Governance in Education in Vietnam-Giang Dang_CECODES

7/27/2019 Governance in Education in Vietnam-Giang Dang_CECODES

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GOVERNANCEINEDUCATIONINVIETNAM

DangHoang-GiangDangNgoc-Dinh

PhungThanhXuanNguyenVanPhu

CenterforCommunitySupportandDevelopmentStudies

(CECODES)

April2013


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TableofContents

1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................32. OVERVIEW................................................................................................................................4

3. THESCHOOLNETWORK.......................................................................................................6

4. FINANCIALMANAGEMENT..................................................................................................84.1. STATEFUNDING............................................................................................................................8 4.2. TUITIONANDFEES....................................................................................................................11

5. PERSONNELMANAGEMENT..............................................................................................145.1. TEACHERSRERUITMENT.......................................................................................................14 5.2. PRINCIPALSASSIGNMENT......................................................................................................18

6. STAKEHOLDERSINASCHOOL..........................................................................................197. QUALITYASSURANCE..........................................................................................................21

8. CONTENT.................................................................................................................................26

9. CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................27

10. ANNEXES...............................................................................................................................31ANNEX1:GRAPHICOFKEYRESONSIBILITIESANDACCOUNTABILITYLINKAGES..........31ANNEX2:REGULATIONSFORPRIVATESCHOOLS...................... .................. .................. ............32ANNEX3:LISTOFINTERVIEWS.................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ...............34

11. REFERENCES........................................................................................................................35

ThisreportwaspreparedwithsupportfromtheWorldBank.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedhereinarethoseoftherauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheWorldBank.TheWorldBankdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyofthedataandinformationincludedinthiswork.


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1.INTRODUCTION

InthepastdecadesVietnamhasachievedtremendousprogressintermofschooleducation.From2001to2010,thenetenrollmentratesofprimaryeducationcontinuedtogrowfromanimpressive94%to97%.Itgrewfrom70%to83%forlowersecondaryeducation,andfrom33%to50%foruppersecondaryeducation.Thecountryhasestablishedanextensivenetworkofeducationinstitutions,allowingrelativelyeasyaccesstoschooleducationforthewholepopulation,withoneprimaryschoolineachcommune,onelowersecondaryschoolperoneortwocommunes,andatleastoneuppersecondaryschoolineverydistrict.Thebudgetallocatedforeducationnowaccountstoapprox.20%ofthetotalnationalbudget,ahighlevelininternationalcomparison,withmoreresourcesmobilizedfromthesocietythroughtheso-called

socializationprocess.Vietnamhasbasicallysucceededineradicatingilliteracy,achievingnationalcompulsoryprimaryeducationuniversalization,andmovingtowardsdoingthesameforpreschoolandlowersecondaryeducation.Whiletheachievementsareimpressiveandwellacknowledged,ontheotherhand,seriousconcernshavebeenincreasinglyraisedthatVietnamseducationisnotwellpositionedfortheageofglobalizationandinternationalcompetition.Giventhehighlevelofinvestment,theeducationqualityandefficacyclearlyneedimprovement.Curriculum,teachingmethodsandmanagementstructuresareconsideredtobenotadequateforthedevelopmentofsoftskills,creativeandcriticalthinking,andpracticalskillsforpupils,whicharecriticallyrequiredforahighqualitylaborforceneededfor

thecountrysindustrialization.The2011-2020VietnamDevelopmentStrategymakeitaclearprioritytofundamentallyreformthenationaleducationsystem.Someofthekeychallengeslieinthegovernancestructuresofthesector.Asinanyotherpublicsector,deliveringqualitypublicservicesineducationrequirescleardefinitionofresponsibilityforpolicymakingandimplementation,aswellaswell-definedaccountabilityfortheirresults.Efficientpolicyformulationandimplementation,inturn,requirestimelyanddetailedinformationoninputssuchasfinance,humanresources,etc.andoutcomes(e.g.enrollments,attendance,etc.).Intermofaccountability,itisimportanttoconsiderbothdownwardandupwardaccountabilitylinkagesbetweenserviceprovidersanddifferentlevelsofstateagencies,aswellashorizontalaccountabilitiestowardscitizens.However,itappearsthatoverall,theallocationofresponsibilityacrosstheeducationsysteminVietnamatpresentisdiffuse,anditisnotclearwhoisaccountableforwhichresultsinpractice.Lackoftimely,comprehensiveanddetailedinformationoninputsandoutcomepresentschallengesforpolicymakingandfurtherweakensaccountabilityforresultstobothgovernmentandnon-governmentstakeholders.Againstthisbackground,thisreportcontributestotheunderstandingofthecurrentgovernancearrangementsintheschooleducationsystembydescribingcurrent

functionsandresponsibilitiesofthekeystakeholders.Itdoessoby(1)reviewingandsummarizingrelevantlegaldocuments,and(2)gatheringinformationthroughdesk


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researchandin-depthinterviewswithvariousrelevantgovernmentagenciesandstakeholdersatthecentrallevel,aswellasintwoprovinces,HaNoiandThanhHoa.Combiningthedejureframeworkandevidencegatheredfromthefieldwork,thereportaimstopointoutmaincriticalgovernanceissueswhichimpacttheperformanceofthesector.Inotherwords,itaimstoanswerthequestion:whatarethechallengesofthe

currentsetupthathinderthesystemfromdeliveringqualityineducationservices.Whilethereportlooksatgovernanceaspectsofthesector(whichareexpressedthroughfunctionsandresponsibilitiesofactorsandtheiraccountabilitylinkages),itdoesnotlookatpedagogicalconcern,suchasqualityoftextbooksorthesuitabilityofthecurriculum.Thereportisstructuredasfollowing:Chapter2ofthereportgivesanoverviewofthenationaleducationsystem.Chapter3coversthemanagementoftheschoolnetwork,includingestablishingnewschools,andmergingandclosingofschools.Chapter4dealswiththefinancialmanagementofschools,lookingathowstatefundingisallocatedandused,aswellasattuitionsandfees,parentalcontributionsandothersourcesofschoolsincome.Chapter5looksatpersonnelmanagement,includinghiringandtransferofteachers,principalsassignment,andissuesrelatedtotheirqualificationandin-servicetraining.

Chapter6coversSchoolCouncilandParentsCouncilthatare,besideschoolmanagementandteachers,keystakeholdersinschools.Chapter7looksataspectsofqualityassurance,includingperformanceassessmentofteachersandprincipals,theaccreditationofschools,andtheNationalStandard.Chapter8coversgovernanceissuesrelatedtocontent,e.g.curriculumandtextbooks.Finally,chapter9providesaconcludinganalysisofgovernanceissuesandtheirimpactonthesystemsperformance.Whilethereportfocusesonpublicschoolsasprovidersofpublicservices,Annex1givessomebasicoverviewontherelevantregulationsforprivateschools.

2.OVERVIEWTherearetwoformsofeducationalinstitutions:publicandprivate.Forkindergartens,thereisathirdform,calledpeople-founded(dnlp),whicharefundedbylocalcommunities,andnotfinancedfromthestatebudget.Accordingtothecircular

11/2009/TT-BGDT,fortheprimaryandsecondarylevel,people-foundedschoolshave


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tobetransformedintoeitherthepublicorprivateform.Thetransformationisunderwayandissupposedtobefinishedin2013.Figure1showsthestructureofthenationaleducationsystem.

(Source:Dr.VuDinhChuan,DirectorGeneral,SecondaryEducationDepartment,MinistryofEducationandTraining,TheDevelopmentofBasicEducationinVietnamduringtheintegration,2011)

Earlychildhoodeducation(ECE):ECEisforchildrenfrom3monthsto6yearsold.ECEinstitutionsinclude:(1)Crches:forchildrenfrom3monthsto3yearsold;(2)Kindergarten:36yearsold;(3)Mmnon:combinationoftheprevioustwo(3months6yearsold).PublicECEinstitutionsareunderthemanagementofdistrict

government;privateECEinstitutionsareunderthemanagementofcommunegovernment.Primaryschool:Durationofprimaryschoolsis5years(1stto5thgrade).Theentryis6yearsold.Primaryschoolsareunderthemanagementofthedistrictgovernment.Secondaryschool:Lowersecondaryschoolsarefrom6thto9thgrade(4years).Entryis11yearsold.Lowersecondarylevelhasanexaminationatgrade9.Uppersecondaryschoolsarefrom10thto12thgrade(3years).Entryis15yearsold.Uppersecondarylevelhasanentranceandexitexam.


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Thealternativetotheuppersecondarytrackisthevocationaltrainingtrack,whichlastsfrom6monthsto3years.Similarly,aftergraduationfromuppersecondarylevel,vocationaltrainingcanbetakenasanalternativetohighereducation.LowersecondaryschoolsareunderthemanagementofthedistrictPeoplesCommittee

(government).UppersecondaryschoolsareunderthemanagementoftheprovincialPeoplesCommittee.ThecentralMinistryofEducationandTraining(MOET)isinchargeofsettingthecurriculum,publishingthetextbooks,issuingregulationsonteachingandassessments,andonthesystemofdegreesandcertificates.ThevastmajorityofVietnamsschoolsarepublicschools(evenattertiarylevel,themostprivatizedlevel,privatehighereducationinstitutionsaccounttoonly11%ofallstudents).

TheprovincialPeopleCommittee(PC)issupportedandadvisedbytheDepartmentofEducationandTraining(DOET)inmanagingtheireducationsector,thedistrictPCissupportedandadvisedbyBureauofEducationandTraining(BOET).DOETandBOETgiveoutinstructionsintermofcontent,programandpoliciesasissuedbyMOET,andareinchargeofinspectingpolicyimplementationandactivitiesandqualityoftheschools.DOETandBOETaresubjecttodirectionandmanagementofthePeoplesCommitteesintermsoforganizationalstructure,staffsizeandtasks;whileintechnicalandprofessionaltermstheyaresubjecttotheMOETsdirection,guidanceandsupervision.

3.THESCHOOLNETWORKThischapterprovidesanunderstandingaboutrolesandresponsibilitiesindevelopingandmanagingtheschoolnetwork.Itdealswithaspectssuchasopeninganewschool,mergingorclosingschoolsandrelatedgovernanceissues.Establishingnewschools

Foreachoftheschoollevels(ECE,primary,loweranduppersecondary),MOETdefinesminimalrequirements(e.g.aboutsizeandqualificationofhumanresources,infrastructure,etc.)foranewschooltobeestablished.

