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PEANUTS -
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planning/paddock preparation • pre-planting • planting •
plant growth and physiology • nutrition and fertiliser •
weed control • insect control • nematode control •
diseases • harvest • post harvest handling and storage •
environmental responses • marketing • current research
December 2014
Peanuts
PEANUTS - Contents
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A Introduction
A.1 Agronomy at a glance ..................................................................................... viii
A.2 Crop overview .................................................................................................. ix
A.3 Executive summary ........................................................................................... x
A.4 Keywords ......................................................................................................... xi
1 Planning/Paddock preparation
1.1.1 Peanut production season plan ...............................................................1
Pre-season.................................................................................................................. 2
Ground preparation ..................................................................................................... 2
Week 0: planting ......................................................................................................... 2
Week 1: cracking ......................................................................................................... 3
Weeks 2 and 3: crop establishment............................................................................. 3
Weeks 4 and 5: flowering ............................................................................................ 3
Weeks 6 and 7: main flowering .................................................................................... 3
Weeks 8 and 9: pegging ............................................................................................. 4
Weeks 10 and 11: pegging and pod-setting ................................................................ 4
Weeks 12 and 13: canopy closure and pod-setting ..................................................... 4
Weeks 14 and 15: Pod-filling ....................................................................................... 4
Weeks 16 and 17: pod-filling and early maturity........................................................... 4
Weeks 18 and 19: maturity and digging ...................................................................... 4
Weeks 20 and 21 ........................................................................................................ 5
Harvest ....................................................................................................................... 5
Pre-cleaning ................................................................................................................ 5
Curing ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Paddock selection .............................................................................................6
1.2.1 Rotations ................................................................................................6
1.2.2 Soils ........................................................................................................6
1.3 Paddock history ................................................................................................7
1.3.1 Paddock history trials ..............................................................................8
1.3.2 Pesticide history ....................................................................................12
1.4 Benefitsofpeanutsasarotationcrop .............................................................12
1.5 Disadvantagesofpeanutsasarotationcrop .................................................13
1.6 Pre-plant weed control ....................................................................................13
1.7 Potential crop contaminants ............................................................................13
1.8 Seedbed requirements ....................................................................................13
1.9 Soil moisture ..................................................................................................14
1.9.1 Dryland .................................................................................................15
1.9.2 Irrigation ...............................................................................................15
What will Irrigation do? .............................................................................................. 15
Irrigation systems ...................................................................................................... 17
1.10 Yield and targets .............................................................................................18
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1.10.1 Seasonal outlook...................................................................................19
1.10.2 Fallow moisture and double-cropping ....................................................19
1.10.3 Water-useefficiency ..............................................................................20
1.10.4 Nitrogen-useefficiency ..........................................................................22
1.11 Diseasestatusofpaddock ..............................................................................22
1.12 Insectstatusofpaddock .................................................................................23
2 Pre-planting
2.1 Varietalperformanceandratingsyield ...............................................................1
2.1.1 Hi Oleic varieties ......................................................................................3
2.1.2 Yielding ability .........................................................................................3
2.2 Qualityofplantingseed ....................................................................................5
2.2.1 Growingpeanutsforseed .......................................................................5
Clean land ................................................................................................................... 6
Clean machinery ......................................................................................................... 6
Irrigation ...................................................................................................................... 6
Supplementary calcium ............................................................................................... 6
Maturity ....................................................................................................................... 6
Digging and threshing ................................................................................................. 7
Drying ......................................................................................................................... 7
Peanut seed contracts ................................................................................................ 7
3 Planting
3.1 Seed dressings .................................................................................................1
3.2 Inoculation ........................................................................................................2
3.3 Germination ......................................................................................................2
3.4 Reduced tillage .................................................................................................2
3.5 Timeofplanting ................................................................................................3
3.6 Seeding rate ......................................................................................................3
3.7 Sowing depth ....................................................................................................4
3.8 Rowconfiguration .............................................................................................5
3.9 Sowing equipment ............................................................................................7
3.9.1 Press-wheels ..........................................................................................8
3.9.2 Planters ...................................................................................................9
4 Plant growth and physiology
4.1 Botanical types .................................................................................................2
4.2 Growth and development ..................................................................................3
4.2.1 Germination and emergence ...................................................................3
4.2.2 Vegetative growth ....................................................................................4
4.2.3 Flowering ................................................................................................5
4.2.4 Pegging ..................................................................................................6
4.2.5 Pod development ....................................................................................7
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4.2.6 Podfill ......................................................................................................7
4.2.7 Maturity ...................................................................................................7
4.3 Seed dormancy .................................................................................................8
5 Nutrition and fertiliser
5.1 Nutritional requirements.....................................................................................1
5.2 Soilfertility .........................................................................................................4
5.3 Crop removal rates ............................................................................................4
5.4 Soil testing ........................................................................................................5
5.5 Nutrient availability and soil pH ..........................................................................5
5.6 Calcium .............................................................................................................6
5.7 Nitrogen ...........................................................................................................9
5.8 Phosphorus ....................................................................................................11
5.9 Sulfur .............................................................................................................13
5.10 Potassium .......................................................................................................14
5.11 Boron ..............................................................................................................16
5.12 Copper ...........................................................................................................17
5.13 Iron .................................................................................................................18
5.14 Magnesium .....................................................................................................19
5.15 Manganese .....................................................................................................20
5.16 Molybdenum ...................................................................................................21
5.17 Zinc .................................................................................................................22
5.18 Cadmium management ...................................................................................23
6 Weed control
6.1 Digging .............................................................................................................3
6.2 Threshing ..........................................................................................................3
6.3 Drying ...............................................................................................................4
6.4 Management options ........................................................................................4
6.4.1 Cultivation ...............................................................................................4
6.4.2 Herbicides ...............................................................................................4
Grass weeds ............................................................................................................... 4
Broadleaf weeds ......................................................................................................... 5
Weed peanuts ............................................................................................................. 5
7 Insect control
7.1 Typesofinsectpests .........................................................................................1
Foliage feeders ............................................................................................................ 1
Sucking insects ........................................................................................................... 2
7.2 Growth stages ..................................................................................................2
7.2.1 Pre-emergence .......................................................................................2
7.2.2 Emergencetofirstflowering ...................................................................2
7.2.3 Flowering,peggingandpodfill .................................................................3
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7.2.4 Mature crops ...........................................................................................4
7.3 Damage caused by pests ..................................................................................4
Soil insects and pod damage ..................................................................................... 4
7.4 Managementofinsectpests ............................................................................4
7.5 Majorinsectpestsofpeanuts............................................................................5
7.5.1 Aphids (Aphididae) ..................................................................................5
7.5.2 Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) .......................................................6
7.5.3 Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) ..........................................................................7
7.5.4 Lucerne seed web moth (Etiella behrii).....................................................7
7.5.5 False wireworms (Gonocephalum spp. and Pterohelaeus spp.) ...............9
7.5.6 Helicoverpa punctigera and H. armigera ................................................10
7.5.7 Lucerneleafhopper(Austroasca alfalfae) ...............................................11
7.5.8 Vegetableleafhopper(Austroasca viridigrisea) .......................................12
7.5.9 Pineapple mealybug ................................................................................................. 13
7.5.10 Mirids (Miridae), green and brown (Creontiades sp.) ..............................14
7.5.11 Peanut mite (Paraplonobia spp.) ............................................................15
7.5.12 Two-spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) .................................................16
7.5.13 Redshoulderedleafbeetle(Monolepta australis) ...................................17
7.5.14 Silverleafwhitefly(Bemisia tabaci, type B) ..............................................18
7.5.15 Storage insects .....................................................................................19
7.5.16 Thrips (Thysanoptera) ............................................................................20
7.5.17 Whitefringedweevil(Graphognathus leucoloma) ....................................21
7.5.18 Cane whitegrubs (Lepidiota spp.) ..........................................................22
7.5.19 Peanut whitegrubs (Heteronyx piceus) ...................................................23
7.5.20 Wireworms (click beetles, Elateridae ) ....................................................24
8 Nematode control
8.1 Typesofnematodes ..........................................................................................2
8.1.1 Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus brachyurus) ..................................2
8.1.2 Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne hapla) .............................................3
8.2 Effectsofcroppinghistoryonnematodestatus .................................................3
9 Diseases
9.1 Damage caused by disease ..............................................................................2
9.2 Managementofdisease ...................................................................................2
9.2.1 Crop rotation ...........................................................................................3
9.2.2 Fungicideprogramforhighriskareas ................................................................... 3
9.3 Disease symptoms ............................................................................................4
9.3.1 Causesofseedlingsdying(orpooremergence) ......................................4
Soil-borne fungi including Aspergillus niger (Aspergillus crown rot)
and Rhizopus arrhizus ................................................................................................. 4
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Damaged seed............................................................................................................ 5
9.3.2 Causesofleaveswithbrownspots .........................................................6
Early and late leaf spot (caused by Cercospora arachidicola
and Cercosporidium personatum) ............................................................................... 6
Rust (caused by Puccinia arachidis) ............................................................................ 8
Net (or web) blotch (caused by Didymosphaeria arachidicola) ................................... 10
Pepper spot and scorch (caused by Leptosphaerulina arachidicola) .......................... 11
Physiological spotting ................................................................................................ 11
9.3.3 Leaves with colour variations .................................................................12
Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV) ............................................................................... 12
Peanut mottle virus (PMV) ......................................................................................... 13
Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) .............................................................................. 14
Verticillium wilt (caused by Verticillium dahliae) ........................................................... 15
9.3.4 Branch wilting or plant death .................................................................17
Sclerotinia blight (caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and S. minor) ........................... 17
Cylindrocladium black rot (CBR) (caused by Cylindrocladium crotalaria) .................... 18
White mould (caused by Sclerotium rolfsii) ................................................................. 21
Collar rot (caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae) ....................................................... 22
Aspergillus crown rot (caused by Aspergillus niger).................................................... 23
Charcoal rot (caused by Macrophomina phaseolina) ................................................. 25
Rhizoctonia stem rot (caused by Rhizoctonia solani) .................................................. 26
9.3.5 Ill-thrift ...................................................................................................26
Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus brachyurus) .................................................... 26
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne hapla) ............................................................... 27
9.3.6 Pods damaged at harvest .....................................................................28
Soil insects ................................................................................................................ 28
Pod-rotting fungi, including Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Pythium spp.
