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Theory Critique 4: Humanist Perspective

1. Central Premise and Key TheoristsCentral Premise: The humanistic theory comes from a strengths-based holistic approach. Thisputs out the idea that people inherently want to be good. Its main focuses are on a sense of self,personal responsibility, and human potential. The humanistic theory encourages individuals to

explore themselves in order to tap into their own creativity, wholeness, and potential. AbrahamMaslow plays a role in this theory through his hierarchy of needs. At the bottom of his pyramid

the goal is to obtain physiological stability. However, at the top of his pyramid is self-

actualization or transcendence. Carl Rogers also contributed to the humanistic theory by

demonstrating a client, or person, centered approach. This approach gives unconditional positiveregard for the client through the process of reflective listening.

Theorists: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Who else???? -2

2. Origins/Evolution of the Perspective

Often referred to as the third force of psychology, the humanistic perspective was developed inthe 1950s due to the psychodynamic perspective and behavioral perspective. The humanistic

perspective emphasizes the individuals action and ones search for meaning in life. Due to this,

the transpersonal theory should get some credit for helping create the humanistic perspective.This perspective was highly influenced by philosophers, such as Soren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul

Sartre, and Paul Tillich. Influential philosophers that helped with the evolution of this theory, are

Carl Jung, R..D. Laing and Erich From. With great respect to everyone that helped with the

evolution of this theory, the most influential people are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Abraham Maslow, one of the founders of transpersonal psychology, in which he developed thehierarchy of needs. Carl Rogers on the other hand was highly interested in how humans can

change in therapeutic relationships. Who else???? -2

The humanistic perspective still in modern times helps many professionals, such as social

workers, to see what their clients needs are. This theory reminds us that all people are unique,

have value, and people can change themselves. This theory helps professionals truly see theimportance of growth in an individual

3. Assumptions

1. Humans have free will and not all behavior is determined

2. All humans are good and have an innate need to make themselves and the worldbetter.

3. To understand human behavior properly one must only study humans and notanimals.

Group ID: Blue Six 34/40

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4. Past experiences do not constrain the behavior of a person.

5. Psychologists should study individual cases only rather than the averageperformance of

groups.

4. Key ConceptsConcept Definition

Motivation

Theory

Hierarchy of

Needs

Deficiency

Needs

Biological and

Physiological

Needs

Safety Needs

Social Needs

Esteem Needs

Use a definition for each term, not narrative explanation. -2

Human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and certain lower factors

need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied.

Fundamental, lower-order needs like safety and physiological

requirements have to be satisfied in order to pursue higher-

level motivators along the lines of self-fulfillment. After a need is satisfied,it stops acting as a motivator and the next need, one rank higher, start tomotivate as that need attains psychological precedence.

Lower order needs for survival that must be met before higher order needscome into play.

Those needs required to sustain life, such as: air, water, food, shelter,warmth, sex, and sleep. If these fundamental needs are not satisfied, then

one will surely be motivated to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social

needs and esteem are not recognized until one satisfies the needs basic to

existence.

Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security

in order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Suchneeds might be fulfilled by: protection from elements; security; order; law;

limits; stability; living in a safe area; medical insurance; job security,

financial reserves. According to the Maslow hierarchy, if a person feels

threatened, needs further up the pyramid do not receive attention until thatneed has been resolved.

Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher

level motivators awaken. The first level of higher level needsare socialneeds. Social needs are those related to interaction with others, involve

belongingness and love, and may include: friendship; belonging to a group;giving and receiving love; work group; family; affection; and relationships.

After a person feels that they belong, the urge to attain a degree ofimportance emerges. Esteem needs can be categorized as external

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Cognitive Needs

Aesthetic Needs

Self-

Actualization

Transcendence

Needs

Self-

ActualizationTheory

Concentration

Growth Choices

motivatorsand internal motivators.Internally motivating esteemneeds are

those such as self-esteem, accomplishment, and self respect. External esteemneeds are those such as reputation and recognition. Some examples of esteem

needs are: mastery, independence, dominance, prestige, managerial

responsibility, recognition (external motivator), attention (external

motivator), social status (external motivator), achievement/accomplishment(internal motivator), and self-esteem/self-respect (internal motivator).

The need to acquire knowledge and meaning in life.

The need to find appreciation and search for beauty, balance, and form.

The quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level

needs, this need is never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there

are always new opportunities to continue to grow. Self-actualized people

tend to have motivators such as: truth, justice, wisdom, and meaning. Self-actualized persons have frequent occurrences of peak experiences, which are

energized moments of profound happiness and harmony. According to

Maslow, only a small percentage of the population reaches the level of self-

actualization. Self-actualization involves becoming the best that you can be.