Theestablishingofanewschoolofanylevelrequirestwolicenses:- Licensetofoundaschool(giyphpthnhlptrng)- Licensetoconducteducationalactivities(giyphphotnggio

dc)

Licensetofoundaschool:ThecommunePeoplesCommittee(PC)isinchargeofcreatingtheproposaltofoundapublickindergarten,aprimaryschooloralowersecondaryschool.Inthiscase,theproposalisforthedistrictPCtoapprove.

Foruppersecondaryschools,thedistrictPCisinchargeofcreatingtheproposal,whichistobeapprovedbyChairmanoftheprovincesPC.


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Forkindergartens,primaryandlowersecondaryschools,thedirectorofBOETgrantsthelicensetoconducteducationalactivities.Foruppersecondaryschools,thedirectorofDOETgrantsthelicense.

Whiletheformerlicenseisgrantedwhentheauthorityinchargeseestheproposalasfittingtotheneedsanddevelopmentplanofthecommunity,thelatterlicenseisonlygrantedwhenthenewschoolcanactuallyshowtherequiredconditionsintermofinfrastructureandhumanresources.Theauthoritytograntthelicenseisalsotheauthoritytoevokethelicense.AlthoughMOETprescribesindetailstherequirementstobemetforaschooltobefounded,itisunderstandablethatmanyschools,especiallythoseinpoorerareas,cannotmeettheminimalrequirements.Inthe1990s,thenationalgoalwastohaveallchildrenaged614tocompleteprimaryeducation.Asaresult,thenetworkofprimaryschoolsexpandedrapidlyandreachedallcommunesinthecountry.Oftenviasatelliteschoolsitwasensuredthatnocommuneswerewithoutaprimaryschoolandnovillageswerewithoutprimaryclasses.Thesesatelliteschoolsareoftenrudimentaryintermsofbothphysicalconditionsandhumanresources.1Whileschoolsinruralareasmaylackbothhumanresourcesandinfrastructure,manyschoolsindenselypopulatedurbanareas,suchasHanoi,suffershortagesofspace.

Closing/mer

gingschools

Decisionstosplit,mergeorcloseECE,primaryandlowersecondary

schoolsarewiththechairmanofthedistrictPC.Decisionsofsplitting,mergingandclosinguppersecondaryschoolsarewiththechairmanoftheprovincialPC.Thesedecisionscanbeofhighlypoliticalnature,asseeninthecaseofThanhHoabelow.

CasestudyThanhHoa

Asaconsequenceofcontinuinglydecreasingbirthrates,country-widethenumberofprimaryandlowersecondarypupilshasbeengoingdown.(Inthesametime,thenumberofECEpupilsandofuppersecondarypupilshasbeenslightlyincreasingorremainingthesameduetohigherratesofenrollmentattheselevels.)ThissituationisstronglyexperiencedinThanhHoa.Accordingtoaninformantintheprovincesleadership,inagivenyear,thedeclineofprimarypupilsmayequalto600classes,oflowersecondarypupilsequalingto400classes.Tenyearsago,thetotalnumberofpupilsintheprovincewere1.1millions,comparedto.75millionsnow.In1995,therewere0.5millionsprimarypupilsand0.4millionslowersecondarypupils,comparedto0.2millionsand0.2millionsnow.

1

Forexample,InHaTinh,aprimaryschoolhas4classesbutonly2classroomsandoneteacherintotal(http://vietnamnet.vn/vn/giao-duc/92987/truong-co-duy-nhat-mot-giao-vien.html)


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Asaresulttheprovincesleadershiphasfacedtheneedtore-organizetheschoolnetwork.Schoolswithlessthen6classesaresupposedtobemergedwithanotherone;satellitesaretobemovedtothemainschool.Forexample,inHauLoc,thedistrictwevisited,thereare6schoolswith

justonly4or5classeseach.Thedistrictplanstoreducethenumberoflowersecondaryschoolsfromcurrently28to22.Therearetwodifferentwaysofmerging:horizontal(mergingschoolofthesamelevel,e.g.primary,ofdifferentcommunesintoone);andvertical(mergingschoolsofdifferentlevels,e.g.primaryandlowersecondary,ofthesamecommunityintoone).AccordingtotheThanhHoaexperience,whichislikelytobesimilarinanyotherprovince,horizontalmergingpresentsanumberofspecificdifficulties:typically,communesdonotwanttoloosetheirschool,butwanttokeepitasaprestige.Thereisalsoresistancefromthepopulationtosendtheirkidtoaschoolinanothercommune.Thedistrict/provincesgovernmentprobablywouldhavefewerproblemswithclosingormergingschools,asunlikecommunes,aschoolisnotaobjectofprestigeforthem.Oneoftheissuesofverticalmergingisthatinsubjectswithashortageofteachers(e.g.Englishorarts),theseteacherswillendupteachingawiderangeofclassesfromprimarytosecondarylevel.Redundancyofstaff,includingnon-teachingstaff,suchasaccountantsorlibrarians,

and,seeminglyhardertodealwith,principals,isanotherissue.Duetopersonalconnectionsofprincipalstouppergovernmentlevelsanddifferentcommunesinfluenceonthedistrict,amergingdecisionmaybebasedlessonconsiderationsofoptimizingqualityandcostoftheservices.

4.FINANCIALMANAGEMENT4.1.STATEFUNDING

Allocationofstatebudget

Accordingtodecentralizedresponsibilityassignedtogovernmentlevels,publickindergartens,primaryandlowersecondaryschoolsarefundedbythedistrictsbudget.Statefundingforuppersecondaryschoolscomesfromtheprovincesbudget.Districtsplantheireducationbudgetbasedoninputsfromschoolsintheirterritory.Inturn,provincesplantheireducationbudgetbasedoninputsfromtheirdistricts.Apparentlythereisnegotiationattheprovinciallevelwhenitcomestoallocatingfundingtothedistricts,as

wellasatthedistrictlevel,whenitcomestoallocatingfundingtothecommunes.Asdiscussedbelow,thequalityofdatareportedupthe


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hierarchyisquestionable,bothduetolackofreportingcapacity,lackofproperITtools,andalsoduetovulnerabilitytointentionalmanipulation,e.g.ofnumberofstudentsorteachers.Thisissueishardtobringundercontrolwithaweaksystemofinspectionandcontrolfromhigherlevelsofgovernment.

Themechanismsusedtoplanandallocateeducationfundingcouldbe:

- Basedonteachersheadcount- Basedonpupilsheadcount- Basedonclassroomsnumber- Amixoftheabove.

Thestatefundingcoversthesalarybudgetandoperationalbudget,butnocapitalinvestment.Higherschoolleveltypicallyreceivedhigherperheadamount.Perheadamountsalsovarydependingonsocio-economicregionwithinaprovinces,andarehigherinpoorerregions.InThanhHoaandHaNoi,theprovincestheteamvisitedforfieldwork,itseemsthatthecommonmechanismforbudgetallocationfromprovincetodistrictsistheonebasedonpupilsheadcount,althoughdistrictscandeployquitedifferentmechanismstoallocatefundingtoschools.

CasestudyThanhHoa

InThanhHoa,budgetamountsperpupilvaryfromschoolleveltolevelandfromregiontoregion.Thereare4typesofregion:urbanruralmidlandhighland.Theperheadamountislowestforurban,and

highestforhighlandregion.Forkindergartens,statebudgetrangesfrom1.3millionsVND/pupil(urban)to2.1millionsVND/pupil(highland).Forprimarylevel,theamountperpupilvariesfrom2.8millionsVND(urban)to4.8millionsVND(highland).Forlowersecondary,theperpupilamountrangesfrom3.8millionsVND(urban)to5.3millionsVND(highland).Therangeforuppersecondaryisfrom4.3millionsVND(urban)to5.9millionsVND(highland).(Forcomparison,incentralHanoi,theperpupilamountatprimarylevelis3.0millions,lowersecondary3.7millionsanduppersecondarylevel4.0millions.)Theserangesaredefinedforevery5years,thecurrentonesbeingappliedfrom20112015.Whiletheserangesseemtobeusedforprovincetodistributefundingtothedistricts,thedistrictsmaywanttoadjust,makeexceptionorusedifferentmechanismwhenallocatingbudgettoschools.Forexample,aruralschoolveryclosetoanurban

areamaystillgettheurbanrate,butnotthehigherruralrate.AlowersecondaryschoolinThanhHoastatedthattheirannualoperational


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budgetiscalculatedasfollow:50000VNDperpupilperyear,plus2millionsVNDperclassperyear,plus15millionsontopofthat,whichisquitedifferentthantheperheadmechanismdescribedbyofficialsattheprovinciallevel.Ingeneral,schoolswithtoofewpupilsmayreceiveadditionalfunding,althoughthereseemstobenoclearlydefined

flooringlevel.Teachersalary

Teachersarepaidaccordingtothepublicemployeeschemeappliedinthepublicsector.Themechanismregardingteacherpaymentvaries.Insomecasesschoolspayteachersdirectly,whileinothercasesthedistrictgovernmentconductsthepayment.Inbothcases,anewcentrallyissuedregulationrequiresthatpaymenthastobedonethroughabank.Whilethebenefitofthisregulationisunclear,itleadstotheissuethatteachersinremoteschoolshavetotravelday(s)togettoabankoranATMinthedistrictforacashwithdraw.2Oneissuewiththefundingallocationmechanismbasedonpupilsheadcountisthatthepartforteacherssalarycouldrepresentaverydifferentshareinthetotalschoolbudget.Schoolswithmoreseniorteachers(whoreceivehighersalariesandsocialbenefits)willenduppayingoverproportionallyforsalary,thusleftwithsmallerbudgetsharefortheiroperation.Thesameproblemisfacedbyschoolswithdecreasingpupilnumber(andgrowingteacher-studentratio),astheydonthavetoautonomytoadjustdowntheirteachingbody.

