grammar_review

I hope that the gramar tips I have written below will be useful to you, not only for

reading this book but also to use them in the future. Besides, at the end of this Grammar

Review, you will find a list of verbs that will also help you. GOOD LUCK!

1 Adjectives

1.1 Modifying adjectives

You use modifiers to increase or reduce the strength of gradeable

adjectives. Gradeable adjectives express qualities which exist in different strengths, e.g.

tall, dirty, angry. Here are some modifiers arranged roughly from weak to strong:

a bit/fairly rather/pretty really/very extremely/incredibly

“I thought the film was really good.” “Did you? I thought it was pretty

boring.”

Sue can be a bit annoying sometimes, but generally I like her.

I’m incredibly excited about our holiday!

You can make comparative adjectives stronger by using much and a lot.

My brother is much more artistic than I am.

You can make comparative adjectives weaker by using a bit and a little.

The weather is a bit colder than yesterday, isn’t it?

Spoken English

In spoken English, a bit, a little, pretty and really are particularly common.

1.2 Comparative and superlative adjectives

Here are some of the basic rules for forming comparative and superlative

adjectives.

One-syllable adjectives

adjective + -(e)r/-(e)st

large larger largest

hard harder hardest

fast faster fastest

Este material educativo es para uso exclusivo de los alumnos del Programa de Educación a Distancia del Liceo Naval “Almirante Guise”

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One-syllable adjectives ending in a vowel and a single consonant

adjective (double final consonant) + -er/-est

thin thinner thinnest

big bigger biggest

wet wetter wettest

Two-syllable adjectives ending in “y”

adjective (drop the y) + -ier/-iest

tidy tidier tidiest

happy happier happiest

pretty prettier prettiest

Two or more syllable adjectives

more/most + adjective

wonderful more wonderful most wonderful

honest more honest most honest

tiring more tiring most tiring

Irregular adjectives

Good better best

bad worse worst

little less least

far further furthest

old elder eldest (people only)

Notes

You can form some two-syllable adjectives using either -er/-est or

more/most, e.g. shallow, gentle, clever, tired.

Notice the way you use prepositions with superlatives. With places, you

use in and with people and things, you use of.

She is the cleverest girl in the class.

He is the shortest of the four boys.


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1.3 Adjective order

When you use more than one adjective before a noun, you have to put them in a

certain order. The rules are complicated but here is the most usual order.

1 opinion (lovely, nice, boring)

2 size/weight (huge, tiny, light)

3 age (ancient, young, brand-new)

4 shape (round, long, triangular)

5 colour (grey, blue, ivliite)

6 origin (German, Spanish, Greek)

7 material (plastic, leather, stone)

8 purpose (student hook, can opener, walking hoots)

I saw some lovely, old, gold earrings in a jeweller’s yesterday.

She's just bought a brand-new, red, sports car.

An archaeologist has recently discovered a collection of ancient

Greek, gold coins.

Note

You usually don't use more than three adjectives before a noun.

Spoken English

In spoken English we rarely use more than two adjectives before a noun. In

writing we might say:

I bought an expensive, black, leather jacket on Saturday.

In speaking, we are more likely to say:

I bought a black, leather jacket on Saturday. It was really expensive.

1.4 Adjectives ending in -ed and -ing

Many adjectives formed from the past participle (ed) (E.g. annoyed,

disappointed, interested, worried) describe a feeling or a state.

He was very frightened by the experience.

I am shocked by your attitude.


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Many adjectives formed from the present participle (ing) (e.g. amusing,

exciting, surprising, terrifying) describe the thing, experience or person which

produces the feeling.

It was a very frightening experience.

Your attitude is shocking.

1.5 Compound adjectives

Compound adjectives are made up of two parts. The second part can be:

a past participle (suntanned, old-fashioned, outspoken).

Helen looks very relaxed and suntanned after her holiday in Spain.

a present participle (easy-going, hard-working, outgoing).

You have to have an outgoing personality if you want to be a successful

salesperson.

a preposition (broken-down, well-off, worn-out).

Her family is very well-off and lives in a large house in a smart suburb.

