Grammar Appendix

Part of Speech Definition/ use Examples

Active/ Passive An active sentence is the opposite of a

passive sentence. In an active sentence, the

subject performs the action of the verb.

Example: The dog ate all the biscuits.

The passive is used1. If the action is more

important than the agent.

-A demonstration has been held. This theatre

was built in 1868.  (The important thing is

what happened, not who did it).

2. If the agent is not known.

-He was offered a job. (someone offered

him the job) They are supposed to

be good students. (some

teachers suppose that) 

Examples of passive:

Present: The car is repairedPresent continuous: The car is being repairedPast simple: The car was repairedPast continuous: The car was being repairedPresent Perfect: The car has been repairedPast perfect: The car had been repairedFuture simple: The car will be repaired

Superlative Adjectives A superlative adjective compares three or more nouns. This takes the comparison of nouns to the highest degree. An example would be: “My mother’s cooking is the best.” The rules for making superlative adjectives are almost identical to the rules for making comparative adjectives. They are:  

One syllable words - add “est” to the word. Remember

Example:She was the nicest person there.

Example:Pavarotti was the most famous singer of the 20th century.

Example:You have the curliest hair I have ever seen

Grammar Appendixthat it is sometimes necessary to double the final consonant. Examples are: strong to strongest and big to biggest.

One syllable words ending with an “e” - only add “st” like fine to finest or rare to rarest.  

Two syllables words ending with a “y” - change the “y” to an “i” and add “est.” Two examples are crazy to craziest and silly to silliest.  

Two and three syllable words - use “most” or “least.” Examples include most desirable and least expensive.

Phrases and clauses

Clauses: A clause is a subject and predicate working together.

A phrase: is a group of words related to the subject, predicate, or object. 

Phrases do not contain a subject and a predicate, or we would call them clauses. Phrases provide additional information about subjects, predicates, and / or objects, and understanding how they work is helpful to building and analyzing sentences.

.

-Clauses and phrases are the building blocks of sentences. Every sentence must have at least one clause to be considered grammatically correct

Examples of ClausesExample1: I took the dog to

the park.-The example has one

subject, I, and one predicate, took. Since they are

working together to form a comprehensible sentence, this

sentence has one clause.

Example2: I love learning, so I spend a lot of time

reading.-This example has two

predicates: love and spend. Since they are each working

together with separate subjects, this sentence has

two clauses.

Examples of phrasesAfter working late into the night, Jack fell asleep on his

desk.The emboldened portion of the

sentence exemplifies the phrase. It provides additional

Grammar Appendixinformation about our

subject, Jack, but the sentence does not require this

information to be grammatically complete.

Adverb Clause An adverb clause is a dependent clause (incomplete sentence) with a subject and a verb, and marked with an adverb. The clauses makers can indicate:- time ( when, while, whenever, as soon as )- concessions ( in spite of, despite, although, even though )- reason ( as, because, in case, so )- purpose ( in order that, so, so that )- manner ( as, as if, as though, like )- place ( where, wherever, everywhere )- conditions ( even if, if, only if, unless ).

Example: Because he

has a college degree, he was

given a great job.

Example: When the

storm started, she was at the

store.

Example: Bob wore the

coat that I gave him.

Example: If you save some money, you can buy a new game.   Unless you hurry , you will be late for school. 

Reported Speech -If we want to say what other people said, thought or felt, we can use the direct and indirect speech (reported speech).

-The reported speech is typically introduced by verbs such as say, tell, admit, complain, explain, remind, reply, think, hope, offer, refuse etc. in the past tense.

-If these verbs are in the past tense, we change the following:a) verb tenses and verb forms,b) pronouns,c) The adverbs of time and place. 

