtually non-existent in schools. The conceptof ‘learning to live together’ is likely to be confined to the in-formal settings of family and local community.

How may a vocational curriculum lead to a betterunderstanding about the culture and ways of life of differ-ent countries and the common principles of living in aglobal village?

The vocational or pre-vocational curriculum lendsitself to the possibility of organizing concrete opportuni-ties for students to collaborate for the good of the group,the class in general, the school or the wider community.Many skills may be taught through services that benefitthe community as a whole, bringing the school closer toits environs and helping pupils to become aware of theircommitments to school and community. Co-operativeactivities can promote friendship, communal harmonyand empathy for others.

All vocational education programmes and activitiesshould stress the concept of sustainable developmentwith a focus on fostering awareness of key environmentalconcerns and the rights of all to a decent standard of liv-ing.

In India, work experience is an integral component ofthe primary and secondary school curriculum. By thelower secondary stage, skills taught through this pro-gramme can be described as pre-vocational. Knowledgeand skills taught are expected to be directly relevant tothe prevailing developmental and economic activities ofthe community.

Here are some suggestions for content of pre-voca-tional curricula or work-experience programmes, particu-larly within a rural context:l Management of water for domestic and agricultural

purposes;l Development and use of alternative sources of

energy;l Food production, preservation and storage;l Machine maintenance and repair;l Handling and use of fertilizers and other chemicals;l Information management for rural development.

Learning to live together:the need for vocationalizing the curriculum

Arun K. Mishra

-

34

PART III:INTERDISCIPLINARITY,

SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENTAND NON-SCHOOL SCIENCE EDUCATION:

A FEW TOPICS FOR REFLECTIONBY CURRICULUM DEVELOPERS

35

Introduction

During the last two or three generations, great changeshave taken place in the living conditions of the young. Inmany countries, both parents spend more time away fromthe home at their place of work, while their children’slinks to the world of work and the learning that may be ac-quired there have waned. The impact of the mass mediahas grown continuously over the last decade, and schoolshave become increasingly multicultural.

Social change is no longer an episodic set of eventsinterspersed by periods of stability. Advanced societiesare now open to a continuous process of change, difficultto predict scientifically and control socially. These societ-ies are dynamic rather than static, and complex ratherthan simple entities. Advanced societies are ‘risk societ-ies’ (Elliott, 1998). Social change has ambiguous conse-quences for the individual. It opens up new possibilitiesfor human fulfilment, but multiplies the risks and hazardsthat confront the individual in achieving this fulfilment.In these circumstances, responsibility for shaping theconditions of existence in society should be devolveddown to the grassroots—to the people themselves. Edu-cation can only meet the challenge of social change if itgives all pupils access to appropriate cultural resources ina form that enables them to take responsibility foractively shaping the economic and social conditions oftheir existence.

The organization of the curriculum in terms of aca-demic subjects for the purpose of systematic instructionis ill-suited to the aim of a general education. More con-sistent with such an aim is a curriculum that organizescultural resources in usable forms for the purpose ofenabling pupils to deepen and extend their understandingof the problems and dilemmas of everyday life in society,and to make informed and intelligent judgements abouthow they might be resolved. Such a curriculum will beresponsive to the pupils’ own thinking and their emergingunderstandings and insights into human situations.

Educational change implies a focus on both curricu-lum and pedagogy, and on the development of teachers asexperimental innovators. Learning has to be connectedwith the living experiences of students in a rapidly chang-ing society. Different conceptions of education and of thecurriculum presuppose different conceptions of societyand the principles governing access to its ‘benefits’.Recent trends in curriculum policy-making reflect thedilemmas with which all ‘advanced’ Western states are

wrestling. States feel that they need to steer the curricu-lum in ways that are consistent with their economicgoals, but find that the context of policy implementationis too complex to handle from the centre. The dilemma isillustrated by, on the one hand, attempts at the State levelto establish national educational standards through theconcept of a core curriculum which will command a pub-lic consensus, and on the other, by pressure on schools torespond to the complex changes taking place in theirlocality.

However, it is clear that the idea of the curriculumhaving a unifying function in a diverse learning environ-ment, combined with the emergence of the comprehen-sive common school, has gained strength in manysocieties. General education can be defined as ‘that partof the student’s whole education which looks first of allto his life as a responsible human being and citizen’ (Har-vard Committee, 1945, in Elliott, 1998). The notion ofcitizenship should be central to defining the character ofgeneral education. Without it, general education tends tobe defined as a common core of knowledge, skills, andvalues—a definition that fails to draw attention to basiccurricular concerns, such as what knowledge is mostworthwhile and what aims and objectives are best suitedfor schools in democratic societies.

General education is more than a function of the cur-riculum; it is also an orientation to learning and to curric-ulum design. Generally speaking, all education justifiedunder general education should emphasize a socio-civiccontent that promotes problem-centred inquiry and groupco-operation. General education should also be markedby interdisciplinary subject-matter schemes. The learnerin this general education scenario is defined as an autono-mously thinking, socially responsible citizen who is ableto make decisions. In a broad sense, it is a perspective onlearning that emphasizes citizenship priorities. Thus, theconsequence of general education is a comprehensiveconcept of schooling (Hlebowitsh, 1993).

The connective model of the curriculum

Conceptions of knowledge underlie curriculum develop-ment and can be defined in either of two ways: ‘Curricu-lum as facts’ and ‘curriculum as practice’ (Young, 1998).‘Curriculum as facts’ tends to have a life of its own andobscures the social contexts in which it is embedded. It of-ten results in the curriculum being neither understandablenor changeable. ‘Curriculum as practice’ does not begin

Adaptation of contents to address the principle of learning to live together:the case for interdisciplinarity

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with the structure of knowledge, but with how knowledgeis produced by people acting collectively. According toYoung, this connective model of curriculum integrationdoes not start with subjects but with the broader notion ofcurriculum purposes and how subjects can achieve thosepurposes. It does not start from the requirements of the na-tional curriculum, but with individual schools definingtheir curriculum purposes and asking how they can bemade to correspond to the requirements of the nationalcurriculum.

Schools need to define their purposes in terms of thekind of young person they want to produce, and the kindof adult, worker, citizen and parent roles they wish youngpeople to assume. For schools to move towards a connec-tive model, all staff need to endorse the curriculum crite-ria and agree to articulate how their subjects or areas ofresponsibility would be involved—both in supportingshared approaches to teaching and learning and in deliv-ering the agreed outcomes. The model is ‘connective’ inthe sense that subject specialists would be required toconnect their subject teaching to: (a) the purposes of theoverall school curriculum; and (b) the way other subjectsare contributing to the overall school curriculum.According to Young, the role of subjects would need tobe made explicit in at least three ways; first, by identify-ing the specialist skills and knowledge they can offer;second, by showing how any of the specific skills andknowledge of particular subjects can contribute to thebroader curriculum goals, such as personal and socialeducation through collaboration with other subject spe-cialists; and third, by identifying the contribution of sub-ject specialists in enabling schools to develop theirexternal links with employers, the community and othereducation providers.

The Norwegian National Curriculum:a connective curriculum model?

Changes in society and the structural changes in educationhave made it necessary to re-examine the guidelines gov-erning the purpose and content of education. An agreedminimum values framework has been developed in anumber of countries, in the search for the common good.Thus, the process of promoting a consensus of valuesrepresents a negotiated view of the common good in a giv-en society at a certain period of educational reform. Glo-balization in education should mean that there is oneultimate goal to be supported by general education in allcountries—how to make citizens able to understand boththe local and global societies well enough to learn to livetogether and act as responsible citizens in local and globalterms.

When large-scale reforms were being introduced inprimary, secondary and higher education in Norway, itseemed natural and fitting to provide a common formula-tion of the common core of the curriculum, with a view toemphasizing how the stages of education are linkedtogether, not forgetting adult education. Interdisciplinar-ity has to be considered not only across the curriculum ata certain stage or level of schooling, but in a verticalstructure as well. Consequently, curricular reforms are tobe seen as a macro-educational planning process. How

the reform concept is interpreted is dependent on thesocial, political, economic, cultural and educational con-ditions of a country. It is a policy issue to define the con-text of change, and to view and be willing to develop aholistic reform strategy, where elements of change arelinked and provide for interventions enabling curriculumimplementation to be realized.

The starting point for the overall work on revisedcurricula for the different levels of the education systemin Norway is to be found in the following Acts of Parlia-ment: the Primary and Lower Secondary Education Act;the Upper Secondary Education Act and the VocationalTraining Act; the Adult Education Act and Folk HighSchools Act. The main themes in the relevant sections ofthese acts fell into the following six groups:l moral outlook;l creative abilities;l work;l general education;l co-operation;l natural environment.The common core of the curriculum expanded on thesethemes. The introduction to the ‘Core Curriculum for Pri-mary, Secondary and Adult Education’ in Norway statesthat the aim of education is to furnish children, young peo-ple and adults with the tools that they need to face thetasks of life and surmount its challenges. Education shallprovide learners with the capacity to take charge of them-selves and their lives, as well as equipping them with thewill and determination to stand by others. Education mustspur students to diligence and to close collaboration in thepursuit of common goals. It must promote democracy, na-tional identity and international awareness. In short, theaim of education is to expand the individual’s capacity toperceive and to participate, to experience, to empathizeand to excel.

It was recognized that if education is to achieve theseaims, a number of concepts of the human being, illustrat-ing our complex and diverse roles and identities, need tobe defined for curriculum development. These include:l The spiritual human being;l The creative human being;l The working human being;l The liberally-educated human being;l The social human being;l The integrated human being.Education should ultimately form integrated human be-ings possessing seemingly conflicting capabilities, atti-tudes, values and skills which permit him/her to lead a fulland meaningful life, actively contributing to the commongood, yet maintaining his/her own identity and dignity.From this perspective Norwegian education aims to:— convey the culture’s moral values, with its concern

for others, while fostering the ability to plot one’sown life course;

— provide familiarity with Norway’s Christian andhumanist heritage, while teaching knowledge of andrespect for other religions and faiths;

— teach individuals to overcome self-centredness andbelief in the right of the strongest, while inspiringstrength to stand alone, to stand up for oneself, dis-sent and not to acquiesce or submit to the opinions ofothers unwillingly;

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— develop an independent and autonomous personalityand, at the same time, to be able to function and workas part of a team.

A number of dual aims are listed in the core curriculum,and the final statement is:

Education must balance these dual aims. The objective isan all-round development of abilities and distinctivequalities: to conduct oneself according to accepted moralprinciples, to create and to act, to work with others andin harmony with nature. Education shall contribute to thebuilding of character that gives individuals the strengthto take command of their own lives, to assume dutieswithin their society and to take care of the surroundingenvironment.

When greater knowledge gives greater power, morestress must be placed on the responsibility that accompa-nies this power. The choices to be made must be based onawareness of consequences and connections, but shouldalso be guided by a scrutiny of values. A distinct preceptof education must be to combine greater knowledge,know-how and skills with social awareness, ethical orien-tation and aesthetic sensibility. The young must beinvolved in social life, both individually and in a nor-mally coherent way. Education shall promote ethical andcritical responsibility in the young for the society and theworld they live in.

The ultimate aim of education is to inspire individu-als to realize their potential in ways that serve the com-mon good; to nurture humanness in a society indevelopment.

Operationalization of the core valuesin primary and lower secondary curriculum: the case for interdisciplinarity

During the 1990s, new curricula have been approved forNorwegian primary and upper secondary education.There are two main differences between the old and newcurricula for compulsory education.

The first of these differences is the degree of freedomof choice regarding syllabus content and working meth-ods. The former curriculum allowed local authorities,schools and individual classes a relatively large amountof freedom to decide and allocate the syllabus content ateach level. To a great degree, the choices made corre-sponded to the content of the particular textbooks chosen.Therefore, there were considerable differences in the syl-labuses taught from school to school, and district to dis-trict. The new national curriculum is based upon anational syllabus. Teaching objectives are set out for eachstage (e.g. for age 8 to 10), and instructions about what isgoing to be taught are formulated.

The other important difference concerns the workingmethods. The old curriculum recommended pupil-ori-ented, challenging, working methods. However, moreoften than not, teaching and learning followed traditionalmethods. The new curriculum demands that schools,teachers and pupils implement pupil-oriented, challeng-ing, working methods. This is evident in the curricula’sgeneral directives, the language used to describe objec-tives and main features, and the emphasis upontheme-based study and project work.

The compulsory school is a nationwide ten-yearschool characterized by community and adapted educa-tion, which means an all-inclusive school in a co-ordi-nated school system based on the same curriculum.Adapted education means that it is locally and individu-ally adapted, and takes into account gender equality andlinguistic minorities.

The subject curricula are structured according toprinciples on centrally selected material, local materialand adaptation, progression and more subject-specificteaching within a holistic and unified perspective. In thesubject curricula, the selection of contents aims at pro-moting:— fundamental values, cultural heritage and identity;— creative abilities and creativity;— all-round practical skills;— basic knowledge and broad understanding;— the ability to co-operate and independence;— knowledge and awareness of nature, the environment

and technology.It is specified that fields of knowledge across subjectboundaries are to be topics related to contemporary soci-ety and the individual and society.

Teaching methods must include creative activitiesand modes of expression, play, practical work, indepen-dent work and in-depth study, and project work at allstages.

The structure of the subject syllabi is as follows: (a)introduction; (b) subject-related aims; (c) subject-relatedobjectives for each stage (primary, intermediate andlower secondary); (d) subject-related areas of study foreach grade. There are no individual objectives or targetsrelated to the areas of study described. The objectives arean expression of the competence of the pupils to beachieved at each stage of schooling. This provides impor-tant possibilities to schools and teachers to teach accord-ing to interdisciplinary themes and topics, in particularwithin the framework of project work. This focus on aninterdisciplinary approach is expressed as follows in thecurriculum document:

Although the curriculum is arranged by subjects, ithas been designed so those subjects support each other.Aims, objectives and areas of study must be viewed inrelation to each other with a view to unity and connec-tions, both within and between subjects. At the primarylevel, much of the teaching is organized around themes.Structural and thematic connections between subjectsand subject areas should be exploited throughout school-ing. This helps pupils to develop overall understandingsand to make the most of knowledge and skills across sub-ject boundaries.Certain fields of knowledge to be taught across subjectboundaries have been identified, such as topical issues re-lated to: — Contemporary society—nature and environment,

international understanding, human rights and peace-ful co-existence, technology, information and com-munication technology, knowledge of the media,working life and vocational guidance, consumerknowledge, road safety.

— The individual and society—the family, sex educa-tion, homosexuality, preventive health work, drugabuse, crime prevention, bullying and violence.

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The thematic structure of contents shall be based onthe experience, interests and understanding of pupils, onconnections with the local environment and on topicality.The methods to be used are creative activities and modesof expression in all subjects, practical and independentwork, project work and in-depth study. Local work onsubject curricula should mainly be decided by individualschools or co-operating schools. It shall establish thefoundations for teachers’ planning their lessons at all lev-els. Clear connections between the centrally and locallydefined educational content of the teaching must beestablished, and the aims of the general part of thenational curriculum should be borne in mind.

Co-operation at school and with the wider community

Co-operation between pupils, teachers and the school ad-ministration is essential to the development of the schoolin terms of creating a learning environment and a place forwork. Such co-operation can strengthen the context andpossibilities for interdisciplinary perspectives and ap-proaches, helping pupils to see the interconnectedness oflearning, and the links between school and the wider com-munity. For the pupils to be included in a social, academicand cultural community, the staff of the school mustco-operate, providing a model for the pupils. Co-opera-tion will enable pupils to learn from each other, develop-ing social skills and gaining insight into democraticmethods.

It is stressed that the school should develop generalsocial and civic awareness and active involvement in thelife of the community. By encouraging pupils to approachnew tasks and challenges actively, constructively anddeliberately, the school lays the foundations for furtherlearning and helps pupils to master their future work, andtheir participation in family and social life.

Practical work and project work

Important emphasis is given to practical and project work.Practical work is supposed to form an integral part of allclassroom activities and should be designed so as to showpupils the connections between practice and theory andbetween action and knowledge.

Teachers must provide adequate opportunities forindependent work and in-depth study of subjects and sub-ject areas, and in theme and project work. Emphasisshould be on teaching research and analytical skills andon developing study methods and working habits whichequip pupils for independent work and in-depth study, aswell as group work. Teachers are expected to workclosely with pupils in realizing projects.

It is stated that project work lends itself to both a sin-gle subject and an interdisciplinary approach, and can be

linked to specific local themes. Teachers are expected toco-operate with each other to ensure that project work hasan interdisciplinary character.

Allocation of time

School time must be allocated as appropriate to the vari-ous activities, bearing in mind the need for unity, continu-ity and progression in subjects considered separately andtogether. At lower secondary level, 20% of periods in eachyear must be devoted to theme and project work.

Conclusion

Challenges for curriculum development in our time are tofind ways of integrating general education and subject syl-labuses—to organize knowledge for teaching and learninginto meaningful units. The need for interdisciplinarity isobvious if knowledge is to be made really meaningful in aholistic way for the individual pupil.

The Norwegian model of the curriculum for primary,lower secondary and upper secondary education might beidentified as a connective curriculum model. The out-come of the curriculum reform is presently being evalu-ated. Research-based evaluation will give some feedbackon the success of operationalizing the curricula for a bet-ter quality of learning.

The former Minister of Education in Norway, MrGudmund Hernes, stated that the main message of thecurriculum reform can be summed up like this: The mostimportant of all pedagogical tasks is to communicate tochildren and young people that they are developing con-tinuously in such a way that they can have confidence intheir own abilities. This may be seen as our common cur-riculum challenge for the next century as well.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRPHY

Elliott, J. 1998. The curriculum experiment: meeting the challenge of so-cial change. Milton Keynes, UK, Open University Press.

Hlebowitsh, P.S. 1993. Radical curriculum theory reconsidered. a histo-rical approach. New York, Teachers College Press, Columbia Uni-versity.

Royal Norwegian Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs.1993. Core curriculum for primary, secondary and adult educationin Norway. Oslo.

— —. 1997. 3ULQFLSOHV�DQG�JXLGHOLQHV�IRU�EDVLF�VFKRRO�HGXFDWLRQ� Oslo.— —. 1997. &XUULFXOXP�IRU�WKH����\HDU�FRPSXOVRU\�VFKRRO�LQ�1RUZD\�

Oslo.Universitetet i Oslo. Institutt for lærerutdanning og skoleutvikling, 1998.

IEA Civic Education Study, Report no 1. Oslo, University of Oslo.Universitetet i Oslo. OECD-PISA Programme for International Student

Assessment. Internet: http://www.ils.uio.no/pisa/Young, M.F.D. (1998). Curriculum of the future: from the ‘new sociolo-

gy of education’ to a critical theory of learning. Basingstoke, UK,Falmer Press.

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CONTEXT

Victoria is an Australian state with a population of ap-proximately 4.5 million people. In 1996/97, there were1,700 government schools providing education for 5- to18-year-olds. The majority of these were primary schools.Another 673 schools were in the non-government sector.Total enrolments were 777,368 students, 517,882 ofwhom were in government schools. Twenty-five per centof all Victoria’s government schools cater to studentsfrom non-English speaking backgrounds, with a smallproportion of students from an Aboriginal background.

The formal education system consists of primaryschools from preparatory (P) grade to grade six (ages 5 to12) and secondary schools from grades seven to twelve(ages 12 to 18). Most students (approximately three-quar-ters) complete thirteen years of schooling and attain theVictorian Certificate of Education (VCE). The total num-ber of government schoolteachers in 1996/97 reached18,159 in primary and 16,902 in secondary schools.

School education is supervised by the ‘Office ofSchools’, which is divided into nine regions for adminis-trative purposes. The Office of Schools is located withinthe Department of Education1 and manages the govern-ment school system. Several administrative units, includ-ing the Office of School Review, in charge ofaccountability framework, and the Board of Studies, incharge of the curriculum framework, support it. TheOffice of Schools reports to the Secretary of Education(the public service head) who reports to the Minister ofEducation. The latter has ultimate responsibility for theschool education portfolio.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Australia began decentralizing power and authority toschools nearly thirty years ago. In the 1960s, the educationsystem was highly centralized; the states made all key de-cisions on curriculum, budget and personnel. From themid-1970s, Victoria became one of the leading states inthe move towards a fully decentralized system of educa-

tion. Between 1980 and 1992, a number of initiatives weretaken by successive governments to devolve authority andresponsibility progressively to schools. These moves cul-minated in a policy paper entitled ‘Education: giving stu-dents a chance’, published in late 1992 by the LiberalGovernment. It outlined that quality education can best beachieved by transferring educational decision-making andresource management to the school level. A ‘Schools ofthe Future’ (SOF) Task Force was formed to develop a de-tailed report outlining the government’s objectives andhow quality education would be delivered. The task forcereleased the SOF Preliminary Paper in 1993, which re-vealed that the key to schools’ effectiveness would be a‘school charter’. The ‘Schools of the Future’ Programmeand other legislation has increased the powers and respon-sibilities of school councils and principals dramatically.Victoria's principals have been placed on limited tenurecontracts and local selection of staff was introduced.

The speed with which this reform was institutional-ized warrants an explanation. In March 1993, the govern-ment asked for applications to place 100 of the state’sschools into a pilot programme. The programme aimed atproviding ‘virtually full authority over the budget andpersonnel function to the school site’. Within a six-weekperiod, over 700 schools applied, and in July 1993, morethan 300 schools entered the first phase of the SOF pro-gramme. By early 1994 another 500 schools had enteredthe programme and an equal number in July 1994. Bymid-1995, all Victoria's schools were in the SOF pro-gramme. In an attempt to assist schools to understandtheir self-managing role, the Directorate of School Edu-cation published two information kits in 1994. To assistschools to formulate and implement procedures toachieve their respective visions, a Curriculum and Stan-dards Framework was created. This is a frameworkwithin which schools are able to create their own pro-grammes, whilst taking into consideration the identity,aspiration and interests of their teachers. The Board ofStudies provided curriculum frameworks for all schools,while the Office of Schools Review developed charterguidelines and an accountability framework.

Victoria’s schools of the future

Kenneth Ross

1 At the inception of the ‘Schools of the Future’ Programme, the currentDepartment of Education was referred to as the Directorate of SchoolEducation (DSE). Both DSE and DOE are used interchangeably in thischapter.

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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE VICTORIANEXPERIENCE

Victoria’s model of school-based management (SBM) hastwo distinguishing dimensions: (a) the involvement of bothinternal and external constituencies, such as the principaland the representatives of the staff, parents, communityand, in the case of secondary schools, students; and (b) thedecentralization and devolution to the school level asagainst the district or the local education authority level, asis the case with other countries, such as in the United Statesof America or the United Kingdom. Victoria’s experienceof SBM, through the SOF Programme, is thought to repre-sent one of the most comprehensive strategies at schooldecentralization attempted anywhere in the world. It is the

most sweeping move to decentralization in the history ofAustralian public education, with nearly 90% of recurrentexpenditure distributed to schools within a global schoolbudget. Victoria is the largest system of public educationanywhere in the world to have decentralized such a largepart of the state budget for school education. The statedobjective of the reform was ‘[to improve] the quality ofeducation for students by moving to schools the responsi-bility to make decisions, set priorities and controlresources’. Accordingly, SOF is intended to ‘make moreefficient use of resources for the benefit of students, pro-vide a more professional workplace for teachers, andincrease the level of community knowledge of, and satis-faction with, schools’. Basically, the reform has four ele-ments, as shown in Figure 1.

The curriculum framework: the process of decentraliz-ing the curriculum made standards for student attain-ment explicit. The framework consists of twoelements: the curriculum and standards framework(CSF) for years Prep to 10 (P–10) in eight key learn-ing areas (KLA); and the Victorian Certificate ofEducation (VCE) for years 11 and 12.

The people framework: The career structures of princi-pals and teachers were addressed in the peopleframework, consisting of five elements: (1) localselection of staff; (2) full staffing flexibility andworkforce planning; (3) performance managementfor principals and teachers; (4) professional develop-ment; and (5) new career structures.

The resources framework: allocates 90% of the school’srecurrent budget directly to the schools; givesschools the flexibility to allocate all resources inaccordance with student learning needs; and fundsschools in a clear and equitable way through theschool global budget.

The accountability framework has three elements: theschool charter; the annual report; and the triennialreview. ‘Quality Assurance in Victoria's Schools’ is

the main mechanism through which the performanceof schools is monitored.

Each of these frameworks has several elements. Whilstmost of the elements are in place, some are still to be fullyimplemented, such as full staffing flexibility in the peopleframework.

DIMENSIONS OF SOF’S REFORMS

The School Charter

As part of the Accountability Framework, the SchoolCharter is the official document produced by the schooland the school council in collaboration with the schoolcommunity. It is considered the major accountabilityagreement between a school and its community for theachievements of its students, on the one hand, and theschool and the Department of Education (DOE), on theother. Each school develops its own charter which out-lines how the school intends to deliver quality educationto its students using the resources available in its globalbudget (the resources allocated to it by the DOE).

FIGURE 1. The dimensions of schools of the future.

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41

Through the Charter, school communities have the oppor-tunity to determine the future character, ethos and goals of

the school. Figure 2 shows the process by which theSchool Charter is developed.

The document of the charter includes: the curriculum pro-file, codes of practice, students’ code of conduct, account-ability, budget summary and an agreement to ensure thatschools meet their objectives within the limits of availableresources. In particular, the document gives:l A description of the school’s philosophy and future

directions.l The school’s goals and priorities that are identified as

requiring further development.l How the school intends to deliver the eight mandated

curriculum areas and any other special enrichmentactivities specific to that school.

l Codes of practice for school council members, prin-cipals and staff.

l A code of conduct and the discipline approach usedfor students of the school.

l Details of the processes used for monitoring andreporting on student performance.

l A prediction of student numbers and an indicativebudget for the period of the charter.

l A statement that the school agrees to operate withinthe terms of the charter and to agree to take all reaso-nable steps to ensure the school meets its goalswithin the available resources.

The school charter sets the strategic directions for threeyears. It provides the basis for detailed action plans and al-lows for the identification of performance measures inmeeting the goals and priorities, which relate to curricu-lum, school environment, management, resource alloca-tion and monitoring performance. Each goal isaccompanied by indicators, which enable the achievement

of that goal to be measured. The priorities are based onplanned and continuous improvement. This places de-mands on the school to analyse its performance and, usingthe results of this analysis, to generate priorities for im-proved student performance. Schools report annually tothe DOE and their local community on their performancein achieving their goals and priorities. Every three years areview is conducted at the school, in conjunction with theOffice of School Review, to assist with the developmentof a new charter.The school charter model adopted in Victoria has a num-ber of features that place it in the category of the world’sbest practices. First, there is explicit detail concerning theareas identified for improvement and the goals that drivethe school; it is not a document that focuses only on im-provement, but includes details about the normal opera-tion of the school. Secondly, it is student centred withexplicit acknowledgement of the central importance ofcurriculum and improved student learning. Measurementof both goal and priority outcomes are prominent features.Thirdly, the school charters are firmly located within abroad accountability framework that includes school re-view and school annual reports. Fourthly, there is detailedspecification of the roles of the school community mem-bers and a profile of the school. Most importantly, as anaccountability instrument, the charter gives parents, viathe school council, greater say in the conduct of theschool, and increases the requirement to account for theenterprise to the government. The Office of School Re-view can demand that charters are rewritten, and the ob-jectives not attained in one year are carried over to thenext.

FIGURE 2. The process of charter development.

School community input

Charter development

VerificationSchool self-assessment

(third annual report)

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CURRICULUM AND STANDARDFRAMEWORK

A second important feature of the SOF programme is theCurriculum and Standard Framework (CSF). This is oneof the elements of the curriculum framework noted above.The Board of Studies developed the CSF. There are eightkey learning areas in the framework: arts; English; lan-guages other than English; mathematics; sciences; tech-nology, studies of society and the environment; and healthand physical education. These guide the development ofthe curriculum from preparatory year through to year 10.The framework contains two components: (a) the curricu-lum content in several different levels to be attained overeleven years of study, across the various strands of activitywithin the key learning areas; and (b) the learning out-comes for students for each of those levels.

The CSF incorporates both content and process stan-dards. Student progress is assessed against the CSF in aprogramme of state-wide assessment, the LearningAssessment Project (LAP). The LAP assesses students inyears 3 and 5, in English and mathematics annually, andin one other key learning area on a five-year cycle. CSFis a teacher assessment of student performance basedupon agreed performance levels contained within theCSF documents. In addition, the state has introduced onemore test: a state-wide testing of student performancethrough the Victorian Secondary Assessment Monitor(VSAM) at years 7 and 9.

The introduction of explicit standards by means ofthe CSF set a yardstick for teachers and the community,and made public what had been the professional concernof individual teachers and staff. The LAP reports to theparents took the locus of information control on studentprogress out of the teachers’ hands. It gave parents‘objective’ feedback on their children, gave the schoolfeedback on their performance vis-à-vis other schools,and gave the whole system information on overall attain-ment. In other words, in government schools, the LAPresults became another instrument of accountability whenadded to school charters.

At the same time, the Victorian Certificate of Educa-tion (VCE), which is a two-year (years 11 and 12) schoolcompletion certificate, was revised and re-accredited.The VCE provides a wide variety of subjects for studentsto enable them to undertake studies for either university

entrance and/or employment. It contains a series of Com-mon Assessment Tasks (CATs) to be completed by allstudents undertaking a particular subject to ensure com-mon achievement measures across the system. SomeCATs are assessed at the school and others through exter-nal examination, but a state-wide moderation system isused to ensure parity for all students’ work. All studentsinvolved in the VCE are required to sit a GeneralAchievement Test (GAT) to check on the distribution ofstudent grades for school-based CATs within the certifi-cate. Should the school’s VCE performance fall withinthe tolerance range of that school’s performance on theGAT, then the results for the VCE assessment will beconfirmed. If not, the VCE results will be externallyreviewed.

SYSTEMATIC AND LOCAL ACCOUNTABILITY

The third feature of the ‘Schools of the Future’ Pro-gramme (SOF), which is part of the accountability frame-work, is the systematic and local accountability processes.These are presented in Figure 3. According to this system,the Board of Studies provides curriculum leadership andassistance to schools on a state-wide basis, while the Of-fice of School Review supports the attempts of individualschools to raise the quality of their teaching and learning.The Board is responsible for course development and ac-creditation, course evaluation and assessment of studentperformance (including school completion and certifica-tion). The Office of School Review is responsible for theco-ordination and management of the accountability pro-cesses, particularly as they relate to the development andreview of school charters.

As for local or school level accountability, the schoolcouncils have the authority to determine the educationalpolicies of the school within the framework of the SchoolCharter. The councils are responsible for maintaining theschool premises and grounds, employing non-teachingstaff and contracting the services of teachers for particu-lar projects. They are accountable to their local commu-nities, to whom they report through the annual report,and to the Department of Education (DOE), throughwhich independent auditors ensure that the financial

Charter

Managementinformation

Annual report 2

Rewiew• School self-assessment

• Independent verification

Annual report 1

FIGURE 3. Systematic and local accountability framework.

43

dealings of the school conform to the appropriate guide-lines.2

These elements of the accountability framework servetwo main purposes: they satisfy the ‘legitimate expecta-tions of government about accountability for the outcomesof schooling’, and assist ‘schools and teachers to improvestandards of student learning’. The framework allowsschools to monitor and report on their effectiveness andfocus upon improving it. It provides an integrated plan-ning, development and reporting package in whichschools develop their own educational plans and prioritieswithin government guidelines (through the school char-ter), and monitor the progress in meeting these objectives(through annual reports and a school self-assessment). Theschool’s self-assessment is externally monitored throughthe verification phase of the school review component ofthe framework. The school charter, annual reports,self-assessment and independent verification are publicdocuments, which are available for community inspectionat the school level. The DOE does not allow public access

to the accountability documents from schools; this has tobe accessed through the schools directly.

SCHOOL REVIEW

This is an element of the accountability framework.School review, as shown in Figure 4, is a triennial reviewbased on self-assessment by the school and an indepen-dent external verification leading to the development of anew school charter. Community consultation is encour-aged at all stages of the process with many schools utilis-ing significant community input in the development ofthe school self-assessment, including community repre-sentation on the verification panel and communityinvolvement in the final development of the new charter.There are three annual reports indicated. Most schoolscomplete two annual reports, with the school self-assess-ment doubling as both the summary of achievement overthree years and the third annual report.

FIGURE 4: School review.

School Charter

Three Year Plan Annual Report Year 1

Annual Report Year 2

Annual Report Year 3

School Self-Assessment

Verification

Three Year Plan

School Charter

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$QQXDO�5HSRUWVNew

2Both the LAP and the GAT assessment noted earlier are also used as partof the accountability framework.

SCHOOL SELF-ASSESSMENT

The school self-assessment forms the summary documentof the performance of the school over the three-year spanof the charter. It is this document that is used in the verifi-cation process. It is the school that constructs this docu-ment, albeit on the framework provided by thegovernment. It is not until the verification process thatexternal review of this data is conducted.

There are detailed guidelines as to how schools inter-pret data for self-assessment, as compared to the annualreport. Schools are required to present and interpret thedata, make judgements and recommendations. The rec-ommendations are focused upon the school’s goals andpriorities for the next charter. In constructing theself-assessment, schools are encouraged to involve theirschool community, although the extent of involvementvaries. Some schools utilize consultants to help facilitatethe process and/or the analysis.

