Grammaticalization Change a word or phrase expressing: Ability (be able, capable, know how, can) into grammar expressing: Permissive (allowed, may). This may simplify pronunciation, and may preserve or remove the original usage. Examples:English can> permissive, similarly German kann > permissive, Middle Chinese de> permissive. Grammaticalization Change a word or phrase expressing: Ability (be able, capable, knows how, can) into grammar expressing: Possibility (could be, might). This may simplify pronunciation, and may preserve or remove the original usage. Examples: German kann, Middle Chinese deGrammaticalization Change a word or phrase expressing: Ablative (from, coming from) into grammar expressing: Agent (by). This may simplify pronunciation, and may preserve or remove the original usage. Examples: German von, Bulgarian otGrammaticalization Change a word or phrase expressing: Ablative (from, coming from) into grammar expressing: Comparative (than, compared to). This may simplify pronunciation, and may preserve or remove the original usage. Examples: Tibetan nas, Bulgarian ot; these words for fromcame to be used with a comparative (smaller, older) or, in Tibetan, a describing noun (such as chun-ba, small one) to introduce the thing an object is being compared to. Grammaticalization Change a word or phrase expressing: Ablative (from, coming from) into grammar expressing: Material ([made] from, of, out of). This may simplify pronunciation, and may preserve or remove the original usage. Examples: Bulgarian ot, English from. In some languages a verb like madewill be necessary, in others the meaning stands on its own. Grammaticalization Change a word or phrase expressing: Ablative (from, coming from) into grammar expressing: Partitive (of/ bit of, a few, a piece of). This may simplify pronunciation, and may preserve or remove the original usage. Examples: German von, Bulgarian ot. In many languages the ablative first develops use for possession, then partitive. Grammaticalization Change a word or phrase expressing: Ablative (from, coming from) into grammar expressing: Near Past (come from, just). This may simplify pronunciation, and may preserve or remove the original usage.Examples: French viens de, Pitta-Pitta ablative suffix inya. An affected verb may be habitually used in present tense, or past; or no verb may be necessary. Grammaticalization Change a word or phrase expressing: Ablative (from, coming from) into grammar expressing: A-Possessive (of). This may simplify pronunciation, and may preserve or remove the original usage.Examples: German von, Hawaiian no. Note, Hawaiian no Kimo‚Kimo’s‛ requires a verb, like ‚the house is Kimo’s‛ rather than simply ‚Kimo’s house‛.Grammaticalization Change a word or phrase expressing: Ablative (from, coming from) into grammar expressing: Since (ever since, from that time). This may simplify pronunciation, and may preserve or remove the original usage.Examples: Romanian de, Persian az, Polish od.
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ability (be able, capable,know how, can)
into grammar expressing:Permissive (allowed, may).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:English can > permissive,similarly German kann > permissive,Middle Chinese de > permissive.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ability (be able, capable,knows how, can)
into grammar expressing:Possibility (could be, might).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: German kann , Middle Chinesede
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ablative (from, comingfrom)
into grammar expressing:Agent (by).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: German von , Bulgarian ot
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ablative (from, comingfrom)
into grammar expressing:Comparative (than,compared to).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Tibetan nas , Bulgarian ot ;these words for from came to be usedwith a comparative (smaller, older) or,in Tibetan, a describing noun (such as
chun-ba , small one) to introduce thething an object is being compared to.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ablative (from, comingfrom)
into grammar expressing:Material ([made] from, of,out of).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Bulgarian ot , English from . Insome languages a verb like made will benecessary, in others the meaning standson its own.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ablative (from, comingfrom)
into grammar expressing:Partitive (of/ bit of, a few, apiece of).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: German von , Bulgarian ot . Imany languages the ablative firstdevelops use for possession, thenpartitive.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ablative (from, comingfrom)
into grammar expressing:Near Past (come from, just).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: French viens de , Pitta-Pittaablative suffix inya . An affected verbmay be habitually used in presenttense, or past; or no verb may benecessary.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ablative (from, comingfrom)
into grammar expressing:A-Possessive (of).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: German von , Hawaiian no .Note, Hawaiian no Kimo ‚Kimo’s‛requires a verb, like ‚the house isKimo’s‛ rather than simply ‚Kimo’shouse‛.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ablative (from, comingfrom)
into grammar expressing:Since (ever since, from thattime).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Romanian de , Persian az ,Polish od .
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English y’all , Wankumarabuka (word meaning all which is usedto mark words plural)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:All
into grammar expressing:Superlative (best, worst,most, of all)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Latvian viss (all) becamesuperlative prefix vis- , Estonian koik (all)became a superlative marker used like ‚ofall‛, Hamer wul-na (to all) used with anadjective (such as sana (fast)) expressessuperlative (wul-na sana , fast to all,fastest).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Allative (Locative) (to, overto; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:Complementizer (to [dosomething]).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English to , originally allativecomplementizes as in I want to ask yosomething . French à descends from Laad (to). This process may generally folAllative > Purpose > Infinitive >Complementizer.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Allative (Locative) (to, overto; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:Dative (to, give to; indirectobject).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English preposition to , Tamilsuffix -itam , Lezgian suffix-z (allative > benefactive / malefactive(person action benefits/hurts) > dative).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Allative (Locative) (to, overto; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:Patient (object orexperiencer).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Imonda -m, Lezgian -z .