A) Verb tenses

We change the tenses in the following way: 1. Present - past"I never understand you," she told me. - She told me she never understood me.  "We are doing exercises," he explained. - He explained that they were doing exercises. 2. Present perfect - past perfect"I have broken the window," he admitted. - He admitted that he had broken the window."I have been waiting since the morning," he complained. - He complained that he had been waiting since the morning. 3. Past - past perfect"She went to Rome," I

Grammar Appendixthought. - I thought that she had gone to Rome."He was thinking of buying a new car," she said. - She said he had been thinking of buying a new car. 4. Will - conditionalWill change into the conditional."I will come on Sunday," he reminded me. - He reminded me that he would come on Sunday. NotesI shall, we shall usually become would."I shall appreciate it," he said. - He said he would appreciate it. I should, we should usually changes into would."We should be really glad," she told us. - She told us they would be really glad. May becomes might."I may write to him," she promised. - She promised that she might write to him. The verb forms remain the same the following cases. 1. If the reporting verb is in the present tense.Bill: "I am enjoying my holiday." - Bill says he is enjoying his holiday.Sandy: "I will never go to work." - Sandy says she will never go to work. 2. When we report something that is still true.Dan: "Asia is the largest continent." - Dan said Asia is the largest continent.Emma: "People in Africa are starving." - Emma said people in Africa are starving. 

Grammar Appendix3. When a sentence is made and reported at the same time and the fact is still true.Michael: "I am thirsty." - Michael said he is thirsty. 4. With modal verbs would, might, could, should, ought to, used to.George: "I would try it." - George said he would try it.Mimi: "I might come." - Mimi said she might come.Steve: "I could fail." - Steve said he could fail.Linda: "He should/ought to stay in bed." - Linda said he should/ought to stay in bed.Mel: "I used to have a car." - Mel said he used to have a car. 5. After wish, would rather, had better, it is time.Margo: "I wish they were in Greece." - Margo said she wished they were in Greece.Matt: "I would rather fly." - Matt said he would rather fly.Betty: "They had better go." - Betty said they had better go.Paul: "It is time I got up." - Paul said it was time he got up. 6. In if-clauses.Martha: "If I tidied my room, my dad would be happy." - Martha said that if she tidied her room, her dad would be happy. 7. In time-clauses.Joe: "When I was staying in Madrid I met my best friend." - He said that when he was staying in Madrid he met his best friend. 8. We do not change the past tense in spoken English if it is clear from the situation when the action happened."She did it on Sunday," I said.

Grammar Appendix- I said she did it on Sunday.We must change it, however, in the following sentence; otherwise it will not be clear whether we are talking about the present or past feelings."I hated her," he said. - He said he had hated her. 9. We do not usually change the modal verbs must and needn't. But must can become had to or would have to and needn't can become didn't have to or wouldn't have to if we want to express an obligation.Would/wouldn't have to be used to talk about future obligations."I must wash up." - He said he must wash up/he had to wash up."I needn't be at school today."    - He said he needn't be/didn't have to be at school that day."We must do it in June." - He said they would have to do it in June.If the modal verb must does not express obligation, we do not change it."We must relax for a while." (suggestion) - He said they must relax for a while."You must be tired after such a trip." (certainty) - He said we must be tired after such a trip. 

B) Pronouns

 We have to change the pronouns to keep the same meaning of a sentence."We are the best students," he said. - He said they were the best students."They called us," he said. - He said they had called them."I like your jeans," she said. -

Grammar AppendixShe said she liked my jeans."I can lend you my car," he said. - He said he could lend me his car. Sometimes we have to use a noun instead of a pronoun; otherwise the new sentence is confusing."He killed them," Kevin said. - Kevin said that the man had killed them.If we only make mechanical changes (Kevin said he had killed them), the new sentence can have a different meaning - Kevin himself killed them. This and these are usually substituted."They will finish it this year," he said. - He said they would finish it that year."I brought you this book," she said. - She said she had brought me the book."We want these flowers," they said. - They said they wanted the flowers. 