Compound adjectives are usually written with a hyphen (-), but some can be

written as one word. There are no clear rules for writing them. If in doubt, look them up

in a dictionary.

2 Describing a sequence of events

You use tenses and a time expression (when, until, after, before, as soon as,

once, the moment etc) to describe a sequence of events.

a) When you talk about the past, you use the time expression + past simple or

past perfect simple. b) The past perfect simple emphasizes that one action was

completed before the other.

a) The moment I saw him, I felt very nervous.

b) After I had left university, I travelled round the world.

a) When you talk about the future, you use the time expression + present simple

or present perfect simple. b) The present perfect simple emphasizes that one action has

to be completed before the second action can take place.


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a) As soon as I get home, I’ll call you.

b) When you have had your lunch, we will start work.

3 Expressing wishes and regrets

You can use wish or if only + could or past simple/continuous to talk about something you would like to be different, but can't change. If only is stronger than wish.

I wish I’d studied harder at school.If only I could speak English fluently!

To talk about something you regret in the past, you can use: wish or if only + past perfect

I wish we had bought that sofa we saw in the sales.

should have + past participle

She should have told him the truth before he found out for himself.

4 Linking and contrasting ideas

You can contrast ideas in one sentence by using:

but

I didn't go to the party but Martin did.

Julia likes working there, but I don't.

although, though, even though. You use these at the beginning or in

the middle of a sentence. You use even though to contrast the ideas

more strongly.

Although he felt ill, he went to work.

He doesn’t drive, even though he has passed his driving test.

despite, in spite of. These words are prepositions, so you must use a

noun or an -ing form after them. You use the fact that to introduce a

clause.

Despite the fact that they arrived late, they enjoyed the

concert.


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They went to the beach in spite of the bad weather.

Whereas, while

While Stephen really enjoys listening to music, his brother

can't stand it.

Jennie loves living in the city, whereas her husband Simon

would prefer a home in the country.

You can contrast ideas in two sentences by using:

However, nevertheless. a) You use however at the beginning or at

the end of a sentence. b) You use nevertheless only at the

beginning of the sentence. Nevertheless is more formal.

a) I’ve never been to Canada. However, I’d like to go there

one day.

b) The staff in my company doesn’t get paid for overtime.

Nevertheless, it is common for employees to work after five

o’clock.

On the other hand

He didn’t want to go to the cinema with his friends. On the

other hand, he didn't want to stay at home.

5 Inversion

You use inversion in formal English, especially formal written English, for

emphasis. You use inversion after:


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If you read the WHOLE Grammar Review

carefully, you’ll succeed in solving the book!

Negative or restrictive adverbs or clauses (never, scarcely, rarely,

seldom, hardly ever, not until, no sooner, nowhere, under no

circumstances).

Restrictive expressions beginning with only (only when, only if,

only by).

When you use inversion, you use the same word order as in a question:

negative/restrictive expression + auxiliary + subject + verb.

Seldom did he leave the house after the accident.

Never before have I met such an interesting person.

Only by working hard will you succeed.

Note when you use when and than in sentences beginning with hardly and no

sooner.

Hardly had I left the house when I realized I had forgotten

something.

No sooner had he finished his first song than the crowd

started to boo.

6 Ellipsis

You can leave out words when it is not necessary to repeat them for the meaning

to be clear, and in other situations where you can understand the meaning without using

the words. This is called ellipsis. You use ellipsis:

In short tag answers beginning with so, neither, nor.

“I didn’t 'see Ann.” “Neither did I.”

“I’ve visited Rome.” “So have I.”

“I wouldn’t like to be here on my own.” “Nor would I”.

After an auxiliary or a modal. You can leave out the verb phrase. If

there is no auxiliary, you use do/does/did.

Pete enjoyed the film hut I didn't. (= but I didn’t enjoy the

film.)

Sarah and Luke are coming to the party, but Matt isn’t.

Stuart can’t swim, but his sister can.


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In short reply questions. You use a positive question after a positive

statement and a negative question after a negative statement.

“They play tennis nearly every day.” “Do they?”