The patient may or may not be theobject of a sentence.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Allative (Locative) (to, overto; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:Purpose (to, for, for to).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English to , Albanian për .Purposives might take noun phrases (English for ), or phrases (like to ).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Allative (Locative) (to, overto; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:Temporal (on, during).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: German zu (zumWochenende , on the weekend),Albanian për .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Allative (Locative) (to, overto; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:Until (during the wholeperiod before something).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: German bei zu (with to) >bis (until), Old Norse til (goal) >English till , Russian do (‘to’ > ‘until’).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Alone (without company)
into grammar expressing:Only (nothing else, merely,
just).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: German allein , Swahili peke
Change a word or phrase expressing:Also (Focus) (too)
into grammar expressing:NP-And (‘and’ used on nounphrases).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Cayuga hni , Kxoe tama-xa .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:VP-And (‘and’ used with
verbs)into grammar expressing:
Subordinator (if, as soon as,because of)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Mingrelian da (and) became da (if); Mingrelian do (and) became do (assoon as), !Xun ta (and) became ta (because of).
Many subordinators are possible.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Anticausative (non-actor likeit in ‚it is Sunday‛, ‚Whattime is it?‛)
into grammar expressing:Passive (like get – ed in‚you’ll get reviewed‛; leavesout subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: !Xun /’é (body) > reflexive (self) > anticausative > passive marker,acting as the object (literally, ‘the watedrank it’ > ‘the water got drunk’).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Area (region)
into grammar expressing:Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Imonda la (area) > locativeadverbial suffix -la , Kpelle pele (alsobecame suffix).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Arrive (arrive at, reach)
into grammar expressing:Ability (be able, capable,know how, can).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Koranko ke (verb takes newsentence), Mandarin dào (suffix on verbof action makes verb of capability).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Arrive (arrive at, reach)
into grammar expressing:Allative (Locative) (to, overto; direction toward).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Chinese dào , which can be
verb (arrive), can act as a preposition(to) with a second verb. Zande verb d(reach, arrive) > preposition da (to, asas, until).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Arrive (arrive at, reach)
into grammar expressing:Succeed (manage to)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Mandarin dào (suffix onverb of action makes verb of success).Lahu gà , as a particle after the mainverb, turned from meaning ‚reach‛ to‚manage to do‛. (Not sure if tookanother noun for thingreached/managed, or altered verb.)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Arrive (arrive at, reach)
into grammar expressing:Until (during the wholeperiod before something).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.
Examples: Khmer verb d ɔ l (arrive)became an adverbial subordinator(meaning ‘until’), Zande verb da (arrive) > preposition da (as far as,until).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.
Examples: Thai noun l ŋ(back) >
adverbial subordinator l ŋ-càag (literally, ‘back from’, but meaning
Change a word or phrase expressing:Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Icelandic bak (back) > að bak (to the back of, behind) > bak (behind),Tzotzil noun pat (back, bark, shell) >locative marker pat (behind, outside).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:Cause (because of, since)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Only African examples are
known. Moré noun p ōré (back) >
postposition p ōré (makes noun into adj
meaning ‘after _’) > postposition p ōré (causal). Wolof ginnaaw (back, body partnoun) > subordinatingconjunction ginnaaw (causal ‘since’).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:Earlier (prior, before, ago).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English back , e.g. ‚five yearsback‛, Nanay xamasi, Estonian tagasi , many others evolved identically.
These expressions might be relative tothe sentence’s main tense, or the timeutterance.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:Then (afterward, after _).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Kikuyu thutha (back) > advtaking optional noun phrase, Egyptianr-s3 (toward the back of) > temporalsubordinator r-s3 (after).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:Up (over, on top of, above).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Mixtec si-ki (animal-back) > si- ki (over), Susu noun fari (back, surface) >postposition fari (on, over, above).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Bad (terrible)
into grammar expressing:Intensifier (very, extremely).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English adjectives bad, meastupid, adverbs aweful, awefully , Germadverb furchtbar (terrible) , Baka nounsiti (evil, malice) > adverb siti (very, ve
well).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Beat (beat, hit, strike)
into grammar expressing:Pro-Verb (make, do, act;
verb making their objectinto an action).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Approximate English ‚strikeup conversation‛, ‚hit the bar‛. Swahiliku-piga (beat, hit) > ku-piga (make).Ewe fo : fo da , literally ‚beat hair‛, > ‚plait hair‛; fo nu , ‚beat mouth‛, >‚speak‛.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Begin (start)
into grammar expressing:First (numeral).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Swahili verb (infinitive) ku- anza (begin) > adj. -a kwanza (thefirst).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Begin (start)
into grammar expressing:First (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Swahili verb (infinitive) ku-anza (begin) > adverb kwanza (first).Approximate English begin with,beginning in certain contexts.
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Lingala -banda (start) >ingressive auxiliary -banda .
