Glossary Composition

7/31/2019 Glossary Composition

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Composition Lingo Glossary

AB form: A musical form that has an A section, a complete unit, and acontrasting B section, also a complete unit.

ABA form: A musical form that has an A section (a complete unit) and acontrasting B section (also a complete unit). It returns to repeat the A sectionat the end, making the overall form of the composition ABA.

ABA phrases: Phrases can also be grouped in ABA phrases. The first phrase isan A phrase, the next a contrasting B phrase. An A phrase is repeated makingan overall phrase group of ABA.

accidentals: Signs used in musical notation to alter notes, e.g. sharps, flats,naturals.

action notation: Musical notation that directs the performer in a course ofaction without indicating the resulting sound. Also called "process notation."

adagio: Slow, leisurely. A slow movement.

Aeolian mode: A medieval mode whose scale pattern in terms of whole andhalf steps is: W, H, W, W, H, W, W, much like playing A to A on the white keysof a piano. This scale is also called the natural minor scale.

alteration: The use of a sharp or flat to raise or lower a pitch from its naturalstate.

ametric: Without meter. Gregorian chant is an example of music without ameter.

anthem: A choral or vocal composition, often with a religious or political lyric,with or without accompaniment, written either for performance in a church, oranother place with significance to the song itself.

arpeggio: A chord that is played one note at a time, rather than as

simultaneous tones.

arrangement: An adaptation of a given composition into a form other than asoriginally composed.

atonal: Having no tonal-center, hence no key. Also called "pantonal."

augmentation: The lengthening of note values used in a theme to alter themelody without changing the pitches.

ballad: 1. A simple song. 2. A song that tells a story.

bass clef: The F clef, indicating the fourth line of the staff. Middle C appearson the first line above the staff in bass clef. Used in combination with the


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treble clef to make the grand staff.

beat: The rhythmic pulse heard and felt throughout a song or composition.

blues progression: A twelve-bar sequence of seventh-chord changes in jazz

based on I, IV, and V chords (there may be three or more chords). Twocommon progressions are I, I, I, I, V, V, I, I, IV, V, I, I and I, I, I, I, IV, IV, I,I, V, IV, I, I (all the chords add the seventh). However, other variants arepossible.

blues scale: Normally C, D, E-flat, E, F, F#, G, A, B-flat, C. This scale is verycommon in jazz.

C clef: A clef that indicates which line represents C on a staff, as opposed to aG clef, or an F clef.

cadence: A pause or stopping point.

coda: An ending that is added to a song or composition.

chant: A repeated phrase spoken rhythmically.

chord: A set of notes, usually three or four, played simultaneously--usuallycontaining a root, and other tones that have a tonal relationship to that root.

chromatic scale: A scale containing twelve equal divisions of the octave.

clef: A sign that normally occurs at the beginning of each staff to refer aparticular staff line to a specific pitch (e.g., a G clef or treble clef indicatesmiddle G as the second line. A bass clef, or F clef, indicates F-below-middle-Cas the fourth line).

counterpoint: Two or more simultaneous, independent lines or voices in acomposition. Lines or voices may move in contrary motion for maximum pitchindependence, but they may also be rhythmically different.

crescendo: A gradual increase in volume.

diatonic: The notes that occur naturally in a scale, without being modified byaccidentals other than those in the key signature.

diminished chord: A chord whose triad is diminished (consists of a minorthird and diminished fifth).

dominant: A chord based on the fifth degree of a key's diatonic scale. Adominant usually resolves to a tonic.

duple meter: Music that moves with a rhythmic swing of pulses in sets oftwos, most commonly, 2/4, 4/4, also 2/2, 2/8, 4/8, etc.. The first beat getsmore emphasis: STRONG-weak, STRONG-weak. 6/8 is compound duple meter,


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two sets of threes.

dotted half note: A note with an open head and stem plus a dot following it.The duration is three times as long as a quarter note.

dynamics: The degrees of loudness or softness in a musical work, and thesymbols that represent them.

embellishment: Ornaments added to music to make it more interesting.

equal temperament: The most pervasive contemporary tuning system, inwhich the octave is divided into twelve equal intervals, called semitones. Eachsemitone is mathematically tuned to the twelfth root of 2.

etude: A short song, usually written for pedagogical or instructional use.

form: Form is the organizational scheme of the composition, and the design ofsections of the song or composition. Some forms students might find easiest touse are rondo, theme and variation, AB, and ABA.

fugue: "Flight." A contrapuntal piece, in which two or more parts are built or"layered" on a recurring subject that is introduced alone, then is followed by ananswer that is the same subject (or theme) but is a different pitch, usually thefifth.

genre: Classification of music by some combination of function, medium,

form, or idiom. Examples are: opera (voices, orchestra, dramatic action,staging), etude (an exercise composed for developing skills on an instrument),lullaby (song used to put one to sleep), dirge (a funeral music).

Golden-mean or -section or -ratio: A mathematical proportion in which thesmaller number is to the larger as the larger is to their sum. This works out tobe approximately .618:1 in practice. A number of composers and artists haveused this proportion, whether consciously or not, throughout history. It is wellknown in architecture. Recently, the proportion has been used consciously byStockhausen, Xenakis, Le Corbusier, and others.

grace note: An auxiliary note normally written smaller than the main notethat follows it. It is played just before the main note and normally subtractsfrom the value of the previous note or from the main note.

half note: A note with an open head. The duration is two times as long as aquarter note.

harmony: Two or more tones played or sung at the same time.

idiomatic: The degree of use of an instrument's special capabilities.

improvisation: A musical performance created spontaneously.


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interlude: Short music used to bridge the acts of a play, or the verses of ahymn.

interpolation: The insertion of new pitches between pitches of a given theme;inserting new elements between those of any given linear set.

interval: The distance from one pitch to another.

inversion: The different forms that a chord may take by changing the chordmember that is the bass of the chord.

key: The tonality, or the relationship of the tones to each other. Songs thathave a tonal center or that gravitate to C are in the key of C.

key signature: The arrangement of sharps or flats placed at the beginning ofeach line of music to denote the tonality or key. The key signature indicateswhich tones are to be sharp or flat in the scale system that a piece is basedon.

leitmotif: A brief idea, such as a melodic line, that is used by a composer tosymbolize a character, feeling, or thought, most often in a vocal genre, such asopera.

lyric: 1. The words to a song. 2. In a singing and melodious manner.

major: The word major can refer to a scale, key, chord, or interval. A major

scale is arranged by whole and half steps, with the half steps occurringbetween the 3rd and 4th scale step and the 7th and 8th scale step. The othertones in a major scale are whole steps.

measure: A unit of measure within a composition. Divides rhythm into aspecified number of beats, separated by a vertical line called a bar line.

melody: A combination of a pitches and rhythm that have a clearly definedshape. The "tune."

meter: The grouping of beats in a song or composition. The time signatureindicates the meter. For example, in 3/4 time, the top number of timesignature indicates that there are three beats in the measure. The bottomnumber, 4, indicates that a quarter note gets the pulse (the beat). The first ofeach group of beats is called the downbeat, and is considered the strongestbeat of the measure. The meter grouping is divided by a bar line.

MIDI file: A computer file that stores instructions for a musical instrumentusing Musical Instrument Digital Interface, a standardized way in whichmicroprocessor-based musical instruments can communicate with one anotherand other computers. MIDI files are usually not large and can be downloaded

quickly.

minimalism: A style of music that uses a very small amount of material,


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repeats it, and gradually varies it.

minor: Minor can refer to a scale, key, chord, or interval. When referring to aninterval, it means that is a half step smaller than a major interval. The thirdscale step of the minor scale, chord, or interval is a half step lower than the

third in the major chord. Minor scales are related to major scales, but have alowered third and one of the following: a lowered seventh (natural minor), amajor seventh (harmonic minor), or a major sixth and seventh ascending anda minor sixth and seventh descending (melodic minor).

mode: A scale pattern consisting of particular intervals of whole and halfsteps. The primary modes in Western music are Aeolian, Dorian, Ionian,Locrian, Lydian, Mixolydian, and Phrygian.

modulation: 1. A change of key. 2. A smooth, gradual change from one state

to another. Can apply to tempo, key, meter, timbre, etc.

motif: A brief melodic or rhythmic idea used to organize a composition.

notation: Written music indicating pitch and rhythm.

note: A written symbol for a pitch.

octave: Two frequencies, or pitches, in the ratio of 2:1.

opus: "Work." With a number, used to show the order in which the works by a

given composer were written or published. Opus numbers are most often usedfor composers who catalogued their own works.

orchestration: The art of arranging, writing, or scoring music for anorchestra.

parallel keys: Keys having the same tonic, e.g., C major and C minor.

pentatonic scale: A five-tone scale. The most common five-tone scale is thescale that uses steps 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 of the major scale. Playing just the blackkeys of the piano yields a pentatonic scale.

perfect pitch: The ability to distinguish and identify any given note withoutany musical or tonal support.

phrase: A musical thought or idea that can be compared to a sentence inlanguage. It is a short musical passage complete in itself. The length mayvary.

pitch: Since sound is measured by waves, pitch refers to the predominantfrequency in a sound. In layman's terms, the term "pitch" describes what note

the sound is.

polymeter: More than one meter occurring simultaneously.