“He hasn’t seen that film.” “Hasn’t he?”

In short answers.

“How old is he?” “25.”

“Have you seen that film?” “Not yet.”

In sentences where the verb would be repeated in the infinitive form.

You can leave out the infinitive and you use to.

I’ve never heard him sing, but I’d like to.

I never play basketball now, but I used to.

7 Modals

7.1 Obligation and necessity (must, have to, need)

Must

You use must + infinitive for strong obligations which express the authority of

the speaker. You use it for:

Rules or laws.

You must give in your homework by Friday.

For advice or recommendations.

You must take your medicine every three hours if you want to

get better for the weekend.

For obligations or necessities that the speaker imposes on him or

herself.

I must get up early tomorrow so I don’t miss my flight.

You use mustn’t to talk about something you are not allowed to do, or

something that is inadvisable.

You mustn’t wear jeans to work.

You mustn’t go out if you’re not feeling well enough.


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Note

You can only use must and mustn’t to talk about the present and

future. You use had to talk about the past.

Have to

You use have to + infinitive for strong obligations that express the

authority of a third person, rather than the speaker.

I have to work late tonight because my boss is away.

You have to go outside if you want to smoke that is the

company rule.

You use don’t have to to talk about a lack of obligation. (You can

also use needn’t and don’t need to, see below).

You don’t have to pick me up from the station- I’ll get a taxi.

You use had to for past obligations.

We had to wear a uniform when I was at school.

Note

You can use have got to instead of have to. It is informal, and more

common in British English.

Sorry, I’ve got to go now; I’m meeting Mark in half an hour.

Need, need to

You use need to + infinitive to talk about necessities, rather than

obligations. You need to get your hair cut.

Do we need to prepare food for the party, or shall we just

provide drinks?

You use don’t need to + infinitive or needn’t + infinitive to talk

about a lack of obligation or necessity.

You don’t need to/needn’t buy a sleeping bag for the holiday.

I will lend you one.

You use needn’t have + past participle to talk about an action in the

past that was unnecessary.


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We needn’t have arrived at the airport so early. We still had

to queue for three hours.

You use didn’t need to + infinitive to talk about an action in the past

that was unnecessary, without saying whether the person did it or not.

He didn’t need to fill in the form.

7.2 Certainty and speculation (must, may, might, could, can’t)

You use must or can’t + infinitive to say you are fairly certain about

something; you have some evidence to reach this conclusion.

You use must to indicate “positive” certainty (you are sure something is true)

and can’t to indicate “negative” certainty (you are sure something is not true).

You do not use mustn't or can to talk about certainty.

It must be five o'clock; everyone is beginning to leave. (People

usually leave at five; they’re leaving now, and therefore I

conclude that it’s five o’clock.)

She must he terribly unhappy.

That can’t be Sheila; she said she couldn’t come today.

You use may, might or could when you are speculating that something is

possible.

I don’t know where he is; he might be out to lunch.

I'm not sure whose pen this is but it could be Teresa’s.

You use a modal + have + past participle to express certainty or speculate

about the past.

It’s very late; he must have forgotten we were meeting.

He may have been delayed by the traffic.

He could have arranged another appointment.

You can also use the main verb in the continuous form:

(be + -ing or have been + -ing).


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He can’t be coming.

He might have been planning something different.

7.3 Ability (can, could)

To talk about general ability, you use can for the present and could for the past.

I can speak three languages.

He could swim when he was six years old.

To talk about an ability to do a specific thing in the past, you use was/were able

to or managed to, not could.

It took three hours, but in the end they managed to put out

the fire.

For other tenses, you use be able to.

He’s been able to ride since he was very young.

“Will you be able to copy this for me?

8 Gerunds (-ing forms)

Gerunds are nouns formed from verbs. You form them by adding -ing to the infinitive. You use the gerund:

As the subject of sentences.

Flying was his favourite hobby. As the object of sentences.

I’ve always enjoyed sailing.

After certain verbs and verb phrases. (See the list on p222.)

I couldn't help noticing you were pale.

After prepositions and combinations of adjective + preposition and verb + preposition.