Budgetforschooloperation

Basedoninterviewsanddesk-research,itseemsthattypicallyabout90%ofstatefundingisusedforsalaries,whiletheremaining10%isusedforschoolsoperation.However,inthedistrictwevisitedinThanhHoa,onlyabout7%ofschoolbudgetisavailableforschoolsoperation.Wearetoldthatinsomeotherdistricts,thesalarypartaccountsupto97%.InaprimaryschoolinThanhHoa,theoperationbudgetisaslittleas40000VND/pupil/year.TheDOETtypicallywillkeepsome%ofthenon-salarypartoftheschoolstofinancetheirownactivities,suchastraining,interschoolmeetings,organizingcampaigns(thidua),etc.,furthermorereducing

theschoolsbudgetforoperation.IncaseofThanhHoaandHanoi,60%ofcollectedtuitionscanbeusedforschoolsoperation,theremaining40%topupitssalarybudget.SchoolshavetosubmittheirmonthlyfinancialplantotheStateTreasurytobeapproved,whichcreatesunnecessarybureaucracy.HanoisschoolshavetoseekStateTreasurysapprovalfortheirfinancialplanonlyonceatthebeginningoftheyear.

2Seeforexampleamediareport:http://m.vietnamnet.vn/vn/giao-duc/96196/giao-vien-meo-mat-nhan-luong-qua-the.html


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Capitalinvestment

Elitepublicschool(trngim)

Poorerprovincescomplainaboutthelackofstatefundingforcapitalinvestmentforlargerrepair,extensionorre-constructionofschools.Theoperationalshareof10%andlessoftotalbudgetistoosmallforlargerinvestment.Ifavailable,fundingforcapitalinvestmenttypicallycomefromnationalprograms,ODAordevelopmentprojects.

Asresourcesarelimited,localgovernmentshavetheincentivetoinvestinafewschoolsforshowcase,e.g.togetthemtheNationalStandardCertificate(seealsoElitepublicschoolbelow).Whencapitalinvestmentisconducted,schoolsarejustbeneficiaries,andaretypicallynotinvolvedinthedesign,contractingandconstructionprocess,whichisinthehandofthestateagenciescontrollingthefinancialresources(e.g.district/provincialgovernmentorthedepartmentmanagingtheODAproject).Thiscanresultinamismatchofactualschoolsneedsandtheinvestmentdecision.Forexample,theprincipalofaHanoilowersecondaryschoolaskedthedistrictgovernmenttoplantshadegivingtreesintheschoolyardwhenherschoolwasbeingconstructed,butinsteadtheyplantedtreesshootingintoheight,givinghardlyanyshadingeven5yearslater.Inanothercase,thetoiletwasbuiltforadultsize,andneededtoberebuiltlaterbytheschoolitself.NotallschoolsinVietnamreceiveequaltreatment,butinvestmentsoftengointoselectiveschools,calledtrngim.Theseelite

schoolstendtohavebetterqualifiedteachersandperformaboveaverage(e.g.reflectedbynumberofstudentsgettingintowell-knownuniversitiesorgettinghighscoresinprovincialandnationalcompetitions).Theyareoftenfavoritechoicesforlocalpoliticianstosendtheirchildrento,andasaresult,oftenreceivingover-proportionallyattentionandcapitalinvestment.Thisrepresentsaself-repeatingcycle:betterschoolsattractchildrenofhigh-rankingpublicofficials,thereforereceivingfavorabletreatmentintermofhumanresourcesandfinance,whichinturnwidensthequalitygapbetweenthemandtherest.Forbothteachersandpupils,aplaceinaneliteschoolishighlydesirable,leadingtoparentsandteacherstopayconsiderableinformalpaymentstobeacceptedbytheschool.AccordingtoaninformantinHanoi,parentspayupto1,500USDfortheirkidstogetaplaceinareputablelowersecondaryschool,atthesametimeacceptingcrowdedclasseswithupto50pupilsduetohighdemand.

4.2.TUITIONANDFEES

Useoftuitionand PrimaryschoolsinVietnamarefreeoftuition.Forkindergartenandsecondaryschools,thetuitionframe(minandmax)issetbythe


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fees Vietnamesegovernment.Itshouldnotexceed5%ofaveragedincomeofthefamily.Theaveragedincomelevelsaredefinedbythecentralgovernmentnationallyforthreeregions:urban,ruralandmountainousandsubjecttobeadjustedannuallywithinflation.Accordingtodecree49/2010/N-CP,fortheschoolyear2010-11,thetuitionlevelsfor

kindergartensandsecondaryschoolsrangefrom40K-200K/pupil/monthforurban,from20K-80K/pupil/monthforruralandfrom5K-40K/pupil/monthformountainousareas.Withinthisframework,tuitionsaresuggestedbythelocalgovernmentinchargeofmanagingtheschoollevel,andformallyapprovedbythePeopleCouncil.Schoolscankeeptuitionsandentryfeespaidbytheirpupils.MOET,MOFandMOLISAtogetherdefinepoliciesforreducingorwaivingtuitionsforthepoor.Therevenuelossduetoreductionandwaivingarere-fundedbythedistrict/provincetotheschool.InbothThanhHoaandHanoi,40%ofthetuitionissupposedtogotoschoolssalarybudget.Theremainingpartisusedforschoolsoperation.Decree49/2010/N-CPallowsschoolsthatofferhigh-qualitycontenttorequesthighertuition.Thehighertuitionlevelsaretobeapprovedbytheprovincialgovernment.HoChiMinhCityhasbeenpilotingthismodelandgrantingpermissiontosomeschoolsaskingfortuitionlevels

significantlyhigherthanthecitysstandards.Forexample,110KVND/pupil/monthischargedatuppersecondaryschoolNguyenThaiBinh.Inexchangeofqualityofinternationalstandard,uppersecondaryschoolLeQuyDonasksfor890.000VND/pupil/month.Theseschoolsusethetuitionstoofferfull-dayschooling,moreclasses(andhencehavinglowerpupilnumberperclass),upgradeinfrastructure,labsandITequipment,andgiveteacherssalarieshigherthanthenationalstandards.Thereisacontroversialdebatearoundtheseschoolsastheystillreceivefullpublicfundinglikeothers,representingahiddenformofstatesubsidyfortherich.

Extraclasses Extraclasseshavebecomeamajorissueinschooleducationthathas

receivedheavycriticismfromthepublicandmedia.theyarepredominantlyanurbanphenomenon.Whatstartedoutasafterschoolsupportforunderperformingpupilshasbecameafullfletchedindustrywherealmostallstudents,notjustweakones,andalreadyatprimarylevel,goforseveraltimesafterschoolandatweekendtoextraclasses.Themajorityofextraclassesarenowmeansforteacherstogetextraincome,andstudentsgoingtherewouldeitherlearnthesamecontenttheyhadinthemorning,oradditionalacademiccontentwhichaddsuptotheirheavyscheduleandleavingnotimeforphysicalandcreative

activities.


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ThesituationhasbecomesocriticalthatMOETissuedacircularinMay2012(17/2012/TT-BGDT),requiringallextraclassestoapplyforalicensefromBOETorDOET.Thelicenseissupposedtoregulatethatextraclassesarereallybasedonstudentsneedsanddonotbecomeexcessive.RecentlyDOETsandBOETsofsomeprovinceshave

conductedinspectiontoclosedownextraclassesandhandoutdisciplinarywarningtoteachers.However,itisunlikelythattheseactionswouldbesuccessfulinthelongterm,asitdoesnotsolvetherootissues,whichareteachersalariesandparentsfearoftheirkidsreceivingunfavorabletreatmentiftheystayawayfromtheextraclasses.

Parentscontribu-tion,extrafees,andotherrevenues

Whilecontributionsmobilizedfromparentsarenegligibleinruralareas,itcanbesignificantsourcesofrevenueforschoolsinurban,better-offareas.Parentswouldcontributetoraiseteachersincome,toimproveinfrastructureandteachingequipment,tosettletheschoolsbills,etc.Whileingeneralitisapositivetrendtomobilizesocietysresourcesforeducation,itcanalsohaveseveralnegativeconsequences.Oneisinequality,asschoolswithpupilsfromwealthyfamilieswillbelikelytogetmorecontribution,thussettingthemselvesfurtherapartfromotherpublicschools.Eveninsideaschool,discriminatingstandardsexistasparentstargettheirinvestmentjustintotheirclass(calledVIPclasses).Thereisahighcompetitionforwealthyparentstomakeinfromalpaymentstotheschooltogettheirchildrenintotheseeliteclasses,whichwereoriginallydesignedfortalentedstudents.3Inmanycases,pupilswithhigherparentscontributionsarereportedto

betreatedfavorablybyteachers.

Someschoolsaskfornon-voluntaryparentscontributioninformofextrafeesthatareinprincipleillegal.Thefeesmaybefortheelectricitybill,salaryofcleanersandguards,kitchenstools,etc.Inmanycases,thiscreateshighpressuretonotwell-offfamilies.Furthermore,alackofbothtransparentbookkeepingandparentsinvolvementinvitemisusebyschools.Currentlytheissueisdrawingmuchcriticismfromthemediaandpublic.

Decree43/2006/N-CPenablesschoolstohavefinancialautonomy

(tchtichnh),meaningtheycouldmobilizeexternalresourcesbesidesthestatefunding.Schoolsmaybeabletofindcompanyssponsorships,Englishtrainingfreeofchargefortheirteachers,orsummercampsforpupils.Schoolsinurbanareasmayusetheirfacilitiesforrentforothereducationalactivitiesfromoutsideofschool,ornon-educationalactivitiessuchasweddingparties,etc.Ortheyorganizefundraisingactivitiesthroughculturalandsportactivities.Ingeneral,successwilldependonsocio-economicconditionsofthelocalityandentrepreneurshipofschoolsmanagement.Hence,inrural

3TudaythemtoilopVIP,VietnamNet,24Oct2012(http://tuanvietnam.vietnamnet.vn/2012-10-23-su-tha-hoa-cua-giao-duc-tu-day-them-toi-lop-vip)


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areas,thechallengestomobilizeexternalresourcesaremuchbigger.Additionally,schoolmanagementintheseareasistypicallymuchlessdynamicandcapableoffindingalternativesourceofincomeandsponsorship.

Capacityinfinancialmanagement

Lackingskillsoffinancialmanagementisoneapparentissue,whichcouldespeciallybeobservedwiththeschoolmanagementoflowerlevelsandinpoorerregions.Principalsusuallycomepurelyfromateachingbackgroundandareusedtoonlyimplementinstructions,andlacktheabilitytoorganizeanddeveloptheschool.Mostlackmanagerialandentrepreneurialskills.Inanumberofourinterviews,theprincipalsdidnotevenknowmostbasicfinancialdetailsofhis/herschool,suchastheschemeusedforfundingallocation,andhadtorelyontheaccountant.Ontopofthat,insomecasesthereisalackofresourcesinaccounting,hinderingschoolscapacity.WearetoldthatinThanhHoa,severalschoolsmayshareoneaccountant,asduetolimitedbudget,theyarenotabletorecruitmore.