VERIFICATION

An external verifier contracted by the DOE conducts theverification of the school self-assessment. The verifica-tion process has been constructed to be both affirming andchallenging. It is affirming in that the work of the schooland the progress made over the past three years is ac-knowledged and celebrated. It is challenging in that theprocess leads to the setting of new goals, priorities and im-provements that may take place over the next three years.The verifier acts as a critical friend working with theschool and taking a fresh look at the analysis of the schooldata to ensure that the school self-assessment is supportedby the data presented, highlighting achievements, notingareas that can be improved or those that have been over-looked, and setting the planning and improvement agendafor the next three years.

The verification is conducted over one school day,with the verifier typically meeting with the principal,school council president, and one or more teachers. Atthe conclusion of the meeting the verifier prepares a

44

report which is forwarded to the principal for consulta-tion before the principal, school council president andverifier sign the document. A copy of the document isthen sent to the central administration. The end result ofthe process is that there is a set of firm recommendationson the goals, priorities and improvement focuses to beincluded in the next charter. The school is in considerablecontrol of the process through its writing of the schoolself-assessment and has wide representation on the verifi-cation panel, not to mention the school principal chairingthe verification day.

GLOBAL BUDGETS

The resource framework represents a significant feature ofthe SOF. Through this framework, the reform has imple-mented a new basis for funding government schools inVictoria through a well-developed School Global Budget(SGB). The SGB is primarily a formula-based fundingmodel, which consists of a base element for all schools,together with an equity element based on the characteris-tics of the students enrolled. Hence, individual schoolswould have the flexibility to allocate all resources in ac-cordance with local needs. Each school receives an SGB,most of which is made on a per student funding basis toreflect the different resource requirements across a rangeof variables related to learning needs. It provides fundingfor all school-based costs, including staff salaries, operat-ing expenses and school maintenance.

Schools received support in the introduction of localbudgets through increased funding for administrative sup-port and with a software package called ‘ComputerizedAdministrative Systems Environment for Schools’ (CAS-ES). This assisted the schools to monitor their financial,personnel and administrative functions. Devolving finan-cial management to the local level aimed to empowerprincipals and schools councils to set and allocateresources for local priorities, to separate the purchase ofeducation from its provision, and to decrease the need fora central bureaucracy.

The SGB has its counterpart in other places wherethere is a high level of school-based budgeting. In everyinstance, the task of determining the basis for allocationhas proved difficult for a range of reasons, including theabsence of information about allocations in the past anddebate about the relative weightings to be given to the dif-ferent factors to reflect learning needs.

In 1994 (and again in 1995), an Education Committeewas called by the then Minister of Education to advise himon a mechanism by which the DOE could allocate 90% ofits state’s budget to schools. Most of the committee’s rec-ommendations in 1994 and 1995 were implemented.These included a per capita core funding supplemented byneeds-based allocations for students at educational risk,students with disabilities and impairments, rurality andisolation, students from non-English speaking back-grounds, and priority programmes. The principles under-lining these recommendations were detailed as follows:

Pre-eminence of educational considerations. This princi-ple implies that determining what factors ought to be

included in the construction of the School GlobalBudget and what ought to be their relative weightingare pre-eminently educational considerations.

Fairness. This principle implies that schools with thesame mix of learning needs should receive the sametotal of resources in the School Global Budget. Inaccordance with this principle, SGB should redressthe unfair historical allocation of resources, whichinvolved some schools receiving more resources andothers receiving fewer resources, when they wereotherwise comparable.

Transparency. This principle implies that educationalvalidity and the fairness of the SGB will be apparentonly to the extent that the basis for allocations in theSGB is transparent—that is, it is clear and readilyunderstandable by all those concerned. The basis forthe allocation of resources to each and every schoolshould be made public.

Subsidiarity. Subsidiarity is the principle that a decisionshould only be made centrally if it cannot be madelocally. It describes the principle of maximizingfunds available for school-based decision-making.An implication for the construction of the SGB isthat the starting point is to consider included all itemsof expenditure related to the operation of school. Acase must then be made to exclude an item from theSGB. Exclusion of items from the SGB may takeplace if—and only if: (a) schools do not have controlover the expenditure for that item; (b) there is exces-sive variation in expenditure for the item at theschool level from one year to the next; (c) there isunpredictability in expenditure for the item at theschool level; (d) expenditure is of a once-off nature;or (e) the item is one for which the school acts simplyas a payment conduit.

Accountability. Accountability is a necessary counterpartof the educational focus in the SGB, given that thelatter is concerned with matching resources to learn-ing needs. A school which receives resourcesbecause it has students with a certain mix of learningneeds has the responsibility of providing pro-grammes to meet those needs, and should beaccountable for the use of those resources, includingoutcomes in relation to learning needs.

Strategic implementation. When new funding arrange-ments are indicated, they should be implementedprogressively over several years to eliminate dra-matic changes in the funding levels of schools fromone year to another.

When implemented in 1995, the SGB consisted of six el-ements, as follows:

Core funding (based on current staffing and grantsformulae with additional funding for administrative sup-port for small schools and early childhood years P–2.This amounted to 80% of the total budget).

1. Additional funding depending on the isolation andrurality (IAR) of schools (depending on the size ofthe school, and its isolation factor) so as to ensureadequate staffing and a range of curricula in theseschools.

45

2. Additional funding for students from non-English-speaking backgrounds.

3. Additional funding for students with disabilities andimpairments (DAI).

4. Additional funding for students at educational risk(SAER).

5. Additional funding for priority programmes such as:physical and sports education; science and techno-logy; instrumental music; professional development;arts in Australia.

USE OF MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMSAND TECHNOLOGY

Another important dimension of the SOF is its extensiveuse of technology and computerized information systems.At the administrative level, and as noted above, CASESwas introduced to assist schools to monitor their financial,personnel and administrative functions. This allowed theschools to interface with the central computer system.Schools were issued a standardized computer hardwareand software system. CASES stores and processes a rangeof data including student records (often from teacher in-put), and financial, physical and human resource data. Toenhance the value of information recorded and maintainedin CASES, another type of software was designed. This isthe CASES Management Information System (CMIS),which is an ‘add-on’ software package to make bettersense of CASES for management purposes. It provides arange of summary reports, often presented graphically,which have been developed in consultation with schoolsand central personnel. Both CASES and CMIS pro-grammes have been developed in-house by the DOE.

To enhance the system by extending it to include stu-dent records, a third software application was introduced.This is a commercial product adapted to Victoria'srequirements. The product known as Kidmap providesstudent assessment and recording, analysis and profilingof student progress/needs, preparation of reports for par-ents, and access to teaching resources. It allows schoolsand school systems to access student data, and to analyzeand interpret this in a variety of ways.

At the central office and regions, the DOE introducedan Education Management Information System (EMIS),which has some linkages to the CASES/CMIS environ-ment. The basic system in EMIS is the Corporate Infor-mation System (CIS) which contains basic schoolprofiles, a diary of events, a phone directory and a rangeof documents. EMIS also includes a decision support sys-tem (DSS) which contains the same databases as CIS, butwith additional features. These features provide addi-tional information to allow the construction of an individ-ual school’s profile. They also allow the provision of arange of statistical information for downloading to aspreadsheet/word-processing package.

The interface between these information manage-ment systems is shown diagrammatically in Figure 5. Thefigure illustrates the main channels of communicationsand the users of these channels in the SOF managementinformation system. For both the annual report andschool review elements, the processes are informed by anextensive array of school and system generated data onstudent and school achievement. This very much facili-tates the collection and analysis of data used in the opera-tion of the accountability framework, and the day-to-dayoperations of the school.

KIDMAP

CASES

CMIS

DSS

Teacher

Administrative Staff

Principal

Central &RegionalPersonnel

CIS

Annual Reports & SchoolSelf-Assessment

EMIS

FIGURE 5. Department of Education Management Information System: KIDMAP, CASES, CMIS and EMIS.

46

In terms of curriculum delivery, several curriculumprogrammes, which make an extensive use of technology,were also introduced. An Interactive Satellite Television(ISTV) programme was established in 1994. Both gov-ernment and non-government schools installed satellitedishes to receive centrally produced programmes. Stu-dents could interact directly with the programmes’ pre-senters using either a fax or a telephone. Professionaldevelopment programmes for teachers and general accessfor other community groups were also made availablethrough this new technology. Other technological initia-tives in the curriculum included programmes which gaveall schools access to the Internet and opportunities todevelop methods of using the new technologies; andbrought people from education and the entertainmentarena to work together to develop computer software thatboth educates and entertains.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT

As part of the people framework, the career structures ofprincipals and teachers were addressed. This was ‘consis-tent with efforts to restructure the public sector’, where‘there has been downsizing of central and regional agen-cies, with a small but powerful strategic core “steering”the system’. In this framework, staff selection was de-volved to the local level and professional developmentwas provided to build capacity in principals for their ex-panded roles, as well as to give teachers the skill to imple-ment curriculum improvements. However, the school’spersonnel for the most part remain centrally employed. Atthe same time, schools were given an increasing capacityto select staff and determine the mix of professional, para-professional and support arrangements.

All of the restructuring noted above required consid-erable commitment from the central office to provideprofessional development for all school personnel: prin-cipals, teachers and school councillors. At the time oftheir entry into the SOF programme, schools had aninduction period of six months to ensure that they wereready for their new responsibilities. Professional devel-opment for principals included issues related to the globalbudget, leadership and management. Administrative staffwere given training to improve their understanding of thenew computer system and the global budgeting process,including the management of personnel. Teachers weregiven training in programmes related to curriculum lead-ership in response to school charters. School councillorswere given training to help understand the process ofcharter development, and the implementation of the SOFprogramme.

At the central and regional level, special positionswere created to deal with local concerns. These positions,known as the District Liaison Principals (DLP) wereplaced in regions across the state. Two positions wereplaced in the central office. The role of the DLP was toact as a change agent, providing advice and assistance toprincipals, assisting with professional development, andensuring that schools have access to student services andcurriculum support staff. In addition, a small number ofsupport staff were located in each region.

Support for principals and teachers is an on-goingactivity. Areas of support include leadership training,mentoring and coaching, with experienced principalssupporting junior ones. These have helped to establishthe longer-term future of leadership in schools. The Pro-fessional Recognition Programme (PRP) offered teachersthe capacity to opt into a system of enhanced pay andcareer structure, including annual appraisal. The mainaims of the programme are: l To provide a working environment that encourages

and rewards skilled and dedicated teachers;l To encourage the further development of an ethos

that values excellence and high standards of achieve-ment; and

l To provide formal feedback on a teacher’s perfor-mance so that appropriate career development mayoccur through professional development and othermeans.

To achieve these goals, the DOE allocated in 1995, the to-tal of A$240 per teacher in each school for professionaldevelopment. This meant that appraisal could support im-provement and provide the basis for promotions based onmerit rather than seniority. Local staff selection, appraisaland professional development gave the school greatercontrol over their human resources and greater flexibilityin responding to local needs.

AN EVALUATION OF SOF REFORM

The SOF reform has devolved considerable authority andresponsibility to the school level. Important features of itssuccess include: l The framework presents an integrated programme

that works at two levels: for school planning anddevelopment and for system accountability. It is thisdual utility that has been the key to success. Schoolsvalue the framework for providing them with avaluable developmental tool. Inspection program-mes, such as those used in the United Kingdom, donot offer the same degree of support to schools asthat offered by the accountability framework.

l The framework has been supported by the develop-ment of a range of performance measures. Somehave been developed especially for the framework(staff and parent opinion surveys), whilst others havebeen developed as part of other elements of thereform (e.g. CSF). Importantly, benchmarks of per-formance have been created which allow schools toassess their performance against those of both thestate average and schools, which have a similar stu-dent population.

l The development of the performance measures hasbeen supported by the development of software tofacilitate the display and analysis of the data.

This process has provided schools with the tools to moni-tor performance, a quality assurance framework withinwhich to operate, and a quality control process that meetssystemic requirements. In essence, the accountabilityframework includes the benefits of a supervisor model ofschool supervision, with an explicit and extensive pro-gramme of support for school planning and development.

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Appropriate levels of professional development havebeen used to support the framework implementation.Extensive consultation and trialling occurred in thedevelopment of the school charter, the annual report andthe triennial review. The Office of School Review alsoconsulted widely with experts throughout the world, andits personnel have been active in gaining experience ofbest practice. The independence of the Office of SchoolReview from the schools section has enabled it todevelop the accountability framework without the con-straints that it might have been subject to had it been partof the bureaucratic structure of the Office of Schools.

At the early stages of SOF inception, the DSE pub-lished ‘The schools of the future information kit’ and‘Schools of the future guidelines for developing a schoolscharter’ to assist all schools in their transition to SBM.The documents reinforced the trend for principals to berecognized as true leaders of their schools and to beexpected to build and lead their teaching teams by clari-fying important responsibilities which are determined atthe school level. The unique character of each school andcommunity is reflected in distinctive curricula selectedfrom a broad range of studies established by Victoria'sBoard of Studies. So as to achieve the overall aim of pro-viding quality education for every student, enabling eachto realize his/her full potential, different approaches tolearning and teaching are encouraged to optimize theadvantages gained from technological progress. Theschool charter, developed within the guidelines of theDSE/DOE, encapsulates the school’s vision and estab-lishes a framework for the allocation of resources. Thecrucial element for the success of the school would seem

to be its ability to respond to the needs of the communityand to provide a service which sustains an on-goingdemand for places within the school, as well as a boost tothe employment potential of its graduates.

However, there remain considerable constraints onschools. For example, the leadership role of a principal ofa SOF is a demanding one. The tasks carry onerousresponsibilities, both ‘upwards’ to the DOE and the Min-ister of Education, as well as ‘outwards’ through themembers of the School Council to staff, students, parentsand the community.

Moreover, there is evidence of increased teacherworkload and time demands, concern over the level ofresources, increased reliance on local fund-raising,including the collection of fees, teacher disempowermentand a decrease in school diversity. There is also frustra-tion at the inability of parts of the reform to be fullyimplemented, especially the promise of school controlover staffing and the implementation of the principal per-formance management plan.

Concern has been expressed that reforms to bringabout the decentralization of authority in the current edu-cation system are cost-cutting measures, rather than ameans of improving school effectiveness. As a matter offact, this phenomenon of cutting-costs and reducing staffhas been a feature of most SBM reforms worldwide.

On the other hand, the new arrangements of deci-sion-making and the increased community involvementgive a clear impression that education is a partnershipbetween the staff and the parents. However, much of thisseems to have been undermined in favour of more powerbeing given to the principal.

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Introduction

This article attempts to show how a non-school education-al institution can be a valuable resource for complement-ing school-based education, and how it can be a place ofinnovation and experiment.

A typology of science museums

It is possible to place science museums into three catego-ries, which have developed over time:Collection museums are the most traditional—the

museum is based on a collection. A principal disad-vantage of such museums is the separation of the vis-itor from the objects on display. Direct contact andmanipulation of real objects have obvious advan-tages over the simple viewing of artefacts.

Demonstration museums. In the second type of museum,demonstration of facts and mechanisms—‘howthings work’—is very important. The origins of thistype of museum can be found in the eighteenth cen-tury, but they are more closely related to universalexhibitions organized in many large cities during thenineteenth century.

Interactive exhibits. The third and most recent category isa type of museum where the emphasis is placed onpossibilities for direct interaction between the visitorand the exhibition. Different types of informationmay be obtained depending on the actions performedon an object by different visitors, who will, in turn,react differently to the results of their actions. Com-puters may serve as an excellent tool for organizingsuch interactivity between visitors and exhibitions.

The majority of modern science museums are a combina-tion of these three types. Examples are the Exploratoriumin San Francisco, United States of America and the Citédes Sciences et de l’Industrie, France.

The Cité des Sciences et de l’Industrie

The main purposes of the Cité are:l to provide visitors with scientific, technological and

industrial knowledge and know-how on phenomenaand issues affecting their daily lives;

l to provide a forum for debate on current develop-ments in science and technology;

l to operate as a resource centre which relays informa-tion from various partner institutions for the benefit

of visitors (such as the service provided by the ‘Citédes métiers’);

l to be a centre for innovation in the fields of commu-nication, education and training in science and tech-nology issues, in partnership with institutionsoperating in these fields.

Its services consist of:Exhibitions. These are the most important resources: dif-

ferent exhibitions (permanent or temporary) whoseaim is to help visitors understand the effects of thedevelopment of science and technology on humanlife. They combine possibilities for observation,demonstration and hands-on interaction by visitors.

‘Explora’. This is the main exhibition: 30,000 squaremetres on subjects as varied as the environment,communication, health, astronomy, energy, soundsand space.

‘������������� � This comprises two permanent exhibi-tions, for 3- to 5-year-olds, and 5- to 12-year-olds.The subjects include machines, communication, thehuman body and other aspects of biology. There isalso a temporary exhibition on the topic of electricity.

‘Techno Cité’ is a particular exhibition on technology,intended for teenagers, where the visitors can havereal contact with diverse objects, and where team-work is very important. The exhibition is organizedin five sections and each one can be reserved for aclass of pupils for ninety-minute sessions.

Its resources are as follows:‘Médiathèque’. This is a multimedia public library with

300,000 books, 3,000 films and a variety of computersoftware. It offers an excellent complement to theexhibitions.

‘Salle science-actualités’. This exhibition is a presenta-tion of current developments in science and technol-ogy, assembled by a team of journalists. It is renewedmonthly.

‘Cité des métiers’. This service space is organized in col-laboration with external institutions, where visitorscan obtain information on career orientation, voca-tional education, training, and employment. There isa strong emphasis on the evolution of the job marketaccording to the development of science and technol-ogy.

Entertainment theatres. Different places of entertainmentcomplete the complex. These include: (a) the‘Géode’: a hemispheric cinema theatre; (b) the

Non-school science education:a case study from France

Jean-Marie Sani

49

‘Planétarium’; and (c) the ‘Cinaxe’: a dynamic cin-ema theatre in which the room moves alongside thefilm.

These places receive from 3.5 to 4 million visitors a year.

The educational policy of the ‘Cité’

Support to teachers: A variety of suggestions are pro-vided to teachers relating to projects they may wishto carry out with their classes. These are merely sug-gestions—not directives—and teachers are free toselect their own projects. The orientation and docu-mentation services of the Cité are available toschools in support of educational projects. The Cité’sresources facilitate the development of both the con-tent and process of projects:

l content: work on transversal topics which demons-trate the effects of science and technology on society(daily life, professional life, society’s choices, eco-nomy);

l process: access to the diverse media available at theCité in order to learn how to exploit them effectivelyto answer questions posed by educational staff at themuseum.

A multidisciplinary approach: All the themes proposedby the Cité to classes or teachers are multidisci-plinary. This is recognized as a good approach ineducation, and a necessity for a holistic view of theimpact of science and technology on society. Tocarry out multidisciplinary projects teachers have to:

l use resources which are themselves organized in amultidisciplinary way;

l favour connections between scientific and technolo-gical subjects through transversal topics;

l favour treatment of topics using scientific, technolo-gical, industrial, social and economic perspectives;

l illustrate the large social debates generated by theevolution of science and technology.

The organization of the educational projects

In the museum, school classes can carry out activities thatthey are unable to do in the school. On the other hand,there are certain important activities that must take placein the school. Thus, the teacher has to use the educationalproject method, covering a certain time frame, and incor-porating activities scheduled before, during and after thevisit:

Before the visit. The activities include:l work on the topic and emergence of a set of ques-

tions, originating in the pupils’ existing conceptions;l organization of the project material, budget, trans-

portation and timing. Prior to visiting the museum,pupils know that the visit’s aim is to collect informa-tion on a particular topic.During the visit. Activities will include:

l resolving the original question/problem;l acquisition of methodological tools;l collection of information in terms of knowledge and

know-how;writing up a brief synthesis;extending the topic to related subjects that appear rele-

vant during synthesis.

After the visit. In this last phase the following activi-ties are important:l sharing of acquired information;l organization and reformulating of the information,

for instance in the form of a report, school newspaperor exhibition;

l complementary research, using other resource cen-tres (libraries, museums, factories).

It is very important to involve the pupils in a variety of ac-tivities. An example of a possible sequence is as follows:l determine a research subject;l identify the pupils’ preconceived ideas;l prepare a set of questions;l apply a research method, starting from the set of

questions;l evaluate the new knowledge that has been acquired;l measure the evolution of the pupils’ knowledge com-

pared to the initial subject.This sequence may be adapted to the pupils’ level of abil-ity, providing for individualized progression.

The role of the teacher

In this type of environment, and in such a didactic rela-tionship, the teacher has a precise role to play. This role is,of course, often evident in the school, but it is probablyneeded more in a place like the Cité. The teacher’s role isnot to deliver ready-made information to the pupils, but toorient and guide them in the process of structured re-search, giving them the opportunity to ask their own ques-tions, develop problem-solving techniques, make theirown discoveries, and arrive at carefully thought-out con-clusions based on scientific evidence. The teacher shouldhelp pupils to: formulate questions; organize their re-search; critically analyze and summarize the results; andformulate new questions based on the outcomes. Theteacher must also evaluate the final results.

Conclusion

The role of the staff at the Cité is to assist teachers in ex-ploiting the museum’s resources to the best advantage inthe realization of class projects. The most effective ap-proach is a collaborative transdisciplinary project, withseveral teachers from different disciplines working as ateam, and with activities carefully planned before, duringand after the visit.

Present policy priorities

Beyond to the Cité’s general and long-term objectives,specific short- or medium-term objectives are formulated(covering a year to several years). These presently in-clude:l the development of experimental activities;l the use of information and communication technolo-

gies (ICTs) in education;l work with disadvantaged publics in a strategy of

partnership;l focus on a multidisciplinary and systemic approach;l provision of information and developing knowledge

about training, jobs and careers, and vocational edu-cation;

l focus on lifelong learning;

50

l promotion of international development, especiallyin the field of science and language projects.

The role the Cité would like to play in the formaleducational systemThe Cité provides a place where teachers may practise in-novation in science and technology education, with thehelp of tools, training and documentation. It aims to makeavailable to teachers and pupils quality information on thelatest developments in science and technology as they re-late to the scientific and the industrial communities. The

ultimate objective is to foster the introduction of newpractices and methods in the whole education system. Themuseum’s close relationship with the formal educationsystem allows it to be a laboratory and place of innovationfor new educational practices. A similar role may beplayed by diverse non-school learning institutions in allcountries: museums, libraries, industries, research insti-tutes, art exhibitions. The development of partnerships be-tween the school and non-school learning institutionsopens up a wealth of exciting possibilities for innovationand change in the organization and practice of education.

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52

PART IV:CURRENT TRENDS

IN THE ADAPTATION OF EDUCATIONAL CONTENT

IN SOUTH AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

53

1. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:THE PROBLEM OF ‘SEMANTICS’

The idea of curriculum development has, over recent dec-ades, become firmly established in education systemsthroughout the world. It took much longer, however, forus to realize that curriculum development is not simply aone-time event during which there was an emphasis onproviding training in techniques and skills in order to es-tablish and organize national curricula. For educational-ists and practitioners alike, curriculum development isnow regarded as an on-going process, with the declaredobjective being to organize better learning opportunities,and thus focusing on actual interactions at the classroomlevel.

Continuous efforts to translate educational goals intoactivities, materials and observable behavioural changesare indicative of the present trend. Learning, teaching andassessment are inextricably linked—it is only in the con-text of the others that each has a meaning. Without learn-ing, assessment has relatively little value, withoutassessment, the effectiveness of learning and the account-ability of teaching cannot be determined.

Societies advancing into the twenty-first century facethe major challenge of developing an open, active, flexi-ble and intercultural curriculum. No longer can a centralauthority prescribe one curriculum for all primary or sec-ondary schools in a country. What is now required is spe-cific curricula based on a national core curriculum,allowing for local variations and regional diversificationaccording to different ecological and cultural circum-stances and learning needs—with the active involvementof all those concerned.

Although the curriculum is generally consideredessential and fundamental to the educational process, onequickly discovers that there is no general consensus aboutthe meaning of the term. ‘Curriculum’ has been definedin different ways by different people in different places. Itis meaningless to look for ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ definitions.In reality, its meaning seems to be a matter of culture,environment and practicality.

The worldwide application of the term ‘curriculum’in the process of organizing education is still a recentphenomenon. In most European languages, one will notfind an equivalent to the English term ‘curriculum’. TheFrench speak of the programme scolaire; the Germans ofthe Lehrplan. However, these terms correspond more to

the narrow definition of curriculum indicated in Englishby the term ‘syllabus’ (theory of instruction pro-grammes). Analyzing the Latin roots of the term, onefinds that it derives from cúrrere, meaning ‘to run a racecourse’. This can be translated roughly into educationalterms as ‘to run a course of subject matters/studies’.

Thus, within the process of globalizing the term ‘cur-riculum’, some educators use the term to mean the con-tent or objectives that the schools intend students to learn,while others focus on the means of education—the teach-ing strategies schools plan to use—that constitute the cur-riculum. Other educationalists claim that neither theintended learning nor the plans for bringing it about areas important as the actual implementation and learningachievements, which account for the real meaning of thecurriculum.

Viewing ‘curriculum’ in a broader, process-orientedperspective, we may conclude that: The curriculum isan organized set of intentions, that articulates therelationships among its different elements (objectives,contents, evaluation, etc.), integrating them into acoherent whole. It consists of a continuous chain ofactivities necessary for translating educational goalsinto concrete learning opportunities.

Curriculum development is thus a complicated,dynamic and continuous process. Society is constantlychanging. So too do the learners, the teachers and thesubjects taught. The curriculum must be responsive tothese changing conditions in order to equip the learner toboth cope with and contribute to future societal develop-ments. A permanent search for qualitative improve-ment, in response to changes in society, is whatcurriculum development is all about.

2. APPROACHES TO CURRICULUMDEVELOPMENT AND THE PARTICIPATION OF STAKEHOLDERS

In most countries, the curriculum for primary or second-ary schools is planned at a higher level of authority thanthat of the classroom. Teachers are regarded as conveyorsof the curriculum and are expected to implement theplanned curriculum ‘to the letter’.

Since it is not possible to teach all knowledge, skillsand attitudes, every curriculum consists of selectionsfrom the possible range of content that could be taught.

Who should be doing whatin adapting the curriculum? The roles of various protagonistswith particular focus on policy-makers,curriculum developers and teachersUdo Bude

54

Similarly, the teaching methods proposed are also just asample of the many methods that could possibly be usedfor teaching that content. The approaches to developingcurricula are largely determined by the beliefs andassumptions of those who are actively involved—theirphilosophy of education or their theoretical perspective.Although some perspectives claim to be ‘objective’ and‘value-free’, in actual fact, no curriculum developmentcan be solely technical.

In a democratic society, the participation of differentstakeholders in curriculum development is a fundamentalingredient in the organization of the educational process.However, curriculum development is often not carriedout in a systematic way and does not provide regularopportunities for different groups to contribute actively;on the contrary, changes often come about as a reaction toproblems or an emergency situation in education or in thelarger society.

In such cases, politicians very often react by usingthe ‘panic approach’ towards curriculum development,whereby curriculum developers are forced to act as tech-nicians, introducing hastily developed modifications inthe curricula. Youth unrest or the boycott of classes bystudents, for example, are typically counteracted at thepolitical level by demands to change the curriculum andinclude more teaching on moral values. This neglects thehard facts that young people may be facing a very inse-cure future on the job market because the curriculum isout of touch with economic reality. In the same way,small groups of ‘experts’ may impose curricular changesand insist on the introduction of ‘fashionable’ topics—inmany cases, just adding to the burden of an already over-loaded curriculum.

A characteristic of the panic approach to curriculumdevelopment is the lack of analysis of related situations,with the result that the approach adopted is often piece-meal in nature. As a result, this approach tends to createmore problems than it solves.

Curriculum development needs to be carried out in asystematic way, starting with an analysis of prevailingsituations (situational analysis). From the very beginning,the main stakeholders have to be involved. This helps todevelop realistic procedures, to anticipate problems andto suggest possible solutions. However, only a ‘system-atic approach’ to curriculum development, providing suf-ficient opportunities for participation by all stakeholders,also enhances the chances of implementing the curricu-lum changes at the classroom level.

3. FOCUS ON POLICY-MAKERS, CURRICULUMDEVELOPERS AND TEACHERS

3.1 From the heights of theory to the daily business ofclassroom instruction—national versus school-basedcurriculum development

Notions of curriculum development differ according toeducational theories and practices. Some refer to prepar-ing a plan of operation based on an existing syllabus (in-cluding the development or selection of textbooks,teacher’s guides and other instructional materials). Othersregard curriculum development as producing a syllabus

and all the accompanying materials needed for teaching/learning in the classroom, and eventually also evaluationinstruments for examining the attainment of the pro-gramme goals.

Some educationists distinguish between ‘local-userdevelopment’ and ‘external development’. Connelly(1991), for example, argues ‘that, in theory, a curriculumcan be fully developed either by the users or by externaldevelopers, although such cases rarely occur in practice’(A. Lewy, National and school-based curriculum devel-opment, Paris, UNESCO:IIEP, 1991, p. 29).

It seems, however, that in practice only a minority of‘users’ will actively take part in the curriculum develop-ment process, while most people are happy to take advan-tage of those curriculum components developed by the‘external developers’ (curriculum specialists, publishers,etc.). ‘Intelligent teacher-consumers, skilled in the art ofselection, will choose the materials they judge suitable,and will alter, augment, process, and transform them tosuit their classes’ (Lewy, ibid., p. 31).

There is ample evidence for caution about the enthu-siasm of teachers for curriculum development. Teachersoften tend to be conservative and to resist change. Inmany instances, they are reluctant to experiment withnew ideas concerning the curriculum, especially if theydo not have a sufficient level of professional training andthere is no precedent of their involvement in educationalreforms. Nevertheless, teachers will definitely be themost active partners in the curriculum as regards imple-mentation. Even when the scope of their activities may belimited—and this is a quite controversial point of view—their active involvement in curriculum development con-stitutes a fundamental contribution to the ownership ofcurricula and the quality of education.

Curriculum development not only takes place at thenational level, involving policy-makers, curriculumdevelopers—and some teachers. To a smaller or largerdegree, every teacher is also involved in curriculumdevelopment at the school level. This fact has been high-lighted and elaborated in recent years under the term‘school-based’ curriculum development. There are stillcountries where the nationally prescribed curriculum—especially the schemes of work and textbooks—expectsall teachers at the same level to teach the same topics of asubject on the same day of the school year, using thesame methods and instructional materials.

The majority of countries, however, tend to provideonly a national framework and encourage and foster cur-riculum development activities at regional, local andschool level. This involves different forms of curriculumdevelopment initiatives, ranging from selecting andadapting curriculum components according to local cir-cumstances and resources to producing lesson units andinstructional materials. Depending on the definition ofcurriculum development activities, the scope of school-based decisions about the curriculum varies across coun-tries and across schools within a country, covering mostlyfrom 10 to 30% of the total school curricula (Lewy, ibid.,p. 36).

The greater the extent of decentralization in curricu-lum development, the more the participation of schoolsand teachers in such activities is required. At the same

55

time, such an approach gives practising teachers a chanceto contribute as curriculum developers, if they are pre-pared to assume this professional task.

3.2 Who makes what choices in curriculum develop-ment? Clarifying levels of decisions and the actors in-volved

The degree and extent to which the different protagonistsor stakeholders influence the components of curriculumdevelopment vary considerably. Choices are made at dif-ferent levels of the education system, rarely by the samegroup of people. The closer curriculum development getsto the school level, however, the more teachers will be in-volved.

In order to have an idea of the complexity of choiceand the reality of power-sharing, we have to clarify whomakes what choices and how this influences the instruc-tional practice at school level. The pattern of choice willvary from country to country, but it is easy to demon-strate that curriculum development is not just the busi-ness of policy-makers or curriculum specialists. Co-operation and sharing of power are needed among the dif-ferent groups involved, including the important ‘band ofmiddlemen’—teacher trainers, inspectors, local adminis-trators, etc. (See H. Hawes & D. Stephens, Questions ofquality—primary education and development, London,Longman, 1990, p. 66–68).

For the purposes of analysis, the major actors andinfluences shaping curriculum decisions can be classifiedas internal and external forces. The internal forces arethose legally responsible for curriculum policy and plan-ning, and whose involvement in the curriculum develop-ment process is determined through some regular,structured arrangements. On the other hand, the externalforces exist outside the government structures and theadministrative bureaucracy of education systems. Theycan influence the curriculum development processthrough mainly irregular patterns of pressure politics andpowers of persuasion. In practice, one will find that thesecategories of participants and influences in curriculumdevelopment overlap significantly.

4. PROVIDING ‘LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES’IN THE CONTEXT OF A MEANINGFULCURRICULUM

4.1 Curriculum implementation as the key element ofthe curriculum process—getting the curriculum to the‘users’

Despite the involvement of the main groups who have astake in curriculum development, the official (planned,prescribed, intended) curriculum, being the result of thejoint efforts of the actors involved, differs considerablyfrom the actual organization and type of learning opportu-nities provided in schools. The prescribed curriculum nor-mally reaches the schools and the teachers in a formalway—as general and pedagogical guidelines, and sylla-buses for the different subjects.

However, the taught (implemented, actual, opera-tional, in-use) curriculum is the result of the circum-

stances, conditions and possibilities affecting eachindividual school, especially the quality of the school’sleadership and its staff. Why is the reality different fromthe officially planned situation?

In many instances, the official curriculum tends toignore or neglect the reality of the classroom, particularlyin terms of the skills, subject knowledge and motivationof the average teacher. Furthermore, the prevailing condi-tions in many schools are often not sufficiently consid-ered (overcrowded classes, lack of basic materials andtextbooks, etc.).