On arriving at the airport, go straight to the transfer desk.

I'm interested in learning more about this subject.

I'm thinking of visiting Rome next month.

9 Present tenses


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9.1 Present Simple

Form

Affirmative Form: Only in the THIRD PERSON (he, she, it)

you MUST add an “s” to the verb

E:G: I eat an apple. He eats an apple.

Negative Form: Only in the THIRD PERSON (he, she, it)

you MUST add “es” to the auxiliary verb: Do

E:G: I don’t eat an apple. He doesn’t eat an apple.

Interrogative Form: Only in the THIRD PERSON (he, she, it)

you MUST add “es” to the auxiliary verb: Do

E:G: Do I eat an apple? Does he eat an apple?

Use

You use the present simple:

to talk about routines and habits. I go to the theatre about once a month.

to talk about facts. Light travels at about 186 000 miles a second.

to talk about permanent situations. My father runs his own business from

home.

You often use adverbs of frequency with the present simple (e.g. never,

rarely, seldom, sometimes, occasionally, usually, frequently, often, always).

Adverbs of frequency usually go before the main verb and after the verb to be.

Longer adverbial expressions usually go at the end of the sentence.

I often go to the cinema.

I am rarely late for work.

The committee meets once a month.

Spoken English

The present simple is often used in spoken English:

to give instructions and directions.


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“First you boil some water in a saucepan; then you add the powder ..”

“You go straight on and keep on going till you come to the traffic

lights; then you turn left.”

to tell stories or jokes.

“Anyway, I look for my car keys for an hour, but I can’t find

them. So I walk home, which takes me another hour- and what do I

find when I get home? My keys are in my pocket, they’ve been there

all the time!”

to comment on events, such as sports events.

“Becher passes to Kidd, who manages to get past March ...and he

scores!”

9.2 Present Continuous

Form

is/are + present participle

Use

You use the present continuous to talk about:

actions that are happening now or around now.

“What are you doing?” “I’m trying to fix the door.”

I’m working very hard at the moment, so I won’t be able to see you

until next week.

temporary actions or situations.

We’re living in a caravan at the moment while our new house is being

redecorated.

changes and developments.

The weather is getting cold again, isn’t it?

Your English is improving all the time.

Spoken English


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In spoken English we use the present continuous to talk about something

that happens often and is usually unplanned or irritating (with always).

It’s always raining in this country.

My boyfriend is always buying me surprise presents.

9.3 Present perfect simple

Form

has/have + past participle

Use

The present perfect connects past actions or situations to the present in

some way. You use the present perfect simple to talk about:

Actions or situations that began in the past and continue in the

present. A past time reference must be included (often with for and

since).

I've lived in this house for twenty years.

I've lived in tins house since 1978.

Finished actions or situations that happened in unfinished time (often

with time expressions, e.g. today, this week, this year and words

like already).

I’ve already had six cups of coffee today, and it’s only

lunchtime!

Finished actions or events that happened at some unspecified time in

the past. It is the experience that is important, so we are not interested

in when the action happened.

I’ve been to most countries in Europe, but I’ve never visited

Spain.

Finished actions or situations (often from the recent past) that have a

result in the present, or a relevance to the present (often with just).

I’ve just spilt some coffee on the rug. Could you get me a

cleaning, cloth from the kitchen?


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Recent news, when the exact time of the event is not mentioned.

Compare with the past simple :

The government have announced new laws to try to reduce

the crime rate.

Last night, the government announced new laws to try to

reduce the crime rate.

Note

In American English the past simple is usually used where the present

perfect is used by British English speakers.

“Did you ever see Star Wars?” “Yes, I saw it twice.” (American English)

“Have you ever seen Star Wars?” “Yes, I’ve seen it twice.” (British English)

Spoken English

In spoken English the present perfect is often shortened.

“Been to England?” (= “Have you been to England?”)

“Done that!” (= “I’ve done that!”)