and Rhizoctonia solani ............................................................................................... 28
Aflatoxin-producing fungi (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) ................................. 28
9.4 Soil-borne diseases ........................................................................................30
9.4.1 Neocosmospora vasinfecta ...................................................................31
10 Plant growth regulators and canopy management
11 Crop desiccation/spray out
12 Harvest
12.1 Hull scrape test ...............................................................................................1
12.2 When to dig .....................................................................................................3
12.2.1 Peg strength ...........................................................................................3
12.2.2 Disease ...................................................................................................4
12.2.3 Weather conditions .................................................................................4
12.2.4 Soil conditions .........................................................................................4
12.2.5 Area to be harvested ...............................................................................4
12.3 Digging and inverting .........................................................................................4
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12.4 Windrowing .......................................................................................................6
12.5 Threshing ..........................................................................................................6
12.6 Wet harvest issues and management ................................................................7
13 Post harvest handling and storage
13.1 Howtodryandstorepeanutson-farm ..............................................................1
13.1.1 Aflatoxin ..................................................................................................2
13.1.2 Off-flavourcontamination .......................................................................2
13.2 Pre-cleaning ......................................................................................................3
14 Environmental responses
14.1 Climate .............................................................................................................1
14.2 Temperature ......................................................................................................1
14.3 Rainfall ..............................................................................................................3
14.4 Daylength ..........................................................................................................4
14.5 Soils ..................................................................................................................4
15 Marketing
15.1 Consumption ....................................................................................................1
15.1.1 Food value ..............................................................................................2
15.2 World production ..............................................................................................3
15.3 Contract options ...............................................................................................3
16 Current research
17 Key contacts
18 References
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FeedbackTable of Contents Section A PEANUTS - Introduction
SECTION A
Introduction
A.1 Agronomy at a glance
• Returnsforpeanutsdependonyieldandquality.Bestreturnsareobtainedunder
reliablerainfallorirrigationwithintensivemanagement.Mosttypesofirrigationcan
beused,includingsprinklersystemsandfurrowirrigation.Successfulfurrowirrigation
requires good land levels and raised beds.
• Peanutsprefersands,sandyloamsandlightclayloams(Figure1);podlossescanbe
high in heavy or sticky soils.
• Inhighriskareas,allnewpaddocksmustbeassessedforpesticideandheavymetal
residues prior to planting.
• PlantingusuallyoccursfromOctobertoJanuaryinQueenslandandNewSouthWales
(NSW). In the Northern Territory, winter plantings occur in March–April, while summer
plantingsarealsopossiblefromOctober-January.Cropstakeabout5months
togrow;however,early-maturingvarietiestakingabout4monthstogrowarealso
available. Planting should be timed so that harvesting is conducted in relatively dry
conditions.
• Theminimumsoiltemperaturerequiredforgerminationis18°C,measuredat50mm
depth at 09:00 (9am).
• The crop’s maturity is assessed to determine harvesting time. Harvesting is a two-part
operation. First, the taproot is cut and the plant shoots and peanut pods are inverted to
partiallydryinthefieldforseveraldaysbeforeaseparatethreshingoperationisdone.
• Optimumthreshingoccursatapodmoisturecontentof16–18%.Controlleddrying
bringsthepeanutsslowlytoasafestoragemoisturecontentandensuresoptimum
quality.Extendedperiodsofpaddockdryingcancausehigherlosses,moresplits,
poorerqualityandincreasedriskofraindamage.
• Peanutsshouldformpartofasustainablefarmingsysteminrotationwithagrassor
cereal crop. 1
1 PCA.Areyouinterestedingrowingpeanuts?PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/growing-peanuts.php
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Figure 1: Growers are advised to research best practice management to maximise peanut production. (Photo: Graeme Wright, PCA)
A.2 Crop overview
The peanut or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)isanannuallegumecroporiginatingfrom
South America. Peanuts grow on a small bush or vine. The crop takes 4–6 months to grow,
depending on the variety and region planted.
The Australian peanut industry has about 160 growers including North, Central and
southern Queensland, and northern NSW (Figure 2).
Australiaproducesabout40,000tonnes(t)offarmerstockpeanutsannually,which
representsonlyabout0.2%oftheworld’speanutproduction.Morethan90%ofAustralia’s
peanuts are grown in Queensland. The industry is based on the large-seeded Virginia
varieties and medium to large seeded Runner varieties. Plantings are ~one-third Virginia and
two-thirds Runner types. Some new ultra-early varieties with runner-type kernels are also
planted.
Thesizeofthedomesticmarketforpeanutsis~50,000tofpodsannually.
Australiaisoneofthefewpeanut-producingcountrieswhereimportsarefreelypermitted.
Thepricethatgrowersreceivefortheircropisthereforesignificantlyinfluencedbyworld
prices. 2
An‘off’flavourproblemwasdetectedinpeanutsfromNorthQueensland’sTolgaregion
in 2008 and 2009. The cost to the Australian peanut industry was more than $1 million
2 PHarden,LWieck,GWright,,(2014)Peanutproductionguide,August2014.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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in downgraded product. This musty, earthy taste had never been detected in peanuts
anywhere,andAustralianpeanutexportswereaffected.
Theexactcauseofthetastehasyettobeconfirmed,butchangesresultingfromresearch
supported by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) to the way
peanuts are delivered, shelled and stored appear to have largely resolved the issue.
Araftofchangeswereimplementedinresponsetotheproblem,includinga0.5%lower
kernelmoisturecontentatdelivery,andbetteroverallharvestingmanagementon-farmhave
reducedtheseverityoftheproblem.TheGRDC-fundedstudyhaswiderimplicationsfor
farmersinnorthernQueensland,becausethegrowingofpotatoesandpeanutsinrotation
couldalsobeafactor.3
Figure 2: Peanut production areas of Australia . (Note, there is no current production in the Ord region.)
A.3 Executive summary
Peanutsarearobustanddrought-tolerantplant,buttheywillnotreturnahealthyprofitto
thegrowerunlesstheyreceiveadequatewaterandnutrition,andprotectionfromweeds
anddiseases.Growersarepaidontheweightandqualityofpeanutkernels.