The distinction is grammatical; theabstraction Begin represents anordinary verb. Inceptive can be ahelping verb or other structure.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Behind (Locative)
into grammar expressing:After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Lezgian guguna ‘behind’ >
guguniz ‘after’, Udmurtberyn ‘behind’ > bere ‘after’, manysimilar.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Belly (stomach)
into grammar expressing:In (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Atoli noun ii (belly) >preposition ii (in, into, at the time of)Albanian noun bark (belly) > noun ba(interior).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Benefactive (for, for thegood of)
into grammar expressing:Dative (to, give to; indirectobject).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Ewe na (give) can appear asan extra verb in a sentence tointroduce a person benefitting, but hasalso developed a pure dative use.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Benefactive (for, for thegood of)
into grammar expressing:A-Possessive (of).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Arabic preposition li- (benefactive) > li-/l-, genitive case (usedlike English ‚’s ‛).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Benefactive (for, for thegood of)
into grammar expressing:Purpose (for, to, for to).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English for , Bulgarian za (adjective; eg, ‚milk for the children‛ >‚milk for drinking‛).
The Purpose phrase resulting from th
grammaticalization might behave like adjective, adverb, or both.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Body
into grammar expressing:Reflexive (yourself, oneself) orIntensive-Reflexive (Focus) (one’sown self).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Vai buu wa (body itself) >buu wa (emphatic reflexive), Ibibioidem (body) > reflexive or emphaticreflexive, Moru ru (body) > refl.,emphat. refl, or reciprocal marker(reciprocal meaning ‚each other‛).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Bottom (lower part, bottomside, underside)
into grammar expressing:Down (under, below,beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Kpelle relational noun mu (bottom side) > postposition mu(under), Kwami noun tilli (bottom) >adverb tilli (below).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Body
into grammar expressing:Reciprocal (each other).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Yoruba ara (body) > ara (seeach other), Moru ru (body) > ru (self
very self, each other), Bura dza (body)dzi- (self, each other, antipassive – antipassive lets Bura speakers leave outhe sentence’s object).
Change a word or phrase expressing:Boundary (border)
into grammar expressing:Until (during the wholeperiod before something).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Swahili noun m-paka (boundary) > preposition mpaka(until). All known examples areAfrican, and take nouns (English untilcan subordinate a clause).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Bowels (guts, intestines)
into grammar expressing:In (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Namakaru noun napyalau (bowel) > preposition napyalau (in),Hungarian noun bel (intestines, interiororgan) > prefix bel- (inside).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Branch (twig, bough)
into grammar expressing:Classifier (most similar tohead [of cattle], grains [ofrice]).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Ulithian noun se-raa (branc> classifier se-raa (bough, tree cuttingpart of a magic formula). Classifiers almass nouns (eg, English water ) to beaddressed in units, counted, madesingular/plural, etc.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Breast (chest, front of torso)
into grammar expressing:Front (Locative) (in front of,near).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Welsh ger bron (near breast)> ger bron (in front of, near).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Buttocks (body part)
into grammar expressing:Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Dogon noun bolo (buttock) >adverb bolo (behind), Tzotzil nounchak(il) (buttock) > locative markerchak(il) (behind [an animal]).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Buttocks
into grammar expressing:Down (under, below,bottom).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Shuswap noun ep (buttockssuffix -ep (bottom of), Bambara nouns(buttocks) + koro (basis, ground) >postpositional adverb jukoro (under,below).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Center (middle)
into grammar expressing:Between (in the middle,amidst).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Albanian noun midis (center) > preposition midis (between)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Center (middle)
into grammar expressing:In (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Lingala ntei (middle) >preposition ntei (in), Dullay kitte (ofthe middle) > kittace (between, within).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Change-of-state (become,turn into, wax)
into grammar expressing:Copula (is/are, is one, is[something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Ngalakan verbalizing suffixmen (become) > verb -men (was; ‘be’ imperfect past).