9.4 Present perfect continuous

form

has/have + been + present participle

Use

You use the present perfect continuous:

To talk about actions or situations that began in the past and continue

in the present. Used in this sense, the present perfect continuous is

very similar to the present perfect simple. However, because the

present perfect continuous emphasizes the continuity and duration of

the action, it tends to be more common. For example:

I have been working for Heinemann since 1995.

is more common than:

I have worked for Heinemann since 1995.

Remember that certain verbs are not usually found in continuous

tenses (see p 220) and some verbs do not suggest duration, and are


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therefore usually only found with the present perfect simple, e.g. decide,

finish, stop.

To indicate that an action is unfinished. Compare:

I’ve been reading that book you lent me.

I’ve read that book you lent me.

To suggest that an action or situation is temporary.

She’s been cycling to work recently because her car broke

down.

To talk about a recent action (that may or may not be finished) that

has a result in the present.

I’ve been digging the garden — that’s why my boots are

covered in mud.

10 Past Tenses

10.1 Past simple

Use

You use the past simple to talk about:

events or actions in the past.

Our teacher came into class late yesterday.

habits in the past.

When I lived in Spain, I went to the beach every weekend.

situations in the past.

I lived in England for twenty years.

Remember that you use the past simple for actions and events in the past

that are finished, and happened at a specific time or over a specific period of

time. The past time reference must be included or must be clear from the

context.


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I know, this is a bit boring for you but it is very USEFUL for

you!

Here are some of the adverbs and time expressions you can use with the

past simple:

all night, at six o’clock, between 1992 and 1995, for ten years, in 1945, last

Spring, recently, this morning, yesterday

10.2 Past continuous

Form

was/were + present participle

Use

You use the past continuous:

to talk about actions in progress around a specific time in the past.

I was studying for my exams this time last year.

to talk about an action that was in progress when another action

happened. The second action is in the past simple. You join the parts

of the sentence together with when or while.

While I was shopping in the supermarket, I met my old boss.

I was shopping in the supermarket when I met my old boss.

to talk about two or more actions in progress at the same time in the

past.

I was watching TV while my husband was doing the washing-up.

to give background information when telling a story.

It was snowing outside as people arrived for the party.

Spoken English

The past continuous is often used:

with reporting verbs.


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“Brice was just telling me about his new job, it sounds great.”

to introduce what you are going to say.

“I was just thinking ... Wouldn’t it be nice if we could buy a new

car?”

to express a future intention that may or may not be fulfilled.

“I was thinking of going to the cinema tonight. Do you want to

come?”

10.3 Past Perfect Simple

Form

had + past participle

Use

You use the past perfect simple:

To talk about an action or event in the past that happened before

another action in the past. The second action is in the past simple.

Julie had eaten her lunch by the time I arrived at the house.

To talk about an action or event in the past that happened before a

definite time in the past.

I had never been to France until this year.

To give a reason for a past event or action.

He arrived late because he had missed the bus.

10.4 Past perfect continuous

Form


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had + been + present participle

Use

You use the past perfect continuous for an action in the past that was in

progress up to or near a specified time in the past. Using the continuous form of

the past perfect emphasizes the continuity or duration of the action. You often

use it with for and since.

It had been snowing all night and everything in the garden

was white.

I had been working for the firm for five years before I got a

promotion.

11 Relative clauses

Defining relative clauses

Form

subject object possessiveperson who (that) (that, who, whom) whose

thing that (which) (that, which) whose (of which)

The pronouns in brackets are less common. No commas are used before and

after the relative clause.

You can often leave out the relative pronoun when it refers to the

object of the sentence, particularly in informal language.

The woman (who/that) he married was tall and beautiful.

Use

You use a defining relative clause to identify or “define” the subject or

object of the sentence. (The information is essential to the meaning of the

sentence.)

Students who pass the exam will be given a certificate.

That’s the man whose car was stolen.


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Non-defining relative clauses

Form

subject object possessiveperson who who, whom whose

thing which which whose (of winch)

You cannot use that in non-defining relative clauses. Commas are

used before and after the relative clause.

Use

You use a non-defining relative clause to give extra, non-essential

information about the subject or object of the sentence.

Mr. Brown, who lives next door, is a talented artist.