5.PERSONNELMANAGEMENT5.1.TEACHERSRERUITMENT

Teachersrecruitment

Policiesregardingteachersrecruitmentcanvaryfromprovincetoprovince,evenfromdistricttodistrict.Themostcommonapproachis

thattheprovincesPCisinchargeofhiringforuppersecondaryschools,anddistrictsPCforalllowerschoollevels,althoughinsomeprovinces(e.g.Hanoi),uppersecondaryschoolshavetheautonomytohireteachersthemselves.Detailsofhiringprocedures,suchaswhositsintheselectioncommittee,alsochangefromdistrict/provinceschairmantochairmanandoftenreflectspowerplaybetweendepartmentsofthelocalgovernment.Inmostcases,theprocessisledbyDOHA/BOHA.Annually,schoolssendtheirhumanresourcesdemandtoBOET/DOET,whichworksoutahumanresourceplan(slngbinch)withDOHA.TheplanistobeapprovedbyPCoftheappropriatelevel(provincialforuppersecondaryanddistrictforallschoolsoflowerlevels).Hiringisacompetitiveprocessbasedonanexamandaninterview(thituyn).Inruralandremoteareas,wheretherearemuchfewerapplicationstofillthedemand,theprocesscanbebasedonevaluationofuniversitygraduationresults(xttuyn).Thereareregulationsontheratioofteachersperclass,althoughthisseemsdifferfromMOETto

DOETlevel.Forexample,inThanhHoawearetoldthatMOETsettheteachersperclassratiotobe2.25(e.g.aschoolwith20classesshould


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have45teachers),whiletheratiosetbyThanhHoaDOETis1.98.Thelackofschoolsautonomyinhiringtheirteachersisoneoftheissuesmostcriticizedbyourinformants.TheofficialreasoningfromDOHAandBOHAisthatschoolsdonthavetherightcompetencyto

hire.Thecurrentselectionprocessopensthedoortorentseekingopportunities,asitisintransparentandwithlimitedaccountability,leadingtolackingmeritocracyandmismatchesbetweendemandforteachersandactualhiring.Oneinterviewedprincipalcomplainedthatwhilesheneededateacherinmath,shereceivedtwoforsport,sentfromabove.AnecdotalevidencesuggeststhatinbigcitiessuchasHanoi,briberiesofupto100millionstolandateachingjobarepaidtothosewhoorganizeandsitintheselectioncommittee.Thecommonviewisthatteachersofmathematics,VietnameseandEnglishhaveagoodchancetorecoverthecosts(throughincomecomingfromextraclasses),whileitismuchharderforteachersofothersubjectstodoso.Accordingtosomeinformants,corruptioncangoasfarasthatthesupervisorinawrittenexamwouldimprovetheworkofthecandidatesofchoice,beforeputtingitintotheenvelopandsealit.

CasestudyThanhHoa

Duetodecreasingbirthrateanddecliningpupilnumber(seealsoChapterTheSchoolNetwork),ThanhHoahasbeenfacingtheissueofteachersurplus.Accordingtoaninformant,currentlyThanhHoahasasurplusof3500teachers.Theprovincehasbeencopingwithitby

sendingteachersintoearlyretirement(whichpresentsanextrafinancialburdenfortheprovincialbudgetandisnotpopularbyteachersastheirretirementwagesinthesecasesarelower),orbyaskingthemtoworkaslaboratoryorlibrarystaff,ortoteachothersubjectswherethereisalackofteachers,mostnotablyinEnglishorIT.Despitetheteachersurplus,districtgovernmentscontinuetohire..Asaresponse,in2011ThanhHoasPeopleCommitteeissuedastrictprovince-widebanofnewrecruitment.Beforetheban,teachersofkindergartens,primaryandlowersecondaryschoolswererecruitedbythedistrict-levelBOHA.UppersecondaryteacherswererecruitedbyDOET.(Notethisisdifferenttomostotherprovincesweknow,whereuppersecondaryteachersarerecruitedbyeitherDOHAorbyschoolsthemselveslikethecaseofHanoi.)Thebanissupposedtobeinplaceuntil2015.Ontheotherhand,insomelocationsthereisashortageofteachersforcertainschoollevels,e.g.kindergarten,whereduetohigherenrollmentrates,thenumberofpupilshasbeenontherise.InHauLocdistrictwheretheteamvisited,thereisashortageof120teachersforkindergartensthatthedistricthasnopermissiontofill.

HaTinhhasasimilarsituationwithasurplusof700teachersofall


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CasestudyHaNoi

levels,butisexperiencinglocalshortagesinsomesubjects,suchasEnglish,sportandtechnology.4Inadistrict,12Englishteachershavetocover31primaryschools,sothateachoftheteachershastoteachin2-3schools.

Atthesametime,schoolsinremoteareasstillfacegeneralshortageofteachers,evenwithincentivesinplace.(InThanhHoa,teacherssalaryinremoteareascanbethreetimeshigherthantheurbanlevel.)Since2006,Hanoiallowsuppersecondaryschoolstorecruitteachersthemselves.DOETpublisheshiringannouncement,collectsapplications,andforwardthemtohiringschools,whichsetuptheirownselectioncommittees.Asschoolspopularityvaries,someschoolsmayhavefewornoapplications,whileinothersthenumberofapplicationsbyfaroutweighsthenumberofpositions.Thelevelofattractivenessarisesfromtheworkingenvironmentandqualityoftheschoolsmanagement,butalsosignificantlyfromitslocation.Schoolsinpoorerandmoreruralareaswillreceivefewerandlowerqualityapplications.Agreatchallengeallschoolsfaceistorecruitnon-academicstaff,suchaslibraryorlaboratorystaff,asontopoftheirlowwages,thesepositionshavenosourcesofadditionalincomes(suchasthroughextraclasses).Forallschoolsbelowuppersecondarylevel,thedistrictgovernment

(viaBOHA)isinchargeofrecruitment.Accordingtosomeinformants,somedistrictsinHanoinowallowtheprincipalofthereceivingschooltositintheselectioncommittee,whileingeneralthisisnotthecase.Aninterviewedprincipalcomplainedthatalthoughshewastotallysatisfiedwithateacherwhohasworkedforyearsundercontract(hpng),thatteacherfailedtherecruitmentexamtobecomeapublicemployeeandwasreplacedbyanewone.

Teacherstransfer

Whileregulationsregardingteachertransferdifferfromprovincetoprovince,orevendistricttodistrict,ingeneralschoolsmanagethetransferbetweeneachother.Iftheschoolsareofdifferentdistrictsthenthedistrictgovernmentshavetoapprove.Inter-provincialtransfersneedDOETsapproval.InThanhHoasince2012eventransfersbetweentwodistrictsoftheprovincehavetobeapprovedbyDOET.Thisistocutintouncontrolledhiringandtransferringdonebythedistrictgovernmentsseekingrents.Accordingtoanecdotalevidence,acommonstrategyforteacherstogetintothesystemistobehiredandassignedtoaschoolinaremotearea,

4BihaigiaovientiengAnhdaytheducVietnamNet,6Nov2012(http://vietnamnet.vn/vn/giao-duc/95348/bi-hai-chuyen-giao-vien-tieng-anh-day-the-duc.html)


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andthentobribetobetransferredtoaschoolinamorefavorablearea.Thisrepresentsanextrachallengeforschoolsinremoteareas,whichspentefforttotrainnew,youngteachersbutonlytosystematicallyloosethemafewyearslater.

Teachersqualification

Teacherqualityandqualificationwasamainconcernofallinterviewedinformants.Inthe1980sand1990s,asVietnamexpandedtheeducationsystem,teachersweremassivelyrecruitedintothesystem,oftenwithqualitybeingcompromised.TodayVietnamnolongerfacesteachershortage,butcurrentrecruitmentqualityisstillmorethanquestionable,duetothenatureoftherecruitmentprocess.

Furthermore,theteacherseducationinpedagogicalcollegesanduniversitiesismostlyoutdated,asfutureteachersarestillmainlytrainedtojustmechanicallypassonfactsandknowledge,lackingkeyskills,suchaspresentationskillsorabilitytodealwithdiversesituationsandtoestablishrelationshipwithpupils.Overthelastdecade,inthewakeofcommercializationofhighereducation,manyteacher-traininginstitutionshaveabandonedtheirmissionofteachertrainingandupgradedintomultidisciplinarycollegesanduniversitiesinordertoattractmorestudents,seekingmoreprofit.Thenumberofprovidersislarge(morethan70),andmanywatereddowntrainingqualitybyloweringentryrequirementsinordertogetenoughenrollment.Vietnamhasnosystemforaccreditationofformalteachertraining,althoughtheneedforonehasbeenarticulatedforyears.

Thereisneitherpressurenorincentiveforteacherstoperformwell,ortoupdatetheirteachingmethodsandmaterials.Thesystemisnotdesignedtorewardorpunishteachers;thereisnomechanismtodisciplineorfireunder-performingteachers(whichisonlypossibleifteacherisabsentorhashadillegalbehavior).Annually,theaverageteacherwillattendsomein-servicetrainings,whichareusuallyorganizedbyDOETduringthesummerbreak.Thetrainingscanlastfromafewdaystoafewweeks,andcanhappenin-house,withguestspeakerscomingintoschool,orinlargecitiessuchasHanoiorHoChiMinhCity.Mostofourinformantscomplainthatsuch

trainingsaremereformality,andlackingrelevance,asthetrainingcontentisdrivenfromDOET,perceivedtobeverytheoreticalandnotpractice-oriented,anddoesnotmatchteachersneeds.Asaresult,teachersmotivationtoattendsuchtrainingsisusuallyverylow,anddrop-outratesarehigh.Schoolshavetopartlyfinancetheirteachersin-servicetrainingfromtheiroperationalbudget,whichisalreadyverylimited.5Finally,asmentionedabove,therearecasesteachersareaskedtoteach

5Formoreinformationontheissuesrelatedtoin-servicetrainingforteachers,seehttp://dantri.com.vn/giao-duc/can-doi-moi-cach-tap-huan-boi-duong-giao-vien-414834.htm


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asubjectdifferentthantheirtraining.Forexample,countrywide,DOETsarenowfocusingonEnglish,reducingFrench.ThiscausesFrenchteacherstomovetoteachsports,citizenseducationorEnglish.