C) Time and place

Let's suppose that we talked to our friend Mary on Friday. And she said: "Greg came yesterday." It means that Greg came on Thursday. If we report Mary's sentence on Sunday, we have to do the following:Mary: "Greg came yesterday." - Mary said that Greg had come the day before.                                                                                                                                                                               If we say: Mary said Greg had come yesterday, it is not correct, because it means that he came on Saturday.                                                              

Grammar AppendixThe time expressions change as follows.today - that day, tomorrow - the next day/the following day, the day after tomorrow - in two days' time, yesterday - the day before, the day before yesterday - two days before, next week/month - the following week/month, last week/month - the previous week/month, a year ago - a year before/the previous yearBill: "She will leave tomorrow." - Bill said she would leave the next day.Sam: "She arrived last week." - Sam said she had arrived the previous week.Julie: "He moved a year ago." - Julie said he had moved a year before. NoteIf something is said and reported at the same time, the time expressions can remain the same."I will go on holiday tomorrow," he told me today. - He told me today he would go on holiday tomorrow."We painted the hall last weekend," she told me this week. - She told me this week they had painted the hall last weekend. On the other hand, if something is reported later, the time expressions are different in the reported speech.Last week Jim said:"I'm playing next week."If we say his sentence a week later, we will say:Jim said he was playing this week. Here usually becomes there. But sometimes we make different adjustments.

Grammar AppendixAt school: "I'll be here at 10 o'clock," he said. - He said he would be there at 10 o'clock.In Baker Street: "We'll meet here." - He said they would meet in Baker Street.

Questions

Questions become statements. The reporting verb say changes into ask, want to know, wonder."Where have you been?" he said. - He asked me where I had been."What time did it start?" he said. - He wanted to know what time it had started."Why won't he do it?" she said. - She wondered why he wouldn't do it. In yes/no questions we use if or whether in questions. If is more common and whether is more formal."Will you come?" she asked me. - She asked me if/whether I would come."Did he marry Sue?" she said. - She wondered if/whether he married Sue.

Commands, requests and advice

The commands, requests and advice mostly have the same form in English: verb + object + infinitive (advise, ask, beg, forbid, order, persuade, recommend, tell, urge, warn etc.).Unlike the direct speech the person addressed must be mentioned in the indirect speech."Get up!" he said. - He told me to get up."Please, revise for the test," he said. - He urged me to revise for the test."Put on your coat," I said. - I advised him to put on his coat.

Grammar Appendix Negative commands, requests and advice are made by verb + object + not + infinitive."Don't hesitate," he said. - He persuaded me not to hesitate."Don't smoke," the doctor warned my father. - The doctor warned my father not to smoke. Tell can introduce statements, commands, requests or advice. The form is different, however. Statements with tell"I'm leaving," he told me. - He told me that he was leaving. Commands, requests or advice with tell"Leave the room," he told John. - He told John to leave the room."Don't give up," the teacher told her students. - The teacher told the students not to give up. Similarly ask is used in reported questions, commands, requests or advice in different forms. Questions with ask"Will you make coffee?" he said. - He asked me if I would make coffee. Commands, requests or advice with ask"Make coffee, please," he said. - He asked me to make coffee."Don't park in my place," Greg told me. - Greg asked me not to park in his place.

ConditionalsConditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to

Conditional Sentence Type 1

→ It is possible and also very likely that the

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express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences.

condition will be fulfilled.

Form: if + Simple Present, will-Future

Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an

invitation.

Conditional Sentence Type 2

→ It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition

will be fulfilled.

Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I (= would

+ Infinitive)

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an

invitation.

Conditional Sentence Type 3

→ It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled

because it refers to the past.

Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (=

would + have + Past Participle)

Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent

her an invitation.

Phrasal VerbsPhrasal verbs are mainly used in spoken English and informal texts. (The more formal a conversation or text, the fewer phrasal verbs are found.)

Phrasal verbs consist of a verb plus a

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particle (preposition, adverb). The particle can change the meaning of the verb completely

Position of the Particle

The particle is placed either after the verb

or after the object.

Example:Write down the word. / Write the word down.

If the object is a pronoun, however, the

particle has to be placed after the

pronoun (object).

Example:Write it down.

Possessive Apostrophe/ Apostrophe 's

Nouns that show ownership are called possessive nouns.

Possessives are formed by following three rules:-Add 's to singular nouns (even if they are already end with s)Example: Our city's mayor.Example: James's new jacket.