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polyphony: Two or more melodic lines occurring simultaneously.

prelude: "Play before." An introductory movement or work.

pulse: A term used to denote the rhythmic beat in the music.

quarter note: A note with a filled-in head and a stem. It often represents thebasic pulse or beat of a song or composition. For example in 3/4, each quarternote would get one pulse or beat.

question-answer phrase: A phrase is a musical thought or idea comparableto a sentence in language. It is a short musical passage, complete in itself. Thelength can vary. A musical question phrase leaves the listener feeling that themusic must go on. An answer phrase leaves the listener feeling that the musiccould end there. This is accomplished by returning at the end of the musical

answer phrase to the tonal center of the composition, to the tonic or the firstscale step of the composition.

relative keys: Keys having the same key signature (but not the same tonic).

resolution: The changing of a dissonant pitch, usually by stepwise orchromatic motion, so that it becomes consonant with the chord being sounded.

rhythm: The organization of sounds, rests (no sounds), and patterns intodifferent groupings.

rondo: A musical form with a recurring A theme that is alternated betweencontrasting sections. For example, A, B, A, C, A. The A, B, or C represents amusical section, each different from the other.

scale: A series of tones in a pattern of whole steps and half steps. The patterndetermines whether the scale is major, minor, chromatic, etc. Compositions orsongs are based on the tonal material of a scale.

sequence: Successive repetitions of a melodic pattern at different pitch levels.It is referred to as a "sequential repetition."

sonata: A piece in three or four contrasting movements. The first movementis fast, in the tonic key. The second movement is slow, in a different butrelated key. The last movement is very fast. In the four-movement sonata, theextra movement is inserted before the last.

song forms: The arrangement of sections in a song to contrast similiar anddifferent sections. Often, letters are used to represent different parts of a givenselection: ABA, AABA, ABACA, etc.

staff: The five horizontal lines upon which music is written. Usually including a

clef, and having a time signature and key signature.

step: Refers to the interval or distance of one note to the one immediately


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beside it.

subdominant: The fourth degree of the scale or the chord built on it.

symphony: A piece for large orchestra, usually in four movements.

tempo: The speed of a song or composition when it is performed.

theme and variation: A musical form that states a main theme, a completemusical idea. Variations are created using the thematic material of the maintheme for the basis of the variations.

theme and variation: A musical form that states a main theme, a completemusical idea. Variations are created using the thematic material of the maintheme for the basis of the variations.

timbre: The tone color of an instrument as determined by its overtone seriesor spectrum. Timbre distinguishes one instrument from another.

time signature: The time signature tells you about the meter or the rhythmicgrouping of the song or composition. It is placed on a musical staff at thebeginning of each piece or section. The top number indicates what kind of notereceives one beat. Bar lines divide the staff into measures. For example, in a4/4 time signature, the top 4 indicates there will be four beats in each measureand the bottom 4 means that a quarter note receives one beat or pulse.

tonic: A term representing the tonal center of a song or composition. The firstscale step. It can refer to a scale step or a triad or a chord. A tonic chord is thetriad whose root is the first scale step of the key of the composition.

tonality: The key of a composition or song gives the tonality of a song.

transposition: A translation in pitch.

triple meter: Music that moves in groupings of rhythmic pulses or beats insets of three. For example, 3/4, 3/8 or 3/2. 9/8 is compound triple meter(three sets of threes).

voice: Refers to virtual voices, which are simulated in a single chord. Thehighest voice is called the soprano; the lowest is called the bass. If there aremore than two voices, a second treble voice that lies below the soprano iscalled the alto, and a third voice, lying above the bass, is called the tenor.

whole step: A distance or interval equal to two semitones.

P & D deal: "Press and distribute" agreement, in which a record companyagrees to manufacture a master recording and make it available through its

distribution network.

payola: The common name for a violation of the Federal Communications Act


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in which recordings are broadcasted in return for services or a gift (e.g.,money, drugs, a new car, or even a set of new tires) without public disclosureof the payment or gift.

performing rights royalties (U.S.): Royalties that are charged for the use of

music performed or used in various productions, including television programs,bars and restaurants, and theaters. These royalties are collected by performingrights organizations (ASCAP, BMI, etc.) and are paid to songwriter/composermembers of these organizations based on how often their music is played.

performing rights society: The associations or companies that issueperforming rights licenses, track and collect license revenues, and distributethose revenues to song writers and music publishers. The performing rightssocieties in the United States are ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC.

personal manager: A representative who assists the musician in thedevelopment and management of his or her music and entertainment career.

phonorecord: An audiocassette, CD, vinyl disc, or any other material objectonto which sounds can be recorded, not including a soundtrack of an audio-visual work.


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Performance Lingo Glossary

- Includes terms from both contemporary and classical music spaces, as wellas terms related to the business of concert production and promotion.

Big Band: An ensemble of musicians that specialize in jazz music of the"Swing Era" of the 1930s and 1940s. After World War II (1945), the popularityof swing dancing subsided, shifting the focus from dances to concerts.

billing: The location or placement of the act's or artist's name (logo) ontickets, advertisements, and press releases. Top billing means that the nameof the artists will be on the top of a venue's billboard or marquee. They havelarger print than the other names on the ticket, and first mentions on radiopromotion spots.

brass section: The musicians in a band, orchestra, or combo who play brassinstruments, including the trumpet, cornet, trombone, baritone, French horn,and tuba. Brass sections often carry the melodic lines in many pieces of music,and can also add a great deal of bravura to harmonies, rhythms, and generalambience.

break-even points: The point at which the income from an event (concert,recording contract, etc.) meets the cost or total expenses for the event (orcost of recording, promotion, marketing, etc. of the recording).

busker: [Italian, to procure or gain] A street performer. In music, a personwho plays music on the street.

cartage: In the recording studio, cartage is the cost of rental and delivery ofmusical and sound equipment from an independent company. In the concertbusiness, cartage is the cost of garbage removal after the concert.

chamber ensemble: In classical music, groups that are smaller than a fullorchestra. They may be piano trios, quartets, and quintets, string trios,quartets, quintets, canzona, consorts, octets, and nonets. When a group of two

or more musicians, usually not exceeding nine, perform such pieces, they arereferred to as a chamber ensemble. This term can apply to instrumentalists aswell as to vocalists. Chamber orchestras can number as many as twenty-fiveand the term is considered a misnomer by most.

comp ticket: Complementary ticket to a concert, often provided to a radiostation and local important music insiders to promote an event. The number oftickets is usually supplied by the promoter and approved by the artist'smanager.

concert band: A large ensemble composed of woodwinds, brass, andpercussion instruments (with an occasional keyboard and no strings). Theyperform in a seated, stationary position before an audience. Almost all high


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schools in the United States maintain a concert band that is under theleadership of the school's musical director. Many of the exemplary models forconcert bands seem to be located in the midwestern United States.

concertmaster: The person who is the first violinist always fills the position of

concertmaster of an orchestra, and is responsible for making sure that thestrings are attacking their bowing techniques in a consistent and coordinatedmanner so that the blend, entrances, exits, vibratos, tremolos, and sustainsare even tempered throughout the section. The concertmaster usually isresponsible for playing all solo violin parts in an orchestrated piece. Theconcertmaster also leads tuning of the orchestra and fills the responsibilities ofthe conductor, should the need arise. Concertmasters sit to the immediate leftof the conductor as the conductor is facing the orchestra.