Change a word or phrase expressing:Change-of-state (become,turn into, wax)
into grammar expressing:Future Tense (will, going to,shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: German verb werden (tobecome) > future tense auxiliarywerden .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Child (kid, baby, son,daughter)
into grammar expressing:Classifier (most similar to head [ofcattle], grains [of rice]).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Vietnamese con (child) >classifier for moving living things. Kilivilanoun gwadi > gudi , classifier for younghumans. Classifiers allow mass nouns (eg,English water ) to be addressed in units,counted, made singular/plural, etc.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Child (kid, baby, son,daughter)
into grammar expressing:Diminutive (little).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Awtuw noun yœn (child) >suffix - yœn (young [with animal], sma[with tool]), Chinese ER (child, son) >ER (diminutive suffix), Lingala nounmwana (child) > particle mwa (little).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Child (kid, baby, son,daughter)
into grammar expressing:Partitive (of, a bit of, a few,a piece of).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Ewe sukli (sugar) + vi (child)> suklivi (piece of sugar, sugar cube).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Children
into grammar expressing:Plural (more than one).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Ik noun wik (children) > pluralnoun suffix -ik, Boni noun ijaal (smallchildren) > animate noun plural suffix - ijaal. (most animate nouns in Boni arekinship terms.)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Circle (ring, disc)
into grammar expressing:Around (Locative) (near,circling).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English circling , around ,German Ring (ring) > rings (around),Latin in gyru (in a circle) > Basque noingiru (vicinity).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come (move to/toward)
into grammar expressing:Consecutive (and then, now,
next; narrative marker).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Kxoe noun yaa (come) >particle yaa/ya (new event, payattention), Goldie verb yi (come) >particle yi . Approximate English comeand , as in ‚then he come and huggedher‛.Note then still appears; this iscommon in other languages too.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come (move to/toward)
into grammar expressing:Continuous (during some
whole period of time;progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Spanish verb venir (come) +present participle > progressive marker,Tater gerund + kil (come) >progressive.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come (move to/toward)
into grammar expressing:Hortative (hey, well, now,
come on).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: German verb komm (come!komm … ! (solidarity imperative; do … the rest of us), English come on (comforward) > come on! (imperative to puforth effort or cooperate). Somehortatives make commands more politsome strengthen them, some mark the
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come (move to/toward)
into grammar expressing:Venitive (hither, in thisdirection).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Fijian mai (come) > ventitivemarker mai (hither, in this direction),Aranda verb intye (come) > verbalsuffix -intye (do the verb’s action whilecoming), Haitian verb vini (come) >vini (here, toward here), English come > Tok Pisin -kam (-ward).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come From
into grammar expressing:Ablative (from, comingfrom, ever since)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Ewe verb tso (come from) >preposition tso (from), Lingala verb -uta (come from) > prepositions uta (since),ut o (from)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come From
into grammar expressing:Near Past (temporal /tense).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Jiddu verb -ooku (come) >tense marker -ooku (near past). Tesu
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:Benefactive (for, for thegood of).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Pilara pa (come) >benefactive marker pa (to [someone]),Lahu verb la (come) > benefactiveparticle la (indicates sentence is forsomeone present’s benefit; ‘for
you/me/us’)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:Change-of-state (become,turn into, wax).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: To’aba’ita verb mai (come) >ingressive/resultative marker -mai (alterstense, eg from ‘was’ to ‘has become’),English verb come > helping verb come (as in come true, come undone ), Fa
d’Ambu bi (come) > resulatative aspectmarker bi (marks result of other phrase).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:Future Tense (will, going to,shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Bambara verb na (come) >remote future marker na, Bambaraauxiliary verb be + verb na > near futumarker bena .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:Proximative (almost, about to,on the verge of).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Lahu verb la (come) >ventative aspect la > proximative aspectmarker la (nearly, almost coming to),Tchien Krahn verb gi (come) > adverbgi (almost).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:Purpose (for, to, for to).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Chinese lai (come) >subordinating conjunction of purposeclauses lai , Sapo verb di (come) >goal/purpose clause marker di.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comitative (with, together
with)into grammar expressing:
Agent (by).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Swahili preposition na (withpreposition na (by), French avec (withSeychelles preposition (av)ek (with) >(av)ek (by).
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comitative (with, together
with)into grammar expressing:
NP-And (‘and’ used on nounphrases).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Limbu suffix -nu (with) alsoacts and ‘and’ with nouns, suffixed toall but the final noun in a list, Dogon - le (with) acts as ‘and’, placed on everyelement of list.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comitative (with, together
with)into grammar expressing:
S-And (‘and’ used withsentences)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Swahili preposition na (with) >conjunction na (NP-and) > conjunctionna (S-and).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comitative (with, together
withinto grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some whole period of time;progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Ngbaka Ma’Bo preposition t(with) > progressive marker te used w
verbal nouns (ie infinitives), Umbundupreposition l’ (with) > progressive marused with copula kasi (is) and infinitiv
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comitative (with, together
with)into grammar expressing:
Exist (exists, there is).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Swahili preposition na (with)> preposition (location word)-na (forms complete sentence statingobject of preposition exists), Bakapreposition te (with) behaves similarly
but with a person/number markerinstead of location.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comitative (with, together
with)into grammar expressing:
Instrument (with, using, by).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Numerous languages have apreposition for ‘with’ come to mean‘using’, ‘by use of’ etc. Others usesuffixes, eg Hungarian case marker -val(with) > suffix marking instrument.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comitative (with, together
with)into grammar expressing:
Manner (with, with an airof…, in a … way).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English with in ‚with care‛‚with speed‛, German preposition mit(with) in mit Absicht (on purpose).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comitative (together with)
into grammar expressing:Passive (like get – ed in‚you’ll get reviewed‛; leavesout subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Baka preposition te (with) >passive marker te (comes after verb tomark passive; compare English ‚it wasmessed with‛), Lamang preposition nda (with) > passive marker before verb.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comitative (with, together
with)into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Hausa preposition da (with)> verb (continuous aspect marker) + da(have), Swahili preposition na (with) >
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comparative (more, … than, -er) + Negation into grammar expressing:No Longer.
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English not any more ,German adjective mehr (more) + kein (not, none) > kein mehr (no longer)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Complementizer (that[something happens])
into grammar expressing:Purpose (so that)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.