Successful curriculum implementation lies at theheart of the curriculum development process. It is a con-tinuous process that assists teachers in improving theirskills in classroom interaction, providing chances tointerpret the official curriculum in the light of local con-ditions and in a practical way—for example, by develop-ing lesson units within a given framework and triallingthem in school.

Curriculum conferences can provide a platform fortraining workshops in the production of curriculum mate-rials for schools. The main purpose of such conferencesis the transformation of nationally or regionally plannedcurriculum guidelines into practical lesson units thatreflect local conditions and concentrate on existing cul-tural and ecological traits. Educationalists from differentlevels of primary or secondary education jointly designlesson units for specific subjects for particular classes/standards. If educators learn how to translate curriculumguidelines into structured steps for teaching at the class-room level and develop learning opportunities that createchances for active student involvement, the prescribedcore curriculum stands a better chance of actually beingimplemented.

Only if curriculum conferences are seen as on-goingactivities within the process of curriculum developmentcan they contribute to empowering teachers, schoolinspectors, tutors and others involved in education atregional, district or local level. This is a realistic proce-dure for the curriculum to reach the ‘users’ and toimprove the quality of education provided in schools.

4.2 Developing curricula for and with teachers to im-prove the quality of education

Without neglecting the importance of policy-makers andprofessional curriculum developers in the design and im-plementation of curricula in primary and secondary edu-cation, teachers still play the most crucial role, if we wantto see curriculum reforms actually being practised in theschools. One can easily assess the curriculum situation ina school through the following questions:l How closely does the taught (actual) curriculum fol-

low the official (prescribed) curriculum?l If there are large deviations, what are the reasons?l Are there topics or areas of learning that are consid-

ered important for the students, but not included inthe curriculum?

l Are there parts of the official curriculum not taughtin school? What are the reasons for excluding them?

l Does the school offer extra-curricular activities?How and who determines the content? Is there anyrelationship to the official curriculum?

56

Although teachers may not have specialist knowledge inmany subjects, as ‘generalists’ they are extremely knowl-edgeable about the pedagogical situation in schools, forexample, about the learning environment, their studentsand their colleagues. Practising schoolteachers can con-tribute to curriculum development through their class-room experience, putting ideas and approaches into thetrue perspective of what works and what does not work.Teachers’ roles may vary from describing and explainingthe development level and abilities of the students theyteach to proposing activities and resources that are feasi-ble and available in their schools and communities. Theycan also be involved in developing or reviewing draft les-son units and materials based on their experiences, and onthe matter of trialling or experimenting with newly devel-oped curriculum materials, they are the essential partnersin curriculum development.

The ultimate aim of curriculum development shouldbe the improvement of the quality of education through

the provision of guidance and assistance to classroomteachers. Effective curriculum materials have to be devel-oped and implemented for and with the teachers. Newcurricula can only make an impact on the teaching/learn-ing process if they provide guidance and support for usingappropriate methods for teaching and assessment. Teach-ers are in the ideal position to advise on the appropri-ateness, relevance and feasibility of curricula. Withoutconsulting, involving and supporting teachers, curric-ulum reforms stand no chance of succeeding.

‘Schools and classrooms are where the work of pol-icy-makers, planners, curriculum developers, teacher-training institutions and administrators comes together. Ifthe reforms or policies do not make a difference withinthe classroom, of what value are they?’ (A. Hartwell & E.Vargas-Baron, Learning for all: policy dialogue forachieving educational quality, Washington, DC, USAID,1998. Paper presented to the International WorkingGroup on Education, Munich, 23-26 June 1998, p. 22.)

57

As developing nations, the thirteen South and South-EastAsian countries which participated in the curriculum de-velopment course in New Delhi share many common con-cerns and problems. However, they also differconsiderably in terms of their size and geographical situa-tions, histories and cultures—not to mention levels of de-velopment. These individual characteristics willobviously affect the nature and state of development ofnational education systems and, by extension, the process-es of curriculum design, implementation and renewal.

The reform and renewal of school curricula is clearlya priority for all the participating countries. They recog-nize this process as integral to the improvement of educa-tion. Many are presently implementing reforms—Bangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, VietNam—or are preparing for major curriculum change—Thailand, Maldives. Others are monitoring or evaluatingthe impact of recent reforms: Bhutan, Nepal, India, Phil-ippines. Malaysia refers to its on-going process of curric-ulum reform and Pakistan to the tradition of four-yearcurriculum reform cycles.

The focus of reform in a number of countries hasbeen on primary or basic level education (Bangladesh,Indonesia, India, Maldives, Thailand), although mostcountries are also attempting to improve the quality ofsecondary education, making it more relevant to thefuture needs of pupils and reducing an overly academicorientation.

KEY CONCERNS IN EDUCATIONAL CONTENT

Recent curriculum reform in participant countries has of-ten been motivated by factors related to the impact at na-tional or sub-regional levels of changes taking place atinternational or global levels. Of paramount concern areeconomic issues. Country reports and profiles express apreoccupation with equipping pupils with the basicknowledge and skills needed to be self-sufficient and pro-ductive citizens in an increasingly globalized, rapidlychanging, uncertain, competitive and highly technologicaleconomic environment. Thus, a principal motivating fac-tor for curriculum reform is the desire to design education-al programmes that will more adequately prepare youngpeople for the job market within the existing economic cli-mate, while providing the human resources necessary toensure sustainable national development.

The concern of keeping pace with rapid global eco-nomic change is reflected in the commonly expressedgoals of improving the quality and scope of vocationaleducation, strengthening science and technology educa-tion, developing competence in information technology(IT) skills by introducing or expanding the use of IT inthe classroom, and focusing on the teaching of a widerange of cognitive, social and personality skills so as todevelop the capacity for flexibility, problem-solving, cre-ativity, initiative and lifelong learning. An examination ofthe country reports indicates a variety of efforts beingmade to incorporate or upgrade these areas of contentwithin the curriculum.

Other key areas of concern in educational contentrelating to issues of global significance include environ-mental change and degradation, population control, gen-der issues, and international understanding and co-operation. Some of these issues are taught as separatesubjects, but are often integrated into other existing sub-jects or treated as cross-curricular areas. The Maldivesand Nepal refer to major recent reforms to the social stud-ies curricula so that these issues are properly taken intoaccount.

Importantly, reports indicate a preoccupation withdeveloping curricula fostering respect for, and preserva-tion of, cultural traditions and indigenous values andways of life, while preparing young people to be part ofthe modern global society. India, Indonesia, Thailand andViet Nam all single out the concern for finding a balancebetween traditional/national and modern/global elementsin the curriculum. Nepal refers to the tension existing inthe development of the social studies curriculum betweenthese often conflicting values and world views.

Related to the concern to preserve indigenous cul-tural traditions and lifestyles is the commonlyexpressed goal of fostering moral values and ethicsamong pupils through religious education, moral edu-cation and other subjects, such as citizenship. Somecountries, like India, have advocated the teaching ofvalues through all subjects in the curriculum. Promot-ing the concept of citizenship is also a key educationalgoal of many countries, with civics often included as aseparate curricular subject. While a priority aim of cit-izenship is the promotion of national integration andunity, a number of reports additionally cite the objec-tive of promoting democratic values, and respect for,and appreciation of, the cultural diversity which char-

An overview of country reportson curriculum developmentin South and South-East AsiaIsabel Byron

58

acterizes both their societies and the broader globalsociety.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURESOF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The structure of curriculum development in most of thethirteen countries represented is predominantly central-ized, with varying degrees of active decision-making atregional, local and school levels. The main pattern is for acentral body within, or outside of, the Ministry of Educa-tion to be charged with developing curricula based ongovernmental educational policy, with regional authori-ties responsible for implementing these policies in schoolswithin their specific province or district.

A number of countries have a section/unit/centrewithin the Ministry of Education devoted to curriculumissues (Bhutan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan,Philippines, Thailand), while others have a statutory bodyoperating outside of the Ministry, but working closelywith it in the development of curriculum (Bangladesh,India, Maldives). More than one national institution orbody may share responsibility for developing the curricu-lum, as in the case of Myanmar where the Department ofEducational Planning and Training in the Ministry ofEducation works with the statutory Basic Education, Cur-riculum, Syllabus and Textbook Committee, or in SriLanka, where curriculum objectives and competenciesformulated by the Ministry of Education and the NationalEducation Commission are translated into individual sub-ject curricula and syllabi by the National Institute of Edu-cation (NIE).

Wider participation in the curriculum developmentprocess takes place in many countries through advisoryand subject specialist committees formed within minis-tries or curriculum development units/centres to assist incurriculum design and implementation. In some cases,technical committees may be formed on an ad hoc basisto support specific reform programmes. Committees areusually composed of a wide representation of educationalspecialists and professionals from the Ministry of Educa-tion, regional education authorities, universities andresearch institutes, teacher-training institutions and, insome cases, schools.

Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand report thatconsiderable responsibility is devolved to regional educa-tional authorities, who adapt central curriculum objec-tives to local contexts where this is felt to be necessary.Indonesia has developed a curriculum network involvingall regions of the country in elaborating and implement-ing the national curriculum according to local realitiesand needs. Principals and leading teachers from allschool levels participate in this network, along with stafffrom regional educational offices. In India, the countrywith the most decentralized education system, curricularframeworks formulated at central level with regionalinput, are translated into curriculum plans by individualstates.

While genuine school-based curriculum develop-ment does not appear to take place on a significant scalein any of the countries, a number report the participation

of teachers in the development of textbooks and otherinstructional materials. In the Philippines, schools andteachers are encouraged to be innovative in interpretingand adapting the basic curriculum guidelines to suit thelocal reality and needs. The Maldives express a concernto involve teachers to a greater extent in future reforms inan effort to improve their design and the degree to whichthey are implemented.

Generally, countries do not refer to existing strategiesof broad-based community participation in curriculumdevelopment. However, a number (India, Nepal, Philip-pines, Viet Nam) indicate a growing awareness of theimportance of adopting more genuinely participatoryapproaches to the process.

CHANGES IN TEACHING/LEARNING STRATEGIESAND STUDENT ASSESSMENT

Efforts to develop curricula that will more effectivelyprepare young people to meet the demands of contempo-rary and future society are reflected in the growing trendin a number of countries to introduce competency-basedprogrammes at both primary and secondary levels. Underthe traditional systems of schooling, large percentages ofchildren fail to acquire even a basic education that wouldequip them to lead productive and self-sufficient livesonce they leave school. This situation becomes all themore critical in countries where vast numbers of childrenare at best only able to complete the years of primaryschooling.

Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and the Philippineshave all introduced competency-based curricula, whileIndonesia is attempting to define ‘minimum learningcompetencies’. A glance at the primary school curriculaof Malaysia and Thailand similarly indicates a preoccu-pation with the teaching of skills, values and attitudes, asopposed to more traditional orientations towards predom-inantly content-based curricula. Competency-based cur-ricula focus on the attainment by pupils of a statednumber of clearly defined skills or competencies at theend of each stage and level of formal education, indicat-ing a concern to change curricula that previously focusedon academic achievement and were based primarily oncoverage of content. With a competency-based approach,methods of assessment change significantly—continuousand varied evaluation of student progress takes intoaccount many previously ignored areas of competence.Teachers become more accountable for student outcomes,but in principle also have a clearer idea of what pupils areexpected to achieve at the end of each stage and level ofschooling in each subject area.

Many countries (Bhutan, Indonesia, Maldives,Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam) refer to efforts tointroduce more student-centred instructional approaches,in line with world trends. Giving the pupil more auton-omy in the learning process is felt to foster greater moti-vation, creativity and self-sufficiency in the child,developing skills of inquiry, research and problem solv-ing, which present teacher-centred traditions do notencourage.

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MAIN PROBLEMS FACINGCURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

A number of problems in the design, implementation andfollow-up of curriculum reform were identified, manyshared by all countries, although the degree and extent ofthe problems will vary considerably among the participat-ing nations. Limited financial, human and material re-sources in all countries constitute a major obstacle to thesuccess of reforms at all levels and stages of the process.

Curriculum design and implementationCountries indicate that existing structures and mecha-nisms for curriculum design and implementation areoften inadequate in a variety of ways. In addition to thekey problem of lack of staff, there are fundamental aspectsof decision-making and administrative processes that maycreate obstacles to successful curriculum developmentand reform. Top-down patterns of decision-making oftendo not provide for sufficient situational analysis and re-search in curriculum design. The failure to involve keystakeholders—and teachers in particular—adequately indecisions about curriculum change is likely to result in re-sistance and lack of understanding on the part of thosewho are to be the implementers of the reforms—the teach-ers.

Inadequate time allocation to the entire curriculumdevelopment process was identified as a key problem byBhutan and is also likely to be an issue in other countries.Once decisions are made, reforms are often hurriedthrough, with too little time devoted to careful implemen-tation and follow-up in relation to vital areas, such asteacher preparation, piloting of reforms, analysis of feed-back, subsequent revision and re-testing, regular supervi-sion and evaluation.

Lack of professional expertise is expressly cited bynumerous countries as a major obstacle to successfuldesign, implementation and also follow-up of curriculumdevelopment (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal,Pakistan, Philippines, Viet Nam). Reports refer to thelimited number of curriculum specialists available, and,in some cases, to the rapid staff turnover in key areas ofcurriculum development leading to lack of continuity inimplementation and follow-up of change.

A related problem in at least some countries is theabsence of a strong research base for curriculumchange. Bangladesh refers to the urgent necessity for acurriculum research wing to be established in order forcurriculum development to be able to respond to thenation’s real and most pressing educational needs. Aggra-vating this situation is the limited access to up-to-dateinformation on trends and developments in curriculumreform in other countries, mentioned by Bhutan, Mal-dives and Viet Nam.

The inadequate preparation of principals andteachers for curriculum change is a challenge for alleducation systems. Many reports mention the unsatisfac-tory situation regarding teacher quality and the inade-quate provision of suitable pre- and in-serviceprogrammes as an integral part of curriculum develop-ment and reform. This situation inevitably leads to class-room practices that remain much the same, despitereforms on paper. Countries make reference to the diffi-

culties of implementing major pedagogical innovations inthe classroom, such as competency-based curricula andchild-centred learning. Resistance to, or inadequateunderstanding of, these approaches by teachers stems atleast partly from their poor preparation for change.

India, Indonesia, Philippines and Viet Nam all citeoverloaded curricula as a major problem. There isclearly a dilemma between the need to update the curricu-lum, adding important new areas of content, whileattempting to reduce overall curriculum load and focuson the teaching of skills and competencies, rather than onmere knowledge. In this regard, countries are faced withthe challenge of defining basic subject content and find-ing effective ways to integrate related subject areas, whileidentifying and defining minimum learning competen-cies. However, the competency-based approach is likelyto overload the curriculum further, if sufficient attentionis not paid to adequately balancing competencies andcontent. In the Philippines, where the basic educationcycle is the shortest among ASEAN countries, and thecurriculum is both content/topic based and competency-based, teachers have difficulty covering curriculum con-tent at the different levels, with a ‘backlog’ of untaughtareas building up.

Change is also rendered difficult by examination-oriented education systems, which pressure teachers tofocus on the syllabus rather than implement recom-mended changes. This problem, cited specifically byBhutan, was also alluded to by Viet Nam, which referredto the over-dependence on examinations and testing in itseducation system.

Apart from the limited capacity of many countries inensuring adequate textbook supply and distribution tolarge and scattered student populations, there is also thechallenge of preparing quality teaching materials whichwill effectively serve as tools for changing teaching/learning approaches. Without suitable materials, teachersare all the more likely to continue with traditional meth-ods, particularly where they are overly dependent on text-books for their teaching.

Follow-up and evaluation

Several countries (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Indonesia, Mal-dives, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand) indicate theinadequate mechanisms for supervising, monitoringand evaluating change—a major obstacle to successfulreform. This is due to various factors already cited: lack ofresources, particularly as regards quality personnel at alllevels; inadequate planning, administrative and superviso-ry structures; as well as large populations, difficult geo-graphical terrain and isolated territories. Bhutan refers tothe lack of proper articulation between central administra-tion and provincial/local authorities, while the Philippinesdescribes the failure to staff offices at the divisional levelwith qualified subject specialists. Failure to carry out sys-tematic evaluation of reforms clearly limits sustained ed-ucational development.

Another challenge is that of sustaining externallyfunded reforms, a problem specifically referred to by thePhilippines and likely to face most developing countries.Once external funding comes to an end, the programmerisks being abandoned.

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ADVANCES AND SUCCESSESIN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

In spite of the numerous difficulties countries in the regionface with regard to curriculum development and renewal,the following reports indicate a concerted effort by coun-tries to improve their school curricula. There appears tohave been considerable innovation in terms of introducingor updating subject matter, as well as in adopting new in-structional approaches based on world trends.

Countries describe various major projects—of whichcurriculum development forms an integral part—under-taken in recent years to improve educational provision.Particular emphasis has been put on providing betterquality basic education, with countries such as Indonesiaand the Maldives increasing the duration of this cycle inan attempt to improve learning opportunities for allpupils. Reports indicate a growing awareness that thecurriculum has to be oriented towards the development ofskills which will facilitate and encourage learning

throughout life by all pupils, whether or not they haveaccess to secondary or higher education.

Countries such as Bhutan, Maldives and Nepal havegone a long way towards indigenizing curricula inheritedfrom colonial powers or powerful neighbours, recogniz-ing the need to make content relevant to the everydayneeds and experiences of pupils. Reforms, such as that ofNepal in social studies, indicate the efforts being made toimprove the quality of teaching materials. Countries alsotestify to a greater awareness of the importance of devel-oping curricula that foster international understandingand the principle of global citizenship.

It is to be hoped that, increasingly in all the countriesconcerned, the structures for on-going and sustained cur-riculum development at primary and secondary levelswill be systematically strengthened, permitting truly par-ticipatory approaches to educational provision and mean-ingful change in educational practice. In this way, thechances in life for all children and young people will besignificantly improved.

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62

INTRODUCTION

The Government of Bangladesh recognizes that educationis an important prerequisite for ensuring sustainable de-velopment. The country’s constitution obligates the Stateto provide basic education to citizens and eradicate illiter-acy within a given time frame. As a signatory to the WorldConference on Education For All (Jomtien, Thailand,1990); World Conference on Children’s Rights (NewYork, 1990); and the EFA Summit Conference of NineHigh-Population Countries (New Delhi, 1993), Bangla-desh is committed to the eradication of illiteracy by theyear 2006.

As a result of both government and private effortsover the last two decades, some important improvementshave occurred in the primary education sector. More than95% of children aged 6 to 10 years are admitted to pri-mary schools and the drop-out rate is now only 38%. Theliteracy rate for the population over 15 currently stands at56%, in comparison to 1971 post-liberation figuresreflecting a rate of only 22% for that same group. Duringthe past twenty-five years, considerable improvementshave also taken place in secondary education.

However, although Bangladesh has experiencedquantitative educational improvement, the qualitativeaspects of education have become a cause of governmentconcern. Steps have been taken to address educationalquality and it is in this larger context that curriculum hascome to play a crucial role. In order to place in properperspective some of the key issues and actions taken toimprove educational quality, a brief overview of primaryand secondary education structures and of curriculumdevelopment is provided below.

PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH

Duration of primary education

The current five years for completing primary education isan insufficient amount of time for students to obtain therequisite level of literacy, knowledge, abilities, attitudesand values for solving the problems of everyday life. TheNew Education Policy, which has yet to be implemented,recommends that primary education be increased fromfive to eight years in order to enable students to attain min-imum ability levels and the capacity for lifelong learning.

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

118,200,000

2.3

5

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratioGross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—FemaleNet enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—FemaleEstimated percentage of repeaters(1995)Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

16,800,000189,50871:1

637253

8489787

55

2,260,000

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1990)1

Gross enrolment ratio (1993)1

—Total—Male—Female

3,592,995

192612

Third-level enrolment ratio (1992)1 4.0

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)

—Total—Male—Female

384926

Note :1. Last year available

Bangladesh

Curriculum planning, development and reformfor primary and secondary education

Muhammad Abul Hossain and Shawkat Jahan

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris.

64

TABLE 1. Bangladesh primary education institutional enrolment

Year Total Boys Girls

1990 12,051,172 6,662,427 5,388,745

1991 12,635,419 6,910,092 5,725,328

1992 13,017,270 7,048,542 5,968,728

1993 14,067,332 7,525,862 6,541,470

1994 15,180,680 8,084,117 7,132,563

1995 17,284,157 9,094,489 8,189,668

1996 17,580,416 9,219,358 8,361,058

1997 18,031,673 9,364,899 8,666,774

1997 Total number of government primary school students: 11,808,345

TABLE 3. Bangladesh primary education drop-out rate (% of totalenrolment)

Year Rate

1991 59.30

1992 46.60

1993 39.60

1994 38.70

1995 38.00

TABLE 2. Bangladesh primary education enrolment by gender (%)

Year Boys Girls

1990 55.28 44.72

1991 54.69 45.31

1992 54.15 45.85

1993 53.50 46.50

1994 53.02 46.98

1995 52.62 47.38

1996 52.44 47.56

1997 51.94 48.06

Different systems of primary education

A number of different institutions of primary educationexist including: kindergarten, general primary, EbtadayeeMadrasah and non-governmental organization schools.The standards and characteristics of these schools vary.Thus, from the very outset, differences in children’s abil-ities, attitudes and values are created. It has become man-datory to eliminate these existing educational disparitiesand to introduce a common system of education. Current-ly, approximately 78,000 primary schools are subsumedunder ten or eleven distinct categories. The following ta-bles provide an overview of the current situation.

Beginning in May 1986, the Government decided tomerge the primary school classes I and II and, concur-rently, to introduce a liberal promotion policy as part ofthe effort to further reduce drop-out rates. With this liber-alized policy, promotion from classes I to II and fromclasses II to III became automatic. However, assessmentof pupils’ performance is still supposed to occur through-out the year.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH

Current general secondary education scenario

The present secondary education system in Bangladeshencompasses grade levels 6 to 12. Most secondaryschools are private. In 1996, only 3.6% of the totalnumber of recognized schools were government schools.Secondary education is divided into three stages: juniorsecondary (classes VI and VII); secondary (classes IXand X); and higher secondary (classes XI and XII). High-er secondary schools can be intermediate colleges or de-gree colleges. A significant increase (16.4%) in the totalnumber of secondary institutions occurred between 1995and 1996, with secondary and higher secondary schoolsaccounting for most of the increase. Table 4 reflects thegrowth in secondary education from 1991 through 1996.

Noteworthy progress in some areas and stagnation inothers characterize secondary education in Bangladesh.Significant progress has been made in improving enrol-ment, especially among females. Programmes encourag-ing the enrolment of girls in secondary education havehad a profoundly positive effect, with an increase in en-rolment from 31.9% in 1991 to 45.6% in 1996. However,in contrast, transition, attendance, completion and passrates remain low. Table 5 reflects the recent enrolmentfigures for secondary education.

In 1995, 78% of the students completing class Vwent on to enrol in class VI. The average secondaryschool attendance rate was about 60%. Completionrates for classes VI to X improved, reaching 56.4% in1995, in comparison to 48% in 1991. However, thesefigures belie a highly inefficient system, with drop-outrates remaining high and pass rates in final examsdeclining. For example, in 1995, the estimated drop-outrates for classes VI to X and classes XI and XII, respec-tively, were 43.6% (49% for girls) and 38% (36% forgirls). In 1997, the pass rate for the class X SecondarySchool Certificate Examination (SSC) was only52.14%, compared to 64.95% in 1991. For the class XIIHigher Secondary Certification Examination (LISC),the 1997 rate of 52.14% was down from a high of64.95% in 1991. Furthermore, only 15.8% of the juniorsecondary school and 36.7% of secondary school teach-ers have professional qualifications.

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With a view to increasing women’s participation atsecondary level, the Government, the Norwegian Over-seas Development Agency (NORAD), the Asian Devel-opment Bank (ADB) and the World Bank are supportingstipends for female students. This programme has servedto increase the enrolment of women in secondary educa-tion institutions.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN BANGLADESH

In 1982, the National Curriculum Development Centremerged with the Textbook Board to form the NationalCurriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB). The NCTBcurrently serves as the national curriculum agency for thecountry as a whole and has been entrusted with curriculumand instructional materials development activities frompre-primary to pre-university level. The organizationalstructure of the NCTB is reflected in Figure 1.The tasks of the National Curriculum and Textbook Boardinclude:l completion of curriculum revision for all primary

grades;l field trials as well as the production of teaching-

learning materials for classes I-V, including pupilassessment schemes;

l revision of the curriculum in education and the cur-riculum for pre-service education and training of pri-mary school teachers;

l introduction of revised curriculum and materials forclasses I-V in the school system throughout the coun-try;

l development of supplementary/complementary teach-ing aids (i.e. charts, maps, reading-learning materials,kits, video films, etc.);

l organization of experimental and innovative activi-ties in the content of primary education;

l development of the capacity to address women’sdevelopment issues;

l provision of technical support to other institutions indeveloping curriculum and establishing linkagesbetween formal, non-formal, religious educationstreams;

l development of training packages and participationin the training programmes for dissemination ofrevised primary curriculum;

l monitoring and evaluation of the training programmeand development of reinforcement materials;

l development of motivational materials for mediacoverage;

TABLE 4. Growth of Bangladesh secondary education sector institutions*

Type of institution 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Junior secondary 2,000 1,962 1,905 2,136 2,349 3,002

Secondary(of which Governmental)

8,715(302)

9,038(316)

9,190(317)

9,352(317)

9,363(317)

10,776(317)

Intermediate colleges(Governmental)

366(11)

387(11)

467(11)

603(11)

903(9)

901(8)

Degree colleges(of which Governmental)

547(204)

598(219)

603(219)

611(219)

671(224)

786(225)

Total institutions 11,586 11,964 12,085 12,566 13,286 15,465

% increase 3.3 1.0 4.0 5.7 16.4

*Recognized schools only

TABLE 5. Bangladesh secondary institutions enrolment, 1991–98

Enrolment 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Junior secondary 21,2646 284,806 341,975 446,060 494,692 632,211

No. female 75,231 121,174 183,497 227,239 266,811 340,982

Secondary 2,943,473 3,463,236 3,809,515, 4,088,742 4,620,769 5,492,114

No. female 994,947 1,478,031 1,680,028, 1,858,222 2,35,973 2580,578

College 876,756 904,250 936,395, 1,127,416 1,267.706 1,246,705

No. female 214,390 248,854 291,566 367,992 422,712 436,624

Total enrolment 4,032,875 4,652,292 5,087,885 5,662,218 6,383,167 7,371,030

Female enrolment 1,284,568 1,848,059 2,155,091 2,453,453 2,825,496 3,358,184

% Female enrolment 31.85 39.72 42.35 43.33 44.26 45.56

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l revision of Junior Secondary Curriculum and materi-als in line with the revised primary curriculum andfield trials;

l review of existing secondary curriculum and devel-opment of a plan of action for modification.

During the Third Five-Year Plan (1985–90), the NCTBundertook comprehensive curriculum renewal and modi-fication activities in the area of primary education. Themain thrust of this activity was to restructure and reformthe primary curriculum to meet the demands of universalcompulsory primary education, with particular focus onqualitative improvement. The outcome was a competen-cy-based primary school curriculum comprised of fifty-three terminal competencies to be achieved by all primaryschool pupils who successfully complete the five-year pri-mary education cycle.

In this context, the following have been developed:detailed syllabi for eleven subject areas of grades I and II;a trial edition of textbooks; teacher source books; and acontinuous pupil assessment scheme, along with a regis-ter for keeping assessment records. Improvement of cur-ricula has been undertaken with the help of foreign anddomestic experts. Steps have been taken to train teachersto be able to use new materials with understanding andskill, with a view to preparing them to introduce the com-petency-based curriculum. The curriculum emphasizesmastery learning supported by diagnosis of pupils learn-ing difficulties, followed by remedial instruction, appro-priate teaching-learning strategies, revised instructional

materials, and tools and techniques for continuous assess-ment of pupil performance.

The new curriculum was implemented during theFourth Five-Year Plan (1990–95), with new approachestowards the evaluation of pupils’ achievements. The pri-mary level curriculum has been formulated on the basisof Bangladesh’s socio-economic situation, as well as thechildren’s physical and mental make-up and their culturalawareness. Subjects in primary level include Bangla (themother tongue), mathematics and environmental studies,social studies, science, arts and crafts, physical education,music. English language and religious studies (withemphasis on the ways of life and moral education) will beintroduced in class III. Classes VI to VIII will be gradu-ally incorporated under primary education. At these lev-els, the subjects to be studied will be Bangla,mathematics, general science, social studies (Islam, Hin-duism, Buddhism, Christianity), multi-disciplinary learn-ing (home economics, agriculture, etc.), religion, finearts, health and physical education. The present curricu-lum at the primary as well as junior secondary and sec-ondary stages contains elements of population education,including information on the socio-economic impact ofthe population explosion. The content has been incorpo-rated into the textbooks of classes III to X.

The average amount of weekly teaching hours ineach grade at primary level is three hours for Bangla;three hours for mathematics; thirty minutes for music,arts and crafts, and physical education; and two-and-a-

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half hours for all the other subjects. The medium ofinstruction is Bangla (mother tongue).

In the present curriculum, summative assessment (inthe form of an annual examination in each grade) hasbeen abandoned. Instead, a system of continuous pupilassessment has been introduced. The system requiresteachers to assess students regularly for every compe-tency acquired in a particular lesson (through observa-tion, oral/written assessment) and to record achievementon a monthly basis using three scales (namely grades A,B and C). For grades I–II, all the students get promoted tothe next classes, and for grades III–V, promotions aregiven on the basis of students’ achievement. No certifi-cate is awarded after completion of the five-year primaryschooling, but a scholarship examination is held annuallyfor 20% of the students of grade 5—on the basis of whichscholarships are awarded to successful students.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENTAT THE SECONDARY LEVEL

Under the Secondary Education Development Project ofthe ADB, the junior secondary school curriculum has beenrevised and materials prepared on the basis of competen-cies identified for this stage of education; approximately150,000 teachers have received short-term training in thenew curriculum; ten teacher-training colleges have beenupgraded; and pre-service and in-service training pro-grammes have been conducted. Under the ADB HigherSecondary Education Project, five new higher teacher-training institutes are being established. During 1996–98,the secondary and higher secondary curricula were re-vised and implemented and textbooks prepared. The mon-itoring and evaluation systems have been improved andimplemented. Table 6 provides an overview of the curric-ulum development and implementation process.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:AREAS FOR IMPROVEMENT

Some of the major deficiencies in curriculum develop-ment in Bangladesh include: (a) lack of professional ex-pertise in the development of modern curriculum, both inthe NCTB and nationally; (b) lack of a solid research baseproviding assessment information about the previous cur-riculum and the areas needing revision; and (c) insuffi-cient curriculum emphasis on such competencies asunderstanding, comprehension and application.

Although the three stages of secondary educationform part of a concentric curriculum development, duringthe actual development process there was little co-ordina-tion between these stages. In fact, the greatest part of thework was carried out for the junior secondary stage, andthen subsequently reviewed in each of the other stageswhere attempts were made to address areas of weakemphasis by adding content.

Another problem is the absence of a system of on-going curriculum review. The syllabus standing commit-tee system within NCTB is not operational. The curricu-lum section staff should be monitoring the curriculum

TABLE 6. The curriculum: who makes which choices?

CENTRAL LEVEL REGIONAL LEVEL SCHOOL LEVEL

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES National Curriculum and Textbook Board prepares curriculum in light of na-tional education philosophy and policy; National Curric-ulum Co-ordination Com-mittee of Ministry of Education subsequently ap-proves

Local authorities assist with curriculum development by providing suggestions

Teachers prepare lesson plans based on curriculum

CURRICULUM PLAN Prepares syllabus and distri-bution of subject marks. Prepares time table.

Monitors the implementa-tion of curriculum

Implements the curriculum at the classroom level

METHODS AND APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Field tests and finalizes the intended curriculum

Assists with the finalization of curriculum

Measures competency at-tainment

MATERIALS Prepares teachers’ guides and learning materials

Distributes teachers’ guides and learning materials (local levels: divisional deputy di-rectors, district and Thana education officers)

Utilizes teachers’ guides and learning materials in classroom

EVALUATION AND EXAMINATION

Prepares evaluation and ex-amination plan

Implements secondary level examination (various re-gional boards)

Conducts terminal examina-tions at primary and second-ary levels

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and textbooks usage and effectiveness in the teaching sit-uation in order to ensure that they are up-to-date and rele-vant. Unfortunately, at present, this important work is notbeing done.

The establishment of a curriculum research section isurgently needed for effective curriculum development.The issues affecting the impact of curriculum change inthe classroom need to be assessed objectively. Withoutthis research base, curriculum development will continueto be based largely on ad hoc decisions resulting from theviews of persons who often lack first-hand knowledge ofthe overcrowded and poor conditions in most schools.The staff of such a research section will require trainingand support, as well as increased resources, in order toperform regular classroom visits and assessments.

Lack of expertise is also a fundamental problem.Reviews of the capacity of the NCTB by different institu-tions in Bangladesh have repeatedly highlighted the lackof trained professional curriculum developers.

CONCLUSIONS

Although growth in the primary and secondary educationsectors in Bangladesh is quite satisfactory, the quality ofeducation is not. However, the country is striving hard toachieve this quality and, in this context, many efforts havebeen undertaken with the help of domestic and expatriateexperts to improve the curriculum.