concessions: T-shirt, hats, records, CDs, belts, and other types of

merchandise endorsed by the artists are considered concessions. For 15 to 25percent of the gross income of total sales, private companies provide themerchandise, shipment, sales personnel, booths, tables, and other items forthe acts they represent. Concessions sales locations and the percentages ofsales (for allowing the sale of merchandise in a venue) are negotiated by thebooking agent and approved by the artist's manager.

conductor: The primary leader of an orchestra is referred to as its conductor.The conductor has many responsibilities regarding control over performances,including setting and maintaining the tempo of each musical work. Critics rantor rave about how effectively the conductor does this. Conservatories,colleges, and universities teach conducting disciplines. There, a youngconductor-to-be is taught the respective gestures and positions for a variety oftime signatures. Each conductor has their own style, sometimes simplyindicated by the preference of hand conducting or baton conducting.Conductors play a vital role in determining how a specific piece of music isgoing to be performed. This is accomplished through ample rehearsal time, theconductor getting to know her/his orchestra, and vice versa. Conductors mustalso cue or indicate the entrance of soloists, sections, and areas of theorchestra. Tempo is often conducted with the right and left hand conjointly butentrances are most often indicated by the left hand. This too is subject to

personal idiosyncrasies.

ensemble: In French, "together." When used as a noun, it means "the whole."To musicians, the word has come to mean any instrumental group, perhapsincluding an orchestra, or a group of vocal performers. Contextually ensembleusually precludes large numbers of performers, as in the German use of theterm applied to instrumentalists. In this case ensemble refers to mellow music(chamber ensembles) for small groups or for the music that they play. Notehere that ensemble does not just refer to the players.

fake book: A compilation of jazz and/or popular melodies containing just themelodic lines, the chord symbols over the appropriate measures, and often,the lyrics. Fake books do not contain the full score for a piece of music. Most


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nightclub and restaurant musicians use fake books because the booksrepresent easy access to a great number of popular songs in one relativelyinexpensive source. If combos use the books, they may improvisearrangements. These musical texts have been known to infringe on thecopyrights of some of the songwriters or publishers of the original sheet music.

fills: Small sections of performed music often played by a lead instrument to"fill in" a space on a recording or performance. When you ask a guitar player toplay some fills, she will usually weave some notes in and around the melody orvocal, just to add a little flavor.

firm offer: A firm offer is a signed, contracted agreement that includes theconcert dates, time of appearance, negotiated price for the act's performance,and a deposit consisting of a cleared check or money order that will be placedinto a secured account.

four walls: The most basic levels of service a venue has available to theconcert promoter and act are listed under the term "four walls" or "fourwalling." The amount of electricity available (amps), heating, air conditioning,lights, and personnel, including house security, are listed on the contractualagreement between the venue and concert promoter.

front: The one person of a band or orchestra that is first to be in dialog withthe public is the "front." This may also be the outspoken performer of a group,or the lead singer (e.g., Mick Jagger). In even larger groups, the leader orconductor of an orchestra can be classified as the front person, because theypossess the closest proximity to the audience and because they are physicallyin front of the rest of the ensemble.

ghost band: Bands often get their names from their leaders. When a bandcontinues to perform under the name of a leader that has died, the band iscalled a "ghost band." It is not necessary for a band to contain the originalmembers, either, as one can discern from the number of Dorsey bands thathave appeared in the past. If a band has numerous "seconds" from the originalband, the more appropriately it is considered a true ghost.

gross potential (GP): The GP is the maximum amount of money that will begenerated by the concert if all tickets are sold.

guarantee: The minimum amount of money that an artist or act will performfor is considered the guarantee. Often, artists will accept a guarantee plus anadditional split of the profits. The bigger-name acts demand a larger guaranteeand larger percent of the promoter's profits.

headliner: The main attraction or most famous act to perform at the concert.Headliners are paid more money to perform than supporting acts.

lead sheet: This is a very basic kind of sheet music. Most lead sheets haveonly the bars written out and the chords within the bars and some simple


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notes. Lead sheets don't necessarily have lyrics written on them, althoughsome do.

lead player:. In each section of a band, the lead player is the musician whonormally plays the top line of the score for that group of instruments.

Comparatively, an orchestra player who is a section leader is also known asthe first chair. Usually the first chair is the best and most talented musician inthat section.

load in: The actual unloading and setting up of the musical instruments,sound, staging, and lighting equipment. It usually takes hours to complete thesetup.

load out: The actual breaking down of the musical instruments, sound,staging, and lighting equipment after a concert has been completed. The load

out is usually completed in minutes instead of hours.

local: The local IATSE union (International Alliance of Theatrical StateEmployees), whose members are hired due to contractual agreements with thevenue. Workers usually include staging, set builders, lighting riggers, spot andaudio operators, and technicians.

opening act: The first act to appear at a concert. The headliner's managermust approve the acts or artists in order to prevent an unknown talent fromperforming and causing a negative reaction (by association) to the majorartist.

orchestra: An orchestra is an instrumental ensemble (and choral ensemble insome cases), featuring a combination of strings, woodwinds, brass, andpercussion instruments. Symphonic orchestras cannot be limited by numberbut generally contain approximately one hundred members. Mere number,however, does not determine the content of an orchestra. The types ofinstruments, their voicings, and even choruses in combination, can determinethe context of the ensemble. A Japanese kabuki orchestra, for example, doesnot have or require the same instrumentation as a typical Western orchestra,but the diversity of instruments and the concept of ensemble do apply.

orchestrator: An orchestrator takes the printed music from the composer(usually a semi-detailed "score" or less-detailed "sketch") and makes decisionson which instruments will play various musical parts. The orchestrator thencreates a detailed score that contains a single line for each instrument in themusical group or orchestra. This detailed score is supplied to the copyist, whocreates a single printed part from each line in the score for the musicians toplay. The orchestrator often is the conductor for the orchestra during therecording session.

packaging: 1. The selection of bands or artists who will tour together andattract a similar type of audience. 2. The actual accumulation of cities anddates for the tour.


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presenter station or sponsor: Promoters and labels offer local radio stationsthe opportunity to act as the radio station that is "bringing the concert to thecity," in exchange for a reduced advertisement rate and/or a number of freepromotional spots.

quartet: Vocal or instrumental music scored for four separate parts. The term"string quartet," for example, refers to both the ensemble (two violins, oneviola, and one violoncello, or some other combination) and the music writtenfor the ensemble.

quintet: Vocal or instrumental performances of music scored for five separateparts. The music itself can also be referred to as a quintet, if it is so arranged.A string quintet typically is made up of two violins, two violas and onevioloncello.

reed section: A section is a group of instruments that are comprised of thesame family. Sections are most often found in orchestras, bands, and jazzensembles or jazz bands. A typical reed section will include saxophones,clarinets, oboes, English horns, and bassoons.

representation: Booking agents who exclusively represent artists and acts forthe purpose of acquiring concert dates from local promoters. Agents usuallyarrange national concert tours by calling local promoters. Final approvals ofconcert dates are made by the artist's manager.

rhythm section: The rhythm section of any group is the chord-playing

instruments in combination with the bass and percussion instruments. In aband or orchestra, the rhythm section can refer to the instruments that areused to emphasize and maintain the basic rhythmic beat. The instruments inthe rhythm section can include the drums, double bass or electric bass, piano,and guitar.

rider: A rider is an additional set of instructions for the promoter regardingspecific artist requirements. Riders usually include the size of the stage,lighting, etc. and may even include the type of food, drinks, and color of M & Mcandies that the artist want supplied in the dressing rooms.

roadies: Members of the touring act who load in and out (and often set up,operate, and break down) the musical instruments, lighting, and soundequipment. The amount and type of work roadies can accomplish depends on:(a) the I.A.T.S.E. union agreements with each venue, (b) the contractualagreements made with the promoter and artist's manager, and (c) specificitems listed in the artist's rider. Roadies are also responsible for loading anddriving the trucks to each venue.

road or tour manager: The road manager (who acts as an assistant manager

to the artist's manager) supervises the band on the road and makes the finaldecisions associated with concert issues and local contacts including thepromoter, press, radio, union shop steward, and the venue's administration.


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scaling: The assignment of ticket prices to different seat types and locationsin a venue.

section: Any group of instruments from the same family in a band ororchestra. Examples include woodwinds, brass, strings, and percussion.