The play at the Lyric Theatre, which is now sold out, has been

getting wonderful reviews.

In non-defining relative clauses, you can use which to refer to the whole

clause before.

Most of the class passed the exam, which made the teacher

very proud.

Notes

You can also use when, where and why as relative pronouns to refer

to a time, a place or a reason. You can leave out when and why in

defining relative clauses, but not in non-defining relative clauses .

Saturday is the day (when) most people do their shopping.

I try to leave work at six, when the rush hour is over.

The same relative clause can give the sentence two different meanings,

depending on whether it has commas (non-defining) or hasn’t (defining).

Compare:

All my friends, who like sport, play basketball. (All my friends

play basketball.)


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All my friends who like sport play basketball. (Only some of

my friends play basketball.)

Spoken English

In spoken English, non-defining relative clauses are not as common as

they are in written English, because they sound very formal. It is more usual to

use shorter sentences. Compare:

I met Jackie Sutton, who is the new teacher at our school, at a

party last night. (Written English)

I met Jackie Sutton at a party last night. She’s the new

teacher at our school. (Spoken English)

12 Word formation

You can use prefixes and suffixes to make different word-types.

Prefixes

You can use a prefix to give an adjective the opposite meaning:

disagreeable, illegal, impossible, inactive, irregular, unlikely

You can use a prefix to give a verb the opposite meaning:

disagree, misunderstand, untie

You can also use other prefixes with verbs:

reheat, reread (re- = do again)

oversleep, overcook (over- = too much)

underestimate, undercook (under- = too little)

Suffixes

You can use a verb + suffix to make nouns:

teacher, manager, dishwasher, pencil sharpener, actor (-er, -or =

the person or thing that does an action)

action, collection, persuasion


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excitement, enjoyment, employment

attendance, appearance

You can use a noun + suffix to make abstract nouns:

friendship, membership, relationship

childhood, brotherhood

You can use an adjective + suffix to make abstract nouns:

happiness, goodness, sadness, carelessness

You can use a verb + suffix to make adjectives:

interested, shocked, married

boring, encouraging, frightening

drinkable, washable, countable

flexible

forgetful, helpful

You can use a noun + suffix to make adjectives:

careful, tactful

childless, cloudless

professional, national

hopeless, useless

13 Nouns

13.1 Collective nouns

Singular nouns that refer to groups of people can be used with either

singular or plural verbs and pronouns. You often use plural forms when you talk

about the group as a collection of individuals doing something together (the

relative pronoun is who). You often use singular forms when you talk about the

group in an impersonal way (the relative pronoun is which).

Our football team have worked really hard this season.

The team which wins the championship will represent the

country abroad.

The average family goes to the supermarket once a week.


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The family next door to us have decided to emigrate to

Australia.

Here are some of the most common collective nouns:

class, club, committee, enemy, family, government, jury, party, public,

school, staff, team

13.2 Countable and uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are separate things, people and ideas that can be

counted. They have a singular and plural form and are used with words such as

the, a, several, many, a few and numbers.

Uncountable nouns are things which are thought of as “masses” and not

as separate objects. They usually don’t have a plural form and are used with

words such as some, much, a little. You can’t use numbers with them.

These words are usually uncountable:

advice, anger, beauty, bread, English (and all languages), food, health, help,

information, love, luggage, music, news, paper, rain, sleep, traffic, travel,

weather, work.

Some nouns can be countable or uncountable, depending on how they are

used. Some nouns are countable if you talk about the thing and uncountable if

you talk about the substance or material.

Last weekend I visited a factory that makes glass. It was

really interesting.

Could you put six wine glasses on the table, please?

Abstract nouns are countable if you talk about something particular and

uncountable it you talk about something more generally.

I had a fantastic time at your party last week.

Mr Brown is very busy this morning, but he’ll have time to

talk to you this afternoon.

Note


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When words for drinks are used as countable nouns, you often miss out the

quantifying words.

Would yon like a (bottle/glass of) beer?

Let’s stop for a (cup of) coffee and plan what to do next.