Peanutscanbegrownonawiderangeofsoils,providedthesurfacesoil(thetop15–20
cm)isreasonablyfriable.Suitablesoiltypesincludesands,sandyloamsandsiltyloams.In
Australia, peanuts have traditionally been grown as high-value crops on the red clay loams
(Krasnozems)oftheSouthBurnettandAthertonTablelandinQueensland.Peanutscanbe
3 CCollis(2012)Peanutsbackinflavourbutmysterylingers.GroundCover,Issue97,March–April2012,GRDC,http://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Ground-Cover/Ground-Cover-Issue-97-March-April-2012/Peanuts-back-in-flavour-but-mystery-lingers
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growninawiderangeoftropicalandsub-tropicalenvironmentsinAustralia,andcontribute
favorablyasanitrogen(N)-fixerinrotationwithsugarcane,cottonandcereals.
TheGRDCalsosupportsthepeanutindustrybyfundingresearchandextensionprojects.
A.4 Keywords
Actinomycetes
These micro-organisms can grow on stored peanuts. They produce volatile compounds
thatcontaminatestorednuts,andcausemusty,earthyoff-flavours.4
4 GRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March2013,GRDC http://www.grdc.com.au/Downloads.ashx?q=/~/media/07956E2C47544ED9BA2F677D6576C567.pdf
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Section 1 PEANUTS - Planning/Paddock preparation
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1.1.1 Peanut production season planAcropmanagementtableisavaluabletoolforplanningthepeanutcroppingseason
(Figure 1).
Crop stage-weeks 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22Ground preparation Deep
Ripping
Fertiliser Soil Test Lime and/or Pre-plant fertiliser
Gypsum
Planting Plant
Weed control Pre-plant incorporated
Pre-emergent
Post-emergent Applications
Foliar disease control RegularscheduledapplicationsoffoliarfungicidesforLeafspot,Rust,NetBlotch
Sclerotinia control
Irrigation requirement HIGH LOW HIGH MODERATE
Digging Digging
Threshing Threshing
Growthstagefora20to 22 week variety
Emerge Vegetative Growth
Flowering and Pegging
Pod Development
Wheeler
Middleton
Menzies
Holt
Redvale Page
Figure 1: Peanut crop management table. (Source: PCA) 1
Usethefollowingchecklisttoensurethatyoucompleteeachoftheoperationsatthe
correct time.
1 PHarden,LWieck,GWright(2013)Peanutproductionguide,August2013.PeanutCompanyofAustraliahttp://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2013.pdf
SECTION 1
Planning/Paddock preparation
Section 1 PEANUTS - Planning/Paddock preparation
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Pre-season
• Carryoutsoiltestsandhaveresultsinterpretedbyaqualifiedagronomist.
• Determine whether a soil ameliorant such as gypsum or lime is required.
• Forecastlikelyinputrequirements(pesticides,fungicides,inoculants,seed)andplan
procurement.
• Determineyourdesiredplantingdatebasedontheseasonalforecastandrisk.
• Determineyourdeadlineforplanting.Ifthisdeadlineisreachedandithasnotrained,
pre-water your paddock.
• Plan and budget an irrigation schedule.
• Calculate and plan machinery requirements.
• Calibrateplanterandfertiliserequipmentandplanforrecalibrationbetweenpaddocks.
• Calibrate boom spray and check nozzles.
• Determine which variety best suits your conditions and order seed.
Ground preparation
• Deep-rip your paddock.
• Prepare an even seedbed to ensure that it has good tilth.
• Ifsoilameliorantsarerequired,theyshouldbeapplied1–3monthsbeforeplanting.
• Ifgranularmagnesiumorzincisrequired,applyatleast2weeksbeforeplanting.
Week 0: planting
• Ensuregoodmoistureforplantingandgermination.
• Ifusingpeatinoculants,ensurethattheyarekeptinacoolplace(Eskyorfridge).
• Ifusingdryinoculant,sprinklesomeintotheplanterbox.Half-filltheboxwithseed
(gently) and sprinkle some more inoculant over the seed. Fill the box with seed and
sprinkle with some more inoculant.
• Seed placement, depth and calibration should be checked at regular intervals during
planting.
• ApplicationsofS-metolachlor(Dual®) are recommended as a post-plant pre-emergent
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herbicideinmostsituations.Applicationneedstobefinishedassoonaspossibleafter
planting (1–2 days) prior to seedling emergence.
• Inirrigationsystems,S-metolachlorneedstobewateredinwithin10daysof
application,although5daysispreferredtohelpensuregoodcropemergence.
• Irrigation scheduling plan should be in place.
Week 1: cracking
• Cracking describes when the peanuts are just about to emerge. They start to push
through the soil and the rows become visible.
• Ifthesoilisdryorthereisahardcrust,irrigationatthistimecanbebeneficialtoensure
good emergence.
• Ifweedshaveemergedbeforethepeanutsemerge,consideranapplicationofa
knockdown herbicide with no residual, such as paraquat.
Weeks 2 and 3: crop establishment
• Cropshouldbefullyemerged.
• Scoutforsoilinsectsandfoliarinsects,especiallyHelicoverpa.Scoutforcutworms
(Agrotis sp.)
• Generally,noirrigationisrecommendedatthisstage.Itmaybebeneficialtostressthe
crop.
Weeks 4 and 5: flowering
• Flowering has started.
• Spray any weeds with post-emergent herbicides as recommended by your agronomist.
• Donotirrigatewhentheveryfirstfewflowersappearbecauseitwillstressthecrop,
reducing potential yield.
• Applyprotectivefungicideapplicationsasrecommendedbyyouragronomist.
• Ifrequired,applyfoliarfertilisers,especiallycopper(onverysandysoils)andzinc.
• Ifrequired,applygypsumat1–2t/ha.Consultyouragronomistformoreinformation.
• Scoutforfoliarinsects,especiallyjassids,leafhoppers,mitesandHelicoverpa.
Weeks 6 and 7: main flowering
• Thisisthestartofthemainfloweringandthestartofthelogarithmic(fastest)growth
phase when the peanuts begin to grow very rapidly.
• In irrigation systems, irrigation is essential at this stage because it is when the crop’s
yield potential is set.
• Useyourirrigationtotrytofillthesoilprofile.Thismayinvolvetwowateringsinquick
succession.
• Scoutforfoliarinsectsandfoliardisease.
• Sprayappropriatefungicideasneeded.
• Ifinter-rowcultivationisneeded(e.g.hardsettingsoil,weeds),itisbestperformedno
later than at this stage.
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Weeks 8 and 9: pegging
• Ensurethatyoufollowyourirrigationschedule(cropstressduringpeggingandpodset
can be detrimental to yield).
• Pull up two or three bushes to check the pegging and development.
• Scoutforfoliarinsectsanddiseases.
• Sprayappropriatefungicideasneeded.
• Spraywithfoliarfertilisers.
• IfSclerotiniablightcouldbeaproblem,sprayaprotectantfungicideatthistime.
Weeks 10 and 11: pegging and pod-setting
• Checkscheduleifgrowingpeanutsunderirrigation.
• Pull up some bushes to check development.
• Scoutfordiseasesandinsects.
• Make sure harvesting equipment is properly repaired and maintained.
Weeks 12 and 13: canopy closure and pod-setting
• Thecropshouldreachfullcanopyclosurebyweek12,anditshouldnowbesettingits
peak yield potential.
• Thecropfactorinyourirrigationscheduleshouldnowincreaseto1.0(thismeansthe
cropwillloseasmuchwaterasanopenpanofwaterplacedinthesunandwind).
• Scoutfordiseasesandinsectsandsprayasnecessary.
• Spraywithfoliarfertilisersasrequired.
Weeks 14 and 15: Pod-filling
• Keep the water up to the crop. Check your irrigation schedule.
• Pull up some bushes to check pod development.
• Scoutforinsects,especiallyarmyworms(Spodoptera sp.), which stay at or just below
groundlevelduringthedaybutfeedonpegsduringthenight.
• Scoutfordisease,especiallyrust.Lookcarefullyforraisedcopperypustulesonthe
backofleaves.
Weeks 16 and 17: pod-filling and early maturity
• Keep the water up to the crop.
• Scoutfordisease.
• Attheendofweek17,checkforsignsofmaturity.Pullupsomebushesuptocheck
formaturity.
• Early-maturingvarietiesmaybefullymaturebythistimeinsomeenvironments.
Weeks 18 and 19: maturity and digging
• Wateruseofthecropmaystarttolessenduringthisphase,butdigaroundunder
some plants and check the moisture status.
• Youstillneedtokeepthecropmoisttoavoidaflatoxinandtohelpfilloutanylater
setting pods.
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• Checkformaturity.
• Scoutforanysignsofdisease.
Weeks 20 and 21
• Check maturity using the hull scrape test and double-check any pods you are unsure
ofbyusingtheshell-outtechnique.