Examples: Bulgarian
че (that) + да (let)> че да (so that), Kupto compl. ga >purpose clause marker, Dogon – ga (that)> purpose clause marker for future tenseor nominalized verb.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comrade (companion,friend, neighbor, relative)
into grammar expressing:Comitative (with, together
with).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Balto-Finnic noun kansa (society, comrade) > Estonianpostposition kaas (together with, incompany of) > Estonian case marker – (with).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Comrade (companion,friend, neighbor, relative)
into grammar expressing:Reciprocal (each other).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Gola dave (comrade) >reciprocal particle (each other), Gabuakusi (their neighbors) > reciprocalmarker, Russian drug (friend) +accusative druga > drug druga (o ne
another).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Conditional (if)
into grammar expressing:Concessive (despite the factthat, even though).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English if as in ‚an interesting ,if complicated, solution…‛
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Continuous (during some
whole period of time;progressive)
into grammar expressing:Habitual (from time to time,occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Kxoe //oe (lie, be lying) >present tense > continuous > habitual,Kui verb manba (to live, exist) > auxili
verb (continuous past tense) > habitupast tense
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Continuous (during some
whole period of time;progressive)
into grammar expressing:Present Tense (now, is,currently).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.
(Historically, usually a continuouswhich is restricted to present tense willcome to be required in all presenttense.)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are, is one, is[something])
into grammar expressing:Avertive (almost did, nearlyhappened).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Russian bylo (was) > avertive(nearly did, was about to [but didn’t]),Romanian era (was) + conj. + main
verb > nearly did [main verb].
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are, is one, is[something])
into grammar expressing:Conditional (if).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Swahili i-ki-wa (it being thaif, Japanese nara (be) > if, Russian est (is it?) > esli (if).
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are, is one, is[something])
into grammar expressing:Consecutive (and then, now,next; narrative marker).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Vai a mu (it was) >narrative connectors amu (and), amo (then). Shona emphatic copula ndi >clitic ndi (and then). Kxoe verb na (be)+subordinator ko (thus) > conjunctionnako (and).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are, is one, is[something])
into grammar expressing:Focus (even, also; marks asnew or contrasting).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Cora piriki (be) > focus markerfollowing a sentence-initial pronoun ordemonstrative, Papiamentu copula ta >focus marker ta .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are, is one, is[something])
into grammar expressing:Future Tense (will, going to,shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Russian budu (I will be) +infinitive > future (literally, ‘I will be toeat / to dance / to see’ etc.).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are, is one, is[something])
into grammar expressing:Obligation (have to, should,must).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English it is to be done ,Latin copula esse + dative mihi (to me)/ tibi (to you) etc. + infinitive verb >obligation, Chinese shi (be) + _-de (_-
ing) > obligation (Balla shi chi-de ,guavas are for eating)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some whole period of time;progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Godie verb ku (be at) >progressive aspect, Maninka ye … la (be …at) > progressive or durative, Lingala verb
zala (be at) > durative auxiliary.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)into grammar expressing:
Equative Copula (is/are, isone, is [something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Kenya Pidgin Swahili iko (bat) > equative copula.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)into grammar expressing:
Exist (exists, there is).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: English there is , Swahili verb-ko (be at) which always requires aplace (unlike ‘there he is’) > -ko (exist)with no place included, Limbu locative
copula ya.kma ʔ (to be [somewhere]) >existential copula with locativeimplications; for example ‚there is nosalt‛ (‚in it‛ implied).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)into grammar expressing :
Locative (around, at).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Ewe verb le (be at) >preposition le (at), Chinese verb zai (be at) > preposition zai (at, in).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Lezgian gwa (be at) > markof temporary possession, awa (be in) >marker of possession, So negative copumek + locative case-a > ‘has no’, ‘does not have’.
Change a word or phrase expressing:Cross (travel over/through)
into grammar expressing:Across (to the other side).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Thai verb khaam (crossover) > preposition (across), Tamilparticiple taanti (crossed) >postposition (across, beyond),Mandarin verb guo (cross) > verbalsuffix -guo (makes movement verbs beover or across something).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Dative (to, give to; indirectobject)
into grammar expressing:Comparative (than,compared to).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Easter Island preposition ki(to) > preposition (compared to) (ie,
word order like ‘this boy small to thatboy’), Susu postposition be (to, for thegood of) > postposition (compared to).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Dative (to, give to; indirectobject)
into grammar expressing:Patient (object orexperiencer).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Old English pronoun hire /him (third person dative) > ModernEnglish her / him (accusative / dative)Spanish preposition a (dative) >preposition marking accusative animatobjects.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Dative (to, give to; indirectobject)
into grammar expressing:A-Possessive (Of, -’s).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Armenian dative inflection -i ;Petrosi (to peter) > Petrosi (Peter’s),Baka preposition pe (dative,benefactive) > prefix pe- (‘s).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Dative (to, give to; indirectobject) + Copula (is/are)
into grammar expressing:H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Lezgian direction marker -z (-
ward) > dative marker > possessivemarker (used with locative copula),Breton am (to me) + eus (is) > am eus (Ihave).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Definite (the)
into grammar expressing:Superlative (best, worst,most, of all).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: French la as in la plus sage ,literally ‘the more wise’ but meaning ‘
wisest’ (‘more wise’/’wiser’ leaves outCompare English ‘that is THE best’ .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Demonstrative (this, these,that, those)
into grammar expressing:Complementizer (to [dosomething]).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: English that , demonstrative >complementizer, Germandemonstrative and definite article das >complementizer dass .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Demonstrative (this, these, that,those) + adverb or preposition
into grammar expressing:Consecutive (and then, now, next;narrative marker).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Khasi demonstrative -ta (that)+ adverb nang (on; continual) > nangta (and then), German das (that, the) + mit (with) > damit (then, with that). Approximately like English therefore,thereon, thereafter etc.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Demonstrative (this, these,that, those)
into grammar expressing:Copula (is/are, is one, is[something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Egyptian pw (this) > verb p(is), Vai me (this) > nominal suffix -m(here is).