Occasionally, important subsections are treated as sections in the orchestra,such as reeds, double reeds, and side-blown and end-blown winds.

sextet: Vocal or instrumental music that is written for six independent parts isa sextet. The group of performers singing or playing music so written is alsoreferred to as a sextet. The string sextet is the closest ensemble includes twoviolins, two violas, and two violoncellos. Operatic sextets are found in operabuffa and opera seria during and after the eighteenth century, but numerousvoicings can and do occur. Wind instruments and mixtures of wind instrumentsin sextet combinations are primarily found in classical divertimentos.

sideman: Anyone who is not the group leader of a jazz ensemble for a givensession or date. Due to changes in cultural values, this term has fallen out offavor in some parts of the jazz universe.

splits: A percentage (PC) of the profits or money collected from the gate(entry) after the concert expenses have reached the break-even point.

string quartet: The string quartet developed as a musical medium during theeighteenth century, beginning with Haydn, who seems to be the first composerof note to use this instrumental arrangement. In this century, the string

quartet is the favorite ensemble structure for chamber music. The term "stringquartet" refers to the ensemble itself, or the music composed for four stringedinstruments. Most string quartets are composed in sonata form with three orfour movements, though this is subject to variation. As early as Beethoven'squartets, however, the compositional form was already beginning to evolve.

the house: The venue.

ticket manifest: A computerized list of every seat (and ticket price) in avenue for a specific act or artists for each concert date.

trio: Dance movements since the seventeenth century have been separated bya third movement called a trio (minuet-trio-minuet). The additional movementwas often scored for three instruments (two oboes and a bassoon), but thename came from its history of being the third part added to dancecombinations. The most notable examples of trios are composed for the piano,violin, and cello (the typical piano trio) or violin, viola, and violoncello (thetypical string trio). When three performers of any musical devices performtogether the ensemble is referred to as a trio: three singers, threeinstrumentalists, two instrumentalists and a singer, et cetera.


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Music Technology Lingo Glossary

acoustic/acoustical: Having to do with audible sound.

active device: Any electronic signal processing device that requires AC or DCcurrent to power its operation, and that generally includes an amplifying stageafter its primary processing circuit, allowing the output level to be matched tothe input level.

active equalizer: An equalizer that employs active electronic componentssuch as transistors or ICs in its processing circuit(s). A preamplifying circuitgenerally follows each stage of actual equalization, boosting the signal level torestore unity gain. If the unit allows overall adjustment of output level, theengineer can A-B the flat and equalized signal.

ADAT: abbr., Alesis digital audio tape. A popular digital 8-track tape recordingformat that has become a standard for interstudio exchange of digitalmultitrack recordings.

additive synthesis: 1. Randomly chosen amounts and phases of afundamental and its 2nd through 6th harmonics; 2. The complex wave createdby combining the above waveforms.

ADSR: abbr., Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release. The four sections of everysound's envelope.

AES: abbr., Audio Engineering Society.

aftertouch: Sometimes called pressure. Aftertouch enables the computermusician to control a number of user-defined MIDI synthesizer parametersrelative to how hard the fingers press on the keyboard as keys are struck.

AIFF: abbr., Audio Interchange File Format. AIFF was developed by Apple forstorage of sounds in the data fork.

ALU: abbr., arithmetic and logic unit. The portion of a CPU that actually

performs arithmetic and other computational procedures.

ambience: The portion of the sound that comes from the surroundingenvironment rather than directly from the sound source.

amplifier: A device the increases the magnitude of a voltage or currentwithout distorting the wave form of the signal. An amplifier takes a weak signalfrom a line-level or mic-level source and provides the necessary power level tooperate loudspeakers.

analog-to-digital converter (ADC): In digital recording, the group of circuitsthat sample the analog waveform, measure its instantaneous voltage, andconvert this decimal value to its binary equivalent, in preparation for storage


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on tape (or on floppy disk, in random access memory, etc.).

analog recording: Any method of recording in which the recorded waveformis a continuous representation of the original signal, e.g., conventionalmagnetic recording, direct to disc.

applications: Any complex software the user buys to accomplish a repetitivejob that is unrelated to the basic nature of his own goals. A word-processingprogram is a good example, since it is mathematically complex, but its internaloperations are functionally irrelevant to the user who is writing letters or abook.

ASCII: abbr., American Standard Code For Information Exchange. The mostcommon code used for transmitting text data from computer to computer, orto peripherals. The code employs 8-bit binary words, by which each letter of

the English language, each Arabic numeral, and each commonly used symbolis uniquely designated.

attack: The point at which a musical note begins. Antonym: release.

attenuation: A fixed or variable reduction in signal strength, which may inturn reduce the volume of sound heard.

attenuation pad (or pad): A resistive network or other circuit (generallypassive) that is inserted in an audio line to reduce the signal level.

baffles: Sound-absorbing panels used to prevent sound waves from enteringor leaving a certain space.

balanced line: An electrical cable with two conductors and a separate shield.When a signal is present, the conductors have the same potential with respectto ground, but opposite polarities.

bandwidth: 1. Strictly speaking, the arithmetic difference between thehighest and lowest frequencies that are (a) passed by an electronic device, or(b) present in a specific acoustic sound or audio signal. E.g., the bandwidth of

a telephone is approximately 2.2 kHz, which is 2,400 Hz minus 200 Hz. Theendpoints of a circuit's or system's bandwidth are those frequencies at whichits response or output is attenuated by 3 dB. 2. Colloquially, the low and highfrequencies of any specific frequency band. One might say, "The bandwidth ofan electric guitar is 80 Hz to 8 kHz."

bandpass filter: An equalizer that attenuates frequencies above and below adesignated band. A low-pass filter thus allows low frequencies but not highfrequencies to pass through.

bank: 1. A collection of sound patches (data as to the sequence and operating

parameters of the synthesizer generators and modifiers) in memory. 2. Agroup of sound modules as a unit.


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bidirectional pattern: A microphone pickup pattern that has maximumpickup directly in front and directly in back of the diaphragm and least pickupat the sides.

binary: A numbering system based on two. In binary there are two symbols

used, l and 0.

bit: abbr., binary digit. The smallest unit of information that can be stored,transmitted, or processed by any digital circuit, e.g., a computer. Each bit is a1 or 0, and corresponds to a single yes/no, on/off, or other similar decision.

board: A less formal term for console.

boot up: To turn on a computer, setting in motion the automatic processesthat allow you to use it.

BPM: abbr., beats per minute. A measurement used by disc jockeys todetermine whether the beats on two rock or dance records will blend or mixtogether smoothly. BPM ratings are often printed by record companies on thelabels of promotional copies sent to radio stations, record pools, and individualdisc jockeys.

buffer memory: In digital circuits, an intermediate storage device (ormemory) that can receive and dispense data at different rates, or merely holddata until the following device is prepared to accept it. Often used to adapt theoutput rate of one device, e.g., a computer, to the input rate of another, e.g.,

a printer. One use of buffer memories in digital recording occurs in error-correction circuitry, where such a device holds data read from tape until it canbe checked for accuracy, at which point it is decoded and reproduced. Buffersare also used to sequence data in de-interleaving, and to reduce wow andflutter in digital playback.

bumper: Music based on a thematic idea from the score, used to "bookend"an act of a show. Usually three to five seconds long, and underscores a showlogo.

byte: A sequence of 8 bits of data, established as a standard parcel ofinformation in computing, because it can designate any of 63 possible items (2raised to the 8th power, minus 1.) This number is sufficient to uniquely specifyany letter in the English alphabet, any single Arabic numeral, and a group ofcommonly used symbols. For that reason, the byte is used as the basis of theASCII code.

capacitance: The property of a circuit element that permits it to store charge.

cardioid pattern: A microphone pickup pattern that has maximum pickupfrom the front, less pickup from the sides, and least pickup from the back ofthe diaphragm.

CD: abbr., compact disc. A small optical disk with digital audio recorded on it.


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CD-I: abbr., compact disc-interactive. A read-only media format that usescompact disk as a source of digital material. CD-I enables the user to interactwith and custom design the playback of the CD-I material.