• Testmaturityinthepaddockbyrunningsomestripswiththedigger.Checkforlosses
and maturity.
• Make sure the digger is working properly. The elevator chain speed should be slightly
fasterthantheforwardspeedofthedigger.
• Stepdownfromthetractorregularlytocheckunderthewindrowforlosses.Trytoget
good inversion.
• Ifyouaredealingwithlargeareas,itmaybebesttodiginitiallyaportionthatyoucan
comfortablyharvestwiththethresher.
Harvest
• Toavoidaflatoxincontamination,peanutsshouldremaininthewindrowfornomore
than 3 days.
• Idealmoisturecontentforthreshing,toavoidlossesanddamagetothekernels,is
~18%.
• Takesamplesfromthewindrowandcheckthemoisturecontent.
• Thespeedofthepickupheadshouldmatchtheforwardspeed.Thisallowsthe
windrow to be picked up without separating or over-running the inverted bushes.
• Checkcylinderspeedsregularly;theymayhavetobeadjustedaswindrowconditions
change during the day.
Pre-cleaning
• Pre-clean your peanuts to remove dirt, sticks, weeds and other extraneous matter.
• Pre-cleaning will also remove many loose shell kernels and immature pods and so
decreasetheriskofaflatoxincontamination.
Curing
• Ensure that peanuts are adequately pre-cleaned.
• Startdryingwithin3hofthreshingtopreventaflatoxindevelopment.
• Makesureairtemperatureintheplenumdoesnotexceed11°Caboveambient
temperatures(uptoamaximumof35°C).
• Checkthatthemoistureremovalratedoesnotexceed0.5%perh.
• Therelativehumidityofthedryingairshouldbe50–65%.
• Regularly check the temperature and relative humidity in the air tunnel.
• Regularlycheckthemoisturecontentofthepeanuts.2
2 PHarden,LWieck,GWright(2013)Peanutproductionguide,August2013.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2013.pdf
i More information
PCA. Peanut production
season plan—checklist.
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1.2 Paddock selection
1.2.1 RotationsWhenchoosingpaddocks,rotationspastandfutureshouldbeconsidered.Peanuts
preferablyshouldberotatedwithagrassorcerealcrop3 to increase sustainability, reduce
diseaseandmakethemostuseofexcessnitrogen(N).
A good crop rotation, avoiding a peanut monoculture, will lower disease levels, which can
increasedramaticallywhenpeanutsfollowpeanuts.Thereissomeevidencethatpeanuts
followingpotatoeshaveahigherriskofcontaminationwithoff-flavourvolatilecompounds.
Agenusofactinomycete,Streptomyces, is known to produce the volatile compounds
associatedwithoff-flavour;thesebacteriaarepresentinimmatureand/ordecomposing
potatoes,whichcanleadtoahighnumberofactinomycetesporesinthesoil.Immature
potatoesleftafterharvestcanberoughlythesamesizeasmaturepeanutpods,andare
sometimes harvested with the peanuts. Streptomyces on these immature potatoes can be
transferredtostoragebins,alongwiththepotatoes,duringharvesting.4
1.2.2 SoilsPeanutsrequirewell-drained,friablesoilssuchassandyloam,siltyloams,andfriableclay
loam.Thepreferredsoiltypesforgrowingpeanutsaresands,sandyloamsandlightclay
loams. Peanuts will grow on heavier soils, but harvest losses tend to be high in heavy or
sticky soils. 5
Thehistoryofallpaddocksnewtopeanutcroppingshouldbeconsidered;theremaybea
needtotestforheavymetalsandpesticidespriortoplanting(seePesticide history below).
InAustralia,peanutshavetraditionallybeengrownontheredclayloams(krasnozems)of
theSouthBurnettandAthertonTableland.Thesesoilsarenaturallyfriableandhaveagood
3 PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au
4 GRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March2013,GRDC,http://www.grdc.com.au/Downloads.ashx?q=/~/media/07956E2C47544ED9BA2F677D6576C567.pdf
5 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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water-holdingcapacity.However,peanutscanbegrownonawiderangeofsoils,provided
thesurfacesoil(top15–20cm)isreasonablyfriable.
Soils prone to waterlogging should be avoided because peanuts do not tolerate long
periodsofwaterlogging.Plantingonraisedbedscanhelptoalleviateminorwaterlogging
problems.
Heavy clay soils or hard-setting soils that break into large clods should be avoided because
podsmaybetornoffthebushatdigging.Theseloosepodscannotberecoveredbythe
harvester.Heavysoilconditionsmayleadtohighlevelsofextraneousmaterialintheload,
which will incur penalties.
Heavyclaysmayalsobecomenon-trafficableforlongperiodsbecauseofwetweather.This
can cause harvesting delays and potential yield losses. 6
1.3 Paddock history
Tobesuccessful,peanutsmustformpartofasustainablefarmingsystem.Newpaddocks
that have never grown peanuts may be able to produce two consecutive peanut crops.
However, the best system involves growing peanuts once every 2 or 3 years on the one
paddockwithagrassorcerealcropastherotationspecies.Goodrotationcropsfor
peanuts include sugarcane, maize, Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) and sorghum. 7
Peanut yields are maximised by rotating with other crops over a 3-year period. Peanuts
fixNintothesoil;however,theyalsoremoveotheressentialnutrients,whichneedtobe
replaced to ensure that yield potential is achieved.
Somefarmersgrowpeanutsfortwoseasonsinonepaddockandthenrotateouttoother
cropsforthreetofiveseasons.
Anotherreasonwhygrowersareencouragedtoadoptaregularrotationofcropswith
peanutsistoavoidbuild-upofweed,diseaseandinsectproblems,whichoccurunderany
systemofmonoculture.
Crops such as potatoes, navy beans or soybeans are not ideal in long-term sustainable
rotationswithpeanutsbecausetheytendtohostmanyofthesamepestanddisease
problems.
6 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustraliahttp://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
7 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013, (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustraliahttp://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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Research trial results
1.3.1 Paddock history trialsBetween1983and1996,atrialattheRedvale,intheKingaroyregion,examinedeffects
ofvariouscroprotationsandleypasturesonpeanutproductivityandcropvalue,andon
theincidenceofknownpeanutpathogens.Onaverage,peanutcropsyielded25%higher
inrotationsthaninamonoculture,butthequalityofharvestedpodswasunaffectedby
rotation. There was no additional yield response to rotation breaks longer than a single year,
andnoadditionalresponsetograssleysoveralternatecrops.Incidenceofknownpeanut
pathogenswassignificantlyaffectedbyrotation,buttheimpactofthesepathogensoncrop
yieldwasstronglyrelatedtoin-croprainfallandresultantseasonalyieldpotential.Gross
returnsfrompeanutcropsinamonoculturewere$177perhalowerpertonneofpotential
yieldthanincroprotations.Thefindingshavebeenusedasabasisforoptimisingrainfed
peanutfarmingsystemsforlong-termviabilityandsustainability.8
Therelativelyhighyieldpotentialofthecrop(upto5tdrypods/haingoodseasons)and
theexcellentpricesforqualityproduce(upto$850/tdrypods)havemadepeanutsvery
attractivetofarmmanagers.Often,however,thisresultsinthecropbeinggrowntoo
frequentlyinthecroprotationinanefforttomaximisereturns,withaconsequentincrease
insoil-bornepathogensandrelativelypoorcropperformance.
Severaloverseasstudieshavedemonstratedtheneedforsubstantialbreaksbetween
peanutcropsgrowninthesamefield.InGeorgia,USA,forexample,increasingperiods
withoutpeanutsfrom1to3yearsresultedincommercialpeanutyields11–25%(dryland)
and7–36%(irrigated)higherthanunderpeanutmonoculture.However,studieshavealso
shownthatrotations,particularlyunderirrigation,wereoftenshorterthanoptimalbecause
themostsuccessfulrotationcrops(e.g.cerealsandgrassleys)weregenerallyofmuch
lowereconomicvalue.AsAustralianfarmersfaceincreasingeconomicpressures,peanut
producersfacesimilartemptationstoshortenthepeanutrotation.
TheinitialstudyatRedvalecomparedapeanutmonoculturewithpeanutsgrownafter1or
2yearsofcroppingmaize,orafter1,2,3or4yearsofgrasspastureley(Rhodesgrass).
Tworeplicateplotsofeachtreatmentweresownineachofthreeconsecutiveseasons.