5.2.PRINCIPALSASSIGNMENTAssignmentofprincipal

Theprincipalofakindergarten,aprimaryoralowersecondaryschoolisassignedbythedistrictchairman.Theprincipalofanuppersecondaryschoolisassignedbytheprovinceschairman.TheassignmentfollowstherecommendationoftheselectioncommitteeorganizedbyBOHA(forlowersecondarylevelandbelow)orDOHA(foruppersecondarylevel).Aprincipalstermis5years.Intheory,aprincipalcanonlyholdthepositioninthesameschoolfortwoterms,althoughitcandifferinpractice.Theprincipalisaccountabletothegovernmentlevelthatassignedhim(viaBOHAorDOHA).Parentshavelittleweightinassessingtheprincipalsperformance,influencingtheschoolsoperationandholdingtheschoolsmanagementaccountable.BeingaPartymemberisakeycriteriontobeselectedasprincipal,andthePartyrepresentativeisonecorememberoftheselectioncommittee.Accordingtoaninformant,thecommitteesprocedureisinmanycasesnottransparent,asvotingresultsarenotexposedtocommitteemembers.Theprocessisalsovulnerabletonepotismand

corruptionandpossiblyatanevenhigherscalethanintheteacherrecruitmentprocess,astherentopportunityishigher.Themorewellknowntheschool,themoredesirableisitsprincipalposition(asitwouldattractmorefundingandpupils).Moreover,selectioncriteriafortheprincipalspositionareoftenformulatedinawaythatthepreferredcandidateistheonlyonefulfillingtherequirements.Asaresult,differentsetofrequirementsmayapplyforsimilarschools.Forexample,inonecase,theDOETrequiredcandidatestobeatleast5yearsyoungerthantheretirementage,whileinanothercaseitwasonly3years.Therehavebeencases

wherecadresofYouthUnionorthePartywithoutpedagogicalandteachingbackgroundwereassignedtobeprincipals.

Principalqualification

MOEThasissueddifferentqualitystandardsforprincipals(chunhiutrng)foreachoftheschoollevels.Thesestandardscover4areas:morals,politicalattitude,pedagogicalandmanagementcapabilities.Inpractice,therearedoubtsonwhetherthesestandardsareanappropriatetooltomeasureandassessquality.Mostprincipalsarepromotedfrombeingteachersandhavenoproper

traininginfinancialandpersonnelmanagement.TheAcademyofEducationManagement,aunitofMOET,holdstraininginmanagement


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fornewprincipalsandvice-principals(aswellasforofficialsofDOETsandBOETs).Thetraining,however,maybeinsufficienttoadequatelyprepareprincipalsfortheirresponsibilities.Principalsonlyvisitcourses,whichlastfromfewweekstofewmonths,aftertheyareassigned.Therearenoexittestsorexams.Eachyeartheacademyonly

trainsseveralthousandsofprincipals,andasitsbudgetislimited,ittendstorunlargecourseswithupto100participantsinaclasstosaveexpensesonlecturers.Moreover,itisdifficultfortheacademytopaycompetitiveratestohirelecturerexperiencedinmanagementtoholdthetrainings.Thecoursecontents,accordingtoacademysmanagement,areoutdatedandnotpractice-oriented.TheexpensesforprincipalstoattendtrainingcoursesattheacademyarecoveredbytheirDOETs.Thismeansthatprincipalsatremoteareastypicallyhavelesschancetoattendthecourses,eventhoughtheyaretheoneswhohavethebiggesttrainingneeds.Limitedautonomyoftheprincipalindecision-makingonfinancialandpersonnelmanagementmayunderminethemotivationforlearningastheycannotapplymuchofthelearnedknowledge.Inafewofourinterviews,principalsdidntevenknowkeyfinancialfiguresoftheirschools.

6.STAKEHOLDERSINASCHOOL

Besidetheschoolsmanagement,teachersandstudents,theothermainstakeholdersaretheschoolcouncilandtheparentscouncilwhointheorycanplayanimportantroleinschoolgovernance.BelowissomeanalysisabouttheirroleandfunctionsbasedondejureregulationsanddefactosituationencounteredduringfieldworkinHanoiandThanhHoa.

Schoolcouncil Accordingtolegalregulations,thehighestauthorityinmanagingapublicschoolistheschoolcouncil.Theschoolcouncilisinchargeofsettingthegoals,strategy,developmentplansandtheregulationsoftheschool.Itisalsoresponsibleforapprovingtheuseoffinancialresources,monitoringtheschoolsoperationaswellasprincipals

performance.TheschoolcouncilofapublicschoolconsistsofschoolsPartyChairman,theprincipalandvice-principals,andrepresentativesofteachersandnon-academicstaff.ThecompositionoftheschoolcouncilissuggestedbytheprincipaltoDOET(foruppersecondarylevel)orBOET(foralllowerlevels)tobeapproved.Itdoesnotruleoutthepossibilitythattheprincipalcanbethecouncilchairatthesametime.Theschoolcouncilmayinviterepresentativesofthelocalgovernmentandmassorganizationstoattenditsmeetingswhen

deemednecessary.


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Thissetupwillcertainlynotallowtheschoolcounciltofulfillitsmandate,whichistogiveoutdirectiontotheschoolsmanagementandmonitortheirperformance,astheprincipalformsthecouncilcompositionhim/herselfandisoneofitsmember,whileothermembersarepeoplewhoworkunderprincipalssupervision.

Furthermore,whileinprincipletheprincipalhastheresponsibilitytoimplementdecisionsmadebytheschoolcouncil,incasesofdisagreementwiththecouncil,theprincipalcanbringuptheissuestothemanagingauthority,whichisDOET/BOET,forsettlement.Thisunderminesfurtherthecouncilsauthority,andlocatestheactualdecisionmakingatDOET/BOET.Inpractice,noschoolwevisitedhadaschoolcouncil.Itmaybeexplainedthattheregulationaboutestablishingtheschoolcouncilanditsroleandfunctionswasonlyissuedin2010forprimaryschools,and2011forsecondaryschools,andisstilltoonewtobeimplementedinpractice.

Parentscouncil

Aparentscounciliscanbeestablishedforeachclassandfortheschoolasawhole.Theparentscouncilfortheclasschannelsparentsfeedbackstoteachersoneducationalissues.Theparentscouncilfortheschoolbringsparentsvoicetotheschoolsprincipalregardingeducationalactivitiesandmanagementoftheschool.Thedejuresetupgivesparentscouncilverylimitedweighton

influencingtheoperationandmonitoringtheperformanceofapublicschool.Legalregulationsdonotexplicitlygivetheparentscouncilanyrighttobeinvolvedinmanagingtheschool,suchasparticipatinginprojectformulation,supervisinginvestmentsandprocurement,selectingcateringproviders,etc.Schoolcouncilsdonothavetoincludeparentsasmembers.Inpractice,theroleoftheparentscouncilisoftenreducedtocollectingthevoluntarycontributions.Incasesofdissatisfaction,theonlywayforparentstobeheardisgoingtotheDOET/OOET,accordingtotheLawonComplaints.

Transparency Oneregulationthat,atleastintheory,canhelptoincreasetheschoolsaccountabilitytowardsparentsasserviceusersisthecircularontransparencyofschooloperation(09/2009/TT-BGDT).Itrequiresschoolstoexposetothepublicallinformationoftheiroperationincludingfinancialdetails.Ifimplementedrigorously,thisregulationcanbeausefultoolforthepublictoproperlymonitortheschools.Inpractice,however,accordingtoseveralinformants,financialfigures,ifdisclosed,aremostlyarbitraryandatthediscretionoftheschool.Thereisnoindependentaudit,andparentshavenomeanstoverifythepublishedfigures.Eventeachersaremostlynotinformed

abouttheschoolsfinancialsituationeither.


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7.QUALITYASSURANCELearningoutputs

Amajorpartofupwardaccountabilitywithinthestateagenciesintheeducationsectorisexpressedinoutputssuchasenrollmentanddropoutrates,or%ofpupilswithexcellentgrades,etc.Goodstatisticsmaketheschool,andwithititslocalgovernment,lookinggoodinthecompetition(thidua).Ontheotherhand,achievementsfeedintothelegitimacyofthepoliticalsystem.Atthesametime,horizontalaccountabilitytowardscommunityandparentsare,asseenabove,extremelyweak.Thisleadstothesituationthatschoolandlocalauthoritieshaveanincentivetobeautifystatistics,astheirperformanceassessmentdependsmostlyonthesenumbers,whileactualqualityofteachingandlearningcansufferfromthedistortion.Afewexamplesbelowillustratethesituation:

Achieving100%coverageofprimarylevel(phcpgiodctiuhc)isoneofthemaintargetsofVietnam,andschoolsandlocalauthoritiesdeployanumberoftrickstoachieveit.AccordingtoaninformantwhoworkedforaDOET,somepeoplemaybeclassifiedasdisabledinordertobemovedoutofthelist.Orlocalauthoritiesmaythreatennottoissuemarriagecertificatestotheminthefutureiftheywouldnotgotoclass.Studentswillbehelpedwhensittinginexams.Figures,suchasdropoutrate,ortestresults,canbemodifiedtoo.Thereareanecdotesthatparentsasktheschooltolettheirchildrepeattheclassbutthepupilisforcedtomoveup,inordernottodamageschoolsstatistics.Also,schoolsareknowntohandout

beautifiedstudentbooks(hcb)forfamiliesapplyingforscholarshipsabroadinexchangeofbribes.6

Enrollment

Whileinruralareasmostpupilswouldsimplyenrollintheclosestschool(typicallylocatedintheircommuneordistrict),thesituationiscomplicatedinurbanareassuchasHanoi,wheretherearemorechoiceswithinsmalldistances,andpeoplechoosetosendtheirchildrentoaspecificschoolbasedonvariousconsiderations.Ingeneral,inordertoachieveareasonableloaddistribution,basedonsomebasicstatisticsofhouseholdregistration,theDOET/BOETwillannuallydefinethepupilsfromtheresidentialareasthatwillhavethe

righttoenrollinwhatschoolinthedistrict.Schoolsaresupposedtogiveprioritytopupilswiththeregistrationfromtherightareas,andonlyenrollpupilsfromotherareasiftherearestillplaces.Asincasesofmismatchbetweendemandandsupply,andoflackingcontrol,malpracticesarecommon.Peoplemayfaketheirhouseholdregistration,orofferbriberytogetintotheschoolofchoice,(whichisnotintheirresidentialareas,butmayhaveabetterreputationorisclosertowhereaparentworks).Ontheotherhand,schoolsmay

6

Formorefirsthandinformation,seethisletterofalowersecondaryteachertoanewspaper,mentioningseveralpracticestoimproveschoolsteachingstatistics,oftenunderschoolsmanagementspressure:http://vnexpress.net/gl/ban-doc-viet/xa-hoi/2009/05/3ba0f5f8/


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Nationalstandard

illegallyreserveplacesforparentsfromotherareasinexchangesoflucrativeinformalpayments.Theissueishardtoberesolvedaslongassignificantqualitydifferencesbetweenschoolsexist,combinedwiththelackoffunctioningcityplanningandcorrespondingdevelopmentoftheschoolnetwork.