Helping others to achieve self-actualization. Self-transcendence involves a

spiritual dimension of connecting to a higher power and giving back to life.

Eight ways in which individuals self-actualize, or eight behaviors leading to

self- actualization.

"First, self- actualization means experiencing fully, vividly, selflessly, withfull concentration and total absorption" (The Farther Reaches of Human

Nature,p. 45). Usually, we are relatively unaware of what is going on within

or around us. (Most eyewitnesses recount different versions of the sameoccurrence, for example.) However, we have all had moments of heightened

awareness and intense involvement, moments that Maslow would call self-

actualizing. Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and

concentration.

If we think of life as a series of choices, then self-actualization is the process

of making each decision a choice for growth. We often have to choose

between growth and safety, between progressing and regressing. Each choicehas its positive and its negative aspects. To choose safety is to remain with

the known and the familiar but to risk becoming stultified and state. To

choose growth is to open oneself to new and challenging experiences but to

http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703

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Self-Awareness

Honesty

Judgment

Self-

Development

Peak

Experiences

risk the unknown and possible failure.

In the process of self-actualizing we become more aware of our inner nature

and act in accordance with it. This means we decide for ourselves whether

we like certain films, books, or ideas, regardless of others' opinions.

Honesty and taking responsibility for one's actions are essential elements in

self- actualizing. Rather than pose and give answers that are calculated toplease another or to make ourselves look good, we can look within for the

answers. Each time we do so, we get in touch with our inner selves.

The first four steps help us develop the capacity for "better life choices." Welearn to trust our own judgment and our own inner feelings and to act

accordingly. Maslow believes that following our instincts leads to more

accurate judgments about what is constitutionally right for each of us-better

choices in art, music, and food, as well as in major life decisions, such as

marriage and a career.

Self-actualization is also a continual process of developing one'spotentialities. It means using one's abilities and intelligence and "working to

do well the thing that one wants to do" (The Farther Reaches of Human

Nature,p. 48). Great talent or intelligence is not the same as self-actualization; many gifted people fail to use their abilities fully while others,

with perhaps only average talents, accomplish a great deal. Self-actualization

is not a thing that someone either has or does not have. It is a never-ending

process of making real one's potential. It refers to a way of continually living,working, and relating to the world rather than to a single accomplishment.

"Peak experiences are transient moments of self-actualization" (The Farther

Reaches of Human Nature,p 1 & 48). We are more whole, more integrated,

more aware of ourselves and of the world during peak moments. At such

times we think, act, and feel most clearly and accurately. We are more loving

and accepting of others, have less inner conflict and anxiety, and are betterable to put our energies to constructive use. Some people enjoy more peak

experiences than others, particularly those Maslow called transcending self-

actualizers.

A peak experience has some (but not necessarily all) of the following

characteristics: very strong or deep positive emotions akin to ecstasy, a deep

sense of peacefulness or tranquility, feeling in tune, in harmony, or at onewith the universe, a feeling of deeper knowing or profound understanding, a

sense that it is a very special experience that would be difficult or impossible

to describe adequately in words (i.e., ineffability).

http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703http://www.abraham-maslow.com/Book.asp?0140194703

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Lack of Ego

Defenses

TranspersonalPsychology

Self-

Transcendence

Optimal Mental

Health

A further step in self-actualization is to recognize our ego defenses and to be

able to drop them when appropriate. To do so, we must become more awareof the ways in which we distort our images of ourselves and of the external

world-through repression, projection, and other defenses.

In exploring the farthest reaches of human nature, he found that there werepossibilities beyond self-actualization. When peak experiences are especially

powerful, the sense of self dissolves into all awareness of a greater unity. Theterm self-actualization did not seem to fit these experiences.

Transpersonal psychology contributes to the more traditional concerns of thediscipline an acknowledgement of the spiritual aspect of human experience.

This level of experience has been described primarily in religious literature,

in unscientific and often theologically biased language. A major task of

transpersonal psychology is to provide a scientific language and a scientificframework for this material.