CD-ROM: abbr., compact disk read-only memory. A data storage format for

compact discs that enables digital sound and or visual materials to be encodedon the disc. If visuals will accompany audio, the format allows enough memoryfor about one still image for each 30 seconds of audio. As a publishingmedium, CD-ROM offers book publishers vast storage capacity. The GrolierEncyclopedia was the first book available in this format, the entire printededition fitting on a single CD. Random access availability of data and theenormous indexing capacity of CDs make this a great medium for printedmatter. The total storage capacity of a single CD-ROM is about 650megabytes.

channel: In ordinary language, a channel is a path for passing data. In MIDI,channels are used to separate different sections of a song that are going toplay together. Each channel is assigned to a single instrument in any particularinstant of time. One channel is usually reserved for a percussion voice. Tochannelize means to move to another channel.

chip: The miniaturized signal-processing heart of an integrated circuit, or anyof the thumbnail-sized data storage or data-processing circuits in computers,digitally controlled devices, etc.

chorus: A type of signal processing that slightly delays and, by rhythmicflanging, doubles the apparent number of players or singers heard in thesignal. Chorusing also adds a vibrato to the resulting signal.

click track: Audible guide used by musicians scoring music to aidsynchronization with film.

clipping: Amplifier overload. A form of distortion.

clock: A clock is used to synchronize two devices. In MIDI, the term is used todenote a single time source that everything plays along with. MIDI clocks are

actually special messages that are sent 24 times (normally) per beat, and areused to synchronize two sequencers, or a sequencer and a drum machine.Normally, the sequencer's clock is the important one. Other clock sources areused rarelytypically only when doing a final recording.

close-micing: Recording with a microphone close to the sound source.

coincident microphones (coincident pair): Two microphones whose headsare placed as close as possible to each other so that the path length from anysound source to either microphone is, for all practical purposes, the same.

composite equalization: The overall frequency response modificationproduced when a signal passes through more than one equalizing circuit in thesame device, or through several equalizers in series.


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condenser microphone: A microphone that converts sound pressure changesinto changes of capacitance. The capacitance changes are then converted intoelectrical voltage variations (an audio signal).

count-in: A command in a sequencer that plays a metronome for several

measures until you are ready to record.

CPU: abbr., central processing unit. The integrated circuit chip in a computerthat actually performs most operations on data. (See ALU.)

CRT: abbr., cathode ray tube. Either black-and-white or color. Although thereare all shapes and sizes of CRTs, the most familiar is the picture tube of everytelevision.

compression: The "squeezing together" of air molecules during the first half

of each complete cycle of a sound wave. It corresponds to the portion of thewave that appears above the axis when graphed. Antonym: rarefaction.

compression ratio: The numerical ratio of the decibel increase in input levelof a compressor (above the threshold) that produces a 1 decibel increase inoutput level. E.g., if the increase in input level is 5 dB for every 1 dB increasein output, the compression ratio is 5:1.

compressor: A signal-processing device consisting of an amplifier whose gaindecreases automatically as the input signal level increases above a specifiedthreshold. Some models use their own output signal to control gain reduction.

The result is a decrease in the dynamic range of the signal from input tooutput, primarily by reduction of the level of transients or peaks in the signal.This can prevent overload on steep transients and, when the gain prior tocompression is greater than unity, provide a boost for very low-level signals.

condenser (or capacitor) microphone: A microphone in which the vibratingdiaphragm is electrically charged and acts as one plate of a capacitor. Themovement of the diaphragm or membrane with respect to a rigid plate(charged with the opposite polarity) causes a tiny change in the potentialbetween them. This is amplified by an internal preamplifier and sent to the

recording console. DC power is required to run the preamplifier. Works like anelectrostatic speaker in reverse.

console: A set of controls and their housing, which control all signalsnecessary for recording and mixing.

controller: 1. In MIDI, a device that generates a MIDI signal to controlsynthesizers, sound modules or sample playback units. 2. A remote controlunit for a multitrack tape machine which controls transport functions as well asmonitor-selection switching functions and record-ready/safe status of eachtrack. 3. Any device generating a control voltage or signal fed to anotherdevice's control input.

crossover frequency: Loosely, the frequency above and below which an


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decay rate: The number of decibels per second by which echoes orreverberation of a sound diminish once the sound has stopped. Depending onthe sound source and environment, the decay rate may be linear (e.g., asteady number of dB per second), or it may begin to decay slowly and then falloff rapidly, or the reverse. In addition, various frequencies in the sound may

decay at different rates.

decay time: The length of time it takes for echoes or reverberation of a soundto diminish 60 dB below its original level, effectively to inaudibility. Moreprecisely known as reverberation time or T-60.

decibel (dB): 1. A unit of level used to designate power ratios in acoustic andelectric measurements, adapted separately for various power and voltagescales. 2. Loosely, the smallest increment in perceived volume that theaverage human ear can detect. In early experiments with sound, it was noted

that 1/10 bel is very close to this increment; thus, precise measurements ofvolume are standardized in decibels.

default: The set of conditions (parameters) with which a computing device orapplication starts out when first turned on or "booted up." It applies both tosoftware and hardware, musical and nonmusical conditions.

degauss: A term with the same meaning as demagnetize: to remove themagnetism from.


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Music Publishing Lingo Glossary

ADI: abbr., Area of Dominant Influence. The geographic area or marketreached by a radio or television station. It is used by advertisers and ratingcompanies to determine the potential audience of a station.

administration deal: An agreement whereby one party agrees to handle thebusiness affairs of another party. In music publishing, administrationagreements commonly refer to arrangements through which a full-servicemusic publisher or copyright administration company handles copyrightregistrations, song clearances, contracts, licenses, and royalty collections for asmall publisher or songwriter.

advance: The payment in advance of royalties to be earned in the future, andrecouped by offsetting those future earned royalties against the money

advanced. Advances are usually nonrefundable.

audio-visual work: An industry term for film, television, or any other visualproduction.

assignment of copyright: The transfer of ownership of a copyright from oneparty to another. It must be in writing to be effective.

automatic renewal: Works originally copyrighted between 1964 and 1977are granted an automatic renewal term by the Copyright Act, without the

writer filing a renewal registration form to preserve copyright protection. Thiswas the case for earlier copyrights. However, filing a Form RE (along withpayment of the appropriate fee) for automatically renewed works isrecommended in order to obtain certain statutory benefits.

background music: Music used (other than as feature or theme music) thatcreates mood and supports the spoken dialogue of a radio program or visualaction of an audio/visual work.

Berne Convention Preeminent international copyright treaty to which theU.S. is a signatory. Notable for prohibiting administrative formalities in order to

acquire copyright protection, Berne grants a higher level of protection inforeign countries than does the UCC, the other international copyright treaty,to which the U.S. adheres.

blanket license: A license issued by a performing rights society thatauthorizes the public performance of all the songs in the society's catalog.

CISAC: The International Confederation of Societies of Authors andComposers, representing 161 musical creators' and copyright owners'organizations in 87 countries.

clearance: Permission from a rights holder or copyright owner to use a work,usually given in the form of a license.


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Common Information System (CIS): A collection of global databases thatare used as sources of documentation for royalty distributions by CISACmembers.

Compulsory Mechanical License: A mechanical license granted pursuant to

Section 115 of the Copyright Act of 1976. It is available to any party wishing torecord and release a record containing a musical composition (subject tocertain minor exceptions), whether or not the copyright owner wishes to grantthe license. It is available once the musical composition has been recorded anddistributed with the permission of the copyright owner.

controlled composition: A term used to indicate that the artist, producer, orproduction company in a record contract owns or controls a specified musicalcomposition. Usually used to indicate that the musical composition is to beassigned, in whole or in part, to a designated publisher and/or that a reduced

mechanical license rate is to be granted in connection with recordsmanufactured and sold containing the composition.

co-publishing deal: Act of two or more entities sharing publishing income butnot necessarily publishing responsibilities.

copyright: A bundle of exclusive rights granted by law to the creator of anoriginal literary, artistic, or other intellectual work, including songs and soundrecordings. For a deeper discussion of copyright, see the article, "TheMusician's DIY Legal Guide."

cue sheets: Also known as source cues. The final listing and schematic onpaper of all the songs and their writers, publishers, and requisite percentages,as well as timings and description of type of usage of each song in a movie ortelevision or video production. The production company must submit one toeach publisher (ASCAP-BMI or SESAC) so that they can track and pay allparties concerned as the music is broadcast.

demonstration record (or tape): Often referred to as a demo record (ortape), a recording made to sell something (e.g., a song, an artist) bydemonstrating the product being sold. Traditionally, but not necessarily,

demonstration recordings are not of master quality and are not used forcommercial release.

derivative work: A work based on one or more preexisting works, such as adifferent musical arrangement of an existing song.

direct license: In reference to performing rights, a license obtained by amusic user directly from the copyright owner, allowing the user to publiclyperform the licensed work.

domestic: Pertaining to one's own country.

dramatic rights: Copyright in dramatic-musical works created for andperformed on the living stage. Frequently called "grand rights."