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BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The kingdom of Bhutan is a mountainous, Buddhistcountry with an area of roughly 46,000 square kilome-tres, located between China in the north and India in thesouth. It has been an independent nation throughout itshistory, although it was only in the seventeenth centurythat Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1652) unifiedit into one nation-state. The present King, His MajestyDruk Oyalpo Jigme Singye Wangchuck, is the fourthmonarch to rule the country.

Prior to the year 1920, monastic education, whichincluded the study of Buddhist religion, liturgy, philoso-phy, astrology and the fine arts (painting, sculpture,music and dance), was the only form of formal educationavailable in the country. The first modern school wasestablished in 1920 (Dolkar, 1995). Modernization inBhutan, however, can be said to have begun only in 1961with the launching of the Five-Year Development Plan(1961-65). From the outset of the planned development,the number of schools in Bhutan increased to fifty-nine(twenty-nine private and thirty governmental) and aDepartment of Education was established. With the crea-tion of this institution, the private schools were convertedinto governmental schools, thereby establishing a central-ized and uniform system of education which has largelycontinued until today, although a few private schoolshave been opened lately following government encour-agement. With the Royal Government’s heavy invest-ment on education during the Five-Year DevelopmentPlans, within a period of three and half decades, Bhutanhas been able to create a modern education system fromprimary to tertiary levels. Enrolment at all levels hasgrown considerably over the years as a result of the gov-ernment’s commitment to education. By 1998, the totalnumber of students reached 100,355 (Planning Section,1998).

The present pre-tertiary educational structure con-sists of nine years of basic education, comprising oneyear pre-primary, six years primary, and two years juniorhigh, followed by four years of secondary educationcomprising two years of high school and two years ofhigher secondary level. Access from one level to theother is merit-based and determined by the national andexternal examinations, as well as by the human resourceplans and the space available at the relevant levels of edu-cation.

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

1,800,000

–

–

Primary or basic educationPupils enrolled (1994)1

Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio (1994)1

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1994)1

Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

60,089–31:1

738263

535847

19

18

100,000

Secondary educationStudents enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

–

–––

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) –

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

425628

Notes:1. Last year available.– = data not available.

Bhutan

Curriculum developmentfor primary and secondary education

Deki C. Gyamtso and Namgyel Dukpa

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris.

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TABLE 1. Summary of education statistics (April 1998)

1. Number of schools and institutions

2. Number of students

3. Number of staff

The National Institute of Education (NIE) offers athree-year Bachelor of Education degree course for gradeXII graduates and a one-year teacher training pro-gramme—Post-Graduate Certificate in Education(PGCE)—for candidates who already have a Bachelor’sDegree either in humanities, commerce or science. Thetwo-year Primary Teacher’s Certificate (PTC) course isoffered for the grade X graduates at the NIE, as well asthe Teacher-Training College (TTC) in Paro. NIE hasalso started a Distance Education Programme for primaryteachers since 1995. An eighteen-month training pro-gramme for Dzongkha (national language) teachers isalso offered by the Teacher-Training College, Paro.

Education has always been provided free of chargefrom primary to tertiary level. This includes not only freetuition, but also the provision of textbooks, stationery,meals and boarding facilities where required.

THE CURRICULUM

The school curriculum until the mid-1980s was importedfrom India and all the teaching materials were those pre-scribed for Anglo-Indian schools, except for Dzongkha.

From the mid-1980s, the then Education Departmentstarted Bhutanizing the education system so that teachingand learning in schools was in accordance with nationalneeds and aspirations (Second Quarterly Policy Guide-lines, 1989, p. 8). The development of a relevant curricu-lum and curriculum materials for schools throughout thecountry began following this important policy change.

The first big curricular change came with the intro-duction of the New Approach to Primary Education(NAPE) project which emphasized activity-based learn-ing, shifting the focus from ‘teacher-centredness to child-centredness, as well as from remoteness of content tofamiliarity of content’ (Dolkar, 1995).

The next big change was the introduction of Bhuta-nese history and geography for grades 6–8 in 1990, andthen for grades 9–10 in 1993, whereby students areexpected to acquire knowledge, skills, values and atti-tudes through this change in order to ‘develop pride inbeing Bhutanese; ... a sense of self-discipline and duty; ...spiritual, cultural and traditional values and so contributeto national and social cohesion’ (National Education Pol-icy, 1984). Changes have also been brought about in theother school subjects.

Community schools Primary schoolsJunior high schools

11512844

High schoolsPrivate schoolsInstitutes

18710

Total 322 and 54 NFE centres

Community schoolsPrimary schoolsJunior high schoolsHigh schools

12,69541,73329,50211,035

Private schoolsInstitutesNon-formal education

1,5442,0041,842

Total 100,355

Teachers Others Total

Community school 305 12 317

Primary schools 1,058 190 1,248

Junior high schools 751 134 885

High schools 386 175 562

Private schools 70 9 79

Institutes 215 161 376

Total 2,785 681 3,466

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MAIN ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVEDIN ADAPTING CURRICULA

The adaptation of curricula takes place at various levels inthe country. A brief discussion of the agencies involved ispresented here.

Central level

Since all educational institutions are government-fi-nanced, educational programmes are largely controlledfrom the centre. The task of initiating and implementingall educational programmes in the country (in line withnational educational policies) is entrusted to the Ministryof Health and Education (MHE) and the Education Divi-sion (ED) via its various sections (see Figure 1). The Cur-riculum and Professional Support Section (CAPSS),Educational and Monitoring Support Section (EMSS),Bhutan Board of Examination (BBE), Non-Formal Edu-cation Section (NFES) and Youth Guidance and Counsel-ling Section (YGCS) are the key existing professionalbodies that are extensively involved in adapting curricula.

Curriculum and Professional Support Section (CAPSS).When the Department of Education (subsequently the Ed-ucation Division) within the Ministry of Health and Edu-cation launched the programme of Bhutanization of theeducation system in the mid-1980s, a Curriculum andTextbook Development Division (CTDD) was created todevelop curriculum and curriculum materials for schools.However, in 1994, the practice of curriculum develop-ment had evolved to the point whereby a committee of ex-perienced educators and teachers (formed from varioussubject committees) took over the implementation. Withthis development, the CTDD was transformed into thecurrently existing CAPSS, now the main body involved incurriculum research and development for the formalschool system. CAPSS is staffed by curriculum officers,headed by a Director and a Deputy Director, who are re-sponsible for each subject (see Figure 2).

The main functions of CAPSS are:— carrying out curriculum research and development;— developing and writing syllabi, textbooks and manu-

als for grades PP-WI in all subjects;— developing syllabi and textbooks for grades IX and X

in consultation with BBE and ISCE Board, Delhi;— training of teachers and pilot testing, evaluating,

monitoring and revising curriculum materials; and— conducting in-service workshops for teachers in dif-

ferent subject areas.For the development of curriculum guidelines and materi-als at CAPSS, each subject unit has a subject committee(composed of members from various sections, training in-stitutes and schools) with each unit’s co-ordinator atCAPSS as the member-secretary. All innovations andchanges in the curriculum and curriculum materials arediscussed in the subject committee meetings, usually heldtwice a year. Proposals for initiating the innovations orchanges are developed in consultation with the Directorand Deputy Director, CAPSS, for further submission tothe CAPPS Board, which meets once a year. The CAPSSBoard comprises of the Director of Education as theChairperson, all the section heads of the Education Divi-

sion, Chairpersons of the various subject committees, theprincipal of the college, directors of the teacher-traininginstitutes, one principal representing the high schools, andthe Director of CAPSS as the member-secretary.

Once the proposal is approved, the curriculum offic-ers of the subject units co-ordinate the work, involvingsubject committee members, subject specialists from theother sections, teacher-training institutes and schools. Interms of developing textbooks, CAPSS has started com-missioning authors whose work is nevertheless closelymonitored by the particular subject co-ordinator atCAPSS. All the new materials that are developed alsoneed formal approval of the Board before being printedand supplied to schools for implementation. The newmaterials are also reviewed by schools and by the com-mittee members prior to the submission to the CAPSSBoard. CAPSS is also responsible for publishing all cur-riculum materials.

Bhutan Board of Examination (BBE). BBE is mainly re-sponsible for organizing and conducting all national ex-aminations for grades VI, VIII and X, Primary Teachers’Certificate Examination and Rigshung—grades X andXII. BBE also conducts workshops for teachers on princi-ples and techniques of assessment and evaluation and isinvolved in developing general guidelines for assessmentwith the CAPSS. The subject specialists in BBE are alsomembers of the various subject committees.

Education Monitoring and Support Section (EMSS).EMSS is mainly responsible for reporting on the generalquality of education in schools. It monitors compliancewith the national education guidelines and reports on theoverall school effectiveness in relation to student achieve-ment. This involves reviewing and evaluating schoolmanagement, maintenance practices, curriculum practic-es, students’ achievement and identification of goodteaching practices as well as barriers to learning. EMSS isinvolved in providing necessary professional support tothe District Education Officers and schools on a regularbasis through forums such as Dzongkha Based In-serviceProgrammes and School Based In-service Programmes.Some of the officers in EMSS are also members of varioussubject committees.

Youth Guidance and Counselling Section (YGCS). YGCSis involved in developing and implementing a range of co-curricular and extra-curricular programmes and activities,including Career Education and Guidance Programme,Scout Programme, Adolescent Health Education andCounselling Programme.

Non-Formal Education Section (NFES). NFES is mainlyresponsible for launching literacy and relevant life-skillprogrammes for school drop-outs and adults. Its mainfunctions are:l developing and publishing NFE learning materials;l training NFE teachers;l helping districts establish NFE and community learn-

ing centres; andl monitoring NFE programmes and recommending poli-

cies.

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Technical and Vocational Education Section (TVES).TVES plans, co-ordinates and monitors technical and vo-cational training programmes. It ensures relevant voca-tional skills are included in the school learning processand promotes positive attitudes among students regardingtechnical vocations.

Teacher-training institutes. The two teacher-training in-stitutes, the National Institute of Education and the Teach-er-Training College, take an active part in adaptingcurricula through pre-service and in-service teacher train-ing. This is done by: exposing them to various approachesof teaching and learning; assisting them in developingteaching materials from the available resources; equip-ping them with the necessary skills and teaching tech-niques; and assessment and evaluation of the teaching/learning process and the achievement of the students.Both institutes graduate 100 to 150 teachers every year forthe primary and secondary schools. The lecturers of theinstitutes are also involved in the design and implementa-tion of the curriculum as many of them are also membersof the various subject committees. They also play an ac-tive role in organizing and conducting various in-servicecurriculum-related workshops for the teachers in thecountry every year.

District level

At the district level, the District Education Officers(DEOs) interpret for the benefit of the schools the aimsand objectives and the curriculum directives from the Ed-ucation Division. They provide academic and non-aca-demic supervision, organize teacher and schooldevelopment activities, monitor development activitiesand assist with school-based in-service programmes by

visiting the schools regularly. They also support schoolsin obtaining teachers and resources, and developing theschool infrastructure.

School level

At the school level, the head-teachers and teachers inter-pret the aims and objectives of education through the cur-riculum. They develop work schemes, lesson plans andteaching materials and practise different methodologies.Teachers also organize various types of co-curricular ac-tivities to provide pupils with balanced education. Theycarry out continuous assessment of the students’ perform-ance and set internal tests and examinations. They organ-ize school-based in-service programmes to improve theirclassroom practices. Many teachers are also involved indeveloping curriculum materials at the centre and duringresource national-based in-service workshops.

PROBLEMS IN ADAPTING CURRICULUMIN BHUTAN

Curriculum specialists in Bhutan face several problems,which are largely due to the short space of time in whichthe modern system of education has evolved. Discussionwill be limited to the main problems faced in the design,implementation and follow up of reforms.

Curriculum design

The first main problem is the lack of expertise in curricu-lum development. There is not much scope for consulta-tion nor the required support and guidance. Curriculumdevelopers are left to cope on their own with their often

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limited knowledge in the area. Outside experts are ofteninvited to guide and assist, but, in many cases, their exper-tise and inputs are not relevant to the country’s needs andsituation. Valid and relevant comments for improvementare rarely received from the field. This largely affects thequality, clarity and appropriateness of the curriculum de-sign.

Lack of resources and access to quality innovationsdue to financial constraints are other major problems.This limits curriculum developers’ access to the wealth ofinformation and ideas on curriculum design that areavailable in other counties.

Insufficient time for carrying out proper situationalanalysis and research is another major problem. Finaldecisions are largely top down (from the administratorswho look for immediate action and quick outcomes),leaving staff with no choice but to design the curriculumwithin the set time frame, which in most cases is inade-quate. The problem is further exacerbated by inadequatestaffing, since the curriculum developer has other com-mitments and cannot devote adequate time to curriculumdesign.

This scenario, however, is rapidly changing withmore people becoming specialized in curriculum devel-opment and change, thus creating more opportunities foreducators to enhance their professional development.With their inputs, education in Bhutan is becoming morerelevant and appropriate to the needs of the learners.

Problems in the implementation of the curriculum

As with the design process, time and resource constraints(both human and material) are the major problem. Be-cause of the requirement for speedy implementation, inad-equate time is allotted for pilot-testing the reforms interms of their relevance and appropriateness, for carryingout a detailed plan of implementation, and for organizingresources. Furthermore, teachers hardly have the requiredtime for preparation, the shortage of school-teachers beinga perennial problem in the system.

More support materials are needed for effectiveimplementation. Teachers do not have much access toreference materials, except basic school textbooks. Spe-cialists cannot offer much support to the teachers duringthe implementation of reforms, since they cannot visitschools regularly due to busy schedules. Thus, in mostcases, the initial orientation workshop held in the begin-ning to familiarize teachers with the reforms and theirimplementation is the only support and guidance thatthey receive. Under such circumstances, teachers main-tain their old ways of teaching, with which they feel moresecure, and new reforms are hardly implemented.

Lack of proper co-ordination among the various sec-tions in the centre, and with the districts and schools, isanother problem faced in implementation. Teachers whoreceive initial training in implementing the reforms aresometimes subsequently given a new assignment ortransferred to another school, resulting in the changes notbeing introduced.

The education system, being examination-orientedalso inhibits effective implementation of the curriculumas teaching time is restricted to covering the syllabus intime for the examinations.

The deployment policy of the Education Divisioncan be seen as an additional problem. Very often theteachers who have graduated from NIE and TTC are sentto schools to teach subjects or levels for which they arenot trained.

Problems in the follow-up of the reforms

The shortage of qualified human resources at all levels hasled to a failure in establishing an adequate follow-upmechanism. Because of this, most of the reforms are with-out proper monitoring and evaluation, leaving the teachersto put the reforms into practice unassisted amidst the nu-merous difficulties facing them, as already discussed ear-lier. This has been recognized as a major drawback in thesystem and measures have been taken to rectify it. An IN-SET programme has been started to carry out an impactanalysis of the ‘what after’ of the workshops, with a teamof educators being given the task of collecting and analys-ing data from the teachers in the schools. Another positivedevelopment is the initiation of regular curriculum re-views of different subjects. These help educators adapt tothe changes.

ANALYSIS OF A REFORM IN THE SOCIALSTUDIES CURRICULUM

Reasons for the reform

The change was brought about in the social studies curric-ulum from grades 6 to 10, in line with the aims and objec-tives of the national education policy to make thecurriculum relevant to the national aspirations and inkeeping with the Bhutanese culture. The old curriculum,being an imported one, was felt to be largely irrelevant toBhutanese students. The content lacked any input aboutthe history, culture and geography of Bhutan, resulting inthe students knowing more about other countries thanabout their own. The reform thus involved change in con-tent with the inclusion of Bhutanese history and geogra-phy and also in the teaching-learning approaches with afocus on activity and inquiry-based learning.

How the reform was conducted

The social studies co-ordinator at CAPSS, in consultationwith the Director, designed the social studies syllabuswith the involvement of subject specialists from the train-ing institutes and school-teachers. Based on the syllabus,textbooks on the history and geography of Bhutan weredeveloped. These went into trial use between 1988 and1990. A review was then conducted, based on the feed-back obtained from teachers. Follow-up workshops wereorganized for reorienting the teachers to the changes, afterwhich the reform was implemented.

Outcomes and future prospects

While the new content was introduced into the curriculumby teachers, few changes were noticed in teaching ap-proaches. The lecture and dictation method was still pre-dominant with hardly any meaningful and experientiallearning taking place. This may largely be due to the factthat fundamental change in teaching methods requires a

75

change in belief about practice. To bring this about, a lotof pressure, support and guidance were needed. These el-ements were largely neglected due to constraints of hu-man resources, resource materials and inadequatecommunication.The social studies curriculum envisages a number of addi-tional changes in the future. The most current issue is theintegration of social studies up to grade VIII. The studentswill not be taught history and geography separately, in-stead they will learn social studies with more focus on de-velopment of values and attitudes and social skills.Bhutanese civics will be introduced in 1999 as part of theschool syllabus, so as to enable students to develop anawareness of the functioning of the government and theirown civic responsibilities. Approaches to the teaching ofsocial studies have gradually improved over the years dueto the adoption of the required teaching strategies by new-ly trained teachers.

REFERENCES

Curriculum and Professional Support Section. 1996. Thepurpose of school education in Bhutan. Thimphu, Ed-ucation Division.

— —. 1990. �������������� �����. Thimphu, EducationDivision.

Dolkar, T, 1995. Social studies curriculum. Thimphu,CAPSS, Education Division.

Education Division. 1989. Second quarterly policy,guidelines and instructions. Thimphu, Education Di-vision.

Education Division. 1993. Review of primary education inBhutan. Thimphu, Education Division.

Education Division. 1984. National Education Policy(Draft). Thimphu.

Planning Section. 1998. Education statistics. EducationDivision, Thimphu.

Youth Guidance and Counselling Section. 1997. A profileof youth guidance and counselling section. Thimphu,Education Division.

76

EDUCATION POLICIES AND THE CURRICULUMIN INDIA

Background

India is a union comprised of twenty-five states and seventerritories. The Constitution provides directives regardingthe development of education throughout the country. Theareas in which the respective central and state govern-ments have domain have been identified in the Constitu-tion as the central list, state list and concurrent list. Untilthe late 1970s, school education had been on the state list,which meant that states had the final say in the manage-ment of their respective school systems. However, in1976, education was transferred to the concurrent listthrough a constitutional amendment, the objective beingto promote meaningful educational partnerships betweenthe central and state governments. Today, the central gov-ernment establishes broad education policies for schoolcurricula development and management practices. Theseserve as guidelines for the states.

Education policies

National policies are evolved through a mechanism of ex-tensive consultations, in which all the states and union ter-ritories actively participate. Periodically, the central/stategovernments appoint commissions and committees to ex-amine various aspects of education. In addition, country-wide debate takes place on various educational issues. Therecommendations of various commissions, committeesand national seminars, and the consensus that emergesduring these national debates, form the basis for India’seducation policies. During the post-independence period,a major concern of the Government of India and of thestates was education as a factor vital to national develop-ment. In this context, India’s educational reconstructionproblems have been periodically reviewed by severalcommissions and committees. Their deliberations, recom-mendations and reports have formed the basis for the 1968National Policy on Education (NPE) and the National Pol-icy on Education Resolution of 1986.

The impact of national debates on curriculum

In 1986, extensive deliberations by various national com-mittees on the country’s education system and policy cul-minated with the decision for a national curricularframework containing a common core along with flexiblecomponents. The common core includes the history of In-

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education as percentage of Gross National Product (1995)

Duration of compulsory education (years)

929,000,000

3.4

8

���������������� �������

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters (1995)Estimated percentage of drop-outs (1995)School-age population out of school (1995)

109,734,2921,740,43663:1

10011090

879876

4

38

14,200,000

����� ����� �������

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

68,900,000

495939

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) 6.5

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)

—Total—Male—Female

526638

India

Education policies and curriculum at the upper primary and secondary education levels

National Council of Educational Research and Training

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris.

77

dia’s freedom movement; constitutional obligations andother content essential to nurture national identity. Thesecore elements are intended to cut across subject areas andwere designed to promote a number of values (such as In-dia’s cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy, andsecularism, equality of the sexes, protection of the envi-ronment, removal of social barriers, observance of thesmall-family norm and inculcation of the scientific ap-proach). Also, in order to reinforce the view that the wholeworld is one family, the curriculum would have the objec-tive to promote international co-operation and peacefulco-existence.

With regard to re-orientation of educational contentand processes, the NPE emphasized the need for bridgingthe schism between the formal education system and thecountry’s rich and varied cultural traditions. To this end,the preoccupation with modern technologies must not beallowed to sever new generations’ ties to India’s historyand culture. In view of the growing concern over the ero-sion of essential values and increasing cynicism in soci-ety, readjustments in the curriculum are to be carried outso that education becomes a forceful tool for the cultiva-tion of social and moral values. The policy furtheremphasized the integral role that manual work, sports andphysical education should play in the learning processand the need to strengthen science and mathematics edu-cation.

THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

The process of curriculum development in India lies be-tween the two extremes of centralization and decentraliza-tion. From time to time, the national governmentformulates the National Policy on Education which in-cludes broad guidelines regarding content and process ofeducation at different stages. These guidelines are furtherelaborated by the National Council of Educational Re-search and Training (NCERT).

Using as its foundation the NPEs of 1968 and 1986,two curriculum initiatives have been launched byNCERT: (a) The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School—aframework (1975); and (b) The National Curriculum forElementary and Secondary Education—a framework(1988). The curriculum framework prepared at the cen-tral level provides a broad overview of the school curric-ulum, including general objectives, subject-wiseobjectives, suggested scheme of studies, and guidelinesfor the transaction of the curriculum and the evaluation ofpupil outcomes. These detailed curricula, syllabi andinstructional materials are developed at the national level.The NCERT has also developed the syllabi and instruc-tional materials used in the schools run by central organi-zations.

However, the states consider whether to adopt oradapt the NCERT syllabi and instructional materials.Thus, the NCERT curriculum framework is always asuggestion rather than prescriptive and it is not enforcea-ble by law in the states. However, it is readily acceptedby the states because of the NCERT’s credibility and theparticipatory development approach it follows. (TheNCERT curriculum framework is developed on a consen-

sus basis; all the states and union territories are involvedin the curriculum elaboration).

The National Curriculum

The following social, cultural, political, economic and ed-ucational parameters have guided the development of thenational curriculum framework:l All citizens of India should have equal access to edu-

cation. The specific needs of the disadvantaged sec-tions of the society ought to be met through thecurriculum;

l Education regarding India’s cultural heritage needsto be imparted to students in order to developnational identity and a spirit of togetherness;

l It is essential to impart knowledge of the citizens’duties and rights, and ideals of the Constitution ofIndia to children;

l In view of the erosion of values, it is imperativethrough the curriculum to inculcate moral and socialvalues amongst students;

l Besides national identity and unity, it is also impera-tive to develop international understanding throughthe curriculum;

l Protection of the environment and conservation ofnatural resources should be major objectives ofschool curriculum;

l In view of the increasing population of the country, itis imperative to include suitable content relating topopulation education in the syllabi of different sub-jects;

l The curriculum should aim at preparing a child forlife, which means that relevant knowledge should beimparted and appropriate skills, competencies andvalues developed;

l Education plays a significant role in national devel-opment by increasing human resources. Therefore,the primary objective of the curriculum ought to betotal development of the child’s personality;

l All the processes of education should be child-cen-tred, with the teacher playing the role of a facilitatorduring the process of learning;

l The curriculum should aim at developing students’creative potential;

l The curriculum should develop a scientific approachamongst students;

l Work should not be considered as distinct from edu-cation. Instead , work should be adopted as a mediumfor imparting education;

l The process of evaluation should be continuous andcomprehensive;

l Media and educational technology ought to beemployed to make the transactions of curriculumeffective.

An important development since the National Policy onEducation was formulated in 1986 has been the accept-ance across the country of a common structure of educa-tion and the introduction by most states of the 10+2+3system. There are eight years of elementary education(five years of primary school and three years of upper pri-mary/middle schooling) and four years of secondary edu-cation (two years of general secondary and two years ofhigher secondary).

78

The education system seeks to give due recognitionand importance to the social organization, traditions, cus-toms and value systems of the various communities, par-ticularly Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This issupported among other ways by the development ofmaterials and curricula in their languages.

The main characteristics of the national curriculum,developed in accordance with the above-mentioned prin-ciples, are described in the following sections.

General education

The national curriculum envisages the first ten years ofschool as the period of general education and that the di-versified curriculum should be introduced at the end ofgeneral education (i.e. at the beginning of the senior sec-ondary stage.) This plan provides all students with an op-portunity to receive instruction in each of the curricularareas considered essential for their overall development.

Undifferentiated curricula

The national curriculum framework also envisages an un-differentiated curriculum for all children - irrespective ofsex and place of residence (i.e. urban or rural).

Minimum levels of learning

The 1986 NPE recommended the establishment of mini-mum levels of learning (MLLs) for the various subject ar-eas at the different school stages. In this context, aGovernment of India committee (under the Chairmanshipof Professor R.H. Dave) elaborated the MLL curriculumconcept that designates the competencies to be masteredby the primary level pupils in each subject, at specificpoints in time. For the first five years of primary school-ing, the MLL covers the mother tongue, mathematics, so-cial science and science. The MLL approach implies thatthe teacher’s responsibility is not confined to syllabuscoverage. Rather, teachers must be responsible for theirpupils mastering designated competencies. This approachhas necessitated on-going development of MLL-basedtextbooks and MLL-based evaluation. It has also intro-duced a higher concept of teacher accountability. Teach-ers are now held responsible for pupil competencydevelopment and not merely for teaching the prescribedsyllabus—as was the previous practice.

Common-core elements

The 1988 National Curriculum Framework (NCF) recom-mended compulsory core curriculum elements to betaught throughout the country. Most of these core ele-ments are aimed at the development of national identityand a spirit of togetherness leading to national unity. Thecommon core elements recommended in the NCF are: thehistory of India’s freedom struggle; constitutional obliga-tions; content essential for the development of nationalidentity; common cultural heritage of India; democracy,secularism, socialism; gender equality; environmentalconservation; removal of social barriers; the small-familynorm; and development of a scientific approach. The coreelements are not to be treated as separate subject areas.Rather, the content is to be interwoven into the differentsubject areas. Here, it should be noted that, for the first

time during India’s post-independence period, consciousefforts have been made to place values at the centre stageof curriculum.

Continuous and comprehensive evaluation

The NCF also considered the limitations of the existingevaluation system, which relies mostly on one-shot, end-of-the-year impact evaluation. This annual examinationmeasures skills attainment and the affective domain isgenerally ignored (i.e. attitudes development). To remedythis, the NCF recommended that evaluation should betreated as an integral part of the classroom teaching/learn-ing process. Furthermore, evaluation, conducted periodi-cally, should provide the type of feedback on studentachievement that enables teachers to improve their meth-odology, if required.

Interactive teaching

It is recognized that both the educational curriculum con-tent and process must be re-oriented in order to bringabout overall quality improvement. During the past fewyears, successful attempts have been made to re-orient theeducational content to current development and demandsof both society and the different disciplines. However, thisinitiative has not been accompanied by a correspondingchange in the modes of curriculum transaction, which re-mains predominantly one of verbal exposition by theteacher. The expository style of teaching, involving most-ly one-way communication, puts the learner in the role ofa passive recipient—a mere object of education. This sit-uation is not conducive to the development of creative,critical and analytical thinking by students. An interactiveteaching methodology involving continuing dialogue be-tween the teacher and pupils (discussion, investigation,problem-solving, etc.) could provide an educational envi-ronment more conducive to developing certain abstractcognitive skills.

Scheme of studies

The 1988 National Curriculum Framework has recom-mended the areas shown in Table 1, along with the appro-priate time weightage at the upper primary and secondarylevels:

Languages. The NCF envisages the study of three lan-guages at the upper primary and secondary stages: first,the mother tongue/regional language; second, Hindi orEnglish (in the case of non-Hindi-speaking states); andthird, one of the modern Indian languages (English in Hin-di-speaking states; Hindi or English in non-Hindi-speak-ing states).

Mathematics. Functional mathematics are taught at theupper primary stage; arithmetic, including commercialmathematics, should be completed, to a very large extent,by the end of the upper primary stage. The secondarystage begins the transition from functional mathematics tothe study of mathematics as a discipline.

79

TABLE 1. The National Curriculum Framework

Science. The upper primary science teaching objectivesare to develop an understanding of the nature of scientificknowledge; and certain physical, chemical, biologicalprinciples and their relationship to the operation of scien-tific principles in nature, as well as in daily life. The aimof the teaching of science at the secondary level is focusedon problem-solving and decision making through thelearning of key concepts, which cut across all the sciencedisciplines.

Social sciences. The study of social sciences at the upperprimary stage is comprized of the study of history, geog-raphy, civics and contemporary issues and problems. Atthe secondary stage, it incorporates elements of history,geography, civics and economics to promote an under-standing of contemporary India.

Arts. The aim of art education is learner sensitization tothe beauty in line, colour, form, movement and sound. Theupper primary programme incorporates: (i) drawing,painting, printing, collage, clay modelling, puppet con-struction; (ii) free expression artistic creation; (iii) han-dling of simple musical instruments; (iv) movement,mime, simple dance forms, community singing; (v) sim-ple concepts of visual and performing arts; (vi) stories ofgreat personalities in the field of arts, and stories connect-ed with other countries. At the secondary stage, it incorpo-rates: (i) study and exploration of visual and auralresources; (ii) projects leading to creative visual and auralforms; (iii) inter-group, inter-school art activities; (iv)study groups, interaction with community artists; (v) ex-ploration of community/neighbourhood traditional artforms .

Health and physical education. This area focuses on theholistic health of the learner and the community, thereby

establishing the important place of mental and emotional,as well as physical health. The first ten years of content fo-cuses on general promotion of healthful living as well ason major health problems of the country. In physical edu-cation, sports and games, the emphasis is given to indige-nous traditional games. Furthermore, as a system whichpromotes the integral development of body and mind,yoga receives special attention.

Morals and values. These areas are treated as an integralcurriculum component for which all teachers are respon-sible.

Work experience. The work experience incorporates pur-posive, manual work resulting in either goods or servicesuseful to the community. It is an essential component at allstages of education and is to be provided through well-structured, graded programmes. At both the upper prima-ry and secondary stages, work experience emphasizes ag-ricultural and technological processes to facilitate theintegration of science, mathematics and technology intocommunity life.

State-level curriculum implementation

The available feedback from the states indicates that, forthe most part, they have revised their curricula along thelines recommended by the 1986 NPE and 1988 NCF.However, several have made adjustments that respond tospecific local needs or socio-political pressures. Follow-ing are some highlights that reflect the dynamics of curric-ulum implementation at the state level.

Languages

All states (except Tamil Nadu) have adopted the three-language formula. Although it was envisaged that onlyone language (mother tongue or regional language) wouldbe taught at the primary stage, many states have taken theinitiative and introduced a second and third language atthis level. For example, Punjab state recently decided tointroduce English, along with the regional language inclass I. In the state of Sikkim, English is taught as a subjectand used as the medium of instruction—beginning rightfrom class I. The policy of using English as the medium ofinstruction beginning in class I is being implemented in al-most all the private, unaided schools throughout the coun-try. (The growth of these private schools has mushroomedduring the past few years and this trend is likely to accel-erate in the future.)

Another interesting variation encompasses classicallanguage teaching—an area that the NCF did not address.Most of the Hindi-speaking states, and even centralschool organizations, have made provisions for teachingSanskrit as a third language. In fact, to accommodate thestudy of Sanskrit along with other languages, some stateshave even made provisions for the teaching of a fourthlanguage. (In Uttar Pradesh, Sanskrit is compulsory andtaught as part of Hindi.) It would appear that Sanskrit isin demand because it is associated with ancient Indianculture and is the mother� to many modern Indian lan-guages.

Upper primary stage Time weightage (%)

1. Three languages 32

2. Mathematics 12

3. Social science 12

4. Science 12

5. Health and physical education 10

6. Arts 10

7. Work experience 10

Secondary stage

1. Three languages 30

2. Mathematics 13

3. Social science 13

4. Science 13

5. Work experience 13

6. Health and physical education 9

7. Arts 9

80

Other scholastic areas

Several states have modified the NCF science and socialsciences recommendations. For example, in place of theintegrated science approach, they have opted for the sin-gle-subject discipline approach. West Bengal has madeprovisions for the teaching of history and geography onlyat the upper primary stage.

Non-scholastic areas

In India, work experience, arts, and health and physicaleducation are generally categorized as non-scholastic are-as. The curriculum framework has emphasized that theseareas are essential for all around development of thechild’s personality. However, being non-examinationsubjects, these areas are not taken seriously by the teach-ers and students. In some states, arts has not been made acompulsory subject at the secondary stage. In the statesand schools where arts is a compulsory or optional area,only the visual arts are taught. Performance arts like musicand dance are taught only in a limited number of schools.In the states of Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh,arts has been clustered with home science and agricultureand the students have been given the option to choose anyone of these areas.

Values education

The NCF also envisaged that values education should per-meate all aspects of school life and, therefore, should beintegrated into all the curriculum areas. However, stateslike Haryana, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab,Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradeshhave all introduced moral education or moral science asindependent subject areas, with distinct time allocations.Apparently, this has occurred in the light of pleas that,given the progressive weakening of the moral fabric of so-ciety, the integrated approach does not provide values ed-ucation with the prominent place it deserves.

Competency-based textbooks

After the identification of MLL (minimum levels of learn-ing), introductory advocacy programmes were launchedto promote the concept as an approach to curriculum de-velopment, teaching and learning and pupil evaluation. Anumber of states have since produced primary-stage com-petency-based textbooks in different curricular areas.