Vietnamusestwodifferentstandardstomeasureandclassifyschoolquality:thenationalstandard(chunqucgia)andtheaccreditationstandard.Thenationalstandardisbetterknownbythepublicandseemstobemoreprestigiousthantheaccreditationstandard(discussedbelow).Theshareofschoolscertifiednationalstandardareakeynumberfrequentlyusedbyprovincialgovernmentsasevidencefortheirachievementineducation.MOETdefinesasetofindicatorsusedforthenationalstandardofeachschoollevel(32/2005/Q-BGDT).Thesequalityindicatorsarepartlythesamebutpartlydifferenttotheonesusedintheaccreditationstandard,andmeasuretheinfrastructure,quantityandqualificationofteachingbodyandstaff,andlearningoutput.Therearetwolevelsofthenationalstandard,levelIIbeingmoredemanding.Thecertificatesforbothlevelsarevalidfor5years,afterwhichare-assessmentisinorder.WhiletheassessmentoftheaccreditationstandardisorganizedbyDOET,thecommitteeofthenationalstandardissetupbytheprovincialPCchairman.(Forkindergartensandprimaryschools,apre-assessmentconductedbyadistrictcommitteeisrequiredbefore

theprovincialassessment.)ThecommitteetypicallyconsistsofrepresentativesfromDOET,TradeUnionofEducation,DOHA,DPI,DOF,DOH,etc.,aswellassomeprincipalsfromotherschools.However,itdoesnotincluderepresentativefromschoolscommunityorparents.Asthenationalstandardisofpoliticalimportancefortheprovincesleadership,ittypicallyinvestsinanumberofeliteschools(seealsoabove)tocertifyandshowcasethem.Keychallengesforschoolsinruralareasarebothlackofinfrastructureandteacherqualification.InlargecitiessuchasHanoi,theschoolsterritoryisoftennotlargeenoughtohavetherequired6-10m2/student.ActuallyHanoiissuggestingtakingintoaccountfloorsurfaceandnotlandsurfaceasanindicator.

Accreditationstandard

Comparedtothenationalstandarddiscussedabove,whichhasbeenappliedforover10years,theaccreditationstandard(chunkimnh)isrelativelynewandwasintroduced4-5yearsago.Theevaluationindicatorsfordifferentschoollevelswerejustre-issuedin2011and2012.

Similartothecriteriaofthenationalstandard,thecriteriaoftheaccreditationstandardareissuedbyMOETandlookatareassuchas


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infrastructure,quantityandqualificationofhumanresources,learningoutputs,etc.Therearethreelevelsofaccreditation,basedontheshareofindicatorspassingtherequiredmarks.E.g.level3,thehighestlevel,isgrantediftheschoolpassesatleast80%oftheindicators,whilelevel1requiresjust50%oftheindicatorstobe

passed.Thecertificateisvalidfor5yearsforkindergartenandprimaryschools,and4yearsforsecondaryschools.Ifonetakesintoaccountthat,foranewschooltobeopened,ithasalsotofulfillasetofqualitycriteria,thentherearethreedifferentqualitystandardsinplaceatthesametime,whichgivesaconfusingpicture.AccordingtoaninformantfromMOET,thenationalstandardaimsataperfectsituation,onlyfitfortopschools,whiletheaccreditationstandardrepresentsalevelwhichideallyshouldbereachedbyallschools.Thisstilldoesnotanswerthequestionwhyoneneedsanaccreditationstandardbesidethestandardrequiredtoestablishanewschool.Inallourinterviews,schoolmanagementcouldnottellapartthepurposesofthenationalstandardandaccreditationstandard.OneorganizationaldifferenceisthattheassessmentofnationalstandardisorganizedbytheprovincesPC,whiletheassessmentoftheaccreditationstandardisorganizedbyDOET.Therearetwodifferentkindofassessmentofaccreditationstandards:self-assessmentandexternalassessment.AccordingtoaMOETofficial,asof2012,13provinceshaveconductedself-assessmentto

100%oftheirschools.Intheremainingprovinces,ithasbetween50%and80%.Schoolshavetocovertheexpensesforself-assessmentfromtheirannualoperationalbudget.Giventhelimitationoftheirstatebudgetallocationandthelackofverification,itistobeassumedthatself-assessmentisonlyaformalexercise.Furthermore,schoolshavelimitedabilityintryingtoimprovetheirinfrastructureandqualificationofhumanresources,asthesemattersarenotintheircontrol.ExternalassessmentsareconductedbyDOET,usingDOETsbudget,butonlywhentheschoolappliestobeexternallyaccredited.Reliablenumbersofschoolsalreadyexternallyaccreditedcouldnotbeobtained.Becausetheaccreditationstandarddoesnotbringprestigelikethenationalone,schoolsviewtheassessmentasaburdenwhichrequireslotsofpaperwork,andisoverwhelmingforschoolmanagementduetolackofcapabilityandtime.Interestingly,theaccreditationstandardispartoftheEducationLaw,whilethenationalstandardisnot.Apartfromtheissuesofhavingmanystandards,anothercomplaint

heardfromtheinterviewswithMOETisthatwhileMOETdefinesqualitystandards(e.g.buildingcodes),financingandbuildingschools


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areinthehandoflocalPCs,withouttheDOETsinvolvement,resultinginbadimplementation(e.g.innarrowcorridors,toofewandsmallstaircases,toofewrestrooms,etc.).AccordingtoMOETsDepartmentofAccreditation(CucKhaothiva

Kiemdinhchatluong),MOETisworkingonunifyingthe3levelsofaccreditationstandardsand2levelsofnationalstandardsintoonesystem,e.g.equalingthe3rdaccreditationlevelwiththe2ndlevelofthenationalstandard.SomealsocallforanaccreditingbodyindependentfromMOET/DOETtoallowmoreobjectivity.Accordingtoaninformant,thisisbeingdiscussedinthecontextofthenewHigherEducationLaw.7Inothercountries,theseindependentbodiesissuetheaccreditationstandards,butinVietnam,itismorelikelythatMOETstillowntheaccreditationcriteria,eveniftheassessmentisdonebyanindependentorganization.Financingisstillanunclearissue.Accordingtothesameinformant,anotherconsiderationofMOETistohavedifferentqualitystandardsfordifferentsocio-economicconditions,aseachregionneedsastandardmoreappropriatetoitsdevelopmentlevel,anditdoesnotreallymakesensetohaveonestandardappliedacrosswealthyurbanandpoorremoteareas.

Performanceassessmentofhuman

resources

Asmentionedabove,MOETissuedastandardforprincipals(chunhiutrng)foreachschoollevel.Thesearetypicallyalistofindicatorscoveringmoral,politicalattitude,managementcapability

andpedagogicalcapability.Forprincipals,theannualperformanceassessmenthasthreesteps:aself-assessment,anassessmentbytheschoolsstaffcollectiveorganizedbytheParty,andfinallyanassessmentbytheprincipalssupervisoratBOET/DOETbasedontheprevioustwo.Parentsarenotinvolvedinanywayintheassessmentprocess.Itiscommonthataprincipalsperformanceassessmentismostlyaformality,whereaspersonalconnection,especiallyintheParty,woulddeterminetheprincipalscareer.

Similartoprincipalsstandard,MOETalsoissuedateachersstandard(chungiovin)foreachschoollevel.Thestandardscoverareassuchaspoliticalattitude,morale,knowledgeandpedagogicalskill.Theannualassessmentprocesshasthreesteps:aself-assessment,anassessmentbycolleaguesandfinallyanassessmentbytheprincipal.Intheory,ifinateacherdisagreeswiththeprincipalsassessment,he/shecanbringittotheschoolcouncil.Inreality,thecouncilrarelyexists,orifitdoes,itisheadbytheprincipal.

7Article52ofthenewHigherEducationLawpassedin2012statesthatanaccreditingbodywill

haveitsownlegalstatusandwillbeestablishedwhenaproposalexistswhichfittotheoverallplanoftheaccreditationnetwork,butitdoesnotexplicitlymentionifthisaccreditingbodyistobeindependenttoMOETornot.


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Inspectorate Accordingtothesectoralinspectoratesystem,thereisinspectorateat

MOETlevelandatDOETlevel,inchargeofalllevelsofschooleducation.Thereisnoinspectorateatthedistrict(BOET)level.Schoolsaretobeinspectedonfinance,teachersdeployment,assets,

infrastructure,andimplementationofsocialpolicies,etc.Teachersaretobeinspectedonteachingquality.Accordingtoaninformant,MOETrequires20-25%ofbothschoolsandteacherstobeinspectedperyear.Duetoseriousunderstaffingofinspectors,inreality,thenumberiscloseto10%,andconcentratingmostlyonuppersecondaryschools.Thereareanumberofissuesrelatedtoqualityofinspection.Tostartwith:lowsalarymakestheworkunattractive.Mostinspectorsareilltrainedandyoung,whichmakeitharderforthemtoworkwitholderschoolsmanagement.Schoolsmaydealwithinspectionvisitsbyputtingthebestoftheirstudentsintotheclassthatisinspected.Ortheyusetheirpersonalconnectiontoinfluenceinspectorsandpre-settheinspectionreport.

ReportingandusageofIT

Everyyear,MOETissuesinstructionsforDOETstoreportaboutcompletededucationalactivitiesforallschoollevelsintheirprovinces.Theseincludeinformationontheschoolnetwork,numberofpupilsandtheirshareofthepopulation,cadretraining,thedevelopmentofteachingbodyandmanagement,financialdata,etc.