Therepeatedtreatmentserieswasusedtosampletheresponseacrossarangeof
climaticconditions.Intheinitialpeanutcropaftertherotationbreaks,plotsweresplitwith
treatmentsofeither0or4kgcarbofuran/hatoquantifytheroleofnematodes(Pratylenchus
brachyurus,root-lesionnematode;andMeloidogyne hapla, root-knot nematode) in crop
productivity responses. Soil was conventionally tilled prior to sowing each crop and basal
nutrients (N, phosphorus, potassium) were applied to meet crop requirements.
Oncereturnedtopeanuts,plotsweremaintainedinmonocultureforthreesuccessive
seasonstoquantifyresidualeffectsofbreaks.Afterthethirdpeanutcrop,subplotswere
either continued in peanut monoculture or sown to a crop rotation comprising soybeans,
maizeandpeanuts.Opportunitysowingsofwinteroats(Avena sativa)weremadeafter
eachlegumecropinthisrotationwheneverrainfallpermitted,withbiomassincorporated
as a green manure at the early boot stage. The peanut monoculture plots were split to
treatment with and without winter oats.
8 MBell,GHarch,JTatnell,KMiddleton(2003)Theimpactofcroprotationonpeanutproductivityinrainfedcroppingsystems.AustralianAgronomyConference,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2003/c/5/bell.htm
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Research trial results
Soil(0–30cm,in10-cmincrements)wascollectedfromsubsetsofplotsimmediatelyprior
to planting in each season, to assess nematode numbers and soil chemical properties.
Plant establishment and mortality data were recorded during most seasons, numbers
ofnematodesinpeanutrootsweredetermined~6weeksafterplanting,andplotswere
scoredfortheincidenceandseverityofsymptomscausedbyknownsoil-bornepathogens
midseasonandatmaturity.Grossreturnsfrompeanutcroppingweredeterminedusing
commercialgradingstandardsandcurrentcropvalues.Croprotations(peanutsfollowing1
or2yearsofgrassleyormaize,orfollowingarotationwithsoybeans,oatsandmaize)were
comparedwithmonoculturepeanutsintermsofpodyieldsandgrossmargins(derived
usingaveragecostsofproductionfromeachcropandcurrentinputcosts).
Peanut yields and crop value varied markedly between growing seasons (Figure 2).
Yield was more responsive than crop value to breaking the monoculture. The results
demonstratedthataveragegrossreturns($/ha)were30%higherinthebreaktreatments
thaninthepeanutmonoculture.Noaflatoxinwasrecordedinanyyear,andthiswas
reflectedinconsistentlyhighcropvalues.
Figure 2:
800ns
ns nsns ns
ns
ns
ns
*
700
600
500
550
650
750
450
4001 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cro
p v
alue
($/t
)
Crop year
Peanut monocultureRotation
a800
ns
nsns ns ns
ns
ns
ns
*
700
600
500
550
650
750
450
4001 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Po
d y
ield
(t/h
a)
Crop year
Peanut monocultureRotation
b
(a) Crop value ($/t) and (b) pod yield (kg/ha) for peanut crops in the study at Redvale, Kingaroy. * Indicates statistical significance (P<0.05); ns, no significant differences.
Thisstudyproducednoevidencethatbreaksoflongerthanonesummerseason(i.e.
peanuts grown every second year) were necessary to maximise crop yields and crop
value(initialstudyphase,Table1,).Grassleyswerenomoreeffectiveinraisingpeanut
productivity than rotating to maize cropping. The alternate rotation in the second phase
ofthestudy(peanuts–oats–soybeans–oats–maize–fallow–peanuts)producedsignificant
increases in crop productivity compared with continuous peanut cropping (Table 1).
Comparisonswerelimitedbythewiderrangeofbreakdurationsintheleytreatmentsthan
in the maize cropping (1–4 years v. 1–2 years). However, this limited sampling indicated that
grassleys>2yearsproducednoadditionalbenefitsintermsofpeanutyieldorcropvalue.
Data clearly showed that introducing a winter green manure crop (oats) into a continuous
summerpeanutcroppingpattern,aspracticedinsomeofthenewerproductionareas
underirrigation,hadnopositiveeffectonyieldsorcropvalue.Yieldsweresignificantlylower
than in the peanuts–oats–soybeans–oats–maize rotation (Table 1).
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Research trial results
Table 1: Effect of break duration and break type on peanut yield (t pods/ha) and crop value ($/t)
Rotation Years out of peanuts
Peanut yield (kg/ha)
Crop quality ($/t)
Initial phase of study
Continuous peanut 0 1.53 $643.2
Maize 1 1.86 $630.0
Maize 2 1.98 $635.9
Grass ley 1 1.88 $648.2
Grass ley 2 1.84 $653.2
l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 0.21 ns
Second phase of study
Continuouspeanuts,winterfallow 0 2.28 $650.9
Continuous peanuts, winter oats 0 2.28 $659.7
Crop rotation (peanuts, oats, soybeans, oats, maize)
3 3.07 $670.4
l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 0.25 ns
Becausetherewasnodifferentiationbetweenbreaktypes(grassormaize)intermsof
subsequent peanut productivity, data were pooled within years and an assessment was
madeoftheresidualeffectofthebreaksuponreturntopeanutmonoculture.Thisisan
important issue, because growers recognise the need to grow break crops but also want to
maximisethefrequencyofthehigh-valuepeanutcropintherotation.Theanalysis(Figure
3)clearlyshowsthatthemaximumbenefitofabreakwascapturedinthefirstpeanutcrop,
withanaverageyieldincreaseof26%.Significantresidualbenefitspersistedforonlythe
secondandthirdpeanutcropsafterthebreak;thesebenefitswerereducedtolessthan
halfthoserecordedintheinitialpeanutcrop.
Figure 3:
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.61 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Rel
ativ
e p
od
yie
lds
com
par
ed
to m
ono
cult
ure
pea
nuts
Consecutive peanut crops after break
Combined analysis of the residual effect of crop rotations on pod yields after a return to peanut monoculture. Length of capped line indicates significant differences (P < 0.05).
Relationships between the potential yields in each season (yields in rotated plots) and the
lossinyieldorgrossreturns(yield×cropvalue)resultingfromemployingamonoculture
were derived using regression techniques. These relationships suggested that 0.24 t pods/
haor$177grossreturn/hawouldbelostforeachtonneofpeanutyieldpotentialina
monoculture compared with adequate rotations (R2=0.81and0.80foryieldandgross
return loss relationships, respectively). Losses in gross returns would obviously increase
where crop values were greater than the average $640/t recorded during this study (e.g.
under irrigation).
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Therewasnoevidenceofanyrotationresponsesresultingfromchangesinsoilchemical
fertility,asevidencedbyplantnutrientstatus.Thiswasnotsurprisingconsideringthe
generousfertiliserapplicationsusedduringthestudy.Grassleyswereshowntoaffectsoil
physicalfertility,inparticulartheabilityofsoilstoresistcrustingandallowrainfalltoinfiltrate.
However, these changes had little impact on soil water during subsequent growing seasons
andresultantyieldsofthepeanutcrops.Thiswasduetoacombinationofintensivetillage
aftertheleyminimisingdifferencesinsoilstructure,andthehighratesofinternaldrainage
andlowplant-availablewaterstorageinthesesoils.Therefore,themeasuredpeanut
rotation responses were more likely due to impacts on soil health, in particular to the
incidenceofsoil-bornepeanutpathogens.
Several known soil-borne peanut pathogens were present at the experimental site during
the study, including root-lesion and root-knot nematodes, crown rot (causal organism
Aspergillus niger), Verticillium wilt (causal organism Verticillium dahliae), collar rot (causal
organism Lasiodiplodia theobromae) and Sclerotinia blight (causal organism Sclerotinia
minor).Theincidenceandseverityofalloftheseorganismsvariedwithseason(e.g.
Sclerotiniablightwasevidentonlyintherelativelywet1993–94season).Theincidenceof
severaloftheseorganismswasaffectedbycroprotation(e.g.Table2),andthecombined
contributionofalloftheknownpathogenstovariationinpeanutyieldwithinanyoneseason
rangedfrom5%to50%.Thesmallestcontributiontoyieldvariationbytheseorganisms
occurred in the poor seasons (years 2, 5 and 8 in Figure 2b), when the predominant yield-
limitingfactorwaswaterdeficit.