CURRICULUM OUTCOMES

The curriculum review

The Government of India found it necessary to appoint aNational Advisory Committee (NAC) to look into fre-quent complaints about the excessive burden of the curric-ulum on children. The NAC submitted report findings in1993. This report, which took note of the widespread per-ception regarding the heavy load of the school curriculum,also identified the roots of the problem: inability to distin-guish between information and knowledge; society’scompetitive social ethos; the desire to catch up with devel-

oped countries; centralized curriculum development proc-esses; non-participation of teachers in the variouscurriculum development processes; excessive dependenceon experts; incomprehensibility of textbooks; and absenceof an academic ethos in schools. The committee furtherdetermined that the academic burden perception is tied toincomprehension, a problem which can be addressed (tosome extent) by modifying the curriculum developmentgoals, as well as the textbook writing process and by im-proving the school environment by providing the requiredinfrastructure.

Most of the NAC recommendations were accepted bythe Government. All state governments were asked to in-itiate appropriate follow-up measures to implement therecommendations of the committee, including review ofcurriculum and textbooks.

Evaluation of textbooks

The textbooks used in different states and union territoriesare already subject to periodic evaluation. They are re-viewed from the perspective of national integration—theobjective being to promote peace and harmony in thecountry and enable children to learn to live together withpeople of different religious, linguistic, ethnic and culturalgroups. During these reviews any content deemed to havea secular bias or to be destructive to national unity is iden-tified and recommended for removal. Textbooks are alsocontinuously evaluated from the standpoint of gender, sci-entific temper and relevance, etc.

Improving quality of curriculum transaction

NCERT, the Central Board of Secondary Education (CB-SE), the State Councils of Educational Research andTraining (SCERTS) and the State Boards of SecondaryEducation have initiated a number of projects to improvethe quality of curriculum transmission in schools. To im-prove the quality of mathematics education, CBSE haslaunched the project Operation Mathematics emphasizingthe re-orientation of all teachers. The CBSE has also de-veloped source materials in the education areas of: envi-ronment, values, consumer and population. Furthermore,a network of training institutions has been established inthe country to enhance teacher competencies through in-service education.

Emerging trends in curriculum development

In the light of changing societal needs and aspirations,certain high demand-driven areas are likely to have an im-pact on the school curriculum. It appears that, among oth-er areas, language education, values education andinformation technology shall be matters of serious debatein the next cycle of curriculum renewal. Art education isalso scheduled for reform in the next cycle of curriculumrenewal.

Language education. The introduction of English at theprimary stage is one of the demands which school systemsare finding difficult to resist. Perhaps this demand is basedon the assumption that the study of English can give chil-dren an edge in a highly competitive society.

81

Values education. After the establishment of a NationalCommission for Human Rights, momentum has beengathering for incorporating this area into the school cur-riculum. The interim report issued by Justice Verma’sCommittee (on the fundamental duties of citizens) strong-ly recommended that fundamental duties should be incor-porated at all stages of the school curriculum, as well asinto different teacher-education programmes. The incor-poration of human rights and citizens’ fundamental dutiesinto the curriculum can help pupils learn to live together,one of the four pillars of learning identified by the Inter-national Commission on Education in the Twenty-firstCentury.

Computer education is expected to soon occupy a promi-nent space in India’s school curriculum, it being recog-nized that, in the information age, skills in the use of thesetechnologies are invaluable.

REFERENCES

Arora, G.L. Child centred education for learning withoutburden. Gurgaon, Haryana, Krishna Publishing Com-pany, 1995.

Arora, G.L.; Yadav, S.K, Self-learning materials forteacher educators. Vol. 1. New Delhi, NCERT, 1998.

Arora, G.L.; Ray Shefali. Towards an enlightened humanresource in education. New Delhi, State Council ofEducational Research and Training, 1993.

Curriculum Board for Secondary Education. Scheme ofcomprehensive school-based evaluation. New Delhi,Government of India, n.d.

Government of India. Operationalization of the sugges-tions for teacher fundamental duties to the citizens ofthe country. Interim report. New Delhi, 1999.

International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century. Learning: the treasure within. Paris,UNESCO, 1996.

Ministry of Human Resource Development, Departmentof Education. Minimum levels of learning at the pri-mary stage. New Delhi, Government of India, 1991.

Ministry of Human Resource Development. National pol-icy on education. New Delhi, Government of India,1986.

National Advisory Committee, Ministry of Human Re-source Development. Learning without burden. NewDelhi, Government of India, 1993.

National Council of Educational Research and Training.National curriculum for elementary and secondaryeducation. A framework. New Delhi, Government ofIndia, 1988.

—. S���������������������������� ���������������������������������� (Draft). New Delhi, Govern-ment of India, 1998.

82

According to Law No. 2/1989, the objectives of the na-tional education system are: l to develop citizens whose values are based on Pan-

casila (i.e. State ideology, spelled out in the fivebasic principles of the Republic of Indonesia: beliefin one God; just and civilized humanity, includingtolerance to all people; the unity of Indonesia;democracy led by wisdom of deliberation amongrepresentatives of the people; and social justice forall);

l to support the Indonesian society, people and State.In the broad context of society and national development,the aim of education is, on the one hand, to maintain Indo-nesia’s cultural background and, on the other, to generatethe knowledge, skills and scientific progress that will keepthe nation abreast of development in the twenty-first cen-tury. National education should improve the life of the na-tion and develop the Indonesian people fully (i.e.intellectually, morally, spiritually, physically and social-ly).

THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTUREOF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The Centre for Curriculum and Educational Facilities De-velopment—or Curriculum Development Centre(CDC)—established in 1969, comes under the authorityof the Office of Educational and Cultural Research andDevelopment in the Ministry of Education and Culture. Itis composed of four divisions each headed by a director:(a) Pre-school, primary and special education; (b) Second-ary schools; (c) Higher education; (d) Educational facili-ties. The Centre’s main functions are: (a) to formulatetechnical policies on curriculum development and educa-tional facilities; (b) to conduct, co-ordinate and guide thedevelopment of curriculum and educational facilities cov-ering institutional objectives, programme structure andbasic course outline, teaching learning models and meth-ods; learning materials, etc.; and (c) to formulate sugges-tions on government policy.

The CDC has established a curriculum network tostrengthen professional support for teachers across thecountry in the area of curriculum development. The net-work was established in order: (a) to involve differentregions in the development of a national curriculum;(b) to improve the level of professionalism in curriculumdevelopment at the various levels (national, provincial,district); and (c) to establish a mechanism for curriculum

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

197,500,000

1.4

6

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1995)Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

29,721,859131,15723:1

114117112

979985

8

10

800,000

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

12,200,000

485244

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) 11.1

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

849078

Indonesia

Goals and objectives of education

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris.

83

dissemination and development at both national and pro-vincial levels. The network includes professional groupsfrom twenty-seven provinces across the country, eachconsisting of thirty-five members including leadingteachers from primary, junior and senior secondaryschools, vocational schools, principals, supervisors andstaff from the Regional Office of Education and Culture.The network’s tasks are: to plan, develop and implementthe curriculum according to local conditions and needs;to assist teachers in curriculum development throughadjustments, elaboration and analysis based on the stu-dents’ immediate environment and community needs andresources; and to monitor and evaluate the implementa-tion of both national and local content. The CDC pro-vides advice, assistance and guidance to the network inthe elaboration, analysis, monitoring and evaluation ofcurricula. Some of the accomplishments of the networkinclude: the development and implementation of localcontent materials (course outlines, teaching guides;assessment guides and counselling guides); analysis andmodification of the basic course outline; monitoring andevaluation, including development of instruments for theprocess, and preparation of a report. It is intended to setup networks at the district level, intensify training for net-work groups at both provincial and district levels,increase production of materials, and improve monitoringand evaluation techniques.

ON-GOING CURRICULUM REFORM

The existing curriculum designed in 1994 was felt to beinadequate in a number of ways: overloaded; too difficultfor the pupils to complete; inadequate attention paid to theimportance of the natural and social environments; failureto incorporate new areas of content, including educationfor human rights, moral education, health and nutritioneducation; and the need to update the content on Indone-sian history.

Public hearings were held to find out pubic opinionconcerning curriculum needs. Relevant recent researchon the curriculum, especially as related to future needs,was taken into account. An analysis was made of the gapsbetween the existing curriculum as it was formulated anddesigned and as it has been implemented. A workingteam has been set up consisting of staff from universitiesand teacher training institutions, experienced teachersand relevant experts.

Current curriculum-related priorities and concerns

Major goals include the expansion of compulsory basiceducation from six to nine years, the improvement of thequality of primary and secondary education, and enhanc-ing learning achievements for all levels. Indonesia’s com-mitment to the further development of education is basedon the recognition that development goes hand-in-handwith advancement in science and technology.

The continuous decrease of employment opportuni-ties in the area of agriculture and the increasing demandfor knowledge and skills in industry, especially in thehigh technology and service sectors, as well as the inevi-

table impact of globalization, have created an urgent needfor on-going curriculum reform. In addition to develop-ing students’ intellectual capacities, it is recognized thateducation must foster and promote creativity, the abilityto process and utilize information, adaptability and self-training.

Indonesia has recently entered the Second Twenty-five Year Long-term Development Plan – PJP II (1994–95 to 2018–19), the emphasis of which is on the develop-ment of human resources to sustain the economic evolu-tion of the nation. To respond to the challenges ofmodernity, the priorities of education for PJP II includethe following:l the completion of the nine-year universal basic

education programme (which involves adding threeyears of schooling for those of 12-15 years of age,i.e. at least six years of primary education and threeyears of lower secondary or equivalent education).The curriculum of the junior secondary school is alsoto be expanded with skills training, especially for stu-dents who are not able to continue to senior second-ary education. The implementation of the nine-yearbasic education programme will cover efforts todevelop an improved learning environment at schooland in classrooms; efforts to provide and train moreteachers; and efforts to provide quality equipmentand textbooks.

l the relevance of education to development. Thepolicy states that education should be related toindustry and the business world starting from plan-ning, implementation, assessment, and certificationof education and vocational training relevant to eco-nomic needs. It requires the expansion and improve-ment of technical and vocational education for theproduction of skilled and flexible human resourceswho master technology. The ‘link and match’ pro-gramme, which involves industry and commerce invocational education, will continue to be developedand implemented through the dual system. To sup-port the policy, 2,000 commercial and small indus-trial institutes have been contacted for co-operationand asked to provide training for students. The co-operation includes curriculum development and anexamination system that measures the skills andexpertise of the participant after completing a certainlevel.

l improved capacity to master science and technol-ogy through improved quality of higher educationproviding training and research, supported byimprovements in mathematics and science instruc-tion within the overall education system. Educationalprogrammes, as preparation for employment, areprovided through the junior secondary schools withqualified educational content and through vocationalsecondary education. At pre-tertiary level, scienceand technology programmes include: (i) science andtechnology for basic education directed towards gen-eral basic comprehension and aiming to implant anddevelop basic learning tools—this covers mastery inreading, arithmetic, problem solving, and moral edu-cation for the industrial society (discipline, timeappreciation, work ethics, self-learning); and (ii) sec-

84

ondary education programmes aiming to master thebasics of science and technology.

l the development of a monitoring and evaluationsystem of education that is valid, reliable and contin-uously comprehensive.

PRIMARY AND JUNIOR SECONDARY EDUCA-TION (BASIC EDUCATION)

Six years of compulsory education for primary school-agechildren (PS, 7-12 years) were institutionalized in 1984.Currently (as from 1994) the programme has been extend-ed to the 13-15 years age group (i.e. junior secondaryschool—JSS). The policy has been recognized as nine-year compulsory basic education. The major purpose ofthe extension is to alleviate the problem of child labourand to keep children in school up to the point where theyare able to keep up with the changing demands of society,especially those who cannot afford to pursue a higher lev-el of education.

In addition to primary and junior secondary educa-tion, there is also an Islamic primary school administered

by the Ministry of Religious Affairs: the Islamic primaryschool (Madrasah Ibtidaiyah), equivalent to primaryschool, and the Islamic junior secondary school(Madrasah Tsanawiyah), equivalent to junior secondaryschool.

Primary education provides general education. Thegoal of basic education is to develop the lives of childrenas individuals and members of society, citizens and mem-bers of mankind, as well as to prepare them to pursuetheir studies in secondary education. The core content ofthe basic education curriculum consists of: Pancasila,religion, civic education, Indonesian language, readingand writing, mathematics, introduction to sciences andtechnology, geography, national and general history,handicraft and arts, sports and health education, drawing,English language, and local content areas. More than oneelement may be joined in one subject matter; or, viceversa, one element may be divided into more than onesubject. The 1994 basic education curriculum was imple-mented in phases until the end of the 1996-97 academicyear. The average number of weekly periods of teachingby subject are indicated in Table 1 below.

As part of the expansion of educational opportunitiesat the basic education level and within the initial stage ofthe nine-year basic education programme, JSS educationwas developed. However, the number of PS students con-tinuing to JSS has remained low. By intensifying the JSSexpansion, it is hoped that within fifteen years, all 13 mil-lion of PS graduates will have the opportunity to continueto the JSS. The JSS expansion will be supported by thebuilding of new schools, hiring new teachers, developingmore infrastructures and facilities and by the develop-ment of the open junior secondary school programme for13-15-year-old children who are not able to follow theregular JSS.

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary education lasts three years and is available tograduates of basic education. The types of secondary edu-cation include: general secondary education, which givespriority to expanding knowledge, developing students’skills and preparing them to continue their studies to thehigher level of education; vocational secondary educa-tion, which gives priority to expanding specific occupa-tional skills and emphasizes the preparation of students toenter the world of work and expanding their professionalaptitudes; religious secondary education, which gives pri-ority to the mastery of religious knowledge; and service

TABLE 1. Basic education curriculum (primary and junior secondary school)

Number of weekly periods in each grade

Subjects Primary Junior secondary

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 1st 2nd 3rd

Pancasila education 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Religion 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Indonesian language 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6

Mathematics 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6

Sciences - - 3 6 6 6 6 6 6

Social sciences - - 3 5 5 5 6 6 6

Handicraft and arts 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Health and sport 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

English language - - - - - - 4 4 4

Local content 2 2 4 5 7 7 6 6 6

TOTAL PERIODS 30 30 38 40 42 42 42 42 42

Source: Basic Education Curriculum, MOEC, 1993; (the average length of teaching periods is 30 minutes in grades1-2 and 40 minutes in grades 3 to 6 of primary education; 45 minutes in junior secondary).2

85

86

secondary education, which emphasizes the training ofservice tasks for civil servants or candidates for civil serv-ice.

General secondary education includes general sec-ondary school and Islamic senior secondary school. It isintended to develop the student’s knowledge in accord-ance with the progress of science, technology and thearts, and enable him/her to continue studies at higher lev-els of education. It also develops the student’s abilities asa member of the community to interact with the social,cultural and natural environment.

General secondary education consists of general andspecific teaching programmes. The general educationprogramme is implemented in the first and secondgrades, while the specific teaching programme starts tobe implemented in the third grade. The new curriculumhas been implemented in phases, and was extended to allgrades in 1996–97. Quality has been improved by intro-ducing a quarter-year academic cycle (instead of the half-year/semester), and a students’ streaming division (bydiscipline) at grade 3 (instead of grade 2). The averagenumber of weekly 45-minute periods of teaching by sub-ject are indicated in Table 2 below.

The vocational secondary education programmes areclassified into six different groups of vocational fields,namely: Agriculture and Forestry; Technology andIndustry; Business and Management; Community Wel-fare; Tourism; and Arts and Handicraft. Implementationof vocational education is based on the national curricu-lum. It is adjusted to the local and environmental needsand distinctive features of the vocational education con-cerned. The curriculum of vocational secondary schoolconsists of general and vocational education pro-grammes.

The quality of vocational education still needs to beimproved, its scope expanded and its programmesmatched to the employment needs.

METHODS AND APPROACHES TO LEARNING

The learning and teaching climate should generate self-confidence, innovative thinking, and should be orientationtowards the future. Child-centred, active and co-operativelearning is advocated. Teaching is expected to promotehigher learning skills, fostering the students’ desire andcapacity for learning throughout life.

Four types of assessment exist at pre-universitylevel:1. Classroom-based continuous assessment with direc-

tions and guidelines provided to teachers on assess-

ment procedures. Assessment may take place afterthe completion of a small teaching unit at the end ofevery quarter or semester, or at the end of an aca-demic year.

2. External assessment consisting of a school leavingexamination at the end of each school level.

3. A survey of student achievement involving a sampleof a student’s performance and other relevant vari-ables to be conducted periodically. At present, sur-veys conducted are not professionally designed andthe instruments tend to be of poor quality. A NationalAssessment Programme is foreseen.

4. University entrance examination. These examina-tions tend to be very difficult due to the interests oftop universities to select the best candidates. Manyteachers in senior secondary school focus on prepar-ing students for these exams rather than on the pre-scribed secondary school curriculum. Students whohave a consistently high performance during seniorsecondary school may be exempted from the exami-nation.

MAIN CHALLENGES FACING CURRICULARADAPTATION

Design

l Divergence of opinion with regard to educationalphilosophy among key stake holders.

l Determining needs for the social, economic, politicaland cultural environment of the twenty-first century.

l Determining the aims of different levels and types ofeducation.

l Defining minimum basic learning competencies forall levels and types of education.

Implementation

l The vast size of Indonesia makes effective country-wide curriculum implementation very difficult.

l The budget for proper piloting of the new curriculumis inadequate.

l The need for comprehensive reform incorporating allaspects of the teaching/learning process: teachers,materials and facilities, role of society.

Follow-up

l Socialization of the process in schools.l Modification following trialling.l Full-scale implementation following piloting.

TABLE 2. General senior secondary school curriculum

Number of weekly periods in each grade

Subjects General Specialist

Form 1 Form 2 Form 3

Language Science Social

A. General

Pancasila education 2 2 2 2 2

Religion 2 2 2 2 2

Indonesian language and literature 5 5 3 3 3

General and national history 2 2 2 2 2

English language 4 4 5 5 5

Sport and health 2 2 (2) (2) (2)

Mathematics 6 6 - - -

Sciences

a. Physics 5 5 - - -

b. Biology 4 4 - - -

c. Chemistry 3 3 - - -

Social sciences

a. Economics 3 3 - - -

b. Sociology - 2 - - -

c. Geography 2 2 - - -

Arts 2 - - - -

Sub-total 42 42 14(16) 14(16) 14(16)

B. Specialist

Language

Indonesian language and literature - - 8 - -

English language - - 6 - -

Foreign language(s) - - 9 - -

History of culture - - 5 - -

Sciences

Physics - - - 7 -

Biology - - - 7 -

Chemistry - - - 6 -

Mathematics - - - 8 -

Social sciences

Economics - - - - 10

Sociology - - - - 6

Civics - - - - 6

Anthropology - - - - 6

Sub-total 28 28 28

Total academic hours 42 42 42(44) 42(44) 42(44)

Source: MOEC, 1993; One teaching period lasts 45 minutes.

87

INTRODUCTION

Legal foundation

The Education Act 1996 (Act 550, Laws of Malaysia) pro-vides the fundamental basis for curriculum policies in Ma-laysia. It indicates the specific laws and provisions thatgive direction to curriculum documents. These regula-tions are mandatory for all schools.

Education goals and objectives

The country’s educational goals are manifested in the Ma-laysian National Education Philosophy (NEP) whichstates that:

Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards fur-ther developing the potential of individuals in a holisticand integrated manner so as to produce individuals whoare intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physicallybalanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in anddevotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produceMalaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and compe-tent, who possess high moral standards, and who are re-sponsible and capable of achieving a high level ofpersonal well-being, as well as being able to contribute tothe betterment of the family, the society and the nation atlarge.

The education system

A uniform system of education in both primary and sec-ondary schools has been established whereby a nationalcurriculum is used in all schools. Common central assess-ment and examinations at the end of the respective periodsof schooling are also being practised. The national lan-guage, Malay, is the official language of instruction.

Curriculum philosophy

The school curriculum is expected to contribute to the ho-listic development of the individual (mental, emotional,physical, spiritual) by imparting general knowledge andskills, fostering healthy attitudes and instilling acceptedmoral values. The aim is to produce Malaysian citizenswho are balanced, trained, skilful and cherish the nationalaspiration for unity.

The general direction for on-going curriculumreform is to improve the quality of education in order toachieve the aims of the National Education Philosophy

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

20,100,000

5.2

11

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio, (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1995)Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

3,100,000140,34219:1

929292

919192

–

6

280,000

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

1,640,461

625866

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) 10.6

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

838978

Malaysia

Curriculum planning, developmentand reform

Zamrus Bin A. Rahman and Mokelas Bin Ahmad

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris.

88

(NEP). The NEP has been geared towards achieving thenation’s vision to prepare children to become knowledge-able, trained and skilled individuals to meet the growingneeds of the millennium. It is envisaged that this can beachieved by emphasizing science and technology, use ofinformation technology, and inculcating good moral andwork ethics suitable for the Information Age. The schoolcurriculum is designed to achieve the intended learningoutcomes for different ability levels.

CURRICULUM DESIGN

The national curriculum promotes unity through the use ofa single medium of instruction (the national language) andthe provision of the same core subjects for all pupils in allschools within the National Education System. However,the cultural diversity of different ethnic groups in Malay-sia is preserved through the existence of National TypeSchools, which are allowed to use other major ethnic lan-guages as the medium of instruction.

The underlying theoretical principle of national cur-riculum formulation is that of general education, using anintegrated approach in curriculum planning. The curricu-lum comprises content and skills, with emphasis on thedevelopment of basic skills, the acquisition of knowledgeand thinking skills. Each subject must also incorporatethe inculcation of moral values and attitudes and the cor-rect use of Malay and other languages, such as English,Chinese and Tamil.

The integrated approach is the main focus in thedesign of the Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schooland Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School. Theelements of knowledge, skills and values are incorpo-rated so as to bring the integrated development of theintellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical aspects ofthe individual.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE ANDMECHANISMS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Malaysia’s system of curriculum development is central-ized. The Ministry of Education through its central agen-cy, namely the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC),is responsible for initiating curriculum development. TheCDC is responsible for the development of the pre-school,primary school and secondary school curriculum. In theimplementation of the curriculum, however, various com-mittees have been set up in the Ministry of Education,State Education Departments, Divisions/District Educa-tion Offices and schools.

1. Educational Planning Committee. (Secretariat: Educa-tional Planning and Research Division, Ministry of Edu-cation.) Functions:l to approve and formulate the major policies in the

Ministry of Education;l to consider all projects related to policy matters.

2. Central Curriculum Committee. (Secretariat: CentralCurriculum Committee, Ministry of Education.) Func-tions:l to formulate curriculum policies, as well as study

their implications;l to determine the direction of curriculum develop-

ment and co-ordinate efforts to achieve this goal;l to consider and make recommendations concerning

education planning and implementation, as well as topresent these findings to the Educational PlanningCommittee;

l to study the implications of curriculum programmesand to make decisions accordingly;

l to determine aspects which require research andstudy.

3. Curriculum Implementation Committee. (Secretariat:Central Curriculum Committee, Ministry of Education.)Functions:l responsible for co-ordinating all levels of preparation

in implementing any curriculum programmesapproved by the Central Curriculum Committee;

l to ensure co-ordination between the divisions of theMinistry and the State Education Departments in theimplementation of the curriculum;

l to gather feedback on curriculum implementation atthe State, division/district and school levels;

l to organize forums to discuss successful innovativeprogrammes implemented at the State level.

4. State Curriculum Committee. Functions:l to monitor, assess and guide principals, headmasters

and teachers in the implementation of the curricu-lum;

l to gather and analyze information and take the neces-sary follow-up action;

l to co-ordinate the implementation of activitiesbetween policy makers and implementers at the Min-istry, division/district and school levels;

l to co-ordinate the use of resources for curriculumimplementation;

l to plan, manage and co-ordinate courses organizedfor teachers by the State Education Department;

l to plan, manage and implement innovative projects;l to improve professionalism among teachers.

5. Division/District Curriculum Committee. Functions:l to plan activities and curriculum implementation

strategies at division/district levels;l to arrange and organize courses and seminars to dis-

seminate the latest information to teachers and allpersonnel concerned;

l to advise and guide teachers in curriculum imple-mentation;

l to monitor, supervise and evaluate the implementa-tion of the curriculum;

l to provide feedback to the higher authorities on theimplementation of the curriculum;

l to plan, manage and implement innovative projects atthe division/district levels.

89

6. School Curriculum Committee. Functions:l to plan, organize and evaluate teaching/learning

activities in schools;l to work towards increasing the knowledge and com-

petence of teachers and students;l to study the suitability of the subject content and

inform parties concerned;l to study, evaluate and determine the suitability of

textbooks or other materials;l to assess the scheme of work;l to assess pupil performance and to identify follow-up

action;l to plan and conduct in-house training programmes

for all teachers;l to disseminate information to all teachers on the lat-

est progress and development in education;l to produce more educational resource materials in

schools;l to identify suitability of educational electronic media

programmes in teaching-learning activities;l to co-operate in the on-going assessment in schools;l to co-ordinate additional learning activities.

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Centralized examinations are held at the end of Year VI,Form III and Form V. The results of these examinationsare used to evaluate the effectiveness of the curriculum.Examination results also provide feedback to the plannersto improve students’ achievement. Based on the analysis

of students’ scores by items, their achievement in the var-ious skills can be inferred. Should the performance dropbelow the expected standard, related divisions of the Min-istry look into the problem and take prompt action to im-prove students’ future achievement.

The various divisions of the Ministry also carry outrelated studies to find out the impact of the curriculum onstudents’ achievement. These focus on specific areas ofinterest, and information is commonly collected usingsurveys, class observations or test items. Informationobtained reflects the effectiveness of the curriculum andthe Ministry is required from time to time to take follow-up action, such as reviewing the syllabus, textbooks andother teaching materials, and improving teacher/learningstrategies.

CONCLUSION

Careful planning is necessary to ensure the implementa-tion of the curriculum. Thus, the school plays an importantrole in creating a conducive environment encouraging ex-cellence. In this respect, headmasters and teachers need tounderstand and internalize the National Education Philos-ophy, the aims and objectives of the National EducationPolicy and the integrated approach of the curriculum.Apart from the school and parents, society also plays animportant role. The success of the curriculum depends onsociety’s support in assisting the school to develop pupils’personalities and to participate actively in matters relatingto education.

90

INTRODUCTION

The Republic of Maldives is an archipelago of approxi-mately 1,190 coral islands located south-west of the Indi-an sub-continent. The islands form twenty-six naturalatolls, which are grouped into twenty atolls for adminis-trative purposes. The total population of the Maldives isaround 250,000. The population is dispersed among 200inhabited islands, with 90% of them having a populationof less than 1,000. Around 25% of the population is con-centrated in the capital, Malé.

HISTORICAL REVIEW OF EDUCATIONIN THE MALDIVES

The system of education prevailing in the Maldives todayhas its roots in a traditional system of schooling that hasexisted for hundreds of years. These traditional schools,known as edhuruge, makthab or madhrasa, are privatelyowned or operated by the island communities and are usu-ally self-financing. The edhuruge is a gathering of chil-dren in a private home with the objective of teaching themto read the Quran, to read and write Dhivehi, the mothertongue of Maldivians, and to provide some rudiments ofarithmetic. The edhuruge is more formal and offers almostthe same curriculum, while in the madhrasa the curricu-lum is more far-ranging. These schools have contributedtowards achieving many educational objectives, includinga high rate of literacy and the preservation of national cul-ture and tradition (Ministry of Education, 1992). Howev-er, the present system of education is the result of a mergerbetween the traditional system of schooling and a Westernstyle of schooling introduced since 1960.

The Western style of schooling was introduced inEnglish-medium schools in the capital Malé as part of aconscious effort to prepare individuals for training thatthey would receive overseas in order to meet the increas-ing developmental needs of the country. Thus, the begin-ning of a public school system was patterned after theBritish system in terms of organization of curriculum andmethods of instruction.

One of the most significant historical developmentsin education was in 1978 with the decision to unify thenational education system. Under this system, schoolingin the Maldives was structured on a 5-2-3-2 cycle—fiveyears of’ primary schooling leading to two years at themiddle school level followed by three years of junior sec-ondary school studies and two years of senior secondary

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

200,000

6.4

–

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1992)1

Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

50,733–31:1

133135130

100100100

18

7

0

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

40,000

494949

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) –

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

939393

Notes :1. Last year available

Maldives

Education policies, curriculum designand implementation at the level ofupper primary and general secondary education

Abdul Muhsin Mohamed and Maryam Azra Ahmed

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris.

91

school studies. At the end of the 3-year junior secondarycycle and the 2-year junior secondary cycle students sitthe London EDEXCEL GCE Ordinary-level andAdvanced-level examinations respectively.

THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM

In January 1980, the Ministry of Education (MOE) intro-duced the first five-year primary curriculum. In 1982, aworkshop was held to review this curriculum and to pro-duce another one for the middle-school level. The result-ing revisions and re-orientation of the primary curriculumled to the introduction of the first National Curriculum(NC) in 1984.

The NC in Maldives covers the primary and middleschool cycles in all subject areas. The secondary curricu-lum content is designed around the O-level and A-levelexaminations offered by EDEXCEL. However, in thecase of Islamic studies, the Dhivehi language and fisher-ies science, the curricula are designed locally—even forthe secondary levels.

EDUCATIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVESFOR MALDIVES

1. The goals1 of education follow from the nationaldevelopment goals. They are:

(a) to develop capable individuals with useful occupatio-nal skills, knowledge and attitudes for national deve-lopment with a sense of dignity about labour, and forpreserving the nation’s environmental resources.

(b) to promote social justice and equity by ensuring uni-versal primary education and equal educationalopportunity for all citizens.

(c) to develop, within an education system based on theprinciples of Islam, an awareness among all citizensthat, as members of the nation, they are also part ofthe Muslim Ummah.

(d) to promote in individuals a spirit of independenceand self-reliance such that they may seek to enhancethe quality of life by discovering ways and means ofimproving their own health, nutrition, and well-being.

(e) to strengthen national consciousness, and to preservethe nation’s cultural heritage by promoting desirablecultural values, traditions and the national language.

(f) to provide facilities for lifelong education for all citi-zens, so that the individual becomes a self-learnerand continues to extend his/her intellectual capacity;technical skills and ability to cope with new techno-logies and discoveries, and develops an appreciationand understanding of changes now occurring in thesocial and economic life of Maldives.

(g) to develop a sympathetic appreciation of the diver-sity and interdependence of peoples in the nationaland international communities.

2. The major objectives2 of education are as follows:(a) Expand and strengthen the provision of childhood

care and education.(b) Provide universal basic education (grades 1-7) by the

year 2000.(c) Increase the numbers of trained manpower.(d) Contribute to the national effort to increase trained

manpower.(e) Improve educational efficiency through quality

enhancement.(f) Improve equity in access and quality of education by

gender and location.(g) Improve curricular relevance to prepare students

both for further education and for emerging educatio-nal opportunities and to develop appropriate valuesand attitudes.

(h) Improve and strengthen the management of the edu-cation system.

3. The national philosophy3 of education includes fourmain aspects dealing with students’ physical andemotional development, cognitive development, so-cial and moral development and skills development.The subjects are developed so as to enhance these var-ious aspects appropriately. Syllabuses are designedby incorporating these elements in an integrated, co-hesive and well-defined manner. The teaching mate-rial or textbooks are then prepared with the aim ofachieving the objectives of the syllabuses.

4. The National Curriculum4 offers seven subjectsnamely: mathematics, English, Dhivehi, Islam, envi-ronmental studies, practical arts and physical educa-tion at the primary level. At middle-school level,environmental studies is replaced by social studiesand general science. There are two levels of second-ary education comprising a three-year programme oflower secondary education where students are pre-pared to take the GCE ‘O’-Level examinations, andtwo years of upper secondary, grades 11 and 12, afterwhich students take the GCE ‘A’-Level examinationsoffered by EDEXCEL.

MECHANISMS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The National Curriculum is based on fundamental princi-ples within an Islamic framework. These principles, de-rived after several stages of consultations, encompassdemocracy, equity, nationalism, independence, innova-tion for development and strengthening of the Maldiviansociety. Based on these fundamental principles, the MOE,in consultation with the National Education Council(NEC), produces national objectives for the educationsector (see above). The Educational Development Centre

1 Unpublished document of the Ministry of Education, 1997, Education Sector Master Plan 1997-1998, p. 6.2 Ministry of Education, 1986, Educational and Human Resource Development Plan 1985-1995, p. 7.3 Educational Development Centre, Ministry of Education, 1984. Introduction and guidance for teachers on the National Curriculum for Pri-

mary and Middle Schools.4 Ibid.

92

(EDC) is responsible for translating these national objec-tives into curriculum statements after appropriate consul-tations. Once the Minister of Education adopts thecurriculum statements as policy, EDC draws up the na-tional frameworks for individual subject areas, the syllabi,textbooks, teacher’s guides and other relevant resources.Subject panels, consisting of practising teachers and sub-ject specialists from various sectors, including the Depart-ment of Public Examinations and the Institute of TeacherEducation, help the EDC in the process.

As of 1999, EDC is also responsible for specifying thecurriculum materials for the secondary levels. The centredevelops teaching materials and resources for IslamicStudies, Dhivehi and Fisheries Science. For the othersubjects EDC specifies the materials and resources to beused. Even at the secondary level, subject panels assistEDC.Table 1 shows in detail the interrelationships between thevarious bodies involved in the adaptation of curricula inthe Maldives.

TABLE 1. The curriculum: who makes which choices?