AnnualreportsaretobedoneaccordingtolistsandtemplatesdefinedbyMOET.TheannualreportistobesenttoMOETandGeneralStatisticsOffice(GSO)attheendoftheyear.Additionally,ad-hocreportsmayberequested,butonlybyMOEToranagencythatisgrantedpermissionfromMOETsMinister.MOETisinchargeofpublishingandprovidingstatisticaldatatoallagenciesinandoutsidetheeducationsector,aswellasofunifyingthedatawithGSO.Provincesareinchargeofpublishingtheirowndata,inaccordancewithdatareportedtoMOET.

Thebiggestchallengeintermofreportingisthatalliscurrentlydonemanually,withoutanyintegratedITsystem.ReportsaresentfromschoolstoBOETtoDOET,whichinturnsendtheirreportstoMOET,mostlyasrudimentaryWorddocuments,notevenasanExcelfile,whichmakesaggregatingdatadifficult.Also,inreality,verticalreportinglinesarenotclear;hencedifferentdepartmentsinMOEThavedifferentdataonthesamematters,whichareinturndifferenttoGSOsdata.


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8.CONTENT

Learningprogramandtextbooks

Thelearningprogramisunifiedcountrywideandislegallybinding(tnhphplnh).Intheory,MOETallowsabout15%ofthelearningprogramtobelocallyspecific.Theselocalcontentsmaycoverlocalhistory,localcustomsormusic.MOETaimsataratioof70%unifiedcontentand30%localcontentinfuture.Inpractice,however,thecurrentspaceof15%israrelyused,asprovincesdonotwanttotakeontheextraworkofcreatingthelocalcontent,andtheriskofbeingcriticizedabouttheappropriatenessandcorrectnessoftheextracontent.Accordingtooneinformant,onlybraveprovinceswillengageinthis.MOETdefinesaminimallevelofknowledgetobeattained,while

schoolsarefreetoteachextracontentontopofthisminimallevel,dependingonstudentscapabilities.Forexample,theminimallevelmayrequiresstudentstomastermultiplicationwith2digit,whiletheschoolmaywanttoteachtheirpupilsmultiplicationwith3digits.Classesspecializedinmath,English,orFrenchwillhaveamuchmoreintensiveprogramonthesesubjects.Typicallyschoolsinurbanareaswilltrytoaddmorecontentthroughextraclasses,inordertogettheirstudentsaheadoftherace.Formostoftheruralareas,itsachallengealreadytoachievetheminimalknowledgelevel.Thelearningprogramisoperationalizedthroughthetextbooks,whichareissuedbyMOET.Textbooksareguidelinesforteachersandstudents,butarenotlegallybinding.Forboththeminimalknowledgelevelandtheadd-on,teachersarefreetousematerialsoutsideoftheMOETtextbooks.Onthebookmarketthereisawealthofadditionalteachingmaterial(schthamkho),whicharenotissuedandcontrolledbyMOET.However,accordingtoaninformant,annuallyMOETdoesrecommendcertainteachingmaterialsofferedonthemarket.

Non-

mandatoryandspecialprograms

Theofferingofnon-mandatorysubjectsisbynaturelimitedbythe

availabilityofteachersintheschool.BesidethecountrywideunifiedlearningprogramdefinedbyMOET,inspecialcasesschools,orrathercertainclassesinaschool,mayapplyalternativeprograms.Oneexamplehasbeenthebi-lingualVietnameseFrenchprogramfundedbytheFrenchEmbassyandintroducedtoanumberofprimaryandlowersecondaryschoolsinHanoi.TheprogramcontentwasdesignedbytheFrenchsideandapprovedbyMOET.TeachersdeployedintheprogramwerepaidbytheFrenchEmbassy.Aftertheprojectended,schoolscoulddecidetocontinuetheprogram,withFrenchteacherssolelypaidbyparents

contribution.


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9.CONCLUSIONThischapterprovidesasummaryandconcludinganalysisofgovernanceaspectsofthesector.Byidentifyingcurrentchallengeshinderingthesystemtoperform,itaimstoanswerthequestionIstheeducationsystemsetuptoprovidewhatthecountryneedsforitsdevelopment?.Theunderstandingisthatwhatthecountryneedsisbothexpandedquantity,definedbyequalandbroadaccesstoeducation,andimprovedqualityofeducationservices.Lackofworkingaccountabilitylinkages

Theeducationsystemisprimarilyfocusedonupwardaccountability,whiledownwardaccountabilityisseriouslylacking.Responsibilitiesarelocatedatthelocalgovernments(provinceordistrict),withoutappropriatehumanandfinancialresourcesgivingtothemtomeetdemands.Thesystemissetupinawaythatitisriskaverse.Officialshavenoincentivetolookforinnovationandproactivity,butjustfulfill

theminimalrequirements.8Asserviceusersarenotinvolvedinmeasuringschoolperformance,thesystemfavorsformalityoveractualquality.Inrespondingtopoliticalpressuretodeliver,schoolshaveanincentivetowaterdownqualityandreportupcookedstatistics.

Intheory,citizenshavetwowaystoinfluenceeducationserviceproviders:clientvoice(longrouteofaccountability),andclientpower(shortrouteofaccountability).Viathelongroute,citizensgivevoicetothecentralgovernment,whichthensetoutpoliciesandgoalsforserviceprovidersastorespondtocitizensneeds.Theshortrouteisrepresentedbydirectfeedbacktoserviceproviders,co-managementofserviceusers,andchoiceofservices.

TheAccountabilityFramework

8Foramoredetaileddiscussionondevolution,excessupwardaccountability,shortageofdownwardaccountability,seeWorldBanksVietnamDevelopmentReport2010,ModernInstitutions.


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Source:WorldBank(2003)

Intheory,decentralizationissupposedtoshortenthelongroutebymovingresponsibilitiesfromcentralgovernmentdowntoprovincialanddistrictgovernment.Theunderlyingassumptionisthatauthoritiesknowmoreaboutrealneedsandcanbemoreaccountableiftheyareclosertothepeople,asithelpstoincreasepeoplesparticipationindecisionmakingandmonitoringgovernmentsactivities.Inreality,asVietnamhasasinglepoliticalpartywithaconstitutionalrole,thelongrouteaccountabilityisextremelylong,aselectionshavenocompetitionandcitizenscannotvotepoliticiansoutofpower.Inthepastdecades,thissystemseemedstilltobeeffectivetodeliveraccessandfightilliteracy,whichitsettobeitspoliticaltask,

butnowaspopulationgrowthisdecliningandthechallengesshifttodeliveringqualitytomoredemandingpeople,itdoesntseemtofunctionaswell.Thisgoeshandinhandwiththefactthattheshortrouteisweak,aswiththecurrentsetup,parentshavenomeansofinvolvementinschoolmanagement,orofsanctionorthreatofsanctionincaseofpoorperformanceofschools.(Foravisualpresentationofthekeystateactorsandtheiraccountabilitylinkages,seeAnnex1.)

Inthiscontext,moreschoolautonomydoesnotautomaticallymeanbetterserviceefficiencyandquality,aslongasparentsdonothavearoleinmonitoringteacherbehaviorandtheallocationofschoolfunds.Clientpowercanonlyberaisedthroughmoreparentparticipation.Accountabilityrelationshipcanbestrengthenedbytheintroductionofschoolcouncilsthathavesubstantialresponsibilitiesinservicedelivery(e.g.responsibilitiesinthehiring,firingandmonitoringofteachers).

Ineffectiveoversightandpower

struggle

Besidessettingthebroadpolicyframework,MOETsroleistoensurequalityofpolicyimplementation,whichisdoesinaverylimitedway.Asmentionedabove,MOETsinspectionlackresourcesanddonthave

realpoweronotherministriesandthelocalgovernments.MOETisthestateauthoritytoensureeducationsquality,butitdoesntmanage


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personnelandfinance,whiletakingtheresponsibilityfortheoutcomes.AccordingtoaMOETsofficial,MOETonlymanages5%oftotalbudgetforeducation(includinghighereducation).Otherministriesmanage21%,about74%aremanagedbytheprovinces.Inhiswords,MOETcanonlyissueregulationsthattheschoolhasto

havearestroom,butitisuptotheprovincesPCtobuilditornot.

Thecurrentdecentralizationisnotsetuptoproduceefficiency,asitismarredbypowerstrugglebetweendifferentlevelsofgovernmentanddifferentadministrativebodiesateachlevel,asseeninthecaseofThanhHoaintermofadaptingtheschoolnetworktorespondtodecreasingpupilsnumberandsurplusofteachers.Ascanbeobservedinpreviouschapters,theChairofPC,bothatprovinciallevel(foruppersecondarylevel),andatdistrictlevel(forlowersecondarylevelandlower)hassignificantpower,e.g.tocreate,closeormergeschools.Moreover,theyaretheoneswhocanchangekeyregulations,suchastheonesrelatedtorecruitmentprocess(e.gthebodyhavingthehiringresponsibility,thecompositionofthemembersoftheselectionofcommittee,etc.)Concentratedpowerisvulnerabletobemisused.Infact,inmorethanonecasesinformantscomplainthatregulationswerechangedbackandforthasadistrictChaircameandwent.

Lackofincentivesforteachersand

schoolmanagement

Teachersandschoolmanagementhavenoincentivestogivetheirbestandworkwithcommitmentandmotivation.Oneofthekeyreasonsforthelackofteachersmotivationisthattheirsalaryisnotlinkedto

levelofcompetency,ascurrentremunerationforteachersissolelybasedoneducationlevelandexperience(measuredasnumberofin-serviceyears).Althoughtextbooksarenotlegallybinding,andteachershaveroomtodesigntheirteachingmaterialsandthewaytheydeliver,thisspaceisrarelyused.Thus,theintensivedebateandcriticsabouttextbooksinthecurrentmediaispartlymissingthemark,asthecauseforthelackofcreativityandflexibilityisnotwiththetextbookscontent.Aperformance-basedsalaryschemecanbedoneonlyifteachermanagement,intheformofhiring,firingandpromotion,isinthe

handofschoolsmanagementandnotinthehandoflocalgovernment.