14 Verbs

14.1 Stative and dynamic verbs

Most verbs describe actions or events. These are “dynamic” verbs. You

can use these verbs in either simple or continuous tenses. Some verbs describe

states, not actions. These are “stative” verbs. You cannot use these verbs in the

continuous tenses. Here are some common stative verbs:

Be, believe, belong, cost, exist, hate, hear, imagine, know, like, love,

mean, need, own, prefer, realize, remember, seem, sound, understand,

want, wish.

Some verbs have two meanings: one meaning describes an action or

event, and the other meaning describes a state. When the meaning of the verb is

“dynamic” you can use either the simple or continuous tense. When the meaning

is “stative” you can only use the simple tense. Here are some verbs which have

both stative and dynamic meanings:

have

He has three cars. (stative meaning = own, possess)

He’s having a bath. (action)

think

I think you’re right. (stative meaning = have an opinion)

What are you thinking about? (action of thinking)

see

I see. You aren’t interested. (stative meaning = understand)

I’m seeing him next week. (dynamic meaning = meeting)


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look

It looks as if the situation is getting worse. (stative meaning =

seem)

What are you looking at? (action)

depend

It all depends on what he says. (stative meaning = is decided

by)

I’m depending on you to do the right thing. (dynamic

meaning = relying)

smell

This rose smells wonderful. (state)

I’m smelling this new perfume to see if it is suitable. (action)

taste

Lemons taste sour. (state)

I’m tasting the soup to see if it’s salty enough. (action)

14.2 Used to/would + infinitive

Form

subject + used to/would + infinitive

Note the negative and question form of used to:

subject + didn’t + use to + infinitive

did + subject + use to + infinitive

Use

You use used to + infinitive to talk about past habits that are now

finished, repeated actions in the past or past situations which no longer exist.

I used to play ice hockey, but I don’t anymore.


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We used to live in an apartment in the city centre.

I always used to get up at seven o 'clock.

You also use used to to talk about actions and states which did not

happen or exist before, but do now.

I didn’t use to watch football. (But I do now.)

He didn’t use to be so helpful. (But now he is.)

Note

You do not use used to and a time period. When you say how long, you

use the past simple.

When I was a child, we lived in London for five years.

You can use would + infinitive to talk about repeated actions in the past.

You cannot use would + infinitive to talk about past states or situations.

When we were children, our father would read us stories

every evening.

We would always go to the beach for our holidays in the

summer.

14.3 Be/get used to + -ing

Form

be/get + used to + -ing

Use

You use to be used to -ing something to mean to be accustomed to -ing

it. You use to get used to -ing something to mean to become accustomed to it,

often something which at first was unusual or strange for you.

At the interview, he said he wasn’t used to working in a

team, but he’d try to get used to it.

I’m used to driving on the left, so I find driving in Greece

quite stressful.


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At the start of the new school year, everyone has to get used

to being at school again after the holidays.

I’m getting used to my new job now; it hasn’t taken long at

all.

14.4 Verbs followed by infinitive (with/without ) or -ing form (gerund)

You use different patterns after different verbs; it is a good idea to learn

these combinations together. Some verbs have more than one possible pattern.

Verbs followed by infinitive with to

agree, arrange, attempt, begin, choose, decide, expect, help, hope,

intend, learn, manage, offer, pretend, promise, refuse

We arranged to meet at the station.

He always pretends to be interested, but I know he isn’t.

Verbs followed an object + infinitive with to

advise, allow, ask, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, help, invite,

oblige, permit, persuade, prefer, recommend, remind, tell, want, warn

My parents always encouraged me to work, as hard as I

could.

I would prefer you to stay here.

Note

When you use not, it goes before to + infinitive.

He told the children not to throw stones.

Verbs and expressions followed by infinitive without to

modal verbs, auxiliary verbs, would sooner, would rather, had better

You really should visit your grandmother more often.

Would you rather stay in or go out this afternoon?

I think you’d better apologize, hadn’t you?

Verbs followed by an object + infinitive without to

let, make, know, feel, help


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They didn’t let me forget my promise.

She helped me carry my bags.

Note

If you use these verbs in the passive, they take the infinitive with to.