Change a word or phrase expressing:Demonstrative (this, these,that, those)
into grammar expressing:Definite (the).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English demonstrative that >definite article the , Bizkaian Basque a (that) > suffix -a (definite article), Vai me (this) > -me (the, nominalizer).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Demonstrative (this, these,that, those)
into grammar expressing:Focus (even, also; marks asnew or contrasting).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Ambulas pronoun wan (that,those) > adjective/adverb wan(focus; like stressing the word), Mokilesedeictic ioar (that, the one I’m pointing at)> focus.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Demonstrative (this, these,that, those)
into grammar expressing:Third Person Pronoun (he,she, it, they).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Latin ille (that) > French il(he), Egyptian pw (this) > third personpronoun (he, she, it, they).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Demonstrative (this, these,that, those)
into grammar expressing:Relative Pronoun (who,
which, that; as in ‘the X which Y’).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English that , Baka ke (this) >relative pronoun.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Demonstrative (this, these,that, those)
into grammar expressing:Subordinator (if, as soon as,because of, when).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: !Xun pronoun ka-ng (this) >conjunction ka-ng (when), Sango so (this,that) > conjunction (when, because).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Deontic (Obligation / Permissive)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: English will, must and shou(e.g. you must be here on time > I muhave been, he must know already).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Deontic (Obligation /
Permissive) (should, must,ought; responsibility)
into grammar expressing:Future Tense (will, going to,shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: English will (want) > futuretense marker. In other languages,obligation tends to become futuretense in third person but not in secondperson.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Descend (fall, go downward)
into grammar expressing:Down (under, below,beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Ewe verb di (go down, descend)> adverb di (downward, beforehand),Imonda verb peha (go down) > serial
verb (downward).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Do (to do, to make)
into grammar expressing:Causative (cause to be, cause todo, cause to make).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Wankumara verb munk -(make, do) > verbalizing suffix -munka(make, cause), English make as in ‘Susmade John wash the car’, Moru verb ‘(make, put) > causative auxiliary verb,Lahu verb te (do) > causativizer andtransativizer.
Change a word or phrase expressing:Do (to do, to make)
into grammar expressing:Emphasis (very, actual, even,still).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English ‘He did arrive’ versus‘He arrived’, Imonda fe (make, do) >Emphasis.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Do (to do, to make)
into grammar expressing:Obligation (have to, should,must).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Punjabi kar (do) > strongobligation, Korean hada (do) + ya (onl
ya hada (weak obligation).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Do (to do, to make)
into grammar expressing:Pro-Verb (make, do, act;
verb making their objectinto an action).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English verb do , as in ‘do ashot’ or ‘do a U-turn’, Japanese verb suru (do) >continuous pro-verb (doing / bedoing).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Dual (pair, both, those two)
into grammar expressing:NP-And (‘and’ used on nounphrases).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Alyawarra dual number suffix - athirra > suffix meaning ‘with’ or ‘and’,Kxoe third person dual -tca > conjunctionfor joining two (only two) noun phrases.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Ear (body part)
into grammar expressing:Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Tzotzil noun chikin (ear) >locative marker (region around thecorner), Finnish korvassa (in the ear) korvassa (at the edge of, toward).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Earth (earth, soil, land,ground)
into grammar expressing:Down (under, below,beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Bulu noun si (earth, land,landscape) > adverb and prepositionmeaning ‘below’ or ‘under’, Kikuyunoun thi (earth, world) > adverb‘down’, thi ya (of earth) > preposition‘under’.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Eat (consume, dine)
into grammar expressing:Passive (like get – ed in‚you’ll get reviewed‛; leavesout subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Chinese CHI (eat) > passivemarker, Korean meg (eat) > passivemarker. Compare (rare) English ‚eat theinsult‛, ‚dine on the attention‛ (though,these aren’t acting on verbs).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Edge (relational noun)
into grammar expressing:Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Kpelle noun da (edge, end) postposition da (at, in front of), Italiannoun canto (edge) > preposition accana (beside).