CENTRAL LEVEL REGIONAL/PROVINCIAL SCHOOL LEVEL

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION (MOE)

EDUCATIONALDEVELOPMENTCENTRE (EDC)

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS (DPE)

INSTITUTE FOR TEACHER EDUCATION (ITE)

SUBJECT PANELS (P)

ISLAND OFFICES (10)ATOLL EDUCATION

CENTRES (AEC)ATOLL PRIMARY SCHOOLS

(APS)

HEADSSUPERVISORS (SP)TEACHERSCOMMUNITYPARENT/TEACHER

ASSOCIATIONS (PTA)

AIMS &OBJECTIVES

Sets national aims (EDC MOE).Sets national codes of behaviour

(MOE).Trains teachers according to na-

tional goals (ITE).Ensures school-based supervision

and support (MOE).

Interprets aims to teachers (IO/AEC/APS).

Interprets national codes of be-haviour for pupils and teach-ers.

Sets local codes of behaviour for pupils (AEC/APS).

Interprets aims and objectives to pupils (heads/teachers).

Interprets local and national codes of behaviour for teach-ers and pupils (heads).

CURRICULUMPLAN

Writes national syllabus andallocates appropriate sylla-bus for secondary level (EDC, P).

Decides time allocations (EDC/MOE). Trains teachers for the implementation of the national curriculum (ITE).

Ensures achievement of curricu-lum objectives (MOE).

Teaches according to national syllabus (AEC, APS).

Timetable as recommended (AEC, APS).

Recommends community partici-pation (IO, AEC, APS).

Makes schemes of work (teach-ers, SP, heads).

Timetable according to recom-mended time allocations (heads, SP and teachers).

Teach according to national sylla-bus (teachers).

Controls co-curricular activities (heads, SP, PTA).

Provides assistance to schools (PTA).

METHODS &APPROACHES TO TEACHING

Prepare teachers’ guides which recommend teaching meth-odology (EDC, P).

Moderate teaching methodology through supervision (MOE).

Train teachers in the use of cer-tain methodology (ITE).

Conduct workshops for teachers on teaching methodology (AEC, APS).

Facilitate in conducting field trips and other field work (AO, IO).

Practices recommended method-ologies (teachers).

Relate methods according to stu-dent needs (teachers).

Relate teaching to local commu-nity (teachers).

MATERIALS Commissions to write textbooks for the national syllabus (EDC, P) Choose textbooks for secondary schools. Pro-duces or commissions to pro-duce audio-visual materials for the national syllabus (EDC).

Choose educational resources for school use (AEC, APS).

Initiate locally relevant resource materials (AEC, APS).

Gives importance to the use of recommended textbooks (heads, SP, teachers).

Procure resource and supplemen-tary materials (heads, PTA, community/parents)

EVALUATION &EXAMINATION

Set central examinations and ex-pected standards (DPE).

Train teachers in assessment and evaluation (ITE).

Conduct regional workshops for teachers on assessment and evaluation (AEC, APS).

Evaluate and assess all aspects of student achievement (teach-ers, SP, heads).

Sets all internal tests and exami-nations (teachers, SP, heads).

Marks work and keeps records (teachers, SP, heads).

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PROBLEMS FACED BY CURRICULUMDEVELOPERS

Curriculum developers at EDC are responsible for the for-mulation and development of curriculum materials. Eachcurriculum developer is responsible for a subject area. Thecurriculum developer has to design the syllabus, decide onthe content and prepare textbooks and teacher’s guides. Inconducting these activities, curriculum developers have toovercome a number of difficulties, such as the following:

At the curriculum design levell Some curriculum developers need further training,

particularly in modern curriculum design techniques. l There is a particular lack in the region of adequate

reference materials, journals and curriculum materi-als used in other countries.

l There is limited access to the Internet.

At the implementation level l There is a need for strengthening a process of regular

feedback from teachers on implementation. l There are limited opportunities for curriculum devel-

opers to observe classroom teaching.

At the evaluation levell There is a lack of regular interaction with teachers.l There is a lack of regular feedback from teachers. l In some instances, teaching is not geared to achieve

curriculum objectives. l In some instances, testing and examinations are not

aligned with curriculum objectives.

A RECENT CURRICULUM REFORM:REVISING THE SOCIAL STUDIES SYLLABIAND TEXTBOOKS

Rationale for change

As local and global developments influence Maldivian so-ciety, there is recognition of the need for the syllabi andteaching materials to reflect these changes. In this respect,many emerging issues need to be incorporated into the so-cial studies syllabus. These include environmental issues(with special focus on the effect of greenhouse gases andthe rise in sea-level), overpopulation, the challenges ofliving in a rapidly developing world, international under-standing, tolerance, health and population education, gen-der prejudice and other social, economic and politicalissues.

Process of reform

In 1990, social studies subject-panel meetings were heldto discuss the relevance, appropriateness and accuracy ofthe existing syllabi. Discussions generated the view thatmost of the topics in social studies needed to be presentedin a new perspective since some of the information wasoutdated. Thus, the textbooks also needed to be changed.Questionnaires were sent out to all schools that taught thissubject. These questionnaires were directed at obtaining awide range of information on the current materials. Feed-

back from these schools supported the view of the panelmembers.

Draft syllabi for social studies were prepared underthe guidance of subject experts and the subject panel.After discussions with teachers and the panel, the Minis-try of Education approved the final syllabi (see Figure 1)in 1991.

The syllabi were designed to encourage changes inteaching style in order to accomplish the objectives of theNational Curriculum. They encourage teachers:l to develop metacognitive skills and understanding;l to be problem posers and guides rather than problem

solvers;l to present the material in everyday contexts;l to encourage wider involvement of community, par-

ents, etc. in the learning process;l to enhance group work; and l to encourage process-oriented teaching.Textbooks and teacher’s guides were prepared and pre-tested with the help of practising teachers according to therequirements of the new syllabi. After the trials, the text-books and teacher’s guides were published.

The new syllabi and the accompanying textbooks forsocial studies brought very positive feedback fromschools. It was claimed that students’ interest in the sub-ject had increased and that the presentation and layout ofthe new textbooks stimulated interest, generating livelyclassroom discussions. Teachers also indicated that thecurriculum introduced and enhanced research skills instudents, fostering their motivation to learn. It also intro-duced critical thinking skills, making students moreactive participants in class. However, some schools notedthat the level of English used in the texts was higher thanin other subjects, which posed some problems for stu-dents.

CONCLUSION

The Maldives islands are widely dispersed and, as accessto some of them is not very frequent, curriculum develop-ers do not receive regular feedback from schools. At theimplementation stage, curriculum developers need con-tact with teachers to get first-hand information about thesyllabuses or teaching material. To gauge the effective-ness of these materials, systematic evaluation is also of ut-most importance. Measures need to be taken to ensure thatteachers are informed of the evaluation results so thatsteps can be taken to remedy the situation.

One of the major constraints in curriculum develop-ment is the need for further streamlining of the curriculumdevelopment process. In the new framework, EDC’s rolewill shift more towards the management of curriculum de-velopment, while increasing the involvement of experi-enced teachers in the process. As teachers are thedeliverers of the curriculum at classroom level, effectiveimplementation largely depends on them.

Several reforms have already been introduced into thecontent and teaching methodologies of the national curric-ulum that came into effect in 1984. However, this curric-ulum now needs a major revision to adjust and strengthenit to enable our citizens to face the challenges of the twen-ty-first century. A major nationwide curriculum reviewactivity is planned for April 1999.

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FIGURE 1. Revision of social studies textbooks

One of the reforms recently undertaken in the area ofsocial studies can be illustrated the new syllabus de-signed for use at middle-school level. The new socialstudies syllabus is designed to try to cope with the ris-ing challenges arising from globalization.The textbooks based on the previous syllabuses forGrade 6 and 7 social studies were structured as fol-lows:

Grade 6—Social studies (published in 1986)Unit 1: The family.Unit 2: Comparative study.Unit 3: The community.Unit 4: Internationalism.Unit 5: Climatic regions.Unit 6: International links.Unit 7: Links by commerce to the international world.

Grade 7—Social studies (published in 1986)Unit 1: First Maldivians.Unit 2: Post-conversion.Unit 3: Independence of Maldives and our neighbours.Unit 4: The Republic.Unit 5: Resource development.Unit 6: Law and order.Unit 7: International relations.

Component 2: Economic activities and settlement pat-terns with special reference to Maldives.Aim of the component: Introducing students to eco-nomic geography, human geography and commerce.In introducing these disciplines, students are first re-quired to view the global background and then theMaldivian scene. This component deals with Main Ob-jective no. 5 in the Social Studies Syllabus.Unit 5: Some major economic activities in Maldives.Unit 6: Economic activities in Maldives.Unit 7: Population, environment and migration in Mal-dives.Unit 8: Introduction to commercial activities.

Component 3: Governments at home and abroadAim of the component: Understanding modern govern-ments in the global context and viewing the structureand development of government in Maldives.Unit 9: Modern statecraft.Unit 10: The structure of Maldivian government.

Component 4: Towards a global outlookAim of the component: Understanding the forces thathave shaped and are continuing to shape the globaloutlook of the contemporary world. Global outlook isa major theme for the whole syllabus and is an impor-tant feature in the history of humanity.Unit 11: 1. War and Peace in the twentieth century.Unit 11: 2. Interaction and regional organizations.

The textbooks based on the new syllabuses for Grade6 and 7 social studies are structured as follows:

Grade 6—Social studies (published in 1993)

Component 1—Earth the living planet.Unit 1: The universe, the solar system and planet earth.Unit 2: The atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.Unit 3: Weather and climate.Unit 4: Physical and political geography of the world.

Component 2—HumanityUnit 5: Astronomy, geography and navigation in theMaldives.Unit 6: Origins and development of human cultures.Unit 7: The world civilizations.Unit 8: Western civilization and the industrial revolu-tion.Unit 9: The space age.

Component 3—Human institutionsUnit 10: Society and culture.Unit 11: Languages and scripts.Unit 12: The religions of humanity.

Grade 7—Social studies (published in 1994)

Component 1: History of Maldives in the perspectivesof global developmentAim of the component: Viewing the history of Mal-dives against the background of global developments.Teachers should encourage students to always viewthe history of Maldives against the global backgroundand not as an isolated entity.Unit 1: The South-Asian heritage of early Maldives.Unit 2: Islam and the history of Maldives.Unit 3: Maldives and the advent of colonialism inSouth Asia.Unit 4: Nationalism in Asia and the Maldives in theTwentieth Century.

The Union of Myanmar is currently in the process oftransforming its political, social, economic and adminis-trative systems. In this context, the education system is be-ing transformed in order to meet changing societal needs.

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

In order to implement an education system that is compat-ible with the cultural, traditional, and social values of thecountry, and in keeping with an economic system that willfacilitate national development and nation-building, theGovernment of Myanmar has identified the followingmain objectives:l To enable every individual to acquire basic educa-

tion;l To base education on raising moral standards;l To develop knowledge, including the scientific and

technical know-how needed for nation-building;l To produce technicians, skilled workers and profi-

cient intellectuals with practical knowledge, who areloyal to the State and will contribute to nation-build-ing endeavours;

l To train citizens so that they will achieve all-arounddevelopment;

l To allow those with the requisite intellectual ability,calibre and industriousness to acquire a universityeducation;

l To offer undergraduate and post-graduate courses forthose who are working and thereby enable them tostudy during employment.

THE MYANMAR SCHOOL SYSTEM

The structure of the country’s formal school system is5+4+2, comprising a total of eleven years: five years at theprimary level; four at the secondary (middle) level; andtwo years at the upper secondary (high) level. All schoolsin Myanmar are State schools and follow the same central-ly prescribed curriculum. The admission age is 5 years.Tables 1 to 3 provide a current statistical overview of theeducation system.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTUREOF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Currently, there are nine departments under the Ministryof Education (MOE). In 1998, in order to manage the ed-ucation system more effectively, the Department of BasicEducation (DBE) was expanded into three departments.

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

45,100,000

1.3

5

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1995)Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

5,530,502119,94246:1

10010299

858585

–

–

80,000

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

1,800,000

303029

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) 5.2

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

838978

Myanmar

National aspects of curriculum decision-making

U Myint Aye and Daw Tin Kyi

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris

96

The Department of Educational Planning and Training(DEPT) has the main responsibility for the administrationand management of’ curriculum and textbooks, teachereducation and special projects. The curriculum section un-der the DEPT is responsible for the organization of curric-ulum development at the basic education level. A deputydirector and assistant director head the curriculum section.The science and the arts curriculum sections each haveone staff officer and one deputy staff officer. The curricu-lum section is also responsible for co-operating on and fa-cilitating the task of printing and distribution of textbooksand stationery for students of all levels.

With the enactment of the 1966 Union of Burma Ba-sic Education Law, the Basic Education Council (BEC),chaired by the Minister of Education, came into existence.A basic education curriculum, syllabus and textbook com-mittee has been established at the national level under theBEC. This committee is wholly responsible for curricu-lum development at all levels of basic education. Thefunctions of this national-level curriculum committee in-clude: drawing-up, scrutinizing and revising curricula andsyllabi; compiling and writing textbooks; preparing teach-ing aids; recommending types of performance assess-ments.

Subject area curriculum committees, headed by appropri-ate specialist professors, work under the direction of thenational curriculum committee. Members of the subjectcommittees include representatives from the MyanmarEducation Research Bureau, Institute of Education, teach-er education colleges and schools, subject experts and se-lected teachers. The DEPT deputy staff officers serve assecretaries for these subject curriculum committees,which are involved in: writing and compiling textbooks;preparing prototype teaching aids and materials andteacher’s manuals; designing test formats for performanceassessment; and revising the curriculum content in con-formity with policy changes. Other functions of thesecommittees involve: conducting in-service training for alllevels, whenever necessary; responding to inquiries aboutcurriculum and textbook matters; script-writing for educa-tional radio and television.

An overview of curriculum responsibilities—includ-ing those at the regional/provisional and school levels—isprovided in the chart entitled The curriculum: who makeswhich choices (see Table 4).

PRIMARY CURRICULUM REFORM

The main reasons for primary curriculum reform are todevelop and strengthen basic language skills and mathe-matical skills; foster good citizenship; promote socialjustice in all communities; and develop life skills forhealthy-living. To this end, the primary level curriculumhas been designed to assure coverage of three key do-mains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Subjectstaught at this level include: the Myanmar and English lan-guages, mathematics, basic science, general studies(which includes moral education and civics, life skillsand nature study), and social studies (which includes ge-ography, history, moral education, civics and life skills).

To date, new primary-level textbooks and teacher’smanuals have been designed, with training workshopsfor the teachers to be conducted in May 1999. Schools inYangon and Mandalay have been selected to field testthe new teaching/learning processes developed for gen-eral studies, social studies and basic science, usingmulti-media classroom settings.

Problems facing curriculum reforms

To date, there have been no major problems in the adap-tation of curricula (design, follow-up of the reforms) or indeveloping students’ textbooks and teacher’s manuals.However, some weaknesses have emerged in the utiliza-tion of teaching/learning materials in the classroom.

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99

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101

A number of high-level government documents guide thedevelopment of curricula. They include the SecondaryEducation Perspective Plan (1996–2011), the SecondaryEducation Action Plan (1997–2002) and a recent High-Level Education Commission Report (1998).

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTUREAND MECHANISMS IN CURRICULUM REFORM

The curriculum planned at the central level is modified byall the processes leading to its adoption. In the classroomat the secondary level most institutionalized activity iscentrally controlled.

Ministry of education

The task of initiating educational activities throughoutNepal lies with the Ministry of Education (MOE). TheMinistry is responsible for educational planning and man-agement, as well as in improving service delivery systemsacross the country. MOE is composed of three divisions:Planning; General Administration; and Educational Ad-ministration. Educational programmes and services areprepared by: the Curriculum Development Centre; theSecondary Education Development Centre; the DistanceEducation Centre; the Office of the Controller of Exami-nations; the National Centre for Educational Develop-ment; the regional education directorates and districteducation offices. From July 1999 a new structure will beimplemented with the formation of a Department of Sec-ondary, Education, containing a Primary and Basic Edu-cation Division and a Secondary and Higher SecondaryDivision. This will separate policy making from executiveactions.

The National Curriculum Council

A high-level National Curriculum Council (NCC),chaired by the Minister of Education, approves all curric-ula and guides the detailed developmental work of theCurriculum Development Centre (CDC) by setting opera-tional and administrative policy.

Technical Committees

The NCC forms ad-hoc technical committees when addi-tional advice is required. Matters concerning the rele-vance of curricula drafted by CDC may be referred to such

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education as apercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

21,500,000

2.9

5

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1994)1

Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1992)1

Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

2,800,00081,54439 :1

11012989

638046

27

48

1,000,000

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

91,000

374925

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) 5.2

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

284114

Notes:1. Last year available.

Nepal

Education policies, curriculum designand implementation at thegeneral secondary level

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris

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a technical committee if the NCC feels additional adviceis necessary.

Curriculum Development Centre

The CDC is responsible for the maintenance, transmissionand renewal of the school-level curriculum and is alsoconcerned with pre-primary education. (See below forfurther discussion of CDC).

The Secondary Leaving Certificate Board

The Secondary Leaving Certificate Board sets policiesand makes decisions relating to the School-Leaving Cer-tificate (SLC), which are then implemented by the Officeof the Controller of Examinations (OCE). A reformedSLC, with single subject certification is planned for July2001. The courses leading to this examination are to beimplemented from grade 9, beginning in July 1999.

The Secondary Education Development Centre

The Secondary Education Development Centre (SEDEC)is responsible for a range of in-service training activitiesat the secondary level. SEDEC operates through twenty-five secondary education development units at locations,which allow for national coverage. The training activitiesalso support the work of the Curriculum DevelopmentCentre and the OCE.

Janak Educational Materials Centre

The Janak Educational Materials Centre (JEMC), operat-ing as a public limited company, produces and distributesschool textbooks throughout Nepal. JEMC’s Board of Di-rectors is comprised of representatives from concernedministries and organizations.

THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT CENTRE

Responsibilities and activities

The CDC (see Figure 1) is responsible for the mainte-nance, transmission and renewal of the school educationcurriculum. The wide-ranging activities of the centre in-clude developing, revising and disseminating textbooksand teacher’s support materials. A programme of semi-nars and workshops supports these activities. CDC’s de-velopment and monitoring work is carried out byspecialized curriculum subject units, advised by curricu-lum subject specialist committees. Subject units coverlanguages, science and maths, social studies, health andphysical education. To support CDC’s activities, variousstudies and surveys are conducted on curriculum-relatedissues and problems. The activities of CDC give rise to awide range of relationships with other institutions. Themost important of these is with the teachers and student inschools, who are the immediate end-users of the centre’sproducts. CDC also incorporates a publishing unit.

The Publishing Unit (PU)

The PU (in collaboration with subject specialist units,their advisory subject specialist committees, subject ad-visers and consultants) sets textbook specifications. Ac-

cording to prescribed procedures, the PU also selectstextbook writers on the basis of: subject knowledge, class-room experience and sample materials reviewed by teach-ers/subject experts. A PU staff member serves as themanaging editor, and is responsible for briefing contract-ed writers and liaising closely with them to ensure qualityand schedule controls, until the camera-ready copy goes tothe printers. The PU manager also arranges distribution ofthe draft materials to be tested in schools and validated byteacher groups. The managing editor, unit specialist, sub-ject committee members, advisers and specialists all visitschools to collect comments which are subsequently re-layed to the writers.

Subject Advisory Committees

The role of these committees is to advise on the prepara-tion and revision of the curriculum, and the preparation,revision and evaluation of textbooks and teachers guides.The Curriculum Officers, as members of the committees,also participate in these activities and provide the secretar-iat that promotes the committee’s work. Sub-committeesare established to carry out specialist developmental in-puts. The subject committees cover Nepali, English, sci-ence, mathematics, social studies, and health, populationand environment (HPE).

Task Committees

Like the publishing unit, the task committees cut acrossthe boundaries of the various specialist units. Examplesare the formative assessment committee and the dissemi-nation committee. Task committees are formed to advisethe cross-boundary projects managing officer on policyand operational matters.

DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DESIGN,IMPLEMENTATION AND FOLLOW-UPOF CURRICULUM REFORM

Aims of secondary education

The general aims of secondary education (framed withinthe national goals of education, see Figure 2) are to: pro-duce healthy citizens who are: familiar with the nationaltradition, culture, social environment, democratic values;able to use language effectively in daily life; aware of sci-entific issues; creative, co-operative, industrious; able tocontribute to economic development.

The secondary curriculum

The lower secondary curriculum (grades 6, 7 and 8) andthe secondary curriculum (grades 9 and 10) are construct-ed with core subjects and optional subjects. The five low-er secondary core subjects are Nepali, English, math,science and social studies. The six secondary core subjectsare Nepali, English, math, science, social studies, health,population and environment (HPE).

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.

FIGURE 2. National goals of education

The National Goals of Education frame all the detailed technical work of curriculum development and should be re-flected in all documents and materials developed by the Curriculum Development Centre. The national educationgoals are to:l nurture and develop the personalities and inherent talents in each person;l instill respect for human values and the will to safeguard national and social beliefs so as to help develop a healthy

social unity;l help the individual to socialize, enhancing social unity;l help the individual keep his or her identity in the national and international context and to help him/her lead a so-

cially harmonious life in the modern world;l assist the modernization of the country by creating able manpower for its development;l teach the thoughtful protection and wise use of Nepal’s natural resources;l bring those who are underprivileged into the mainstream of the nation.

TABLE 1. Secondary school curriculum structure—general secondary school level

A. Option 1 paper subjects (any one)Languages: Nepali, Arabic, Avadhi, Bhojpuri, Bengalit,

Chinese, Hindi, Japanese, Maithili, Sanskrit, Tibe-tan, Persian, Hebrew, Urdit, English, French, Ger-man, Greek, Latin, Russian, Spanish. (Othernational languages of Nepal will be included in thecurriculum, provided that grammar books, teachingmaterials, etc., are available.)

Humanities, Social Science: history, geography, civics,economics, sociology.

Optional mathematics

B. Option 2 paper subjects (any one)Interdisciplinary: agricultural education, food science, ar-

chitectural education, industrial education, officemanagement and accounting, auditing, typing andshorthand, computer science, home science, handi-crafts painting, sewing and knitting, bamboo-work,dance, music, Ayurveda naturopathy, health andphysical education, Yoga education, photography,journalism, instrumentation.

Subjects Classes 9 and 10

Weightage Full Mark

1 Nepali 5 100

2 Mathematics 5 100

3 English 5 100

4 Science 5 100

5 Social studies 5 100

6 Health, Population and

Environment Education

4 100

7 Optional Paper I 5 100

8 Optional Paper II 5 100

����� 39 800

Secondary Education Development ProjectThe Secondary Education Development Project (SEDP)began in 1993. SEDP originally aimed at improving andreinforcing three subjects (English, science, mathemat-ics). In 1997, support to Nepali and social studies wasadded. SEDP also has the goal of reforming the examina-tion system and providing materials and equipment to se-lected secondary schools. The project has been providingsupport services through the Secondary Education Devel-opment Centre and the twenty-five training centres.

AccomplishmentsAs of July 1998, CDC had produced ten curriculum book-lets outlining the lower secondary curriculum (grades 6–8) and the secondary curriculum (grades 9 and 10) andcovering all core subjects therein. The curriculum andtextbooks for grades 6 (1996), 7 (1997) and 8 have beenprinted and distributed (1998). The lower secondary cur-riculum is being prepared for publication. However, Eng-lish is the only subject in which teacher’s guides have sofar been produced.

In July 1998, the National Curriculum Council(NCC) decided to restructure the curriculum of grades 9and 10, to allow for the inclusion of a new sixth core sub-ject, health, population and environment (HPE). Thisreduced English, Nepali, mathematics and science fromsix to five periods each week. The curriculum wasadjusted in line with the reduction of periods. The grade 9production schedule for textbooks and teacher’s guideshas now been separated from that of grade 10. The grade9 textbooks for the six core subjects were scheduled forprinting by the end of March 1999, while completion ofgrade 9 teacher’s guides was foreseen for the end of April1999.

CDC has formulated a seven-stage disseminationstrategy for the grades 9 and 10 curriculum. The firststage (approval) was completed in November 1998.Included in the strategy are: detailed planning, packagedevelopment, training of master facilitators and facilita-tors, training of head-teachers, cluster-based and school-based workshops. The full programme will be completedby the end of July 1999.

The Publishing Unit’s first textbooks are clearly of abetter quality than previous CDC/SEDP outputs. Theunit has also produced a four-page CDC bulletin of ahigh standard (February 1998) to publicize its activities,as well as a leaflet in English and Nepali. Textbooks havebeen monitored for gender, socio-economic and regionalequity.

DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGESIN THE DESIGN, IMPLEMENTATIONAND FOLLOW-UP OF CURRICULUM REFORM

While the capacity of CDC to handle complex tasks isclearly improving, the capacity to plan and to develop hu-man resources has certain constraints due to the rate ofstaff changeovers. This makes the institutionalization ofcurriculum development design processes very difficult.These staff changes are at all professional and administra-tive levels of the organization.

The same changes create problems of continuity andliaison with other organizations connected with theimplementation process. These institutions—DistrictEducation Offices, Regional Education Offices, OCE andSEDEC—also have high staff instability.

There are very few formalized follow-up activities,except by the SEDP BME Unit. These are mainly con-cerned with project evaluation.

REFORMING THE CURRICULUM WITH SPECIALEMPHASIS ON SOCIAL STUDIES

As described earlier all core curricula and many optionalsubjects have been changed in recent years. In the devel-opment of all core curricula there has been tension be-tween traditionalists and modernists, as well as betweennationalists and those in favour of globalization or widerhorizons—those who speak for ‘our values’ and thosewho speak of ‘global values’. Balancing these diverseviews is a problem for all curriculum developers. No cur-riculum subject can avoid these controversies. While inscience and mathematics the debate is narrower, in Eng-lish and Nepali there are different dimensions due to thesource of each individual language. Both of the two newersubjects—social studies and HPE—have proved to becontroversial in different ways (see Figure 2).

Translating the goals, general objectives and specificobjectives of the social studies curriculum into a usefultextbook proved difficult. Although there are manydimensions to the discussion, the fundamental debateconcerns whether education is about passing knowledgeor learning skills—or what is the balance between the

two. Members of the subject committee did not alwaysagree with those who set the framework for developingthe new textbook, creating what is hopefully a creativetension.

Those setting the framework for developing the newtextbook felt that the following factors are all importantin the writing of a new style textbook:l Each chapter should have clearlythought-out learn-

ing outcomes. These will include not only factualinformation for knowledge and understanding, butspecific skills such as interpreting a bar chart, locat-ing places of historical importance, presenting anargument in favour of a certain course of action andcollecting local data.

l The earlier textbooks mostly contained only factualinformation, followed by recall questions. The newtextbook must present information in different forms(text, statistics, pictures, photographs, diagrams,graphs and charts, maps, newspaper items, sourcedocuments) and provide challenging questions tohelp students understand, interpret, analyze and eval-uate the information.

l The textbook must include many project-relatedactivities, starting with simple tasks, and movingtowards longer projects. This will mean that most ofthe work studied has a local component and thus is ofgenuine relevance to the students. It will also meanthat students can experience research activities, gain-ing practical investigation and analytical skills, andlearning to present their findings. It will also helpthem to work together co-operatively.

l The students should be able to see what skills theyare learning in each chapter and gain a sense ofachievement and progress towards the school-leav-ing certificate (SLC). This may be done with a sum-mary of chapters or topics. The exercises given in thetextbook will not only test knowledge and under-standing, but will expect analysis and evaluation ofthe information, and well-thought-out answers. Theywill also need to encourage the practice of practicalskills and abilities. This will provide practice for newSLC-type questions.

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FIGURE 2. Social studies curriculum

Objectives. There are twenty-eight general objectives list-ed in the grades 9 and 10 social studies curricula. Highlyspecific objectives are listed for grade 9 (twenty-seven ob-jectives) and grade 10 (twenty-nine objectives).

Abilities. On achieving the course objectives, studentswill be able to demonstrate a wide range of abilities. Someexamples of the abilities associated with knowledge andunderstanding and practical abilities are as follows:

Ability 1: Knowledge and understanding.1. Describing projects in different zones and develop-

ment regions;2. Describing the achievements of Nepal in the fields of

education, health, transportation, telecommunica-tions, electricity and water supply;

3. Discussing the role of skilled manpower in the devel-opment of the infrastructure of Nepal;

4. Stating the role of international organizations in solv-ing social problems;

5. Explaining different climates and the elements thataffect them;

6. Giving a short introduction to the geo-economicactivities of continents;

7. Identifying the problems created by populationgrowth and migration and finding out ways to partici-pate in solving them;

8. Describing the physical features of the Earth; 9. Examining the impact of landslides on the physical

features of Nepal and participating in the task ofavoiding them;

10. Listing the agricultural products grown in the variousgeographical areas.

Ability 2: Practical abilities.1. Maintaining national dignity;2. Drawing a map of Nepal and filling in the main

industrial centres and roads;3. Demonstrating models in class;4. Analyzing the data presented in charts;5. Locating historical sites on a map;6. Investigating the problems of population growth;7. Appreciating the contributions of our national heroes;8. Applying the knowledge of social studies for the

good of society;9. Drawing a picture of the Himalayan region; 10. Recording the maximum rainfall of the month;11. Designing a research proposal to find out about social

evils.

Criteria. The new-style social studies textbook must bedeveloped so that students can be thoroughly prepared totake the new SLC examination. The textbook must helpthem not only to understand the content of the course, butalso to develop the necessary skills and ability to think crit-ically about the different topics. Thus, each chapter shouldhave clearly thought-out learning outcomes. These will in-clude not only factual information for knowledge and un-derstanding, but will also include specific skills such asthose outlined in the previous section. After studying thislesson the student will be able to:l interpret a bar chart; l locate places of historical importance; l present an argument in favour of a certain course of ac-

tion; l collect local data.

The earlier textbooks contained only factual information,followed by recall questions. To prepare for the new SLCexamination, the new textbooks must present informationin different forms (text, statistics, pictures, photographs,diagrams, graphs and charts, maps, newspaper items.source documents) and provide challenging questions tohelp students understand, interpret, analyze and evaluatethe information.As 30% of the new SLC marks will be given for project-style work to be carried out during the year, the textbookmust include many such activities; starting with simpletasks, and evolving to longer projects. This will mean thatmost of the material studied has a local component andthus is of relevance to the students. It will also mean thatstudents can undertake genuine research, and gain practi-cal skills in investigating, analyzing and presentating theirfindings. It will also help them to work together co-opera-tively in groups. Such tasks are illustrated below.

EXAMPLESl draw up a plan of your VDC, mark the water;l prepare a poster or a talk to stop young people from ex-

perimenting with drugs;l survey the type and number of animals kept in the local

community;l write and perform a short historical drama; l keep a record of local weather over a long period and

prepare a suitable display, such as a bar chart or graph.

The students should be able to see what skills they arelearning in each chapter and gain a sense of achievementand progress towards the SLC. This may be done with asummary of chapters or topics. The exercises given in thetextbook will not only test knowledge and understanding,but will require analysis and evaluation of the informationand well thought-out answers. They will also need to en-courage the practice of practical skills and abilities. Thiswill provide practice for new-type questions on the SLCexam.

107

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris

INTRODUCTION

Pakistan—governed under the Islamic, democratic, feder-al Constitution of 1973—is comprised of four autono-mous provinces: Punjab, Sindh, North-West Frontier andBalochistan. Education in Pakistan is essentially a provin-cial affair. However, education is considered to be a vitalsource of nation-building. Therefore, in order to ensurenational cohesion, integration and preservation of the ide-ological foundation of the State, certain educational func-tions are the responsibilities of the Federation—via theFederal Ministry of Education. These responsibilities in-clude: curriculum, syllabus, planning, policy and educa-tional standards. The 1976 Act of Parliament authorizedthe Ministry of Education (MOE) to appoint competentauthorities to perform the following curriculum-relatedfunctions:l In connection with the implementation of the educa-

tion policy of the Federal Government of Pakistan(GOP), prepare or commission: schemes for studies;curricula, textbook manuscripts and strategic sched-ules for their introduction in various classes of edu-cational institutions;

l Approve manuscripts of textbooks produced by otheragencies, before they are prescribed in variousclasses of an educational institution;

l Direct any person or agency in writing (within aspecified period) to delete, amend or withdraw anyportion, or the whole, of a curriculum, textbook orreference material prescribed for any class of an edu-cational institution.

Accordingly, a Central/National Bureau of Curriculumand Textbooks (NBCT, commonly known as the Curricu-lum Wing) was appointed to supervise curriculum andtextbooks development/approval and to maintain curricu-lum standards from the primary through to the higher sec-ondary levels. As a logical sequence to this action, fourcounterpart provincial curriculum centres (one in eachprovince) were established to ensure provincial collabora-tion and evolve consensus in all activities falling withinthe purview of the Federation. This initiative was fol-lowed by the establishment of four Provincial TextbookBoards (PTTB)—one in each province. Within their re-spective jurisdictions, these PTTBs are responsible forpreparing, publishing, stocking, distributing and market-ing school textbooks

Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Educationresponsible for conduct of examinations at Secondary(IX-X) and Higher Secondary (XI-XII) levels were also

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

136,260,000

2.8

5

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1995)Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(thousands) 1995

18,400,000–38 :1

7410145

313625

—

52

12,700,000

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

5,300,000

212813

Third-level enrolment ratio (1991)1 3.0

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

385024

Notes :1. Last year available.