States of consciousness in which the sense of self is expanded beyond theordinary definitions and self-images of the individual personality. Self-

transcendence refers to the direct experience of a fundamental connection,

harmony, or unity with others and the world. The "self" which is transcendedis the personality or ego-self, the collection of self-concepts, self-images, and

roles which develops through one's interactions. Transpersonal approaches

hold that this ego-self is not the same as one's true nature or essence and that

self-transcendence opens one to the experience of this deeper nature. Thenotion of self-transcendence is a key part of Maslow's thinking and the rootsof transpersonal psychology. Toward the end of his career, Maslow's

transpersonal interests led him to add a sixth level to his widely-knownHierarchy of Needs. This sixth level, a meta-need for self-transcendence anda motivation toward peak experiences, extends beyond the deficiency needs

and the need for self-actualization. He found that such a need was present for

some but not all self-actualizing persons. A sense of self-transcendence is a

defining characteristic of mystical experiences.

Beyond what is considered possible by other approaches to psychology,

mental health is usually seen as adequate coping with environmentaldemands and resolution of personal conflicts, but the view of transpersonal

psychology also includes a fuller awareness, self-understanding, and self-

fulfillment. Optimal mental health also includes the notion of serving others.Peak and plateau experiences are brief examples of optimal states of mentalhealth, but expanded awareness, freedom from internal conflicts and

deficiency, and authentic contact with others are possible as enduring traits

also. Transpersonal psychology seeks to explore and validate states that have

been termed enlightenment, awakening, or liberation by the spiritualdisciplines.

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Spiritual

Emergency

Developmental

Spectrum

Meditation

Person-

Centered

Approach

Fully-

A disturbing experience resulting from a spiritual experience (or"emergence"). In general, transpersonal psychology holds the view that

psychological crises can be part of a healthy awakening and that they are not

always signs of psychopathology. Closely related to this is a view that the

person is intrinsically healthy and that this health may manifest in ways thatlook pathological. Within the most pathological thinking and behavior is a

core that is healthy. Transpersonal psychotherapy seeks to draw out andsupport this core.

A notion which incorporates many of the con cepts of psychology and

philosophy into a transpersonal framework. Philosophically, this model is anexample of the Perennial Philosophy. This view suggests that there are levels

of reality, from material to psychological/mental to spiritual and that each

successive level incorporates the properties of previous levels along with

new emergent properties. It has been the basis for most philosophical and

spiritual systems as well as being found in virtually all psychologicalapproaches.

Practices for focusing or quieting mental processes and fostering

transpersonal states. Just as conditioning is a key method in behaviorism and

interpretation and catharsis are key methods in psychoanalysis, meditation isa key method for Transpersonal Psychology. Adapted from spiritual

traditions in the East and the West, most forms of meditation involve either

focused attention on one object (such as one's breath or a word repeated

silently) or mindful attention to all contents of awareness. The specifictechniques differ, but both forms of meditation have the ultimate goal of

expanded awareness and self-transcendence. Self-transcendence, exploringthe nature of the mind and identity, and expanding the sense of self havebeen the traditional uses of meditation and continue to be its primary value in

a transpersonal framework. However, meditation is often used as a relaxation

or psychotherapeutic technique as well. A great deal of empirical research

has been published in recent years describing and validating various effectsof meditation, both for self-regulation and expanding consciousness.

Whether or not transpersonal systems include a formal meditation practice

(and most do), training and working with moment-to-moment awareness isthe one of the foundations of Transpersonal Psychology.

Person-centered therapy or client-centered therapy. Client-centered therapy

operates according to three basic principles that reflect the attitude of thetherapist to the client: the therapist is congruentwith the client; the therapist

provides the client with unconditional positive regard; and the therapist

shows empatheticunderstanding to the client.

A person who is capable of achieving self-actualization. This means that the

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Functional

Person

Open to

Experience

Existential

Living

Trust Feelings

Creativity

Fulfilled Life

Self-Concept

Existential Self

Categorical Self

person is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences

and feelings, and is continually growing and changing.

Both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not

denied, but worked through (rather than resort to ego defense mechanisms).In touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging

and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not

always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e. living for the

moment).

Feeling, instincts and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. Peoples

own decisions are the right ones and we should trust ourselves to make the

right choices.

Creative thinking and risk taking are features of a persons life. Person does

not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change andseek new experiences.

Person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new

challenges and experiences.

The organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself. The

self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is ourinner personality, and can be likened to the soul, orFreud's psyche. The self

is influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and out

interpretations of those experiences. Two primary sources that influence our

self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others.

This is the most basic part of the self-scheme or self-concept; the sense of

being separate and distinct from others and the awareness of the constancy of

the self.The child realizes that they exist as a separate entity from others andthat they continue to exist over time and space. Awareness of the existential

self begins as young as two to three months old and arises in part due to the

relation the child has with the world. For example, the child smiles and

someone smiles back, or the child touches a mobile and sees it move.