Table 2: Effect of crop rotation on the incidence of selected pathogens in the following peanut crop in crop years 7 and 9 (from Figure 2)
Betweenrotationsfortheparticularpathogenandgrowingseason,meansfollowedbythesamelettersarenotsignificantlydifferent
Pathogen or disease
Continuous peanut, winter
fallow
Continuous peanut, winter
oats
Peanut rotated with soybean,
oats, maize
Year 7 Year 9 Year 7 Year 9 Year 7 Year 9
Root-knot nematodes (/g DW root)
465a 1580a 690a 1775a 32b 29b
Root-lesion lesion nematode (/g DW root)
480 215 668 63 376 201
Verticillium wilt at harvest (%plants)
16.5a 47.8a 4.4b 37.8ab 3.7b 23.1b
Sclerotinia blight at harvest (%plants)
0 5.8a 0 3.6a 0 15.9b
Plant mortality due to crown rot (%plants)
23.7a 20.7a 24.6a 17.8a 1.6b 6.3b
Seasonalrainfallconditionshavethegreatestimpactonproductivityofrainfedpeanutcrops
intheinlandBurnett.However,croprotationsinvolvingayearwithoutpeanutsineachfield
will consistently result in greater peanut yields and gross returns than in peanut monocultures,
withresidualbenefitspersistingforafurthertwopeanutcrops.Rotationssignificantlyreduced
theincidenceofknownpeanutpathogens,withthegreatestbenefitsintermsofyieldand
returnsoccurringinhigh-yieldingseasons.Thesefindingswillformthebasisofeconomic
analysestodeterminetheoptimumpeanutfrequencyinthecroppingsystemsofthisregion.9
9 MBell,GHarch,JTatnell,KMiddleton(2003)Theimpactofcroprotationonpeanutproductivityinrainfedcroppingsystems.AustralianAgronomyConference,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2003/c/5/bell.htm
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1.3.2 Pesticide historyOrganochlorideresiduesinthesoilandheavymetalscanbeamajorproblemforgrowing
peanuts.Thepeanutfruitorpodgrowsdirectlyinthesoilandtakesupmanyofitsown
nutrientsthroughthepodwall.Consequently,pesticideresiduesandheavymetalsareoften
takendirectlyintothepeanutasitgrows.Thismaythenrenderthepeanutunfitforhuman
consumption.Allnewpaddocksshouldbetestedforpesticideresiduespriortoplanting
peanuts. 10Formoreinformation,checkwithyourprocessor.
1.4 Benefits of peanuts as a rotation crop
Peanutshavebeenshowntohavebeneficialeffectsonfollow-upcropsofsugarcaneand
cotton.
Insugarcane,peanutscanprovideabreakincanemonoculture,resultinginareductionof
pathogensandhealthiercanestools,aswellasboostingNavailabletothefollow-upcrop
and improving soil structure. Peanuts also have the potential to lengthen ratoons in the
follow-upcanecrop.Accordingto2006datafromthe(then)QueenslandDepartmentof
PrimaryIndustriesandFisheries,caneyieldswereboostedbyatleast20%overthewhole
crop cycle. 11
In2005–06,peanutswerefoundtofix60–90kgN/hainarotationthatincludedcottonand
wheat, at Bonshaw in northern NSW. Peanuts were also thought to assist with control of
nutgrass. 12
10 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
11 PCA.Benefitsofpeanutsincanerotation.PeanutFactSheet.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/factsheets/peanutsandsugarcane.pdf
12 PCA.Cottongrowers:haveyouconsideredpeanuts?PeanutFactSheet.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/factsheets/peanutsandcotton.pdf
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1.5 Disadvantages of peanuts as a rotation crop
Peanutsrequiresignificantsoildisturbancetoreduceharvestlosses(deepripping,inter
row-cultivation),makingthemunsuitableasarotationcropinafullno-tillsituation.
Peanuts have limited herbicide options both pre- and post-emergent, so where herbicide-
resistant weeds are present, peanuts may not be suitable.
Asalegume,peanutsareunsuitableasarotationwithotherlegumecropsbecauseofthe
likelihoodofsharedpestanddiseasebuild-up.
1.6 Pre-plant weed control
Depending on the weed spectrum, weed control pre-planting can be achieved by using
trifluralinorpendimethalinincorporated.13
1.7 Potential crop contaminants
PCArequiresthatallnewpaddocksbetestedforpesticideandheavymetalresiduesprior
to planting. These tests can be carried out at PCA’s Innovation and Technical Centre. 14
Pleasechecktherequirementsofyourchosenprocessor.
1.8 Seedbed requirements
Carefullypreparingthesoilisanimportantpartofsuccessfullygrowingpeanuts.Peanuts
preferaweed-free,moderatelyfineseedbed.Becausetheydevelopanextensiveroot
system, deep ripping to break up soil compaction may be necessary. Peanuts also require
loose soil in which to peg (i.e. re-enter the soil to develop underground nuts). 15
Peanutsproduceadeeptaprootcapableofexploitingmoistureandnutrientreservesdeep
13 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
14 PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
15 PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
i More information
PeanutCompanyof
Australia.
Australian Pesticides
and Veterinary Medicines
Authority.
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intheprofile.Consequently,soilspreparedforpeanutsshouldbefreeofanyhardpansor
compaction layers. Deep ripping is recommended to at least 30 cm depth in heavier soils.
Peanutshavelargeseedanddonotrequireaparticularlyfineseedbed,butgoodsoil–seed
contact is essential to encourage rapid and even germination. Press-wheels on the planter
are essential.
Toencouragegoodcropestablishment,theseedbedshouldberelativelyevenandfree
fromweedsandexcessstubble.Somegrowersareadoptingminimumtillagepracticesto
protectthesoilsurfacefromerosionandtoimprovesoilstructure.Discusstheimplications
ofminimumtillagewithyouragronomist.
Peanuts have been traditionally planted in rows 90 cm apart, as the standard row
configurationandpreferredspacingtominimiselossesduringharvesting.Mostharvesting
equipmentisdesignedtohandlerows90cmapart;despitethis,somegrowershave
plantedrowspacingsrangingfrom65to100cm.Somegrowershaveusedatwin-row
plantingconfigurationforplantings.Fourrowsareplantedwiththetwooutsiderows90cm
apart,andthetwoinsiderows70cmapart.Thisconfigurationleadstofastercanopycover,
reducing weed pressure, and generally improving yields. Twin row is particularly appropriate
forultra-earlyvarieties.
Peanutsarenormallyplantedonflatground,butplantingsinglerowsonahillortworows
on a bed can assist the digging process and improve drainage in wet areas. 16
1.9 Soil moisture
Peanuts are considered a relatively drought-tolerant crop. They have various physiological
mechanismsforavoidingtheeffectsofdroughtandanextensiverootsystemabletoexploit
moisture reserves at depth. Even in drought seasons, peanuts will nearly always produce
someyield.However,fewgrowerscanaffordmediocreyieldsbecauseofthehighinput
costs.Peanutsarebestgrownwheretherainfallisreliableorwhereaccesstoirrigationis
available.
16 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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1.9.1 DrylandPeanutsproduceayieldevenduringdryseasons;however,inadrylandsituationthey
needtobegrowninasummer-dominantrainfallareaof~500mm/seasontoreduceriskof
negative gross margins.
Evenduringdrought,peanutswillnearlyalwaysproducesomeyield,butfewgrowerscan
affordmediocreyieldsbecauseoftheinputcosts.
Toreduceriskindrylandsituations,seasonalforecastsmustbetakenintoaccount,andthe
optionofsupplementaryirrigationispreferableasabackup.17 Peanuts need 600–700 mm
ofwaterovertheseasonforahigh-yieldingcrop.
1.9.2 Irrigation
What will Irrigation do?
Irrigation may be used to manipulate the soil conditions, especially at pegging and at
harvest.Thecropuses2–6ML/ha,dependingonrainfallandsoiltype.Consultan
agronomisttodetermineanappropriateirrigationschedule.Ifwaterislimited,strategicor
supplementary irrigation is recommended.
17 PCA.Irrigationversusdrylandcropping.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/irrigated-vs-dryland-peanuts.php
i More information
Gross margin
assessmentfor dryland
peanut production in
northern Queensland.
Agbiz tools, Queensland
Government.
Researchers monitor
drylandpeanutsfor
Aflatoxinrisk.Media
release, Universityof
Queensland.