Change a word or phrase expressing:Environs (neighborhood,
vicinity)into grammar expressing:
Around (Locative) (near,circling).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Icelandic hverfi (neighborhood)> umhverfis (around).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Exceed (defeat, surpass, pass)
into grammar expressing:Comparative (than, compared to,more … than, -er).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Duala buka (exceed) > markerof standard in comparative (than),Cantonese KWO (surpass) > marker ofstandard, Igbo ka (exceed) > comparativemarker ka (more), Swahili ku-shinda (todefeat) > kushinda (more than).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Exceed (defeat, surpass,pass)
into grammar expressing:Elative (overly, too,excessively).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Baka woto (pass, go on,overtake) > comparative > elative (toomuch), Moré loghe (pass, exceed) >adverb loghe (too much). CompareEnglish exceedingly .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Exist (exists, there is)
into grammar expressing:Continuous (during some
whole period of time;progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Kongo verb kala (to be, exist,remain) > progressive marker ka(la) ,Yagaria verb hano (exist, be) >progressive-marking prefix no’ - / ne’ - .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Exist (exists, there is)
into grammar expressing:H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: North !Xun intransitive verb ge (exist) > transitive ge (have), Turkishadjective var (existent) with suffix – m (my) > ‘have’; Taken literally, ‘my car isexistent’ is the way of expressing ‘I have acar’.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Eye (body part)
into grammar expressing:Front (Locative) (in front of,near).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Bambara nye (eye, face)(optionally + fe (at)) > postposition ny(fe) (in front of), Susu ya (eye) + -ra (locative, topic) > yara (in front of)
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Face (body part)
into grammar expressing:Front (Locative) (in front of,near).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Mixtec noun nuu (face) >preposition nuu (on top of, in frontof), Alamblak ninga-tik (eye platform)> ningatik (face) > ningatik (in front of[some living being]).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Face (body part)
into grammar expressing:Up (over, on top of, above).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Nama noun ai-s (face,blanket) > postposition ai (on, at),Copala Trique noun rian (face) > ‘ontop of’.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Fail (fail, lack, miss)
into grammar expressing:Avertive (almost did, nearly
happened).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: French verb faillir (fail, sin,err) > past participle taking infinitive(was on the verge of but did not),Turkish verb -yaz- (sin, err, fail, miss)auxiliary verb -yaz- (was on the vergebut did not) , Tariana verb –maya (mamistake, forget, do, get wrong) > encli(almost happened but I prevented).
Change a word or phrase expressing:Fall (topple, drop)
into grammar expressing:Down (under, below,beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Ijo verb koro (to fall) >
adverb (down), Bulu verb ŋke (flowdown; only used with water) > adverb(below, down, eastward).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Fall (topple, drop)
into grammar expressing:Passive (like get – ed in‚you’ll get reviewed‛; leavesout subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Korean verb ji- (fall) >passive suffix - ji- (be _-ed), Tamil patu (fall, happen) > passive suffix -pat (be
_-ed). Compare English befell.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Father (male parent)
into grammar expressing:Male (he, he- (as in he-
goat) ).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: !Xoo noun aa (father) >adjective (male).Compare child-directeEnglish, ‚daddy goat‛ / ‛daddy bird‛ et
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Field (open area)
into grammar expressing:Out (outside).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Basque noun landa (field) >adverb/preposition (outside, since,through), Latvian noun lauks (field) >adjective/adverb lauka (outside).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Turkish noun son (end) >
sonra (after), Nanay verb xo ǯ i- (finish,
end) > xo ǯ ipia (after), Indonesian verbssudah, telah, habis (finish) + se (one,same, all) > adverbs sesudah, setelah,sehabis (after).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:Already (Focus).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: English adjective done >colloquial adverb done as in ‚he done
Vietnamese verb roi (to finish, to beidle) > adverb already .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:Completive (thoroughly, allthe way, up).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Eighth century Chinesestacking verb liao (finish, accomplish) >completive marker le (up, to the end),Lingala verb-sila (finish, end) > egressive auxiliaryverb (stop doing, finish doing).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:Consecutive (and then, now,next; narrative marker)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Swahili i-ki-isha (if it isfinished) > consecutive marker kasha (then), Kxoe ta-xu-no (if it is over likethat; literally thus-finish-if) > taxuno
(and then), ∥Ani tio khuri nu (then
when finished) > ‘after that’.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:Perfective (-ed; an event
with a distinct end).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Lhasa verb tshaa (finish) >perfective marker, Burmese verb pi(finish) > perfective auxiliary verb, Kon
Change a word or phrase expressing:First (temporal; earliest)
into grammar expressing:Before (earlier, earlier than).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Italian adjective primo (first)> adverb prima (at first, earlier) >prima di (before), Old Indic prathama- (first) > Punjabi preposition pailaa (before), Latvian adverb pirmis (first) >adverb pirms (before).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Flank (body part)
into grammar expressing:Side (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Latin verb sequi (follow) >gerund secundus (following) >preposition secundum (along,immediately after, according to, for thbenefit of), Swahili ku-fuatana na (tofollow each other) > kufuatana na (following, according to).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Follow
into grammar expressing:Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Albanian transitive verbpason (follow) > adverb andpreposition pas (behind).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Follow
into grammar expressing:Comitative (with, together
with).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Ainu tura (follow) > casemarker on animate nouns-tura (with), Mandarin verb gen (follow) > preposition (with).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Foot (body part)
into grammar expressing:Down (under, below,beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Footprint
into grammar expressing:Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Forehead (body part)
into grammar expressing:Front (Locative) (in front of,near).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Front (Locative) (in front of,near)
into grammar expressing:Before (earlier, earlier than).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Change a word or phrase expressing:Front (Locative) (in front of,near)
into grammar expressing:Later (then, thereafter,afterwards, later on).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Future Tense (will, going to,shall)
into grammar expressing:Epistemic (Possibility / Probability)
(certainly is, could be; probabilityor truth).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: English auxiliary will (futuretense as in ‘we will be there’) >epistemic (as in, upon hearing thedoorbell, ‘that will be Susie’, or ‘willhave happened by now’), similarlyBulgarian ste .