Pakistan

Curriculum design and development

108

established at each of the divisional headquarters. Subse-quently, another institution was established—the Inter-Board Committee of Chairmen (IBCC)—with the follow-ing objectives: l To exchange information among the member boards

on all aspects of secondary and higher secondaryeducation;

l To achieve a fair measure of uniformity in academicevaluation standards;

l To promote inter-board curricular and extra-curricu-lar activities;

l To serve as a board chief executives’ discussion andconsultation forum for all matters relating to second-ary and higher secondary education development,and making suitable recommendations to the GOP;

l advise on and facilitate the exchange of teachers andstudents;

l perform such other functions as may be incidental orconducive to the attainment of the above objectives.

THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Reform

It may be noted that the process of curriculum reform inPakistan has been introduced as part of the successive se-ries of national education policies (Table 1).

TABLE 1. Education policy and curriculum reform cycle

The following six-phase strategy has been adopted for im-plementing curriculum change: 1. Evolution of curriculum objectives (by level);2. Development of scheme of studies (by level);3. Development of syllabus of each subjects;4. Development of textbooks/instructional materials;5. Review/approval of textual material;6. Teacher training.

Developing objectives

Curriculum objectives are basically derived from the rec-ommendations of National Education Policy, national lev-el seminars and other forums (e.g. forums of the Inter-Board Committee of Chairmen (IBCC) and research stud-ies conducted at provincial curriculum centres). TheNBCT prepares the draft of objectives; which are widelycirculated among the provincial institutions responsiblefor curriculum development, teacher training and exami-nation. Based on their views/comments, these objectivesare finalized. They are subsequently translated into thespecific teaching objectives for various subjects. Severalfactors are considered in finalizing curriculum objectives;

including the requirements that objectives should: (a) beprecise; (b) assist in the selection of teaching strategy; (c)produce (or contribute to) a designated behaviour pattern;(d) enable the teachers to measure or evaluate the qualityand effectiveness of learning.

The studies scheme

The scheme of studies is based on three key factors: (1)the national education policy; (2) market demand; (3) glo-bal issues that relate to new or contemporary education di-mensions. Task work in this area is undertaken with activeparticipation of the provincial government, research or-ganizations and experts; as well as feedback from the IB-CC.

Development of syllabi

Based on the objectives and scheme of studies, subjectspecific syllabi are prepared in consultation with: provin-cial curriculum centres; subject experts; and psychologistsand serving teachers. Collectively, they ensure that thesyllabi, in all respects, satisfy the following conditions:1. They are based on the needs of the learner/child;2. They take into account the existing knowledge and

environmental experience of the learner;3. The developmental level of the learner is considered

in the cognitive, effectiveness and psycho-motordomains;

4. The contents should be focused on attaining theobjective(s).

Textbook development

Provincial Textbook Boards (PTBB) are responsible fordevelopment of text-books according to the approved syl-labi. Established lists of textbook writers in various sub-jects are kept. From these lists, invitations are issued towriters to submit draft materials within the prescribed syl-labus parameters. Selections are made on the basis of thequality and relevance of materials submitted to local situ-ations. Finally, the selected materials are transformed intotextbooks; the final versions of which are sent to theNBCT for approval.

Review and approval

A National Review Committee, comprising five or sixmembers includes: at least one expert from the SyllabusFormulation Committee; two subject experts; two school-teachers (one teaching the relevant material and one froma teacher-training institute). On receipt of textual materi-als from PTBB, this committee conducts textbook reviewsbased on the following parameters: (a) the book truly re-flects the curriculum; (b) it meets the objectives stated inthe curriculum; (c) the book does not contain any materialrepugnant to Islamic and Pakistani ideology.

In the case of approval, the textbook is sent back forpublishing and distribution. In case of objection, the spe-cific complaints are relayed along with revision recom-mendations.

National Education Policy

Curriculum reform cycle

1972 1st Cycle, 1973-76

1979 2nd Cycle, 1982-85

1992 3rd Cycle, 1992-95

1998 4th Cycle, 1998-01

109

Teacher training

Teacher training for curriculum implementation is the ex-clusive responsibility of the provincial government. How-ever, it is now being stressed that each textbook must havea teacher’s guide—also approved by the NBCT. In somecases, assistance in the training of master trainers is pro-vided to provincial governments.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PITFALLS

Several major obstacles affecting the quality and effec-tiveness of the curriculum development process in Paki-stan are summarized below.

Expertise

Some serving teachers are, of course, involved in curricu-lum development. But notwithstanding their outstandingsubject area expertise, their contribution to the curriculumdevelopment is, for all practical purposes, nominal. Themain reason for this is that they lack the requisite exper-tise. The existing training programmes provide little expo-sure in this area, and the teachers’ academic qualificationsdo not necessarily contribute to curricular creativity.

Therefore, at best, the teachers are able to provideopinions about the compatibility between specific con-cepts or content and the intellectual development level ofthe children in a specific age group or grade. However,this guidance often reflects, in part, a particular situation

with which the teachers have been dealing (e.g. childrenfrom a rural background) and, in part, their own capabil-ity to render a specific concept comprehensible.

Textbook quality

Textbooks often do not reflect the curriculum. Of course,it requires considerable experience and skill to: translatethe curriculum in a style that covers the objectives; simul-taneously take into consideration the children’s languageproficiency and background knowledge; and concurrentlyarrange the content in a logical sequence in a stimulatingmanner. But the all-important self-assessment questionsor activities (especially questions focused on higher orderskills) are invariably missing.

Implementation and follow-up

The third problem is that there is lack of follow-up of ac-tual curriculum implementation in classroom practice.The curriculum actually implemented is generally differ-ent from the official curriculum document. The classroomteacher, who primarily focuses on the textbooks and as-sessment, does not take into account the educational ob-jectives. No evaluation of the implemented curriculum iscarried out; hence no feedback is received to revise thecurriculum. In short, each of the steps in the curriculumdevelopment process, as outlined above, tends to occur inisolation from the others and there is no visible coherentcurriculum development activity.

110

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Philippines

Curriculum development

Bella O. Mariñas and Maria Pelagia Ditapat

INTRODUCTION

����������legislation and ����

The education sector (along with other government agen-cies) has the task of contributing to the achievement of na-tional development goals espoused in the country’sdevelopment plan. The general purpose and goals of edu-cation in the Philippines have been cited in the nationalconstitution. Section 3(2), Article XIV of the Constitutionstates that:

All educational institutions shall inculcate patriotism andnationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for humanrights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in thehistorical development of the country, teach the rights andduties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual val-ues, develop moral character and personal discipline, en-courage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientificand technological knowledge and promote vocational ef-ficiency.

These goals have been translated into educational policiesand further elaborated as the basic (elementary and sec-ondary) education framework.

Elementary and secondary education

The 1982 Education Act identifies the aims of both ele-mentary and secondary education. For elementary educa-tion, the aims are: (a) to provide the knowledge anddevelop the skills, attitudes and values essential to person-al development and necessary for living in and contribut-ing to a developing and changing social milieu; (b) toprovide learning experiences which increase the child’sawareness of and responsiveness to the changes in and justdemands of society and to prepare him/her for construc-tive and effective involvement; (c) to promote and inten-sify the child’s knowledge of, identification with, and lovefor the nation and the people to which he/she belongs; and(d) to promote work experiences which develop thechild’s orientation to the world of work and creativity andprepare him/her to engage in honest and gainful work.

The regional level basic education aims and objectivesreflect those at the national level, but are modified to suitlocal conditions and concerns. For secondary educationthe aims are: (a) the provision of general education thatwas started at the elementary level; and (b) the preparationof students for college and/or the world of work.

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

67,800,000

2.2

6

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1992)1

Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

11,541,570–35 :1

107108107

908991

2

30

1,000,000

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

4,809,863

79––

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) 29.7

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

959594

Notes:1. Last year available.Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris

112

Curriculum policies and legislation

Curriculum policies are usually set forth by the Depart-ment of Education, Culture and Sports through various or-ders, circulars, memoranda and bulletins. They arealigned with national priorities and contribute to theachievement of development goals. However, severallaws passed by the national legislature specifically relateto the school curriculum: Section 3(10), Article XIV ofthe Constitution mandates the study of the PhilippineConstitution; Section 6, Article XIV, designates Filipinoas the language of instruction; Section 19(2), Article XIV,states that: ‘All educational institutions throughout thecountry shall undertake regular sports activities in co-op-eration with athletic clubs and other sectors’. RepublicAct No 4723 mandates music teaching in the schools. Themost recent curriculum-specific laws designate: (a)lengthening of the school calendar from 185 to not less

than 200 school days per school year; and (b) integrationof concepts on human rights, the environment, dangerousdrugs and computer education.

The Basic Education System

Basic education in the Philippines is free and compulsoryat the elementary level only. The basic education systemin the Philippines is composed of six years of elementaryand four years of secondary education—a total of tenyears. Compared to many countries, this is a relativelyshort time period. Filipinos complete their basic educationat the age of 16 or 17 years. They then proceed to institu-tions of higher learning to obtain a post-secondary voca-tional/technical institution degree or a certificate. Table 1provides a general overview of the country’s basic educa-tion situation.

Elementary and secondary schools are either govern-ment-supported or privately-funded. At the elementarylevel, the government schools constitute 92% of the total;at the secondary level, their share is 60%. The schoolyear in the Philippines begins on the first Monday of Juneand ends on the last Friday of March. The school year forthe elementary and secondary levels consist of not lessthan 40 weeks or 200 days. Class sessions are held Mon-day to Friday and the school year is divided into fourgrading periods.

Administrative structures of curriculum development

The education system is decentralized. The central/na-tional office is engaged in policy formulation; while theregional and the division offices are the implementingbodies. Supervision of schools is accomplished at the re-gional and sub-regional levels.

THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Administrative structures of curriculum development

Development of the basic education level curriculum isthe responsibility of the Central Office Bureau of Elemen-tary and Secondary Education, Curriculum DevelopmentDivisions. This bureau defines the learning competenciesfor the different subject areas; conceptualizes the structure

of the curriculum; formulates national curricular policies.These functions are exercised in consultation with otheragencies and sectors of society (e.g. industry, socio-civicgroups, teacher-training institutions, professional organi-zations, school administrators, parents, students, etc.).The subject offerings, credit points and time allotmentsfor the different subject areas are also determined at thenational level. In this sense, a national curriculum exists inthe Philippines. However, while curriculum implementation guidelinesare issued at the national level, the actual implementationis left to school-teachers. They determine the resources tobe used; teaching and assessment strategies and otherprocesses. Furthermore, schools have the option to modi-fy the national curriculum (e.g. content, sequence andteaching strategies) in order to ensure that the curriculumresponds to local concerns.

Language of instruction

A bilingual policy is in use whereby both English and Fil-ipino are instructional mediums. At the elementary level,English language, science and health are taught in Eng-lish; while Filipino, civics and culture, good manners andright conduct (GMRC/character education), home eco-nomics, livelihood education, music, art and physical ed-ucation are taught in Filipino. At the secondary level,English language, science, mathematics, technology andhome economics are taught in English; while social stud-

TABLE 1. The Philippine basic education system

Indicator Elementary Secondary Total

Number of schools 38,631 6,673 45,304

Enrolment 9,354,451 3,940,587 13,295,038

Number of teachers 334,822 146,102 480,924

Number of children per class

34 32

Enrolment rate 92.70% 62.25%

Source: Office of Planning Service, 1998

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ies, values education, physical education, health and mu-sic are taught in Filipino.

Curriculum designThe approach to curriculum design in the country is basedon content topic and competency. The Department of Ed-ucation, Culture and Sports (DECS) prescribes competen-cies for the subject areas in all the grade/year levels. TheDECS Bureau of Elementary and Secondary Educationdevelops, publishes and disseminates these learning com-petencies to the field. Most of the subject/learning areashave a list of learning competencies expected to be mas-tered by the children at the end of each grade/year leveland also at the end of elementary/secondary schooling.Some subject/learning areas have a combination of both(i.e. learning competencies under each content/topic). Thecurriculum is designed to be interpreted by teachers andimplemented with variations. Schools are encouraged toinnovate and enrich or adapt, as along as they have met thebasic requirements of the curriculum.

In this context, the regional science high schoolsoffer an enriched science and mathematics programmewhereby students take additional science and mathemat-ics subjects. In some private schools, English, scienceand mathematics subjects are taken in lieu of values edu-cation; this is because subjects like religion, moral valuesand ethics already have been incorporated. In addition,students are required to participate in co-curricular activi-ties. These are managed by students with the teacher asfacilitator/moderator (see Table 2).

Teaching methods and learning activities

The curriculum plan (learning competencies) does notpresent teaching methods and learning activities thatteachers must follow in implementing the curriculum. Theguiding philosophy is that the creativity of teachers isstimulated by the option to plan and use the appropriateteaching/learning activities independently. However,teacher’s manuals or guides do incorporate higher-levelcontent areas and suggestions for teaching and assessing.

Learning materials

Until 1987, the government directly managed and super-vised the production and distribution of textbooks andmanuals through the Instructional Materials DevelopmentCouncil (IMDC). However, this responsibility was trans-ferred to private publishers with the passage of the BookPublishing Industry Development Act (RA 8047). ThisAct also provided for the adoption of multiple rather thansingle textbooks. Currently, learning materials and text-books developed by the private sector are submitted for

evaluation to the Instructional Materials Council Secretar-iat (IMCS)—an agency attached to DECS. Approved text-books are listed in a catalogue from which school-teachersand principals select those that are to be purchased fortheir respective schools.

Other teaching/learning support materials available inthe schools include guides or manuals, teacher support/,workbooks for students, apparatus for science and tech-nology, and home economics, video and cassette tapes,educational computer software, charts, maps and models.All of these must also be submitted for evaluation at thenational level before they can be released for purchasedfor school level use.

Evaluation

At the national level, the National Educational Testingand Research Centre (NETRC) has the task of administer-ing the national achievement tests to students leaving theeducation sector. For grade VI this means administeringthe national elementary achievement test and, for year IV,the national secondary assessment test. The tests coverfive subject areas and are based on the elementary andsecondary level learning competencies. The examinationsare administered annually, towards the end of the schoolyear. The results provide the bases for policy formulationand educational reforms. At the regional and division lev-els, diagnostic and achievement tests are administered toa sample group depending on the availability of funds. Noexamination is required for admission to public secondaryschools.The purposes of the school-based assessments are: (a) toimprove the teaching/learning process; (b) to identify stu-dents’ strengths and weaknesses; (c) to determine the stu-dents’ subject area performance and/or achievementlevels and; (d) to report student progress to parents. Al-though there are four periods annually at both elementaryand secondary levels where students are examined in eachsubject, formative and summative evaluation are under-taken regularly. Paper and pencil tests are the most com-mon forms of examination in the schools.

ISSUES AND CONCERNS IN CURRICULUMDEVELOPMENT

Issues and concerns abound in almost every aspect of thePhilippine curriculum development and implementationprocess and at every bureaucratic level. Several of theseare described below. Table 4 provides an overview of thecurriculum decision-making process.

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Design

In addition to the fact that the Philippines has one of theshortest time spans for the completion of basic education,studies point to curriculum overcrowding. Every day,learners must study and do homework in seven of theeight subject areas. When combined with the learningcompetencies required for each grade/year level, this hasproven to be excessive. Reports that science and mathe-matics content cannot be completed in one school yearhave confirmed this observation. In this context, a backlogoccurs and a carry-over of the previous year’s content andcompetencies to the following school year adversely af-fects the teaching/learning process. Furthermore, thescope and sequencing of education (from elementary tosecondary level) have also been identified as design de-fects. Here, content and skills gaps—as well as overlapsand duplications—have emerged. While overlap and du-plication further aggravate the curriculum overload, thegaps have helped to produce elementary school graduateswho are not entirely ready for secondary school.

Frequently, the inability to limit the number of coreor basic subjects has led to curriculum overload. Thenational examinations are limited to the five subject areasof English, Filipino, science, mathematics and socialstudies. Very few concepts are included from other sub-ject areas. However, lobby pressure from professionalgroups to include or increase the time allotments for othersubjects has had an impact (i.e. subject area practitionerswho demand home economics teaching for both sexes, oran increased time allotment for physical education) withthe result that programming problems have occurred.

Implementation

For the nationwide implementation of the present schoolcurriculum, there has been massive training of school-teachers and orientation of school heads and supervisors.However, the national-level training of trainers’ pro-gramme was watered down at the regional and divisionlevels and this affected the school implementation.

Another major concern is the availability of instruc-tional materials—most of the time there are none or, ifavailable, they are inadequate. The instructional materialsdeficit includes not only the students’ textbooks andteachers’ manuals, but also science and vocational sub-ject facilities, equipment/apparatus and supplementaryteaching/learning materials. Other barriers to effectivecurriculum implementation are large classes, teacheravailability (for the specialized secondary subject areas)and quality of instructional supervision.

Follow-up

Three main concerns regarding the institutionalization ofcurriculum reforms are the quality of local leadership,monitoring and evaluation, and sustainability.

Local leadership is critical to a smooth reform imple-mentation. Since the local/field offices are the imple-menting bodies, institutionalization of the reform isdependent on their priorities and capabilities. Unfortu-nately, curriculum improvement is often a low priorityfor local education leaders. The result is curricular reform

misimplementation; or misinterpretation of guidelinesand procedures.

Monitoring and evaluation of curriculum implemen-tation are also key activities that are not effectivelyattended to. For example, not all the elementary schoolsare visited because there are so many of them. Also, thesecondary schools are seldom visited because supervisorsare unable to provide technical assistance on specializedsubject matter. While supervisors at the regional level aresubject specialists, those at the division level are mostlygeneralists.

Because most reforms are foreign-funded, post-fund-ing sustainability is usually a concern. Sustainability con-cerns encompass not only the financial aspects—rathermore frequently, it is the technical and managementaspects that are problematic. In most cases, the success ofa reform depends on the quality and feasibility of the pro-posals/plans for sustainability.

CURRICULAR REFORMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Reform rationale

The results of a comprehensive appraisal of the Philip-pines education system revealed that a great deal was de-sired as far as the quality of education�was concerned.There was a need for students to develop higher critical,logical thinking skills; communication skills, values de-velopment and/or general manual skills for higher educa-tion or the world of work.

It was also projected that, due to financial difficul-ties, students would remain in the government schoolsand families would begin to move away from the privateschools to less expensive public schools. Therefore, thepublic school sector had to be prepared to accept anyonewishing to complete basic education. The comprehensiveappraisal reports became the basic reference documentsfor improving the quality and efficiency of the educationsystem, and enhancing its utility in terms of access andequity.

Finally, it was recognized that, unless greatlyimproved, the system’s existing capacity would be unableto cope with the educational demands generated by theescalating competitiveness of a growing technologicalsociety. Thus, the curricular reforms were also under-taken in order to meet the constant new demands beingmade on the system.

Reform implementation

The reforms were implemented after project preparationwas undertaken (with the assistance of a foreign-fundingorganization). Two major initiatives were launched. Bothwere geared towards ������������� ��������������������improvements in education sector performance—duringand beyond the project cycle. New curricula, with masstraining of teachers, were components of the Program forDecentralized Education (PRODED) and the SecondaryEducation Development Program (SEDP) which focusedon the elementary and secondary levels, respectively.

The PRODED was funded with a loan from the Inter-national Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD). The project aimed to introduce improvements in

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policy, management and other sectoral concerns in orderto achieve greater efficiency and effectiveness in theoperation and administration of the elementary educationsystem. One of the sub-projects was curriculum develop-ment.

The SEDP was premised on the fact that thePRODED would bring about higher quality and anincreased secondary education student intake. After sixyears of implementation of the new elementary educationcurriculum, the 1989 elementary school graduatesbecame the first students for the new secondary educationcurriculum.

Outcomes

The reforms at the elementary and secondary levels havebeen implemented over the last fifteen and nine years, re-spectively. Current indicators are that PRODED andSEDP have indeed succeeded in improving the quality ofbasic education and in making the sector more effectiveand efficient in the delivery of basic educational services.

As for outcomes related to the implementation andmanagement of reform, the PRODED and SEDP havemeant added responsibilities and accountability for allthose involved—from policy makers to programmeimplementers and target beneficiaries. Mechanisms andstructures needed for the efficient implementation of the

reforms have been given priority. Competencies of thoseinvolved in curriculum development and implementationare upgraded regularly, so that they may discharge theirfunctions and responsibilities more effectively. Lessonslearned from the reform implementation are providinguseful baseline information for future reform and devel-opment programmes.

The curriculum is continuously undergoing refine-ment to ensure its relevance to changing needs anddemands. The ongoing basic education curriculumreview has provided for more indepth indigenization/localization of the curriculum and integration of informa-tion technology or multimedia resources in the teaching/learning process. Benchmarking has provided valuableand reliable data about school and student performance.At this point in time, significant improvements in thelearners’ and schools’ performances have been recorded.See Table 2 for an overview of curricula.

Future prospects

In the context of international assessments, the education-al performance of the Philippines still needs a lot of im-provement. The need for the curriculum to developstudents who are globally competitive is another factorwith which the educational sector will have to contend inthe future.

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Sri Lanka

Curriculum design and implementationfor upper primaryand general secondary educationA. Karunasinghe and K.W. Ganasundara

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTUREOF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

In Sri Lanka, the Ministry of Education and the NationalEducation Commission are responsible for all curriculum-related policy making. However, the National Institute ofEducation (NIE) has the overall responsibility for curric-ulum design and development, preparation of syllabi,teacher’s guides and textbooks. A council empowered totake all policy and high-level administrative decisions onmatters coming under its purview governs the NIE. Itsstaff consists of curriculum teams of specialist officersand is augmented by teacher educators and teachers sec-onded for service to the respective teams. Consultationtakes place during the curriculum development processand subsequent implementation, with subject specialistsand professionals outside of NIE, as well as affected par-ties, (i.e. teachers, students, parents and prospective em-ployers).

EDUCATIONAL GOALS

Sri Lanka’s educational goals can be summarized as fol-lows:l To develop and understand the cultural and religious

heritage and the democratic traditions of the country,as well as an appreciation of the contributions madeby the different ethnic groups to the national culture;

l To develop a basic understanding of the environmentand skills relevant to the needs of life and society;

l To cultivate an appreciation of the arts, literature andscience;

l To develop attitudes conducive to harmonious rela-tions among the different ethnic groups;

l To promote moral, spiritual and physical develop-ment;

l To inculcate a sense of commitment to nationaldevelopment;

l To develop and promote a system for the acquisitionof technical knowledge and vocational skills to meetthe manpower needs of the country;

l To promote lifelong education and knowledgerenewal through programmes of formal and non-for-mal education;

l To promote the democratization of education.

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

17,900,000

3.0

11

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1995)Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

1,962,49870,53728 :1

113114112

100100100

2

2

–

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

2,300,000

757178

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) 5.1

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

909387

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris

120

PRE-REFORM EDUCATION SYSTEMAND CURRICULUM

Prior to the education reform initiatives in Sri Lanka, theformal pre-tertiary education system consisted of fourstages: primary: grades 1-5; junior secondary: grades 6-8;senior secondary: grades 9-11; collegiate: grades 12-13.There was a commonly prescribed curriculum for grades1 to 11.

The lower primary stage was characterized by ahighly integrated curriculum (first language, mathemat-ics, environmental studies, creative-aesthetic activities,and religion). In the upper primary stage, the curriculumwas semi-integrated, with more emphasis on subjectcompetencies. At this level, a beginning science courseand English as a second language were introduced.

At the secondary stage, the curriculum consisted ofthe following subjects, some of which were inter-discipli-nary in nature: religion, first language, English, mathe-matics, integrated science, social studies, and history,aesthetic education and a life-skills/technical subject. Atthe end of grade 11 (which is also the end of general edu-cation) the General Certificate of Education OrdinaryLevel (GCE ‘O’-Level) examination is administered.

EDUCATIONAL REFORM

A new structure for primary education

The Sri Lankan education system is now in the process ofbeing restructured and a number of curriculum reformsare planned or are already underway. A new primary levelstructure intended to be more suitable to the proposed cur-riculum reform is being implemented. As a result of thischange, grades 1-5 will constitute a ������� ������ ��������. Under this framework, the primary cycle is dividedinto three��� ��������(KS): KS-1, grades 1 and 2; KS-2,grades 3 and 4; and KS-3, grade 5.

Objectives of the reform

The new, reformed primary education programme objec-tives listed below have evolved from the larger frameworkof national education goals, namely: l development of a child-centred curriculum; l development of essential as well as desirable compe-

tencies during the key stages;l training of primary grade teachers to implement the

revised curriculum;l provision of adequate facilities and materials to all

primary schools;l establishment of an equal opportunity network

throughout the country.

The new curriculum

The reforms will see the countrywide introduction of ahighly integrated curriculum at the lower primary stage,with the subject-area environment-related activities,which encompasses several disciplines. Another notable

modification related to integration of content is the intro-duction of activity-based oral English in KS-1. The objec-tive is to create a classroom environment where childrenand teachers use a mix of mother tongue and conversa-tional English. Appropriate vocabulary will be developedthrough activity learning and games. Additionally, there isa provision for co-curricular work in all the key stages.

The number of subject areas in the curriculum is nowbeing limited to four: (1) languages; (2) mathematics; (3)religion; and (4) environment-related activities. In thelanguages component, the formal teaching of English,beginning with KS-2, is being introduced; as well as asecond national language (Sinhala/Tamil)-from KS-3.

In the past, even at primary level, the content of sub-jects received the greatest emphasis. However, nowadaysthe focus will be placed on competencies that children areexpected to have acquired at the end of their general edu-cation (Table 1). This new curriculum establishes a com-prehensive set of basic competencies in communications,ethics and religion, environment, learning, enjoymentand leisure. Entry competencies will also be identified,using specially designed assessment instruments, ena-bling the grade 1 teacher to cater more effectively to chil-dren’s individual needs. Furthermore, the essentialcompetencies that children are expected to have masteredat the end of each key stage will be identified and thisinformation made available to teachers. Teachers will beencouraged to ensure that at the end of each KS, almostall children in their class have reached the mastery levelin the essential competencies, with special emphasis onfirst language and mathematics. In this context, the prac-tice will be to assign the same class teacher for KS 1 andKS 2.

The new teaching/learning methodology will incor-porate an appropriate mix of play, activity and deskwork,the proportion of each component varying gradually withsuccessive grades. The new curriculum also incorporatescross-age play and activity opportunities, where KS-1children interact with children from grade 6.

There will be continuous classroom-based assess-ment, with increased emphasis on the use of informalmethods. This represents an attempt to deviate from pastassessment techniques (which encourage comparativestudent achievement) and move towards criterion-refer-enced assessment techniques. Entry competency tests forgrade 1 and terminal competency tests at the end of eachkey stage will be developed.

The remaining tasks to be carried out include: prepa-ration of a classroom-based evaluation framework; devel-opment of training material; and the training of teachersand supervisors. A booklet will be produced on improv-ing testing techniques. Also, a research committee will beset up to carry out action research, surveys and evaluationon special areas, such as group work, multi-grade, multi-level teaching, gifted children and on-going aspects ofthe curriculum development process, including teachertraining.

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TABLE 1. New primary stage competencies

Communications: comprises three subsets: literacy (listening attentively; speaking clearly; reading with under-standing; writing accurately and lucidly); numeracy (using numbers: counting, calculating, measuring system-atically); graphics (making sense of line, form; expressing and recording details, instructions, ideas, with line,form and colour).

Environment: comprises three parts: social (social awareness and relationships, personal conduct, rights, responsi-bilities, duties and obligations); biological (awareness, sensitivity and skills linked to the living world, man andthe ecosystem.); physical (awareness, sensitivity and skills relating to space, energy, fuels, matter, materialsand their links with human life. Also included are the skills in using tools to shape and form materials for livingand learning).

Ethics and religion: comprises values and attitudes deemed essential for individuals to assimilate, so that they mayfunction in a manner consistent with the ethical, moral and religious modes of conduct.

Play and leisure: related to human emotions that find expression in play, sports and various leisure pursuits essen-tial for mental and physical well-being. They are also connected with such values as: co-operation, team work,healthy life and work competition. Also included are aesthetic and creative activities.

Learning to learn: related to human needs in a rapidly changing, complex, crowded world where learning willrequire constant review and updating. Includes developing skills of awareness, attentiveness, and perseverance.The information revolution has rendered this competency essential.

Resource materials

A steering committee will decide on the content and lay-out of textbooks and select the panel of writers who willbe registered with the National Institute of Education(NIE). Books will be reviewed by a panel and approved bythe steering committee prior to publication. Additional re-source materials for primary classes will be prepared at thelevel of the school, the resource centre and the provincewith NIE assistance. The Education Publication Depart-ment (MOE) and NIE are collectively responsible forprinting and distributing teaching and resource materials.

Implementation schedule

The new primary curriculum was introduced in 1998 as apilot project in grade 1 of Gampaha district, and intro-duced to the whole country during 1999. It will be pro-gressively implemented at each grade level, terminating ingrade 5 by 2003.

Teacher education

A profile of the primary school-teacher will be developedbased on the vision of the primary school for the twenty-first century. Essential teacher competencies and attitudeswill be identified and a new pre-service teacher educationcurriculum and training materials developed. The staff ofcolleges of education and other teacher-training instituteswill undergo orientation programmes. Each training col-lege will adopt a problem-solving school in its catchmentarea in order to conduct field-based activities. In-servicetraining of primary teachers will be an integral part of thereform. The Master Teacher Programme will be strength-ened.

School managers

As the primary section forms a part of the main school inSri Lanka, an assistant principal or a senior teacher willbe entrusted with responsibility for the primary section ofthe main school. In schools where there is a large numberof pupils, additional adequate supervisory assistance willbe provided (i.e. sectional or grade co-ordinators). Antic-ipated school-level management tasks include: establish-ing a primary education development committee;strengthening parent/community relations; formalizingcollaboration with neighbouring schools through the for-mation of school families; developing and implementingan internal supervisory mechanism for teacher self-eval-uation, as well as collegial peer evaluation.

Provincial administration

The provincial administrative structure will also bestrengthened, with a separate primary education divisionin the Provincial Department (PPEU) being establishedunder a senior officer. The appointment of officers re-sponsible for primary education at the zonal level operat-ing under the PPEU is also foreseen, as well as thecreation of primary education development committeesin both provinces and zones, comprised of principals,teachers, parents and community leaders.

Public awareness

This will be carried out through a mass media publicityprogramme involving newspapers, radio and TV and tar-geting school staff, parents, influential youth groups aswell as the general public.

122

123

FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR CURRICULAR REFORM

Junior secondary stage

In the near future it is projected that grades 6-9 will con-stitute the junior secondary stage of education, therebyfunctioning as the upper section of the junior school.Grade 6 will become the����������year between the inte-grated curriculum of primary school and the subject basedcurriculum of secondary school. It will serve to inculcatethe necessary study skills for secondary education whilereinforcing the essential competencies to be acquired dur-ing the primary cycle, particularly in language and math-ematics. The syllabi in grade 6 will be revised to meetthese requirements.

There will be a common curriculum at this stage,comprising 9 subjects: first language, English, mathemat-ics, science and technology, social studies, life skills, reli-gion, aesthetics, health and physical education. (Theteaching of a second national language, i.e. Sinhala forTamil speaking students and Tamil for Sinhala speakingstudents will also be introduced at this level -when teach-ers are available.)

At the end of grade 9, a school-based examination,the Junior School Proficiency Examination, will testpupil achievement and result in the issue of a certificate.

Teaching methodology will emphasize learningthrough projects and practical work, as spelt out in thesection on practical skills education. Concepts on peaceeducation, conflict resolution, democratic values, humanrights and environmental conservation will be integratedinto social studies and other relevant subject content.

Implementation plan

The revision of syllabi and course guides, training ofteachers and provision of facilities were scheduled to befor completion at grade 6 level in 1998 and for implemen-tation in January 1999. Reforms will be progressively in-troduced to grades 7 and 8 with the grade 9 curriculumrevised in line with the new GCE “O” level curriculum.

Senior secondary stage

The present curriculum at this level is oriented to the GCE(OL or AL) examinations. The programme covers a peri-od of 3 years; namely grades 9,10,11 for GCE (OL) and 2years for GCE (AL) Collegiate level grades 12-13.

At present, the GCE (OL) compulsory curriculumconsists of the following subjects (some of which areinter disciplinary in nature): religion, first language, Eng-lish, mathematics, integrated science, social studies andhistory, aesthetic education and life skills/technical sub-jects. In grade 9, students select 1 vocational type course(out of 53 such courses). In grades 10-11, 1 technical sub-ject may be chosen from several options.

Under the proposed revisions, the time period forsenior secondary education will be reduced to 2 yearswith classes designated grades 10 and 11. The curriculumwill be made more flexible with the introduction of anumber of core subjects and a number of optional sub-jects. Core subjects will be: religion, first language, Eng-lish, mathematics, science and technology, social studiesand history, aesthetic studies. Students will be permittedto select up to 3 optional subjects from the following:Sinhala/Tamil as a second language, history, geography,health and physical education, literature (Sinhala/Tamil/

TABLE 3. Number of periods for subjects/subject areas for grades 6 to 11

Subject Number of forty-minute periods per week

Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11

Religion 3 2 2 2 2 2

First language 5 5 5 5 5 5

English 5 5 5 5 5 5

Maths 5 6 6 6 6 6

Environmental studies 9 — — — — —

Science & technology — 6 6 6 6 6

Aesthetics 4 3 3 3 3 3

Sinhala/Tamil asa 2nd language

2 2 2 2 — —

Social studies/history — 5 5 5 5 5

Life skills — 3 3 3 — —

Technical subjects — — — — 4 4

Groups activities 3 — — — — —

Additional subjects — — — — 4* 4*

Total periods per week 40 40 40 40 40 40

124

English), modern or classical languages, technical sub-jects (from the list of approved technical subjects).