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Peanutscanbewateredwithsprinklerssuchascentrepivotsortravelersorbyflood
irrigation (depending upon soil type). Trickle (tape) irrigation can be used in some
circumstances. 18
Irrigatorsshouldavoidholdingoffwateringinfavourofpossibleraintominimisecropstress.
Priortoplanting,budgetfortotalcropwateruseat5–7ML/ha.Peanutsareverysensitive
to water stress, despite their hardiness as a crop. Minimise water stress during the critical
flowering–podfillstages.Stresscanincreasetheincidenceofdiseaseandultimatelyaffect
kernelquality.Lackofuniformityofwaterapplicationisamajorissueoftenarisingfrom
inadequate equipment or poor system design. Soils most suited to peanuts generally
haveverylowwater-holdingcapacity,sowaterusemustbecarefullymonitored.Knowthe
required irrigation intervals to maintain adequate soil water. 19
The600–700mmofwaterrequiredovertheseasonforahigh-yieldingcropcancomefrom
rain,irrigationorstoredsoilmoisture.However,thetotalamountofmoisturethatthecrop
receivesisnotasimportantasthetimingofrainfallorirrigation,whichcanhaveadramatic
effectonbothcropyieldandquality(Table3).
Table 3: Growth stages and irrigation needs of peanuts
Growth stage Irrigation requirementsGermination and emergence Goodmoistureconditionsrequired;irrigationcanensurecropis
planted on time
Vegetative Peanutscantoleratemildwaterstressatthisstage;stressmaybebeneficial.
Peg initiation Nowaterstressatthisstage,verysensitive;useirrigation
Podformationandfilling Nowaterstress;useirrigation
Maturity Decreasing water use as the crop matures
18 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
19 GMills,RRachaputi,GWright,YChauhan,JBarnes(2004)YieldpotentialofpeanutsatMackay—Whatarethe key barriers to obtaining it? GRDC Update Papers, February 2004, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2004/02/Yield-potential-of-peanuts-at-Mackay-What-are-the-key-barriers-to-obtaining-it
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Irrigationschedulingusingasystemofpanevaporationmeasurementsandcropfactors
hasbeenfoundveryeffective.Devicesincludingtensiometers,gypsumblocksand
EnviroSCANprobes,whichprovideindirectmeasurementsofsoilwater,canalsobevery
useful.
Irrigation systems
Ifwaterisavailable,itmaybeusedtoimprovepeanutyieldsandreturns.Themainsystems
usedforirrigatingpeanutsinclude:furrowirrigation,orvariousformsofsprinklerirrigation
including centre pivot, lateral moves, travelling irrigators or solid-set sprinklers. 20
Irrigationsystemsincludesurfaceflow,sprinklersorvariousformsofmicro-ordrip
irrigation. Each has its own uses and relative suitability.
Surface(e.g.floodorfurrow)irrigationissuitedtoheavysoilswithlimiteddeepdrainage,
andtotheapplicationoflargevolumesofwatertolargeareas.Energycostsarelow,
usuallyrelyingongravitytomovewater.Surfaceirrigationisunsuitableforporoussoilsor
‘fussy’cropswhosewaterrequirementsarequitenarrow.
Sprinklersystemsrangefromunder-treetofixedoverheads,rainguns,linearmoveand
centre pivots. These systems can water large areas and are reasonably precise in water
delivery. They require water under pressure to operate, and thus have high energy costs.
Theyhavehighinfrastructurecostsandcanbeanobstacletoflexiblecrophusbandry.In
someregions,remnantnativetreesmayposeproblemsforuseofcentre-pivots.
Micro-irrigationsystemsincludemini-sprinklers,driportrickle,andsubsurfaceirrigation.
Theyallowprecisewaterdeliverytoplantsandtheirroots.Theycanbeusedinavarietyof
conditions and can maintain high-value crops in various soils. They require a pressurised
watersupplyandcanberelativelyexpensivetoinstallbutalsoprovidehighlevelsofwater-
useefficiency.
Systems with increased technology and pressurised water delivery have underpinned
improvementsinwater-useefficiencyinmanyregions.Theygiveirrigatorsmuchmore
controloverwherewatergoes,howmuchisapplied,andhowmuchislosttorunoff,
drainage or evaporation. 21
20 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
21 http://npsi.gov.au/files/products/national-program-sustainable-irrigation/npsi06121/npsi06121-irrigation-essentials-updated.pdf
i More information
Irrigation essentials
updated. National
ProgramforSustainable
Irrigation.
Irrigation system
selection and design
guidelines. Victorian
Resources Online.
ME Qureshi et al. (2002)
Profitabilityofgrowing
sugarcane under
alternative irrigation
systems in the Burdekin
delta.
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1.10 Yield and targets
Yield expectations vary between regions (Table 4).
Table 4: Yield expectations for Queensland crops 22
Region Expected yieldSouthern Queensland dryland 1.5–4.0 t/ha (average 2.5 t/ha)
NorthQueensland(highrainfall)dryland 2.5 – 6.0 t/ha (average 4.0 t/ha)
Irrigated 4.0 to 8.0 t/ha (average 5.0 t/ha)
At the Douglas Daly Research Farm in the Northern Territory, results suggest that 3–4.75 t/
haofpeanutscanbeachievedwithcorrectmanagementtechniques.23
Australianpeanutproducersarecommonlyachievingonly50–70%ofthegeneticyield
potentialofcommercialpeanutvarieties.24
Figure 4:
8000
KingaroyBundabergKununurraP’cheru
6000
4000
2000
00 2000 4000 6000 8000
Sim
ulated
Observed
y = 0.98x = 20.181R2 = 0.825
Peanut pod yield (kg/ha).
Generally growers using better practices are achieving yields in the range 4.5–7.0 t/ha, with
somefarmershavingreportedupto8.0t/ha(Figure4).Frequentlyyieldsdonotexceed6.0
t/ha.Failuretoalignwiththeessentialelementsofbestmanagementpractices(BMP)in
peanutproductiongenerallyresultsineitherfailuretoachievetargetyieldsoraconsistent
declineinyieldsoverensuingyears(Table5).BMPrelatesbothtothemanagementfactors
employedintheoverallfarmingsystemandtothespecificmanagementtechniquesapplied
to peanut crop agronomy and management operations. New peanut growers have an
excellentopportunitytoimplementBMPfromstart-upbecauseofthecollectiveexperience
ofresearchersandagronomistsandthevaluablepracticalknowledgeoffellowpeanut
producers.
TheGrainsResearchandDevelopmentCorporation(GRDC)-fundedproject‘Best
ManagementPracticesintheProductionofHighInputPeanuts’conductedbythe
22 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
23 CHam(2004)GrowingpeanutsintheTopEndoftheNT(Arachis hypogaeaL.).NTDepartmentofPrimaryIndustry, Fisheries and Mines, http://www.nt.gov.au/d/Content/File/p/Crop/177.pdf
24 GMills,RRachaputi,GWright,YChauhan,JBarnes(2004)YieldpotentialofpeanutsatMackay—Whatarethe key barriers to obtaining it? GRDC Update Papers, February 2004, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2004/02/Yield-potential-of-peanuts-at-Mackay-What-are-the-key-barriers-to-obtaining-it
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Research trial results
DepartmentofAgricultureFisheriesandForestryQueensland(DAFF)hasallowed
successfulandsustainablepeanutproductionmethodstobedocumentedandmade
readily available.
Table 5: Factors causing production loss in peanuts
Factor causing production loss Approx. loss (%)Inadequate/poor irrigation management 20%
Poor rotations yield decline 20%
Poor harvest management (losses wet harvests) 15%
Diseases(Cylindrocladiumblackrot,soil-borneandfoliardiseases) 10%
Inadequate plant stands or plant populations 15%
Poor weed management 10%
Poornutrition(micro-+macro-nutrientdeficiency) 10%
Total 100%
Importantly, new production environments such as Mackay and the Burdekin will present
newchallengesfordefiningBMPgiventhespecificconditionsthatapplyineachregion,
particularly in relation to optimum planting and harvesting windows. However, the essential
rulesforsuccessfulproductionremainthesameacrossregions.BMPfocuseson
sustainableyieldinaprofitableframeworkinvolvingthewholefarmingsystem.25
1.10.1 Seasonal outlookFormoreinformation,visittheBureauofMeteorology, Climate outlooks.
1.10.2 Fallow moisture and double-croppingThe Agricultural Production Systems Simulator model (APSIM) was used to simulate the
relativebenefitsofdouble-cropping(wheatandpeanuts)overpeanutswithawinterfallow
intheBurnettdistrictofQueensland.Simulationresultsdemonstratedthat,ingeneral,
double-croppingcouldbepracticedsuccessfullyintheSouthBurnett.26
Background
Double-croppingisfrequentlypracticedonRedFerrosolsintheBurnettdistrict.Wheatis
commonlyplantedafterpeanutswithverylittlestoredwateratplanting.Insomeinstances,
wheatisplantedalmostimmediatelyafterapeanutcropifplantingrainfall(25mm)has
occurred. In many cases, the resulting wheat crop is not viable. Questions have been
raisedaboutthevalidityofthisdouble-croppingpractice:howoftendoesthewheatcrop
jeopardisethefollowingpeanutcrop,andwhatarethelong-termyieldsforwheatand
peanuts planted in this way?