Having realized that he or she exists as a separate experiencing being, the

child next becomes aware that he or she is also an object in the world. Just asother objects including people have properties that can be experienced (big,small, red, smooth and so on) so the child is becoming aware of him or her

self as an object, which can be experienced, and which has properties. The

self too can be put into categories such as age, gender, size or skill. Two ofthe first categories to be applied are age (I am 3) and gender (I am a

girl). In early childhood, the categories children apply to themselves are

http://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.htmlhttp://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.htmlhttp://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.htmlhttp://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html

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Self Worth

High Self-

Esteem

Low Self-

Esteem

Self-Image

Harrill Self-

Esteem

Inventory

Thematic

ApperceptionTest (TAT)

The Reaction of

Others

Comparison

with Others

Social Roles

very concrete (e.g. hair color, height and favorite things). Later, self-

description also begins to include reference to internal psychological traits,comparative evaluations and to how others see them.

Self-esteem. What we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of

self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from theinteraction of the child with the mother and father.

Havinga positive view of oneself. This tends to lead to: confidence in our

own abilities; self-acceptance; not worrying about what others think; and

optimism.

Having a negative view of oneself. This tends to lead to: lack of confidence;

wanting to be/look like someone else; always worrying what others might

think; and pessimism.

How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health.Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. At

a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person,beautiful or ugly. Self-image has an affect on how a person thinks feels and

behaves in the world.

A questionnaire comprising 15 statements about a range of interest.

Is a neutral cartoon given to the participant who then has to devise a story

about what's going on.

If people admire us, flatter us, seek out our company, listen attentively and

agree with us we tend to develop a positive self-image. If they avoid us,

neglect us, tell us things about ourselves that we dont want to hear wedevelop a negative self-image.

If the people we compare ourselves with (our reference group) appear to bemore successful, happier, richer, better looking than ourselves we tend to

develop a negative self image BUT if they are less successful than us our

image will be positive.

Some social roles carry prestige e.g. doctor, airline pilot, TV presenter,premiership, football player, and these social roles promotes self-esteem.

Other roles carry stigma. E.g. prisoners, mental hospital patients, refuse

collector or unemployed person.

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Identification

Physical

Description

Social Roles

Personal Traits

Existential

Statements

Ideal Self

Positive Regard

UnconditionalPositive Regard

Conditional

Positive Regard

Congruence

Roles arent just out there. They also become part of our personality i.e. we

identity with the positions we occupy, the roles we play and the groups webelong to.

How one describes ones physical characteristics; i.e. Im tall, have blue

eyes...etc

We are all social beings whose behavior is shaped to some extent by the roleswe play. Such roles as student, housewife, or member of the football team

not only help others to recognize us but also help us to know what is

expected of us in various situations.

These are a third dimension of our self-descriptions. Im impulsive...Im

generous...I tend to worry a lot...etc.

Abstract statements that can range from "Im a child of the universe" to "Im

a human being" to "Im a spiritual being"...etc.

This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals andambitions in life, and is dynamici.e. forever changing. The ideal self in

childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.

To be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued, respected,

treated with affection and loved. Positive regard relates to how other people

evaluate and judge us in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction

between unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard.

Unconditional positive regardis where parents, significant others (and thehumanist therapist) accepts and loves the person for what he or sheis. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or

makes a mistake. The consequences of unconditional positive regard are that

the person feels free to try things out and make mistakes, even though this

may lead to getting it worse at times. People who are able to self-actualizeare more likely to have received unconditional positive regard from others,

especially their parents in childhood.

Conditional positiveregard is where positive regard, praise and approval,

depend upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think

correct. Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on

condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s). Atthe extreme, a person who constantly seeks approval from other people is

likely only to have experienced conditional positive regard as a child.

Where a persons ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very

similar. Rarely, if ever does a total state of congruence exist; all people

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Incongruence

Empathy

Positive

Psychology

experience a certain amount of incongruence.

A persons ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life

and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a

persons ideal self and actual experience.

The ability to understand what the client is feeling. This refers to the

therapist's ability to understand sensitively and accurately [but notsympathetically] the client's experience and feelings in the here-and-now. An

important part of the task of the person-centered counselor is to follow

precisely what the client is feeling and to communicate to them that the

therapist understands what they are feeling.