-Add only an apostrophe (') to plural nouns that end in sExample: The boys' mother

-Add ('s) to plural nouns that do not end in sExample: The people's choice

Grammar Appendix

Frequently used Phrasal Verbs

Break

break down fail to function

have a physical or mental collapse

break in interrupt a discussion

Burgle

soften with use (shoes)

break off discontinue (therapy, relationship)

break out escape from prison, begin suddenly

break up end a relationship

Bring

bring about cause to happen

bring forth give birth to

bring forward draw attention to something

bring on cause to happen or appear

bring round Persuade

Grammar Appendix

Bring

cause to recover consciousness

bring up rear, educate a child

Mention

Vomit

call

call back

return a phone call

call for require

call in communicate by phone

consult a specialist

call off Cancel

call out read names aloud

order workers to strike

call on request somebody to do something

call up reach by phone

summon for military services

Grammar Appendix

Carry

carry away Remove

inspire, affect emotionally

carry off take away (by force)

Win

remove, degrade (earth)

carry on Continue

carry out accomplish, make

carry through Complete

bring out of difficulties

Come

come about happen, to be achieved

come across find/meet by chance

come after Follow

come at Attack

reach, discover

come back Return

Grammar Appendix

Come

come by pass, go past, visit

buy, get

come down fall (price)

come down to mean, signify

come down with fall sick with

come in enter, be received

prove to be

come in for receive, be object of (criticism)

come off become detached

come out become known, be published

be removed (stain)

come over come from a distance

come round visit somebody

recover consciousness

come to amount to

arrive/reach a place

Grammar Appendix

Come

come up be mentioned/discussed

(problem) arise

come up against be faced with (problems)

come upon find/meet by chance

come up to match (a standard)

come up with produce an idea

do

do away with abolish

kill

do up dress up

fasten, secure (clothing)

do with need

do without not require

fall

fall apart fall into pieces

fall behind fail to keep up pace

Grammar Appendix

fall

fall for be in love with

be deceived by

fall in with meet by chance

coincide with

fall off decrease

drop from

fall out quarrel

fall out with quarrel with

fall through fail, miscarry

fall to start an activity eagerly

get

get across communicate (an idea)

get along be in good terms with somebody

get away escape

get away with escape (punishment)

get by manage, cope

Grammar Appendix

get

get down to turn one's attention to sth

get in enter (car, taxi)

get off disembark (bus, train etc.)

get on enter (bus, train etc.)

get out disembark (car, taxi)

get over recover (illness, upset)

get through pass (an exam)

be connected on the phone

get to reach

get up rise from bed after sleeping

go

go against be contrary to (principles, rules)

go along with take the same view

go away depart

go down become less

decrease in price

Grammar Appendix

go

sink (ship)

set (sun)

go for pick up, go and get

go off explode

deteriorate (food)

begin to sound (alarm)

go on continue

go out leave the house

strike

go over inspect the details of something

go past Pass

go round visit informally

go through deal with

discuss in detail

experience sth (usually bad)

go up increase in price

Grammar Appendix

go

Explode

go with Match

keep

keep away prevent from / avoid being near

keep back withhold

keep down not to increase

keep off avoid (a topic)

stay away

keep on not stopping doing sth

keep up continue, carry on

keep up with not to fall behind sb

look

look after take care of

look down on regard with a feeling of superiority

look for Seek

look forward to anticipate with pleasure

Grammar Appendix

look

look into investigate (a crime)

look on be a spectator

Regard

look out be careful

look over inspect hastily

look through pretend not to see

examine the contents of something

look up consult a reference book

look up to Respect

make

make for have/produce a particular effect

make off run away

make out recognise, distinguish

make up constitute, form

invent a lie

put together, prepare

Grammar Appendix

make

apply cosmetics

make up for compensate

regain (time)

put

put across express in an understandable way

put back put something to its proper place

lay money aside for the future

move back the hands of a clock

put by save for later use

put down repress

write down

store (food)