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grand rights: "Grand rights" is the term used to describe "dramatic"performing rights. This would cover performances of musical comedies(Broadway and off-Broadway), operas, operettas, ballets, as well as renditionsof independent musical compositions in a dramatic setting where there isnarration, a plot, and/or costumes and scenery. The copyright owner has the

exclusive right to issue licenses and collect fees for grand rights. The use of amusical work in a nondramatic public performance is not a grand right: it is a"small" performing right licensed through a performing rights organization.


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Business Lingo Glossary

A & R: abbr., artist and repertoire. The "talent scouts" of the record company.

advance: Up-front payment, usually from record company to recording artist,that counts against monies that may be payable at some time in the future.Nonrecoupable advances are payments that are not refundable even if futuremonies are never due.

AFM (American Federation of Musicians): Also known as AF of M. In theUnited States, it is the national Musician's Union. The AFM makes contractagreements with film and television production companies to cover theperformance of their musician members on recording sessions for film andtelevision scores. The AFM also oversees contracts for musicians performing onlive gigs, album recording, demo recording, and radio and television

jingles/commercials.

AFTRA (American Federation of Television and Radio Artists): The labororganization to which performers in the television, radio, and recordingindustries belong, including singers, voice-over artists and announcers. Acts onbehalf of its members in the same way as the AFM.

all-in production deal: A recording agreement in which the party contractingwith the record company (artist, producer, and/or production company)provides the record company with the services of the recording artist and the

producer.

Arbitrons MSAs and TSAs: Arbitron assigns all radio stations in 261 radiomarkets to a Metro Survey Area (MSA) and a Total Survey Area (TSA).Arbitron conducts research for the stations to determine characteristics about astation's listening audience.

arranger: An arranger takes existing musical material and creates an"arrangement" of the music for a specific kind of musical group. For example,the arranger might be asked to create a small-group arrangement for a pieceof film music written for an orchestra. Arrangers also create arrangements indifferent styles, such as arranging traditional music for a contemporary jazz orrock group.

ASCAP: abbr., American Society of Composers, Arrangers, and Publishers.ASCAP is a performing rights organization headquartered in the US thatadministers the performing rights of its songwriter and composer members.ASCAP, like its competitors BMI and SESAC, collects performance royaltiesfrom various sources including radio/television stations and networks,nightclubs, and other live performance venues. These royalties are distributedto its members based on how often their compositions are performed.

Royalties are made up of two equal amounts called writer's royalties andpublishing royalties.


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assign: Transfer.

assumption agreement: This is the generally used term for an agreementthat a production company must sign with the AF of M (Musicians' Union) inorder to utilize union members' services on a film or television music recording

session. The agreement covers issues such as payment for the recordingsession and potential future payments based on "new use" of the material (useof the music distributed in a different form like videotape) other than theoriginal distribution.

barcode: The multiline code on most retail products that records the sale andother information.

BDS: abbr., Broadcast Data Systems. In 1991 Billboard created this new datacollection company to collect information about what is being played on radio

stations. It collects this information through computer sampling, monitoring,and identifying each song played via an encoded audio "fingerprint." Thisdigital "fingerprint" emitted by each single is detected by the BDS reportingstations.

bin card: Divider card in main CD sales area to separate and bring attentionto each artist, most frequently reserved for artists with more than one CD andrespectable sales.

blanket license: License issued by a copyright holder to a music user thatapplies to several or all of the copyright holders' works. For example, PROs

(performing rights organizations) commonly issue blanket licenses to radiostations to enable full access to repertoire.

BMI: abbr., Broadcast Music Incorporated. One of the performing rightsorganizations headquartered in the US, along with ASCAP and SESAC.

booking agent: A person who acts on behalf of an Artist to secure gigs andwho takes a commission, typically 10 to 20 percent of the artist's grossrevenue.

bullet: A symbol () used by Billboard magazine to indicate significant salesand/or airplay activity by specific recordings listed in the magazine's best-seller charts.

burn or "fatigue" factor: Current recordings are often tested by researchfirms to determine the listeners' "tiredness" of the recording. A 20-plus percentresponse rate indicates listener fatigue, which may also indicate a desire bythe listener to change the station.

buzz: 1. "Creating a buzz" means to rouse an interest in an unknown,unsigned musical act on a local scale in order to attract a record label. 2.Creating a consumer interest in a new release by a musical act by the act'srecord company on a regional or national scale.


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business manager: Typically a representative who helps the musician withfinancial planning, investment decisions, tax matters, monitoring of incomefrom contracts, estate planning, and other financial matters.

call-out research: Research method used by radio stations. About 100 to 150

people in a local area are called and invited to meet at a central location. Therespondents listen to the "hooks" (ordinarily five to ten seconds of the maintheme of the song) from new, current, and recurrent recordings (olderrecordings that are still "worthy" of airplay). Respondents are asked to rankthe hooks (on a seven-point scale) based on how much they "like" therecordings. Radio stations pay the research firms for the information andcustomarily play only the highest ranked recordings.

catalog: In the music business, "catalog" most often refers to the repertoire ofproduct released by a record company or recording artist, or the titles of songs

controlled by a music publishing company.

click track: Click is an audible signal (sounds like a "click") that the conductorand musicians hear through their headphones during recording. Click helps theconductor and musician perform music at exactly the right speed (tempo) sothat it will synchronize with the film/picture as the composer intended.Composers will indicate a click speed for each piece of music (cue) that iswritten, and the click may vary in speed during a cue.

compilation: A collection of recordings by different artists on different tracks.Also called "coupling."

composer agreement: The agreement between a film or televisionproduction company and the composer. The Composer Agreement oftenspecifies the amount of music to be written, the format for delivery (type oftape, etc.), the name of the person who approves the final music product andwhen, and timetables for payment and delivery.

compulsory license: A mechanical license granted pursuant to Section 115 ofthe Copyright Act of 1976. It is available to any party wishing to record andrelease a record containing a musical composition (subject to certain minor

exceptions), whether or not the copyright owner wishes to grant the license. Itis available once the musical composition has been recorded and distributedwith the permission of the copyright owner.

conductor: The person who conducts or directs the musicians as they performa piece of music. The conductor is often the person who composed ororchestrated the music, and is often the only person in the recording room whocan hear the comments of the people in the control room at a recordingsession. The conductor listens to the comments/requests of the people in thecontrol room and translates them into musical directions for the musicians.

container charges: These are the charges deducted from the royalty base tocover the cost of the container in which a record is sold.


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contractor: A contractor works with the composer for a film or televisionproject to hire the musicians who will play on the recording sessions. Thecontractor also interfaces with the A F of M (Musicians Union) to ensure thatthe proper paperwork and forms are completed and filed for union recordingsessions. A good contractor also knows how to hire excellent quality musicians,

work with the musicians to ensure that their needs are met, and how to hiremusicians that will work well together. The contractor is usually hired ordesignated by the composer.

controlled composition: A term used to indicate that the artist, producer, orproduction company in a record contract owns or controls a specified musicalcomposition. Usually used to indicate that the musical composition is to beassigned, in whole or in part, to a designated publisher and/or that a reducedmechanical license rate (typically 75 percent) is to be granted in connectionwith records manufactured and sold containing the composition.

copyist: A copyist performs music preparation. These services include takingthe printed "scores" prepared by the composer or orchestrater (which haveseparate lines for each instrument in the group to be recorded) and preparingindividual parts (printed music sheets) for each musician. The copyist isresponsible for making sure that the parts for the musicians are readable andcontain exactly what is indicated in the printed score. Copyists often attend therecording sessions to make sure the parts are correctly distributed to themusicians and to make any last-minute changes that may be necessary before(or during!) the recording session.

copyright: A bundle of exclusive rights granted by law to the creator of anoriginal musical, literary, artistic, or other intellectual work. For a discussion ofthe exclusive rights enjoyed by the copyright owner of a song or soundrecording, see the article, "The Musician's DIY Legal Guide."

coterminous: Agreements that terminate, or end, at the same time. Forexample, a recording agreement and songwriter's agreement that arecoterminous will both terminate when either agreement ends for whateverreason.

cover: 1. n. The jacket of a record, usually of a CD. 2. A short form for coverrecord, which is a recording of a musical composition that has already beenrecorded by another artist. Generally, cover records are made to exploitalready successful recordings. Frequently, cover records are instrumentalversions of hit recordings. 3. v. "To cover" is to record a musical compositionthat someone else has already recorded, usually successfully.

cross collateralization: A method used by record companies by which artistroyalties from one album are recouped against advances of another.

crossover: A song or recording that initially sees success in one particularmarket segment (say, pop) and then "crosses over" to achieve success in oneor more other market segments (say, R & B).