Undertakes the scientific study of peoples strengths and virtues and

promotes optimal functioning of individuals and communities. Proponents

claim that psychology has paid too much attention to human pathology and

not enough time focusing on human strengths and virtues.5. Level of Application (micro, mezzo, macro)

The humanistic theory can be applied on the micro level because its main focus is on how eachindividual has potential, and how they can reach that potential though the act of reflective

listening and having security in different aspects of life. It is not necessarily focused on the needs

of a group, but rather the needs of individuals. However it has been used at the mezzo and macro

levels, for example with policies that are used in the workplace or for government programs.

6. Application in Social Work Practice

How practitioners use it

The humanistic perspective is limited for giving specific interventions and techniques for

social work practice. However, the perspective does provide a certain framework orapproach for social workers in practice. Social workers can use the humanisticperspective by emphasizing strengths with clients and understanding the clientsperspective. Social workers can recognize that each individual has a drive for growthand competence. The perspectives approach in social work practice is focuses onstrengths instead of weaknesses or deficiencies. The perspective can also be used insocial work practice at the organizational level by administering employee well-beingpractices.

How Diversity is Addressed

The humanistic perspective focuses more on differences between individual than

between groups. However, differences between groups have been focused on by toproponents of the humanistic perspective, Horney and Fromm. Horney looked atculturally based gender differences. The perspective does give a strong voice to theexperiences of individuals who are in non-dominant groups. The perspective alsoencourages respect for the personal self and a client-centered therapy approach. Thehumanistic perspective addresses diversity by identifying characteristics andexperiences that are unique to the individual. Furthermore, the perspective addresses

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diversity by emphasizing the importance of recognizing an individuals perception of asituation or event, rather than simply recognizing the professionals perception ofoccurrences.

Fit with Ethics and Core Values

(Service; Social Justice; Dignity and Worth of the Person; Human Relationships; Integrity; Competence)The humanistic perspective fits well with the following social work ethics and corevalues: dignity and worth of the person, human relationships, integrity, and competence.The AmericanPsychological Association has ethics that align very well with social work.The humanisticperspective promotes dignity and worth of a person by focusing largelyon the strengths every person has. The focus is primarily on the individual andindividual strengths and potential for growth, and so thedignity and worth of a person isvery important in the humanistic perspective. Theperspective also has a large focus ona holistic understanding of human behavior and in this way valuescompetence. Theprofessional cannot competently serve the client unless the professional understandshuman behavior, the strengths of the individual, and the individuals perception. Theperspective values empathy and that the professional understand the clients situationfrom the clients perspective. This demonstrates that the perspective values humanrelationships. Integrity is also valued, especially in positive psychology because positivepsychology promotes honesty.The humanistic perspective weakly fits with the social work ethic and core values ofservice and social justice. The perspective fits with social justice because a branch ofthe perspective, positive psychology, promotes optimal functioning of individuals andcommunities. The perspective does not advocate social justice specifically, but doesadvocate for optimal functioning. An individual and community cannot function tooptimal potential without social justice. The perspective is also weak in social justicebecause it does not focus on how institutional oppression influences individuals. Inregards to service, positive psychology promotes compassion. Compassion leads toservice, thus the humanistic perspective weakly fits with service. The perspective doesnot promote service directly, but does promote compassion and human strength.

7. Criticisms of the Perspective Theories are often criticized for being vague and highly abstract. Lack of empirical evidence used in research Because of the subjective nature of the study, critics worry about this theorys

falsifiability

Allows for variation but does not identify enough constant variables in order to beresearched with true accuracy.

Does little to explain the impact of society on personality development. Does not explain or go into detail regarding the presence of deviance. Involves a lot of common sense and not a lot or enough objectivity.

8. Helpful ReferencesHumanistic psychology. (2009). Retrieved from

http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Humanistic-Psychology.asp

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Hutchinson, E. D. (2011). Theoretical perspectives on human behavior. In E. D. Hutchinson

& L. W. Charlesworth (eds.), Dimensions of human behavior: Person and environment (4thed.) (pp. 63-66). Los Angeles: CA: SAGE.

Maslow's theory of motivation - Hierarchy of needs. (2012). Retrieved from

http://www.envisionsoftware.com/articles/Maslows_Needs_Hierarchy.html

McLeod, S. A. (2007 a). Carl Rogers. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html

McLeod, S. A. (2007 b). Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

McLeod, S. A. (2008 a). Self Concept. Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html

McLeod, S. A. (2008 b). Person Centered Therapy. Retrieved fromhttp://www.simplypsychology.org/client-centred-therapy.html

Self-actualization. (2009). Retrieved from

http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Self-Actualization.asp

Transpersonal psychology: The fourth force of psychology. (2009). Retrieved from

http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Transpersonal_Psychology.asp