put down to give as a reason, attribute to

put forward move forward the hands of a clock

suggest, propose

put in for be a candidate for an election

Grammar Appendix

put

put on dress oneself with

tease

gain (weight)

put off postpone

put out extinguish (a fire, light)

put through connect somebody by phone

put up build

raise (hand)

provide accommodation for

offer for sale

put up with tolerate, accept

run

run after chase

run away escape, flee

run down knock down, collide with

feel weak due to overwork

Grammar Appendix

run

run in imprison

run into meet by chance

run off escape, flee

run out run outside

become used up

run out of exhaust one's stock

run over overflow

study quickly

pass over, knock down

run up against meet with difficulties

set

set aside reserve for later use

set back hinder, slow down a progress

set down write down

set off cause to explode

start a journey

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set

set up start business

take

take after follow somebody as an example

resemble in appearance

take down write down

take in understand (meaning)

deceive

take off undress

begin flight (plane)

take to develop a habit

take up continue, proceed

become interested in

take up with begin to associate with

turn

turn down diminish the intensity

reject

Grammar Appendix

turn

turn in hand in

turn off switch off

turn on switch on

turn out switch off

turn over bring the reverse side up

turn up increase the intensity

make an appearance

Grammar Appendix

(Practice Exercises)

Active/ Passive

Letters   by the postman at 8 every day. (deliver)

This bag   in the bus yesterday. (find)

The dress   in hot water. (cannot wash)

 your motorbike   yet? (repair)

The message   tomorrow. (send)

These offices   now. (clean)

This report   in time if you didn't help me. (not finish)

Why   the TV   ? (turn on)

This building   since the 1930's. (not reconstruct)

Grammar Appendix

Bags   in the cloakroom. (must leave)

The engine   just   when the manager saw it. (test)

The last umbrellas   in the morning. (sell)

You   to arrive so late if you worked for me. (not allow)

The plan   in two days. (announce)

All the halls   at the moment. (paint)

What were we doing at 11 o'clock? We   . (interview)

After the window pane   someone smashed the window again. (replace)

Superlative Adjectives

1. Peter is   (intelligent) pupil of the school. 

2. The Grand Canyon is   (long) canyon in the world. 

3. But   (deep) is Hell's Canyon. 

4. John Wayne was   (famous) cowboy in Hollywood. 

5. Marie is   (tall) in the town. 

6. I am   (good) pupil in the class. 

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7. He is   (bad) pupil in the school. 

8. He is   (fast) boy in the world. 

9. This dog is   (nice) in the country. 

10. You are   (funny) boy in the world. 

Phrases and Clauses

Directions: circle the predicates; underline the subject; double underline the phrases.

Example: Waking up late for school, Mr. Morton raced to the shower.

a) Circle the predicate (raced). b) Underline the subject (Mr. Morton).

c) Double underline all phrases (Waking up late for school).

1. In between the old hills of Garfield Park, a tiny green leprechaun dances on March 17th

2. Wary of travelers, the tiny green leprechaun hides in trees, or under bridges, or in garbage cans.

3. While taking his homework out of his car, Mr. Morton heard a strange laugh coming from the park.

4. Mr. Morton put his stuff in the car and walked toward the park, feeling a little frightened by the fog.

5. A green fog, as thick as a Shamrock Shake, gathered over the baseball field.

6. From out of nowhere, the leprechaun appeared to Mr. Morton, giggling and doing an Irish dance.

7. Having never seen a leprechaun before, Mr. Morton was puzzled.

8. Mr. Morton and the leprechaun stared at each other and walked slowly in a circle.

9. Having always wanted gold teeth, Mr. Morton tried to catch the leprechaun.

10. The leprechaun, used to being chased, disappeared and then reappeared in a tree.

Grammar Appendix11. Shaking the tree violently, Morton imagined having a big gold

helmet, with gold horns on the side.