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cue: A piece of music written for a film or television project. Cues can be ofany length, and are written for a particular "scene" in a film. Cues can beoriginal cues (original music) or source cues (music that is heard by the actorsin the scene, such as music in a nightclub or music coming out of a radio).Source cues are often music that already exists (songs from an album, etc.)

that is licensed for use in a film. A music supervisor typically handles thelicensing of source cues.

cue sheet: The document that is prepared after a film/television project iscompleted that specifies each piece of music ("cue") that is used. The cuesheet indicates the composer (writer), publishing company, title, length, andusage (background instrumental, etc.) for each cue and is filed with theappropriate performing rights organization (ASCAP, BMI, etc.) that thecomposer belongs to. The cue sheet is usually prepared by the music editor,and is approved by the music executive of the production company (usually

the producer, director, or music supervisor). Payment of performing rightsroyalties is only possible if a cue sheet is filed for the production.

cutouts: Records that retail has not been able to sell (due to overestimatedsales projections, change in buyer habits, etc.), which are marked and sold ator below cost to retail discounters.

deal memo: A letter or short contract that often precedes the drafting andnegotiation of a full recording or other contract.

delivery commitment: 1. The number of masters required to be deliveredunder a recording contract at a given point in time. 2. All items required to bedelivered under an agreement.

demo, demonstration record (or tape): A recording made for the purposeof selling something (a song, an artist, etc.) by demonstrating the productbeing sold. Traditionally, but not necessarily, demonstration recordings are notof master quality and are not used for commercial release.

demo deal: An arrangement whereby one party pays for the creation ofcertain masters of another in exchange for some speculative future interest.

derivative work: A work based on one or more preexisting works, such as adifferent musical arrangement of an existing song.

distribution right: A right under copyright law; the right to distribute copiesof a work.

distributor: A company that manufactures, warehouses, and distributesrecords to retailers.

domestic rights: Usually defined as rights within U.S., or the U.S. andCanada.

end caps: The racks located at the end of the aisles used for price and


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position to increase unit sales. Labels pay for the end caps.

EP: abbr., extended play. A record containing more material than a single, butless than an album's worth.

exclusive: Unable to provide services or rights to anyone other than withwhom you have contracted.

execute: To complete; to sign; to perform.

fair use: A kind of use of a copyrighted work that does not require the consentof the copyright owner. The principles of fair use are contained in Section 107of the Copyright Act.

floors: In recording agreements, the minimum amount of a recording budgetor advance payment.

flow-through provision: A provision in an agreement, allowing the terms,presumably more favorable, from another agreement to be incorporated intothe current agreement. For example, an agreement between an artist and aproduction company may specify that no matter what that agreementprovides, the artist will get the benefit of any more favorable royaltycomputation contained in the production company's agreement with the recordcompany.

foreign sales: Licensing a master or song in various territories and media

outside the U.S. (or sometimes outside the U.S. and Canada).

freebies: The term used to describe free goods given in connection with thesale of product. For example, records are frequently sold on a basis of "buy 10,get 3 free." The three records given free are freebies.

fronting: Paying to have your CDs front-and-center in the bins to drawattention to them.

front-line: Priority album projects that are new and active in the marketplace.

gig: A concert or other personal appearance.

grant: To give or permit; to bestow or confer.

grantor: The person who makes a grant. The transferor of property.

Harry Fox Agency: A company that represents music publishers in thenegotiation of mechanical licenses, synchronization licenses, and foreignlicenses, and the collection of music royalty income.

in perpetuity: Forever.

inducement letter: The document, usually a letter, signed by an artist to


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acknowledge that a production company or loan-out company has the right tolend or furnish the artist's services. The artist ratifies the agreement betweenthe production company/loan-out company and the record company, publisher,film company, or whatever institution to which the artist is being contracted.

in-store or street date: The date at which certain products can be sold instores.

instrumental: 1. A piece of music not containing vocals. 2. Thesynchronization use of a composition or master containing an instrumentalperformance.

joint recording: A recording made by two or more individual artists.

key man clause: A provision in an agreement which provides that if a key

man, such as, for example, the president of the company or the artist'sproducer, leaves the company, the agreement may be terminated because ofthe absence of that person.

K-Tel type sales: The selling of compilations directly to the consumer, usingtelevision advertising. K-Tel was one of the first direct-mail companies to sellrecords to consumers using this method. Other companies that sellcompilations directly to the public are Ronco, Sessions, and Pickwick.

less returns: In a contract, this allows the record company to deduct returnsfrom gross sales in order to determine net sales.

librarian: The person at a recording session who distributes and collects theprinted music "parts" that the musicians and conductor read from. Often afunction of the copyist or music preparation company.

license The granting of particular rights in a song or a recorded performance.

licensee: Person who is given a license or permission to do something.

licensor: The person who gives or grants a license.

listening post: A place to position CDs at retail such that they are displayedabove main bins and have headphones attached below for consumers to checkout the music.

list price: The suggested or recommended retail price for a product. It is thefigure the RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America) uses to calculateannual gross sales.

loss leader: Discounted product in a store that is used to draw in customersin the hope that he or she will buy a more expensive product as a result of

visiting the store. Best Buy has used this technique in the hope that itscustomers will walk out not only with the latest Goo Goo Dolls CD, but with atoaster oven as well.


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LP: "Long-play." Term referring to an album's length of material released invinyl configuration.

manager: See personal manager, business manager, and road manager.

market: A group of people or organizations that share a need for a particularproduct, and have the willingness and ability to use/pay for it.

market segmentation: Process of dividing the market into smaller groupsthat share one or more characteristics.

market share: The proportion of the total market that is using a particularorganization's product.

marketing information system: System for collecting and exploitinginformation on existing and potential clients.

master: 1. The final, mixed 2-track sound recording of a particularperformance of a song. 2. The final 2-track, fully-equalized and sequencedalbum, EP, or single from which subsequent copies are made.

mastering: An overall equalization process of an album to ready it formanufacturing copies.

master use: Generally refers to a license to use a master. Often will refer tothe specific synchronization use of a master within an audio/visual production.

marketing mix: Usually refers to the variety of means and channels (print,radio, TV, etc.) through which a product or service is marketed, promoted, andsold.

mechanical license: Authorization from a music publisher or song writer torecord and distribute a song on phonorecords. Compare to compulsorymechanical license.

merchandising rights: In the recording industry, the right to market thename, logo, characterization, etc. of an artist for commercial gain. Primeexamples are T-shirts, posters, lunch pails, etc., with the picture of an artist.In the music industry, there is a distinction between merchandising, in whichthe products are specifically made to exploit an artist's success, andcommercial tie-ins, in which an artist's name, logo, etc. is used to enhance thesales of pre-existing product.

multitrack: The tape containing a number of individually recordedperformances of a particular song (e.g., lead vocal, lead guitar, rhythm guitar,bass guitar, kick drum, snare drum, etc.), which is mixed down into a Master.

music clearance (or rights licensing): Music clearance refers to thenegotiation of rights to use an existing song or piece of music in a film,television show, or other multimedia project. Usually the music supervisor


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handles the music clearance (or "rights licensing") and works with thecompanies or individuals who own the publishing rights to the existing music tobe used in a project. Most music clearance is for "source cues" (especiallysongs) and existing recordings of music. Music clearance is not usuallyrequired for the original score music that is written by the composer for a

production.

music performance trust funds: Trust funds, to which record companies arerequired to contribute monies, which are used "to promote live music" byfinancing live concerts. The contributions are based upon a royalty due on thesale of recordings.

music publisher: One who owns the publishing rights to music. These rightsusually entitle the publisher to decide how a piece of music can be distributedor used in various forms. A publisher can be a company or an individual, and

collects publisher's royalties from performing rights organization for usage ofthe music in addition to whatever licensing fees may be charged for use of themusic.

music supervisor: An executive who manages the licensing of music andsometimes the original music written by the composer, for a film/televisionproject. The music supervisor handles music clearance and rights licensing ofexisting music, but also may be a part of the relationship between the directorof a film and the composer. Choosing appropriate music (especially sourcecues and songs) is another of their responsibilities.

net royalties: The royalty that remains after the deduction of costs. Inrecording agreements that include shared royalties from a third party (such aslicensing rights to an outside party), net royalty is the sum remaining afterdeducting costs such as advances, mechanical license fees, manufacturing,reserves, container charges, etc.. It is usually shared equally between therecord company and the artist or production company.