Under the reform, grade 11 remains the end of thegeneral education for all stages. Students sit for the Gen-eral Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE-OL)examination, which is a centrally planned, nationalschool leaving examination. Only those students whoachieve certain prescribed GCE-OL standards are permit-ted to enter the collegiate stage (about 25-30% of stu-dents).

Improving English language teaching in Sri Lanka

A special effort is being made to improve English lan-guage skills as it is realized that a better knowledge ofEnglish will improve employment opportunities and facil-itate communication with the outside world. TheEnglisanguage teaching programme will be upgraded toprovide opportunities for pupils island-wide to have equalaccess to English learning for comprehension and com-munication. Teachers of English will be provided with op-portunities and incentives to improve their proficiency inEnglish and skills in teaching English.

125

INTRODUCTION

The year 2000 will be a year of learning reform in Thai-land. In the previous decade, economic growth based onindustrial production was rapid, but did not enhance theoverall quality of life for the majority of the population.The current economic crisis has heightened the need foreducational reform so that citizens are better equipped tocope with present socio-economic demands.

GOALS

Primary education in Thailand aims at developing thequality of life of learners so that they can properly servesociety, assuming their roles and responsibilities as goodcitizens under a democratic constitutional monarchy. Toachieve this goal, each learner is to be equipped with thebasic knowledge and skills necessary for: daily living; ad-justment to social changes; good physical and mentalhealth; effective work and happy, peaceful living.

THE PRIMARY CURRICULUM

The objectives of the primary curriculum are to provide:(a) basic education for all; (b) experiences useful for dailyliving; and (c) education for national unity with commonpurposes. In this context, local authorities are given theopportunity to develop part of the curriculum—renderingit suitable for local conditions and needs.

The curriculum experiences provided for learnerscomprise five areas: 1. tool subjects: Thai language and mathematics; 2. life experiences: the process of solving social and

daily life problems (with an emphasis on scientificprocess skills for better living);

3. character development: activities necessary fordeveloping desirable habits, values, attitudes andbehaviours leading to an acceptable character;

4. work-oriented experiences: general and practicalwork experiences and basic knowledge for careerpreparation;

5. special experiences: activities based on learners’interests.

Area 5 is provided for learners in grades five and six only.Experiences provided may include knowledge and skillsselected from the other four areas or activities based onlearners’ interests, i.e. English for everyday life. Schoolsmay select as many activities as desirable. The curriculum

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

58,200,000

4.1

6

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1995)Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

5,961,855–20 :1

87––

979897

12

20,000

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

3,794,290

55––

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) 20.1

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

949692

Thailand

Curriculum planning, development and reform

Kiat Ampra and Chadjane Thaithae

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris

126

aims to develop the following skills, knowledge and atti-tudes in learners,1. Basic learning skills, retention of literacy and mathe-

matical skills;2. Knowledge and understanding about self, the natural

environment and social changes;3. Ability to take care of personal and family health;4. Ability to identify causes of personal and family

problems and to apply scientific reasoning skills tosuggest ways and means of solving them;

5. Pride in being Thai, unselfishness, fair-mindednessand the ability to live happily with others;

6. Habits of reading and lifelong learning;7. Basic knowledge and work skills, good work habits

and the ability to work co-operatively with others;8. Knowledge and understanding of social conditions

and changes at home and in the community; ability tocarry out the roles as a good family and communitymember; a sense of responsibility to conserve anddevelop the environment; to promote religion, artsand culture in the community.

Time allotments

The total time allotment for the primary curriculum isabout six academic years, with not less than forty weeksfor each academic year and not less than twenty-five hoursor sevety-five periods per week. The time allotted for eachperiod is twenty minutes. Collectively, learning periodscannot be less than 200 days or 1,000 hours. See Table 1for details.

TABLE 1. Approximate time allotments in the primary curriculum

Approximate time allotments: primary curriculum

Grades 1–2 Grade 3 Grades 5–6

% Periods/year % Periods/year % Periods/year

Tool subjectsLife experiencesCharacter developmentEducation for work

50152510

1,500450750300

35202520

1,050600750600

25252030

750750600900

Total 100 3,000 100 3,000 100 3,000

Special experiences — — — — — 600

Note: There are three periods of twenty minutes in one hour.

IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

To achieve the educational aims, curriculum orientationguidelines have been established as follows:1. Organizing teaching/learning activities that:l Are relevant to conditions and needs of the communi-

ties by providing opportunities for local authorities todevelop part of the curriculum, as well as instruc-tional aids appropriate to their localities that arelearner-centred, making the activities relevant to thelearners’ needs and living conditions and providingequal opportunities for them to develop according totheir respective abilities;

l Maximize linkages and integration of subject matter,the learning experiences within each area andbetween different experience areas;

l Emphasize learning processes, logical and creativethinking and group processes;

l Promote learning by doing and emphasize develop-ment of concepts in all areas of experience.

2. Organizing research studies, follow-up and continu-ous remedial teaching;

3. Regularly integrating moral education and desirablevalues into the teaching/learning process, as well as inextra-curricular activities;

4. Organizing an environment and general climatewithin the school conducive to learning and to thepractical activities of learners.

MEASUREMENT, EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP

School administrators and classroom teachers are respon-sible for measurement, evaluation and follow-up in orderto determine mid-year and end-of-year learner promo-tions. Teachers are expected to carry out formative andsummative evaluations periodically based on subject con-tent and experiences, in conformity with the Ministry ofEducation’s prescribed evaluation regulations. However,for the area of special experiences, measurement and eval-uation are designed to assess learners’ involvement in ac-tivities and are not used as criteria for class promotion.

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Goals and aimsSecondary education also aims to improve the learner’squality of life and serves as the basis for further education.It should: (a) help learners discover their own abilities, ap-titudes and interests; (b) provide a general education as thebasis for securing honest occupations or further education;and (c) respond to the needs of the localities and the nation.Based on these aims, the curriculum is designed to permitlearners to develop the following characteristics:1. Knowledge and skills in general education subjects

and the ability to keep up with academic advances;2. The ability to maintain and enhance personal and

community health and hygiene;3. The ability to analyse community problems and

choose suitable alternatives for solving them—takinginto account various limitations;

1

27

4 Pride in being Thai; ability to live in peace with oth-ers and to willingly help others—within the limits ofone’s capability;

5 Creativity, ability to devise and improve practiceswhich will bring about individual and communityprogress;

6 Good attitudes towards all kinds of honest occupa-tions; love of work and ability to choose occupationsrelevant to one’s aptitudes and interests;

7 Basic skills for carrying out honest occupations;skills in management and in working co-operativelywith others;

8 Understanding social conditions and changes inone’s community; the ability to suggest ways of com-munity development; pride in assuming one’s roles,duties as a good community member; knowledge ofhow to conserve and develop the environment, reli-gious and cultural heritage of the community.

IMPLEMENTATION CRITERIA

This revised edition of the lower secondary school curric-ulum has the following main features:

DurationThe full course requires approximately three years or sixsemesters. Each academic year is divided into two semes-ters, with twenty weeks per semester. A school may offera summer semester, as deemed appropriate. Each weekconsists of no less than five learning days, at least sevenperiods per day (one period is fifty minutes long). At leastthirty periods per week are to be allocated to regularteaching/learning in accordance with the curriculum.

Learning units/creditsOne unit is given to any subject requiring two learning pe-riods per week per semester. Subjects requiring more orless than two learning periods are assigned appropriateproportional units.

���������������� free elective coursesThe learners must take compulsory and free electivecourses as specified in the structure of the curriculum.Learners may choose only one foreign language.

Evaluation of learningEvaluation of learning and transfer of credits must con-form to the Ministry of Education’s regulations.

Criteria for course completionThe completion requirements are: (a) ninety units of com-pulsory and free elective courses as specified in the curric-ulum and satisfactory learning outcomes for all subjects;(b) passing the Thai language and social studies core com-pulsories; (c) obtaining a minimum of eighty units; (d)participating in the curriculum specified activities with atleast 80% attendance and having satisfactorily achievedall the major objectives of the activities.

Organizational structureTable 3 provides an overview of the key agencies in-volved in curriculum development and implementation ateach level of the system as well as their respective rolesand responsibilities.

TABLE 2. The secondary curriculum

1. Compulsory courses: 57 learning units (credits)

Credits

Core compulsoriesThaiSciencesMathematicsSocial studiesHealth and physical educationArt education

39 units12 units9 units6 units6 units3 units3 units

1.2 Elective compulsories: 18 units (credits)

Social studiesHealth and physical educationWork education

6 units6 units6 units

2. Free elective courses:To be selected from the following—33 units

2.1 LanguagesThaiForeign languages

2.2 Sciences/mathematicsSciencesMathematics

2.3 Social studies

2.4 Personality developmentHealth and physical educationArt education

2.5 Work and vocationVocational education

3 Activities in accordance with the Ministry of Education’s regulations are to be organized in educationalinstitutions under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education

3.1

3.23.3

3.4

Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Red Cross Youth,Girl GuidesExtra-curricular activitiesGuidance/remedial education or academicdevelopment activitiesIndependent activities

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129

CURRICULA ADAPTATION: OUTCOMESAND ISSUES

Implementation

The most important problem here is how to change learn-ing and teaching behaviours. According to the curriculumorientation guidelines, teachers should be focusing on: (a)integrating content from daily life; (b) making greater useof activities, rather than textbooks; (c) using differentlearning materials in a variety of ways; (d) making stu-dents the centre of learning activities; and (e) reducing ex-planation and helping students ��������� knowledge fromvarious sources. But in the real classroom situation, theteacher-centred approach still dominates. Basically,teachers still dictate to students and still place emphasis ontextbook content. Few teaching materials are used.

Some of the reasons for this are: (a) teachers areafraid that students cannot obtain the necessary funda-mental knowledge through activities; (b) current assess-ment techniques still emphasize knowledge andunderstanding; (c) entrance examinations to the second-ary level and higher education is still based (mainly) onsummative knowledge, as opposed to other abilities; and(d) it takes more time to prepare and teach according tothe designated teaching/learning curriculum orientations.It is anticipated that all these problems will be solved inthe forthcoming process of reforming curriculum andlearning activities.

Follow-up

The follow-up of curriculum implementation is not beingadequately undertaken because of an insufficient numberof external supervisors. In fact, this task is poorly imple-mented, because the external supervisors’ innovations andmethods do not relate well to real school situations. Thereare some internal supervision problems as well; theschool principals have little understanding of curriculumand teaching methods, and they tend to pay less attentionto academic development. Furthermore, most of theteachers have negative attitudes toward internal supervi-sion.

FUTURE PROSPECTS

The Thai primary and lower secondary curricula havenow been in use for over twenty years. Since (in principle)curriculum development is related to socio-economic con-ditions, this means that the curricula in use still relate (forthe most part) to the social conditions prevailing in1978—the date when they were initially adopted. (Not-withstanding, there were two subsequent revisions to thelower secondary curriculum in 1990). As mentioned at theoutset, it is in this context that Thailand plans to imple-ment major reform of the curriculum and learning activi-ties, beginning in 2000.

The post-reform education system

Goals. The reforms will emphasize:

l Providing basic education for all (especially theequality of being);

l Providing education for adjusting oneself placidly tothe changing society and creating social learning;

l Providing education that embraces internationalnorms (i.e. using high technology, respecting humanrights; being generous to children, women; facingnew problems, etc.).

Structure. To achieve the objectives, the structure of theschool system will be reorganized, in concert with reformsto the basic education curriculum and learning activities.It is expected that the class levels will be grouped into thefollowing four sections:l first grade-third grade;l fourth grade-sixth grade;l seventh grade-ninth grade;l tenth grade-twelfth grade.

����������The basic education curriculum will focus ondeveloping the learners’ emotional, physical, social andmental capacities, resulting in the following characteris-tics for each individual:l high ethical conduct and values, and the ability to

work and live happily in both Thai and global soci-ety;

l good health, well-rounded personality and a sense ofaesthetics;

l the ability to think, solve problem and adopt a verybroad vision;

l knowledge, good skills and capacity for lifelonglearning;

l a sense of nationalism and good citizenship (for asystem based on a democratic monarchy);

l creativity, ability to participate competently in theglobal society.

Curriculum orientations. There will be four main orienta-tions: (1) learning details: self-development, art educa-tion, social studies, Thai language, mathematics, scienceand technology, work-oriented experiences, foreign lan-guages; (2) organizing learning details: focused on basicand selected local needs—also on knowledge, skills ethicsand values; (3) projects—this is a key component consist-ing of project work for learning and meeting students’interests; (4) social activities focused on social develop-ment.

Teaching/learning approach. The main thrust will beon effectively using the child/student-centred approach.Teachers will design relevant activities by which studentscan themselves construct and follow up knowledge. Thiswill include activities designed: (1) to cater to individualstudents’ needs and abilities; (2) to permit students toselect options according to their own interests; (3) toorganize extra-school and classroom-based teaching andlearning activities; (4) to facilitate student-lead learningactivities with teachers acting as advisors and facilitators;(5) to evaluate individual student progress (based onauthentic assessment, as well as student self-assess-ments).

130

BACKGROUND

Rationale for educational reform

In April 1991, the seventh Congress of the CommunistParty of Viet Nam put forward a new national programmeand strategy for socio-economic stabilization designed tobuild a prosperous, powerful, just and civilized society forall citizens. This renovation programme is expressed inthe shift from a subsidy-based economic mechanism to amarket-oriented one, the development of an open, multi-sector, and socialist-oriented economy, under State man-agement.

Educational reform in Viet Nam is intricately linkedto this major national initiative whose goals require asupportive, reinforcing education programme. The exist-ing socio-economic, political and cultural climate of thecountry call for a redesign of educational objectives, con-tents and methods, in order to meet the human resourceneeds for the projected industrialization and moderniza-tion period. The aim is to complete the basic moderniza-tion and industrialization of the country by the year 2020.Viet Nam seeks to join with the international community,while still preserving and developing its national tradi-tions.

Reforms to curricula have come about not only dueto recognition by the government of these global pres-sures, but also due to the demands of teachers, pupils andparents who are aware of the outdated nature of the cur-riculum and the need for on-going curriculum change.Previously, the curriculum had been designed to endurewithin a long-term perspective: the primary curriculumfor about twenty years; and the secondary for over tenyears. This is therefore only the third reform, the firsttook place in the 1950s, the second, in the 1970-80s. Educational aims

In the draft Education Act (submitted to the National As-sembly in December 1998) the national educational aimsare broadly stated as:

Forming and fostering the personality, quality and abilityof citizens; training working people who: are faithful tothe ideal of national independence and building of a fairand civilized society; are moral, dynamic and creative;know how to preserve and promote the cultural values ofthe nation; are receptive and open to all cultures; andhave the necessary sense of discipline, organization and

Estimated population (1995)

Public expenditure on education aspercentage of Gross National Product(1995)

Duration of compulsory education(years)

73,800,000

2.7

5

Primary or basic education

Pupils enrolled (1995)Teachers (1995)Pupil/teacher ratio

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Net enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

Estimated percentage of repeaters(1995)Estimated percentage of drop-outs(1995)School-age population out of school(1995)

10,029,000288,20034 :1

114––

–––

–

–

–

Secondary education

Students enrolled (1995)

Gross enrolment ratio (1995)—Total—Male—Female

3,794,290

47––

Third-level enrolment ratio (1995) 4.1

Estimated adult literacy rate (1995)—Total—Male—Female

949791

Viet Nam

Curriculum planning, development and reform

Nguyen Thi Minh Phuong and Cao Thi Thang

Source: UNESCO statistical yearbook, 1998, Paris

131

industrious behaviour to meet the requirements for build-ing and defending the nation.

Curriculum development and reform

Curriculum development in Viet Nam is based on threefactors: (1) the vision of the country’s leaders concerningthe economy and society within the next ten to twentyyears; (2) educational achievements and curriculum de-velopment experiences, based on the country’s character-istics; (3) the curriculum development trends andexperiences of other countries. Current reforms are basedon the following orientations:l a focus on basic, practical content which can be

applied in everyday life; l an update of content based on scientific, technologi-

cal and other developments in modern society; l the renovation of teaching/learning methods in order

to help students develop initiative and creativity inlearning;

l development of each student’s ability, especially theability and methods for self-learning;

l due consideration for humanistic and internationaleducation;

l preservation of the national identity of Viet Nam,while participating in the world community;

l focus on international curriculum goals of learningto know, learning to do, learning to be, learning tolive together.

THE CURRICULUM ADAPTATION PROCESS

Administrative structures of curriculum reform

The system of curriculum development in Viet Nam iscentrally managed by the Ministry of Education andTraining (MOET). However, the Centre for the Develop-ment of Curriculum and Methods of Education (CDC-ME), established in 1961 under National Institute ofEducational Sciences (NIES), is the agency with major re-sponsibility for curriculum research and development (in-cluding curricular reform). NIES’s extensive curriculummandate was given when the Minister of Education andTraining took the decision to establish a Curriculum De-velopment Board (CDB) and designated NIES as theagency in charge. l In undertaking the current reforms, the Minister of

Education and Training decided to establish the fol-lowing additional agencies:

l In 1996, a Board of Primary Education CurriculumDevelopment—2000 was set up, consisting of sev-enty-five members drawn from research agencies oradministrations of primary education at central orlocal level, including universities. During the curric-ulum reform, this board benefited from a short train-ing course held in Viet Nam by education specialistsfrom the United States of America, Japan and Aus-tralia.

l A Council for Curriculum Evaluation consisting ofninety-eight members belonging to twenty-eight edu-cational agencies at central and local levels, includ-ing universities. In addition, there is a primaryeducation project: ‘Evaluation of mathematics and

mother tongue teaching at 4th and 5th grades’ sup-ported by the World Bank and co-ordinated by theNational Institute of Education.

l In 1998, a Board of Junior Secondary Education Cur-riculum Development, consisting of twenty-fiveexperts drawn from NIES, universities and depart-ments within the MOET. This Board operates withinan Asian Development Bank–Viet Namese Govern-ment Project, Junior Secondary Education Innova-tion (1999–2004). During the realization of theproject, two groups of curriculum developers weresent to Germany, Thailand and Australia in order tocollect documents about curriculum developmentand to exchange experiences.

The stakeholder method guides curriculum developmentand implementation in Viet Nam. Various MOET subjectexperts, university teachers and outstanding general edu-cation teachers are selected for CDB membership. Duringthe development process, experts, professors, administra-tors, teachers and parents are all invited to provide com-ments on, or evaluate the curriculum. An evaluationcouncil, established by MOET, is comprised of represent-atives drawn from central and local level educational ad-ministration and universities.

Process of curriculum development

The primary and secondary school objectives are based onthe general statement of national aims and the curriculumorientation guidelines. Different subjects are identifiedand defined for each level by curriculum specialists.Teachers can emphasize or omit parts of subject objec-tives.

In Viet Nam, the curriculum has traditionally beenregarded primarily as a written document which sets upthe subject contents, consisting (essentially) of threeparts: 1. educational objectives; 2. educational contentsfor each school year; and 3. curriculum interpretation.However, the view of the curriculum document haschanged, resulting in modifications that include: (a) con-siderations of experiences in foreign countries; (b) themethods, orientation and learning aids; and (c) ways oforganizing the assessment and evaluation of studentlearning outcomes. Also, several new actions are beingundertaken: (a) standards for each subject are beingdesigned; (b) some 10-15% of the content now includes alocal component (local geography, history, economy, cul-ture); (c) local variations in the national syllabus arebeing introduced by teachers (i.e. local timetables, localschemes of work, etc.).

Learning methods and approaches

Teaching and learning methods are presently being re-formed, with the intention of fostering, under the supervi-sion and guidance of the teacher, self-directed discoverylearning, based on each student’s individual abilities. Thisis an attempt to transform traditional teacher-centred ap-proaches, in which students play a largely passive role,and which stifle both the pupils’ and teachers’ creativity.The curriculum development centres, educational re-search centres and teacher-training colleges recommendthe various learning methods, orientations and approaches

132

to be used. The teacher-training colleges serve as moder-ators and monitors in the use of certain methodologies(discussion, role play, experimental methods, etc.).

CURRICULUM MATERIALS

The State controls the development and writing of variousinstructional materials for schools. The government di-rectly supports the compilation and development of text-books and teachers’ guides. Books are sold to teachers andstudents—they are distributed free of charge only to thosestudents who are particularly disadvantaged. At present, aprogramme of loaning textbooks to primary students indisadvantaged areas is being developed. Private compa-nies only have the right to develop and print non-compul-sory reference books for teachers and students.l The typical procedure for textbook preparation is as

follows:l The National Institute for Educational Science, the

Educational Publishing House and the MOET Coun-cils of Subjects jointly select and introduce a list ofauthors for approval by the Minister in the MOET;

l The Educational Publishing House (an agency ofMOET) organizes the writing of textbooks by givingfinancial support (creating favourable conditions forconsulting professionals and experts);

l The Council for Textbooks evaluates the textbookdrafts, then submits them to the Minister forapproval. Each level of education usually has onlyone set of textbooks and there is no option for othertextbook use.

Apart from textbooks, teachers’ guides, exercise books,reference books for teachers and students, and videocas-sette tapes are produced for each subject. Other learningaids are reviewed by a committee before being producedand supplied to schools. Learning aids are also made fromlocal materials by teachers and pupils themselves, whileothers are imported (from China, Germany).

EVALUATION

There is a link between the regular tests carried out in theclassroom and the periodic tests set by official regulation.The former occur at the end of each important chapter ortextbook subject; the latter at the end of the school term orschool year. The purpose of examinations at different lev-els of education is mainly to consider student promotionto a higher class (which is based on the ability to pass theexamination) and to inform the parents about progress.The assessment of students is typically based on percent-age calculations, or grading (very good, good, fair, weak).

It is recognized that the current method of evaluatingand assessing student learning in Viet Nam should beimproved, as the current approach does not take into con-sideration various categories of student achievement.Due consideration has not yet been given to the inclusionof other assessment information (records, files, practicerecords in the laboratory, etc.) and to a diagnosis of theindividual development of students. This easily results ina biased, one-sided attitude toward teaching/learning and

achievement (on the part of both the teachers and the stu-dents).

Research is now being conducted on how to evaluatestudents in more essential ways, that is, by using methodsthat more accurately reflect the curriculum implementa-tion impact at each level of education.

THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNINGTO LIVE TOGETHER AS CURRICULUM CONTENT

In Viet Nam, there is no specific reform relating only tothe principles of learning to live together. They may beseen as being part of general reforms. These principleshave been translated into objectives for the primary andsecondary school based on the national educational goals.These are incorporated into the curriculum through both across-curricula approach and extra-curricular activities.The principles are inherent in the content of certain sub-jects, such as Vietnamese language and literature, civics,history, geography, foreign languages (English, French,Russian). Some aspects of the principles are also includedin the sciences (physics, chemistry, biology) and technol-ogy.

In both primary and secondary school, the theme oflearning to live together is also taught through selectedcontent from several interdisciplinary subjects (i.e. globaleducation, population education, education for environ-mental protection, technical education, peace education,HIV/AIDS prevention, etc.). Extra-curricular activitiescan create positive attitudes, mutual understanding,responsibility, etc. (i.e. class meetings, flag saluting, cele-brating public days, cultural galas among schools, songand dance competitions, gymnastics, etc.).

SUCCESSFUL ASPECTS OF REFORM

The following may be cited as advances in the process ofcurriculum reform: (a) incorporation of new ideas andtrends relating to the organization and mechanisms uti-lized in the curriculum development process; (b) efforts toraise the scientific level and update subject contents;(c) the inclusion of medical and population education, andenvironmental protection in curriculum contents; and (d)adopting a systematic approach to raising teachers’ skillsand abilities in subject content and teaching methods.

Progress of reforms to date

l New curricula are being developed for primary, jun-ior secondary and streamed secondary education.

l The primary education curriculum is being testedduring implementation. Due to financial constraints,only the mathematics, language teaching and ethniccurricula are presently being implemented.

l The curriculum for junior secondary education isbeing modified on the basis of experts’ comments.The Council of Evaluation will be organized in orderto examine the results.

l The curriculum for streamed secondary education isbeing tested in 180 schools located in all provinces inViet Nam.

133

PROBLEMS IN REALIZING REFORMS

l Resistance to change shown by administrators, poli-ticians and teachers.

l Lack of expertise and access to up-to-date informa-tion: innovation has often been undertaken by staffwho have not been specifically trained in the field ofcurriculum development. Thus, new viewpoints onthe curriculum have often been applied ineffectively,due to a lack of knowledge and skill in using the rightapproaches. Attempts to define required knowledgeand skills within the curriculum present difficultiesdue to limited expertise in an area where, previously,textbooks were considered to contain all the neces-sary knowledge for students. There is limited accessto up-to-date methodologies on curriculum (defini-tion, function, structure), and on curriculum develop-ment processes; for example, in choosing basiccontents and life-related contents (social issues) foreach subject.

l Inappropriate content: the curriculum as it is taughtdoes not meet the stated aims. It is over-loaded, tooacademic, lacking in practical components andinconsistent with local realities. Therefore, studentsare not provided with the necessary knowledge andskills they need to enter the world of work.

l Ineffective teaching methods: despite efforts toreform teaching methods, the old methods haveremained in use, which prevents changes takingplace in students’ learning experiences. This is atleast partly linked to the fact that teachers are inade-quately trained and instructional materials are lim-ited. To date, change in teaching practice occursmostly in large cities where it is stimulated by high-quality local competitions. There is a need both formore effective organization of pre- and in-serviceteacher education and for teaching materials that areappropriately designed to meet new teaching/learn-ing approaches

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135

TABLE 2. Primary education teaching periods: number per year

Grade/Year

Subject 1 2 3 4 5Compulsory 1. Vietnamese language 363 330 297 264 264

2. Mathematics 132 165 165 165 1653. Morals 33 33 33 33 334. Nature and society 33 33 66- Science 66 66 66- History 33 33 33- Geography 33 33 335. Technology 33 66 66 66 666. Music 33 33 33 33 337. Art 33 33 33 33 338. Physical education 66 66 66 66 669. Health 33 33 33 33 33

Total 759 792 825 825 825Optional 10.Foreign language 66 66 66

11. Information 66 66 66

12. Club activities 66 66 66

Total Max Max Max132 132 132

TABLE 3. Lower secondary education curriculum: periods per year

Grade/Year

Subject 6 7 8 9

Compulsory 1. Vietnamese language& literature

2. Mathematics3. Citizenship education4. History5. Natural sciences6. Technology7. Music8. Art9. Foreign language10. Physical education

TOTAL

132

1323399996633339966

792

132

1323399996633339966

792

132

1323399

1656633339966

858

132

2313399

16566

16.516.59966

858

Optional Max. 66 Max. 66 Max. 66

136

Mr Mokelas Bin AHMADAssistant DirectorCurriculum Development CentreMinistry of EducationKUALA LUMPUR 50604Malaysia

Ms Maryam Azra AHMEDSenior Curriculum DeveloperEducational Development CentreMinistry of EducationMALÉMaldives

Mr Kiat AMPRAIDirectorSupervision and Education Standards Development

OfficeOffice of the National Primary Education CommissionMinistry of EducationRatchadanmoen Nok AvenueBANGKOK 10300Thailand

Dr G.L. ARORAHead, Department of Teacher EducationNational Council of Educational Research and Training—

NCERTSri Aurobindo MargNEW DELHI 110 016India

Mr U Myint AYEDeputy Staff Officer (History)Department of Educational Planning and TrainingStrand RoadSix Storeyed BuildingYANGONMyanmar

Mr G. BALASUBRAMANIANDirector (Academics)CBSEShiksha Kendra 2Community CentrePreet ViharNEW DELHI 110 092India

Mr Anurag BHATNAGARDirectorNavodaya Vidyalaya SamitiA-39, Kailash Colony110 048 NEW DELHIIndia

Dr Udo BUDEDeutsche Stiftung für internationale EntwicklungZentralstelle für Erziehung, Wissenschaft

und DokumentationHans-Böckler-Strasse, 553225 BONNGermany

Ms Isabel BYRONInternational Bureau of Education (UNESCO-IBE)P.O. Box 1991211 Geneva 20Switzerland

Ms Maria Pelagia CAGAHASTIAN -DITAPATSenior Educational SupervisorDepartment of Education and SportsDECSNational Capital RegionMisamis St. BagobantayQuezon City 1105Philippines

Ms Thi Thang CAOSenior ResearcherNational Institute for Educational Science101, Tran Hung Dao StreetHANOIViet Nam

Dr Bashir Ahmed DARDirector (Academic) and Head of CurriculumDevelopment and Research WingJammu and Kashmir State Board of School EducationRehari ColonyJAMMU TAWI 180 005India

Prof. R.H. DAVEFormer DirectorUNESCO Institute of EducationHamburgGermany

Prof. C. J. DASWANINational Council of Educational Research and Training—

NCERTSri Aurobindo MargNEW DELHI 110 016India

Mr Ram Sarobar DUBEYDirectorCurriculum Development CentreMinistry of EducationSecondary Education Curriculum DivisionKesher Mahal, KantipathSANOTHIMINepal

ANNEX I. List of contributors

137

Mr Namgyel DUKPACurriculum OfficerC/o DirectorEducation DivisionMinistry of Health and EducationTHIMPHUBhutan

Mr. K.V. GANASUNDARAProject OfficerNational Institute of EducationHigh Level RoadMAHARAGAMASri Lanka

Mr S.S. GAURIJoint Director (Academic)Navodaya Vidyalaya SamitiA-39 Kailash ColonyNEW DELHI 110 048India

Ms Deki C. GYAMTSHOLecturerNational Institute of EducationC/o DirectorEducation DivisionMinistry of Health and EducationTHIMPHUBhutan

Mr Jacques HALLAKAssistant Director-GeneralDirector, IBEP.O. Box 1991211 Geneva 20Switzerland

Mr Muhammad Abul HOSSAINProject DirectorIDA Assisted Primary Education Development ProjectStreet 59 CDarus Salam, MirpurDHAKA 1216Bangladesh

Ms Shawkat JAHANSenior SpecialistNational Curriculum and Textbook BoardMinistry of EducationSecretariat, Primary and Mass EducationDHAKABangladesh

Mr. Albert KARUNASINGHEProject OfficerNational Institute of EducationHigh Level RoadMAHARAGAMASri Lanka

Mr Maqbool Ahmed KHAKWANIDeputy Educational AdviserCurriculum WingMinistry of EducationBlock “D” Pak. SecretariatISLAMABADPakistan

Prof. B.P. KHANDELWALDirectorNIEPAShiksha Kendra2 Community Centre, Preet ViharNEW DELHI 110 092India

Ms Daw Tin KYIDeputy Staff Officer (Maths)Department of Educational Planning and TrainingStrand RoadSix Storeyed BuildingYANGONMyanmar

Mr Faisal MADANIProject Manager of Curriculum DevelopmentPusbang Kurrandik Balitbang DikbudJl. Gunung Sahari Raya No. 4(Eks. Kompleks Siliwangi)JAKARTA Pusat 10002Indonesia

Ms Bella O. MARINASSupervising Education Programme SpecialistCurriculum Development DivisionBureau of Secondary Education, Culture and SportsMeralco AvenuePASIG CITY 1600Philippines

Dr Arun MISHRADirectorCentral Institute of Vocational Education—CIVEBHOPALIndia

Dr Abdul Muhsin MOHAMEDDirector-GeneralEducation Development CentreMinistry of EducationMALÉMaldives

Ms Thi Minh Phuong NGUYENVice DirectorCurriculum Development CentreNational Institute for Educational Science101, Tran Hung Dao StreetHANOIViet Nam

138

Dr M.M. PANTProfessorIndira Gandhi National Open UniversityDELHIIndia

Ms Muriel POISSONUNESCO-IIEP7-9, rue Eugène-Delacroix75116 PARISFrance

Mr Zamrus Bin A. RAHMANAssistant DirectorCurriculum Development CentreMinistry of EducationDamansara Town Centre KUALA LUMPUR 50604Malaysia

Dr J. S. RAJPUTChairmanNational Council for Teacher EducationC-2/10, Safdarjung Development AreaSri Aurobindo MargNEW DELHI–110016India

Mr Kenneth ROSSUNESCO–IIEP7-9, rue Eugène-Delacroix75116 PARISFrance

Mr Jean-Marie SANIChef du Département EducationCité des Sciences et de l’Industrie30, avenue Corentin Cariou75930 PARIS Cedex 19France

Dr Abdul Rahim bin SELAMATDirectorRegional Education Centre for Science

and Mathematics—RECSAMGELUGOR, PenangMalaysia

Prof. A. K. SHARMADirectorNational Council of Educational Research and Training—

NCERTSri Aurobindo MargNEW DELHI 110 016India

Mr Satya Bahadur SHRESTHADirectorMinistry of EducationCurriculum Development CentreKesher Mahal, KantipathKATHMANDUNepal

Ms Ellen-Marie SKAFLESTADNORADP.O. Box 80340030 OSLO 1Norway

Mrs Chadjane THAITHAESupervisorSupervision and Educational Standards Development

OfficeOffice of the National Primary Education CommissionRatchadanmoen Nok AvenueBANGKOK 10300Thailand

Mr Erry UTOMOSecretaryProject of Curriculum DevelopmentPusat KurikulumJin. Gunung Sahari Raya No 4(Eks. Komp. Siliwangi) JAKARTA Pusat 10002Indonesia

139