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:Ability (be able, capable,know how, can).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:Change-Of-State (become,turn into, wax).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:Obligation (have to, should,must).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:Passive (like get – ed in‚you’ll get reviewed‛; leavesout subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:Past Tense (was, has, -ed).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing: Permissive (allowed, may).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Change a word or phrase expressing:Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:Consecutive (and then, now,next; narrative marker)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:Continuous (during some
whole period of time;progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:Distal Demonstrative (that,those).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:Habitual (from time to time,occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:Hortative (hey, well, now,come on).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Go To (Locative Verb)
(approach, travel to)into grammar expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, overto; direction toward).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Chinese verb Chinese verbYU (go to) > preposition (to, at), Ewe
into grammar expressing:Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Lingala adverb awa (here) >conjunction (while, when) >conjunction (since, because), Albanianadverb ke (here) > conjunction(because).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Here
into grammar expressing:Demonstrative (this, these,that, those).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Here
into grammar expressing:Personal Pronoun (I, we)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Huojia dialect’s noun ZHER(here) > pronoun ZHER (we, us),
Japanese noun kotira (here) > pronounkotira (I, me). Typically ‘here’ becomeused as a 1st person pronoun while ‘thbecomes 2nd person.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Here
into grammar expressing: Relative Pronoun (who,
which, that; as in ‘the X which Y’).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Home
into grammar expressing:Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Home
into grammar expressing:A-Possessive (Of, -’s).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Kabiye noun te (homesteadhometown) > genitive marker ofalienable possession, Acholi noun paac(homestead) > preposition pa (of),Ngiti adverb ibha (at home) >postposition bha (of) for alienable
possessions of individuals.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:House
into grammar expressing:Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:How? (W-question)
into grammar expressing :Comparative (more, … than,-er).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:How? (W-question)
into grammar expressing: Simile (like, as if, thus).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Change a word or phrase expressing:Place (spot, location,position)
into grammar expressing:Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Place (spot, location,position)
into grammar expressing:Instead.
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Place (spot, location,position)
into grammar expressing:Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:A-Possessive (Of, -’s)
into grammar expressing:Partitive (of/ bit of, a few,
which is a piece of).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:H-Possessive (have, own) + Anticausative (non-actor likeit in ‚It is raining‛)
into grammar expressing:Exist (exists, there is).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: French il (it, anticausative) +avoir (have) > il avoir (there is), Germanda (there) + haben (have) > colloquial dahat (there is).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:H-Possessive (have, own)
into grammar expressing:Future Tense (will, going to,shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Latin habere (have) > Spanifuture tense -re , Nyabo ko (have) >future tense (literally, ‘he has that hegoes’ > ‘he will go’).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:H-Possessive (have, own)
into grammar expressing:Obligation (have to, should,must).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: English have to , German hatzu (have to), and many similarexamples, verbs for have takinginfinitives or whole sentences.
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:H-Possessive (have, own)
into grammar expressing:Perfect (-ed as in bakedgoods or wounded soldier;relevant past).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: English have as in ‚I havedone that‛, Cantonese yau > verbalaspect marker (did, have).
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Property (possession)
into grammar expressing:A-Possessive (Of, -’s).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Change a word or phrase expressing:Thing (object, matter)
into grammar expressing:A-Possessive (Of, -’s).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Three (numeral)
into grammar expressing:Trial (three of X) or Plural.
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Throw
into grammar expressing:Perfect (-ed as in bakedgoods or wounded soldier;relevant past).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples: Diyara verb wara- (throw) >auxiliary verb marking perfect; eg, ‘shethrew cooking[ly]’ becomes ‘she cookePalaung verb pet (throw away, finish) perfect or completive marker, Japaneseshimau (put away, finish) > perfectmarker
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Time (the noun, as in everytime, we have time, etc.)
into grammar expressing:Temporal (on, during, until,
while).This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Tomorrow
into grammar expressing:Future Tense (will, going to,shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Tomorrow
into grammar expressing:Next (adjective)
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage.Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Top (top side)
into grammar expressing:Up (over, on top of, above).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Trace (track, leaving)
into grammar expressing:After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples:
Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:Trace (track, leaving) +Locative (at, in)
into grammar expressing:Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, andmay preserve or remove the originalusage. Examples: Kono noun gba (trace) + a in) > adverb/preposition gbaa (back,backward, behind), Bambara noun no (trace) + fe (at) > no fe (behind in a li