12. Gold coins rained down to the earth like tears from the heavens.

Adverb Clauses

1. Betty looks      something is wrong. A- only if B- even if C- as if D- so that. 

2. The people danced      the music played. A- like B- as C- unless D- in case. 

3. David goes swimming      his illness. A – even if B- in spite of C- though D- whereas. 

4.      I looked, I found fingerprints. A- until B- whereas C- because D- wherever. 

5. This region is called “land of apple”      it yields a lot of apples. A- Because B- although C- until D- only if 

6.      ploughing the field, the farmer uncovered a dinosaur bone. A- as though B- while C- until D- since. 

7. Lucy can’t attend the meeting      she finds a baby-sitter. A- Unless B- even if C- only if D- if. 

8.      the fire started blazing, the skewers were tilted toward the flames. A- so that B- as if C- such as D- as soon as. 

9.      pandas mostly eat bamboo, they are also carnivorous. A- not only B- until C- although D- as soon as. 

10. Seat belts were introduced      traffic fatalities would be reduced. A- as if B- then C- so that D- only if. 

11.      his parents disapprove, he said he won’t go to university. A- Even though B- until C- as if D- despite. 

12.      running, grizzly bears are capable of attaining a speed of 35 miles an hour. A- So that B- when they are C- so D- though

Reported Speech

Complete the sentences.

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Example: "I admire you." - She said she admired me.

"It is too late." - I said    .

"I have replied." - He claimed that    .

"I met you yesterday." - Sam told me    .

"I cannot come." - Mary explained that    .

"I could fall down." - He was afraid    .

"I will pay tomorrow." - He said    .

"The Himalayas are the highest." - He knew that    .

"I may lend you some money." - Bill promised    .

"I have been watching a film." - He replied that    .

"Claire must rest." - The doctor said    .

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"I have not done it today." - I explained that    .

"If I was younger, I would accept it." - He thought that    .

"I was with him last week." - Jill admitted that    .

"You needn't change your shoes in our house." - She reminded me that

 .

"I am calling my mum." - She said    .

"I will finish this picture tomorrow." - Diana supposed that    .

"I would buy it." - She said    .

"Greg used to be my friend." - He told us    .

Conditionals

Complete the Conditional Sentences with the correct form (Type I, II or III).

If I   stronger, I'd help you carry the piano.

If we'd seen you, we  .

If we   him tomorrow, we'll say hello.

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He would have repaired the car himself if he   the tools.

If you drop the vase, it .

If I hadn't studied, I   the exam.

I wouldn't go to school by bus if I   a driving license.

If she   him every day, she'd be lovesick.

I   to London if I don't get a cheap flight.

We'd be stupid if we   him about our secret.

Phrasal Verbs

Complete the sentences. Use each phrasal verb only once.

1. I cannot   his writing.

2. Please,   the page.

3. We cannot play football here. The sign says, “   the grass.”

4. She   and cried.

5. The boy was   by a nanny.

6. I can hardly concentrate. I could really   a holiday.

7. The Titanic collided with an iceberg and  .

8. Why don't you   singing? You have such a beautiful voice.

9. The strike was   by military units.

10. Would you like to   business in the United States?

Possessive Apostrophe

1.  The food delivered for all of the oxen was destroyed for fear of

contamination.

        The ________________ food was destroyed for fear of contamination.

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2. The spinach belonging to Popeye was stolen by Bluto.

         _________________ spinach was stolen by Bluto.

3.  The promises made by the politician were quickly forgotten after the

campaign

        The ______________________ promises were quickly forgotten after the

campaign.

4.  The owner of the green Ford also owns a pink Cadillac.

        The green _______________ owner also owns a pink Cadillac.

5.  The texture of the mashed potatoes was lumpy.

        The mashed __________________ texture was lumpy.

6.  The answer of the second contestant did not satisfy the judges.

         The second _____________________ answer did not satisfy the judges.

7.   The team forfeited the game because of the bad behavior of

several players.

        The team forfeited the game because of several _______________ bad

behaviors.

8.   After three days, the decision of the jury was handed to the judge.

         After three days, the _______________ decision was handed to the

judge.

9.   How much snow we will get is the guess of anybody.

         How much snow we will get is _________________ guess.

10.  The long speech given by the senator put us to sleep.

          The __________________ long speech put us to sleep.

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