Similarissuesexistforschoolmanagement.Thecurrentsetupdoesnotencourageprincipalstobeentrepreneurialandcreativeanddoesnotawardthosewhoare.Thiscreatesaviciouscycle:localgovernmentagenciesrefusetohandoverpowerandautonomytoschoolswiththeargumentationthatschoolslackcapacitytomakedecisionsintermofpersonnelandfinancialmanagement.Thiskeepsschoolsinthetrapofbeingjustpassiveimplementersandnotactivemanagers,astheyneverlearnhowtodothejob.

Inequality

Vietnamfacespersistentinequalitiesintermofenrollment,attendanceandcompletionbetweenincomegroupsandethnic


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Corruption

minorities.Disadvantagedpopulationgroupshavelowercompletionratesinprimaryeducation,whichfeedsintothewideninggapofbothattendanceandcompletioninsecondaryeducation.

Butinequalitydoesnotjustexistbetweenruralandurbanareas,but

alsobetweenschoolsinurbanareas,aseliteschoolstendtoreceivemoreresources.Poorparentsarelessabletobeheard,comparedtobetteroffparentswhocancontributemoretotheschool.

Theongoingdecentralizationprocessandsocializationisnotdrivenbyapursuitofidealsofdecentralizedgovernment,buttheresultsofmarketization,whichproducehighpotentialforinformalizationandcorruption.AccordingtoaWorldBanksurveyin2012,32%ofcitizensthathadsomeinteractionswithschoolsmadeunofficialpayments.9

AlthoughVietnamsspendingoneducationishighcomparedtoEastAsiancountries,bothintermofshareofGDPandperpupilexpenditure,corruptioncancausesignificantwastesofresource,andtogetherwithproblematicgovernancestructures,threatenstheefficacyofthesystem.

9WorldBank-GovernmentInspectorate,CorruptionfromthePespectiveofCitizens,Firms,and

PublicOfficials,Referencebook,NationalPoliticalPublishingHouse,HaNoi,2012


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10. ANNEXESANNEX1:GRAPHICOFKEYRESONSIBILITIESANDACCOUNTABILITYLINKAGES

MOET

ProvincesPC

DistrictsPC

Principal

TeacherParentCouncil

Weakhorizontalaccountabilityasparentsnotinvolvedinschoolsdecesionmakingandmanagement.Parentsrolereducedtoconsent

tosendchildrentoschool(inruralareas),

andtocontribute

financially(inurbanareas)

Inchargeofprovincesperformanceofthesector;managinguppersecondary

schools(incl.financial

decisionmakingandhiringandfiring)

Mostlywithoutauthorityforhiringandfiring,andforfinancialdecisions.Performance

evaluatedwithoutclientsinvolvement

Managinglevelsbelowuppersecondary(incl.

financialdecisionmakingandhiringandfiring)

Downwardaccountabilitylimitedaslocal

governmentfailsto

providenecessaryconditions(finances,

infrastructure)forschoolstoperform

Definescurriculum,publishestextbooks,issuesregulationsonteachingandassessments,

degressandcertificates

MOEThandsdowninstructionsandguidancetoDOET/BOETbutthose

aresubjecttolocalPCsdirectionandmanagementintermsoforg.structure,

staffsizeandtasks

Upwardaccountabilitydistortedaspressureto

produceoutputmeasuredsolelyinstatisticswithout

monitoringinvitesmanipulation

Weaklongrouteaccountabilityascitizenscantvote

officialsoutofoffice


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ANNEX2:REGULATIONSFORPRIVATESCHOOLS

Operatingasabusinessentity,aprivateschoolhasautonomyinallitsoperationsuchashiringandfiring,assignmentofschoolmanagement,decisionsoninvestmentandfinancing,determiningoftuitionlevelsetc.Ithasadirectaccountabilitytoitscustomers

inthesensethattheycouldwalkawayandchooseanotherserviceprovidersiftheyarenotsatisfiedwiththeschoolsperformance.Thissectionoffersanoverviewoflegalregulationsforprivateschoolswhereitsrelevantforgovernanceissues.Founding/closing

Theminimumrequirementsintermofinfrastructure,sizeandqualificationofhumanresources,whichMOETdefinesforalllevelsofpublicschoolsalsoapplyfortheestablishmentofanewprivateschool.

Foraprivateschooltobeestablished,theproposalowneralsoneedstwolicenses:licensetofoundaschool(giyphpthnhlptrng),andlicensetoconducteducationalactivities(giyphphotnggiodc),whicharetobeapprovedbythesamestateagencieswhichapproveapublicschoolsofthesamelevel(provincesPCforuppersecondary,anddistrictPCforalllevelsbelow).

Thestateagencyinchargeofgrantinglicenseforprivateschoolsinalsoinchargeofrevokingthelicense.

Assignmentofprincipal

TheprincipalofaprivateschoolisappointedbytheschoolsBoard.Theappointmentissubsequentlytoberecognized(cngnhn)by

therespectivestateagencies(DOETforuppersecondary,BOETforalllevelsbelow).

Teacherrecruitment

Asbusinessentities,privateschoolshavetotalauthorityinhiringandfiringdecisionsrelatedtotheiracademicandnon-academicstaff.Intheory,theyhavetocomplywithrequirementsregardtoquantityandqualificationoftheirhumanresources.Also,theprivateschoolhastoprovidetotheteachersthesameworkingconditionsintermofworkinghours,vacations,etc.asappliedinthepublicschools.

Financing,

tuition&fees

Asbusinesses,privateschoolsarefinancedtotallybyprivatesources

andschoolsrevenues.Theyoperateonthefreemarketandhavenoconstraintsintermofsettingtheirtuitionsandfeelevels.Infact,privateschoolsmayhavetuitionlevelshundredtimeshigherthantheaveragedlevelofpublicschools.

Teachingprogram&Curriculum

PrivateschoolshavetofollowthesameteachingprogramandteachingplanasdefinedbyMOETforpublicschools.Ontopofthat,privateschoolsareallowedtoaddonupto4weeksofextrateachingtimeperyear(13/2011/TT-BGDT).

Inspectorate Likepublicschools,privateschoolsareundertheinspectionofthe

stateagenciesmanagingthem.Aswithpublicschools,onecanexpectthatinspectionofprivateschoolsarenowaycomprehensiveand


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sufficient.However,itdoeshappenthatprivateschoolsareclosedortheiroperationsuspendedduetoviolationsofregulations.10

Nationalstandard&

Accreditation

TheNationalStandardcanbeappliedforbothpublicandprivateschools,andinfactsomeprivateschoolsdoseektoapplyforthe

standard,althoughgenerallyforthemthepoliticsofitisdoesnotplayaprominentrolelikeforpublicschools.

Inregardtoaccreditationstandards,thelegalregulationsdonotmakeadistinctionbetweenpublicandprivateschools.However,noinformationhasbeenfoundthatprivateschoolshavebeenalsoaccredited.Itseemsthatuptonowaccreditationhasonlybeenappliedforpublicschools.

BoardofDirectors/

ParentCouncil

TheprivateschoolsequivalentofapublicschoolsSchoolCouncilistheBoardofDirectors,whichoverseestheworkingoftheschools

management.TheBoardistobeestablishedbytheowneroftheprivateschoolandoperatesunderthesamelegalregulationastheSchoolCouncilofapublicschool.

RelatedtoestablishmentandoperationoftheParentCouncil,decree55/2011/TT-BGDTprovidesthesameregulationforbothpublicandprivateschools.

10ForacaseinHoChiMinhcityin2012,seehttp://www.baomoi.com/Dinh-chi-hoat-dong-Truong-THPT-tu-thuc-Phuong-Nam/59/8777297.epi


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ANNEX3:LISTOFINTERVIEWS

MOET

1. Management,DepartmentofECE(VuMamnon),MOET2. Management,ProjectSupportReforminEducationManagement,MOET3. Management,DepartmentofAccreditation(CucKhaothivaKiemdinhchatluong)4. Formermanager,EducationInspectorate(ThanhtraBo),MOET5. Management,DepartmentofPrimaryEducation(VuTieuhoc),MOET6. Management,DepartmentofSecondaryEducation(VuTrunghoc),MOET7. Management,AcademyforEducationManagement(Hocvienquanlygiaoduc)THANHHOA

8. Vice-ChairmanofProvincialPC9. Manager,OfficeofFinance,Dep.ofEducationandTraining(DOET)10.Manager,OfficeofPersonnel,DOET11.Official,DepartmentofFinance(DOF)12.Vice-ChairmanofDistrictPC13.District-levelBureauofEducation(BOET)14.ManagementofaPrimaryschool15.ManagementofaLowerSecondaryschool16.ManagementofaUpperSecondaryschoolHANOI

17.ManagementofaPrimaryschool18.ManagementofaUpperSecondaryschool19.ManagementofaLowerSecondaryschool20.Auppersecondaryteacher21.Alowersecondaryteacher22.ManagementofDepartmentofHomeAffairs(DOHA)MISC

23.Ms.NguyenThiHongNet,programofficer,Oxfam,Hanoi24.Dr.LuongVanThang,UniversityofEconomics(ConsultantforOxfam)25.Formermanager,DOETYenBai


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11. REFERENCESVuDinhChuan,ThedevelopmentofbasiceducationofVietnamintheintegrationprocess,SecondaryEducationDepartment,MinistryofEducationandTraining,unknowndateLoveEdquist,DecentralizationofEducationalManagementinVietnam,MastersThesisinPoliticalScience,JnkpingJune2005

AdamFforde,TngquanvcngtcxhihogiodccaTPHChMinh,2010AdamFforde,nhgimtsbinphpthchinxhihogiodctithnhphHChMinh,2010OxfamUK,PhncpqunlgiodcVitNam,HNi,2010

TowardsTransparency,FormsandeffectsofcorruptiononeducationsectorinVietnam,2009TranThiKimThuan,ReportonthedecentralizationorientededucationalmanagementsysteminVietnam,NationalInstituteforEducationalSciences,Vietnam,unknowndateUNICEF,SecondaryEducation:RegionalInformationBase:CountryProfileVietnam,2007

WorldBank,Whatisschool-basedmanagement,HumanDevelopmentNetwork,2007

WorldBank-GovernmentInspectorate,CorruptionfromthePespectiveofCitizens,Firms,andPublicOfficials,Referencebook,NationalPoliticalPublishingHouse,HaNoi,2012

WorldBank,ModernInstitutions,VietnamDevelopmentReport,HaNoi,2010

WorldBank,WorldDevelopment2004:MakingServicesWorkforPoorPeople,2003

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Governance in Education in Vietnam-Giang Dang_CECODES

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