He was made to do his homework.

Verbs followed by -ing form

avoid, admit, can’t stand, can’t help, consider, like, finish, forgive,

give up, involve, mention, practise, suggest

He admitted stealing the money.

I’m going to give up eating chocolate.

Verbs followed by -ing form or infinitive:

With no change of meaning, (e.g. begin, continue, start).

He continued to study throughout his life.

He continued studying throughout his life.

With little change of meaning (e.g. hate, like, love, prefer).

With these verbs, you usually use the -ing form to refer to a situation in

general and you use the infinitive to refer to a more specific situation. The

difference in meaning is very small.

I don’t usually like getting up early but when I’m on holiday I

like to get up at sunrise.

Note

Would like etc must be followed by the infinitive.

With a change of meaning.

forget/remember + -ing = to remember (or forget) the moment when you did

something.

I’ll never forget meeting him for the first time.

forget/remember + infinitive with to = to remember (or forget) something

you have to do


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Did you remember to post the letter?

regret + -ing = to be sorry about something you did (or didn't do)

I regret not going to her party.

regret + infinitive with to = to be sorry about something you are going to

do/say etc

We regret to tell you your application has not been successful.

stop + -ing = to stop an action

I must stop losing things.

stop + infinitive with to = to stop an action in order to do something else

They stopped to have lunch in a country pub and then

walked another five miles.

try + -ing = to experiment, perhaps as a way of solving a problem

Why don’t you try getting up earlier?

try + infinitive with to = to make an attempt to do something which is possibly

difficult

I tried to learn all the vocabulary, but 1 couldn’t.

mean + -ing = to involve

Will your new job mean moving to London?

mean + infinitive with to = to intend

What do you mean to do when you finish the course?

Verbs of perception

After verbs such as feel, hear, notice, see, watch, you use the -ing form

to emphasize the progress of the action. You use the infinitive (without to) to

suggest completion of the action.

I saw him running along the road. (= When I saw him, he was

running.)

I saw him win the race. (= I saw how he won the race.)

I watched everyone leave the stadium.

15 Prepositions

It is useful to learn combinations of verb/noun/adjective + preposition together.

Sometimes you use a different preposition for different meanings, and sometimes


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different prepositions have similar meanings. If you use a preposition followed by a

verb, you use the -ing form (see p 211).

Verb + preposition

accuse of

agree about/on/to/with

apologize for/to

arrive at/in

ask for

believe in

belong to

borrow from

care about/for

charge with

congratulate on

cover with

crash into

depend on

die of

divide into

dream about/of

dress in

drive into

explain to

fill with

hope for

insist on

laugh about/at

learn about/of/to

listen to

look after/at/for/forward to

meet at/with

participate in

pay for

prevent from

rely on

remind about/of

refer to

search for

send to

share with

shout at/to

smile at

speak to/with

succeed at/in

suffer from

swap with

take part in

talk about/to/with

tell to/about

think about/of

throw at/to

travel in/to/with

tremble with

warn about

worry about

write to


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Adjective + preposition

accustomed to

afraid of

angry about/with

anxious about/for

bad at

bored with

capable of

clever at

committed to

connected to

dependent on

different from/to

disappointed about/at/with

excited about

fond of

full of

independent of

infected with

interested in

kind to

near to

nice to

pleased with

polite to

prepared for

proud of

reliant on

responsible for

rude to

scared of

shocked at

similar to

skilful at

sorry about

successful at/in

surprised at

tired of

typical of

worried about

wrong

about

Noun + preposition

addiction to

admiration for

agreement about/on

anger at

answer to

attack on

ban on

comment on

connection with

contrast with

control over

crime against

cure for

damage to

decision about/on

demand for

desire for

difficulty in/with

discussion about/on

dislike of

effect of/on

escape from

exception to

expert in

idea of

interest in

influence on

introduction to

involvement with

lack of

link with

love for

loyalty towards

marriage to

need for

quarrel with

reason for

relationship with

reply to

respect for

responsibility for

return to

satisfaction with

search for

skill at

solution to

success at/in

sympathy for

thought of

threat of


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