Nielsen DMAs: The A.C. Nielsen Company has developed Designated MarketAreas (DMAs), which are used to divide the country into nonoverlappingmarkets. Radio stations that do not fall into the Arbitrons MSAs are in the

Nielsen DMAs.

nonreturnable advance: Advance that is recoverable only from royaltiesearned. The artist, writer, or other entity (it could be a company) is notrequired to pay back the advance even if the royalties actually earned are lessthan the amount advanced.

option: An optional privilege. In music agreements, it generally refers to thecompany's ability to continue the operation of the agreement for an additionalperiod.

orchestrator: An orchestrator takes the printed music from the composer(usually a semi-detailed "score" or less-detailed "sketch") and makes decisions


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for $1.00.

price and position: An agreement between the record company and thestore, in which the record company offers a discount on the product if the storedisplays it in a high-traffic, point-of-purchase location. Record labels

compensate the store by providing free or reduced prices on additional stock.

product: Used to refer to CDs. For example, you might call your radiopromotional contact and tell him, "We'll have product in the stores by nextFriday."

product differentiation: What makes your product different from that ofyour competitors (e.g., you supply better quality music, or more timelyclearances).

production company: The entity that directly signs and produces a recordingartist, and then enters into an agreement with a record company to furnish theartist's services to the record company. A production company does everythinga record company does, except distribution and marketing.

promo (promotional copy): A copy of work, usually a record, which is givenaway free for promotional purposes. For example, records given to radiostations in order to obtain airplay.

public domain composition: A composition that is no longer owned by apublishing company is said to be "in the public domain." Such a piece can be

re-recorded or otherwise published without payment to a publisher ornegotiation of rights. Note that existing recordings of public domain ("PD")music may generally not be used without the permission of the owner of therecording. (For example, a piece by Brahms is public domain, but use of arecording by the London Symphony Orchestra of a Brahms piece must belicensed).

publisher's share: The share of proceeds payable to the publishers for theirpublishing rights in songs controlled by them, representing 50 percent of thetotal proceeds.

publishing: Activity which administers and exploits rights in musicalcompositions.

rack jobber: Refers to big stores like Wal-Mart hiring an outside entity("jobber") to handle their CD sales. It operates like a little mini-store within abig store.

rack vs. retail: Rack products are units sold in discount stores, like Wal Mart.Retail are the units sold in chain stores such as Tower Records and SamGoody's.

record club: A direct-to-consumer method of selling records though the mail.Buyers usually become members and select purchases from a list mailed by


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the company.

record company: A business entity engaged in finding recording artists and inmarketing master recordings of their performances.

record deal: Generally refers to obtaining an exclusive artist recordingagreement from a record company.

recording commitment: See delivery commitment.

recording fund: A specific sum of money that covers all the costs of recordingan album, and may be used contractually as a method of paying advances to arecording artist or production company. That is, if the record costs less toproduce than the money in the recording fund, the artist or productioncompany gets the difference after delivery. (Since all recording costs are

usually recoupable, the entire recording fund is an advance).

recoupable: Costs and advances that are "paid back" to the record companyout of the recording artist's royalties.

release date: Date a CD is released to radio stations, media, and promopeople.

reserve: To withhold payment of royalties otherwise due, in anticipation ofreturns from distributors and/or retail.

return: Records are 100 percent "returnable." That is, they can be sent backfrom the record stores to the distributors. The distributor deducts a sale fromthe record company's account, and the record company deducts a royaltypayment from its artist's account.

road manager: Person charged with the day-to-day supervision of a concerttour. Also called "tour manager."

royalties: In music publishing, refers to payments to the owners (usuallypublishers) and composer(s) of a musical composition. In the recording

industry, royalties paid by record companies to recording artists. Royalties canbe of many types and come from varied sources, including royalties paid fromthe sales of CDs, royalties paid from usage on metered services such as "payper view" or subscription services, proceeds from the sales of licenses (e.g.sync licenses for using music in a film or television project), and performingrights royalties.

royalty acceleration: A built-in increase in the rate of royalty, usually basedupon sales and /or passage of time.

sampler: An electronic device that plays back digital recordings of musical

instruments and other sounds.

scoring engineer: The person who records, "mixes" (adjusts levels, effects,


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and tone), and has overall responsibility for recording the musicians at arecording session. Also known as the recording engineer.

sell-through: The difference between shipments and the actual SoundScansales. As an example, an 80 percent sell-through exists if 100,000 units were

shipped and 80,000 units were sold.

SESAC: Performing rights society. Administers affiliated publishers' andsongwriters' performance right in their songs. Others in the U.S. are ASCAPand BMI.

shop: To solicit a record deal.

single: A record primarily promoting one master; may contain up to fourseparate masters, although some may be remixes and alternate versions of

the primary single.

songwriter's share: The share of proceeds payable to the songwriters fortheir publishing rights, representing 50 percent of the total proceeds.

SoundScan Company responsible for gathering and selling data pertaining toCDs sold by scanning. Stores report to SoundScan once a week. Labels likestores and chains that are SoundScan subscribers, because reposted datahelps their artists show up on the charts. Not all music retailers aresubscribers.

sequencer: A device or computer program used by a composer to record theparts to be played by musicians (or to be electronically played on samplers orsynthesizers). Sequencers can play back complex musical compositions atvirtually any speed, allowing quick changes of notes and instruments, and insome cases, can print the music out as a "score" on paper.

sound designer A sound designer creates sounds or sound effects (usuallynot musical pieces or cues) for use in film, television, and other multimediaprojects. The sound designer will often work with the composer to ensure thatthe music composed for a project is compatible with (and does not interfere

with) any special sounds or sound effects (SFX).

sound recording: The recorded performance of a song onto a phonorecord.

SRLP: abbr., suggested retail list price. The price of a record charged toconsumers by record stores and other retail outlets. Compare wholesaleprice.

spec: Working for nothing on the hope and speculation that something willcome of it. See demo deals.

statutory rate: The mechanical license fee specified by the Copyright Act. Seemechanical license fee.


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subdistributor: In theatrical releases, distributors who handle a specificgeographic territory. They are subcontracted by the main distributor, whocoordinates the distribution campaign and marketing of all subdistributors.

synchronization rights (or sync rights): Refers to the privilege of using an

existing piece of music (often as a source cue) in a film or televisionproduction. That is, to use a piece of music in conjunction with a piece of videoor film ("picture"). Synchronization rights (known as a "sync license") areusually negotiated with the publisher of the music.

talent agent: See booking agent.

target market A group of people for whom you create and maintain a specificmarketing mix (e.g. the product will be tailored to their needs, priced in a waythat group finds attractive).

term The length of a contract.

territory: The nations or regions under contract.

unrecouped advance That portion of money paid in advance of sales and/orcosts advanced to or on behalf of an artist (or other party) that is unrecoveredbecause sales have not generated a sufficient sum of money to recover theentire advance. "Unrecouped" is sometimes used to describe an artist or writerwhose royalty account indicates that advances and/or costs exceed earnings.

wholesale price: The price of a record charged to record stores bydistributors. Compare SRLP.

work-for-hire (or work-made-for-hire): Under the Copyright Act, this iseither (1) a work prepared by an employee within the scope of employment, or(2) a specially ordered or commissioned work of a certain type (e.g. acontribution to a collective work), which the parties expressly agree to in awriting signed by both.

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Glossary Composition

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