One way to address this issue is with simulation models. APSIM is a cropping system
25 GMills,RRachaputi,GWright,YChauhan,JBarnes(2004),YieldpotentialofpeanutsatMackay—Whatare the key barriers to obtaining it? GRDC Update Papers, February 2004, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2004/02/Yield-potential-of-peanuts-at-Mackay-What-are-the-key-barriers-to-obtaining-it
26 RD Connolly, M Bell, G Wright (1998) Simulating peanut/wheat cropping in the Burnett with APSIM. 9thAustralianAgronomyConference,AustralianSocietyofAgronomy,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/1998/9/177connolly.htm
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Research trial results
modelcapableofintegratingtheeffectsofweather,soilandcroppingmanagement.We
usedAPSIMtoinvestigatetheviabilityofdouble-croppingintheBurnett.
APSIMwasparameterisedforatypicalRedFerrosolsoilnearKingaroy.Twocropping
systemsweresimulated:peanutfollowingwheat,andpeanutwithawinterfallow.Plant-
availablewater(PAW)capacityforthesoilsimulatedwas110mmtoadepthof1.8m.The
lowerlimitofwaterextractionforthetwocropswasderivedfromexperimentaldata.Inthe
model,wheatwasplantedbetween1Mayand31Julywhenavailablewaterinthetop0.50
mwas>25mm.Peanutswereplantedbetween15Octoberand31Decemberon≥55mm
ormorePAWinthetop0.50m.A90-yearweatherrecordforKingaroywasused.
Outcomes
Simulated median peanut yields were 2.8 t/ha in the peanut–wheat rotation and 2.9 t/ha
inthepeanut-onlysystem.Thedistributionsofpeanutyieldsfromthepeanut–wheatand
peanut-only systems were similar. This indicated that, on average, wheat did not reduce
plantingsoilmoistureoryieldofthefollowingpeanutcrop.Thiswasbecausethepeanut
cropcommonlyreceivedadequatesoilwaterafterplantingtomaintainyields.Evenifsoil
water at planting was high, low in-crop rain could result in low peanut yields. In general, a
winterfallowdidnotresultinimprovedutilisationofrainfallforpeanutgrowth,orincreased
yields. 27
1.10.3 Water-use efficiencyPeanutsandothertropicallegumesoftenfacewaterstress,butplantingcultivarswithhigh
water-useefficiencycanminimisetheyieldlossesintimesofstress.
Go‘on-farm’tohearQueenslandpeanutgrowersdiscusswateruseefficiency.
27 RD Connolly, M Bell, G Wright (1998) Simulating peanut/wheat cropping in the Burnett with APSIM. 9thAustralianAgronomyConference,AustralianSocietyofAgronomy,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/1998/9/177connolly.htm
i More information
RD Connolly et al. (1998)
Simulating peanut/wheat
cropping in the Burnett
with APSIM. Australian
Agronomy Conference.
PCA/DPIF. Managing
weeds.
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Research trial results
Researchshowsthatremote-sensingimageryofirrigatedpeanutcropswithsimpleairborne
digitalvideocamerasystemsoffersgrowersandconsultantsacost-effectivetechniqueforthe
assessmentofspatialvariabilityincropperformance.Imagesofnear-infraredreflectance(NIR)
takenfromirrigatedpeanutcrops(pivots)insouthernQueenslandshowedmajorvariability
arisingfromcropstress,mostlikelyaresultofpoorirrigationdistributionand/orpoorwater
infiltration(Figure5).
TheNIRfrompeanutcropstaken~4–6weeksbeforeharvestwashighlycorrelatedwithfinal
podyield,andthisoffersapotentialyield-forecastingtechniqueforgrowersandindustry.The
closeassociationalsoallowsanassessmentofthemagnitudeoftheyielddeficitresultingfrom
spatialvariability(or‘yieldgap’).Thisprovidesgrowersandconsultantswithausefulmethodto
calculatetheeconomicimpactofreducingtheyieldgapintheirownfieldsandhaspotentialfor
useasastrategictooltoidentifyproblemsandimprovevariousaspectsofcropmanagement.
The research has shown that NIR images can provide growers with indicative yield maps and
the likely yield gap and resulting reduction in gross income prior to harvest. The imagery can
directcropinspectionandhencethedetectionandearlywarningofwater,disease,nutrientand
otherstressesforpotentialin-seasonmanagement.ThestrongrelationshipbetweenNIRand
podyieldinpeanutcropsalsosuggestspotentialforusingthetechnologyasayield-forecasting
toolforregionalirrigatedandrainfedproduction,withasignificantpotentialroleinotherfield
crops. 28
Figure 5: Peanut pivot in the Texas region, Queensland, showing extreme crop variability associated with poor soil infiltration and distribution in the outer pivot.
28 GWright,ARobson,GMills(2004)Applicationofremotesensingtechnologiestoimproveyieldandwater-useefficiencyinirrigatedpeanuts.12thAustralianAgronomyConference,AustralianSocietyofAgronomy,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2004/poster/1/5/698_wrightg.htm
i More information
D Rowland et al. (2004)
Variation in water-use
efficiencyofpeanut
varieties across peanut
production regions.
Australian Agronomy
Conference.
PCA/DPIF. Irrigation
system design.
PCA/DPIF. Crop
modelling and
AQUAMAN.
G Wright et al. (1994)
Water-useefficiency
and carbon isotope
discrimination in peanut
underwaterdeficit
conditions. Crop Science
34.
i More information
D Rowland et al. (2012) Variation in carbon isotope ratio and its relation to other traits in peanut
breedinglinesandcultivarsfromU.S.trials.Journal of Plant Breeding and Crop Science 4.
G Wright et al.(2004)Applicationofremotesensingtechnologiesto improve yield and water-
useefficiencyinirrigatedpeanuts.AustralianAgronomyConference.
KT Hubick et al. (1986) Correlation betweenwater-useefficiencyandcarbonisotope
discrimination in diverse peanut (Arachis) germplasm. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 13.
P Songsri et al.(2013)Associationofstomatalconductanceand root distribution with water-use
efficiencyofpeanutunderdifferent soil water regimes. Australian Journal of Crop Science 7.
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1.10.4 Nitrogen-use efficiencyLike other legumes, peanuts are able to produce their own N via a symbiotic relationship
withastrainofthesoilbacteriarhizobia.Thesebeneficialbacteriainfectthepeanutroot
systemandformscharacteristicnodules,fromwhichN2gasis‘fixed’fromtheatmosphere.
TheNisthenavailabletotheplantforgrowthanddevelopment.Forpeanuts,useGroupP
rhizobial inoculum.
NotalllegumesgrownbyAustralianfarmershavethesamecapacityforN2fixation(Table
6).Ofthecroplegumes,navybeansareweak,fixingonly~20%oftheirneedswith
theremaindersuppliedfromsoilandfertilisersources.Ontheotherhand,fababeans,
lupinsandsoybeansthathavegoodcapacityforN2fixation.Peanuts,fieldpeas,lentils,
mungbeans and chickpeas are in between. 29
Table 6: Estimates of the amounts of N2 fixed annually by crop legumes in Australia (source: primarily Unkovich et al. 2010)
%Ndfa,PercentageoflegumeNderivedfromN2fixation;DM,drymatter;rootN=shootN×0.5(soybeans),1.0(chickpeas)or0.4(remainder);totalNfixed=%Ndfa×totalcropN
Legume %NdfaShoot DM
(t/ha)
Shoot N Root N Total crop N Total N
(kg/ha)
Soybeans 48 10.8 250 123 373 180
Lupins 75 5.0 125 51 176 130
Faba beans 65 4.3 122 50 172 110
Field peas 66 4.8 115 47 162 105
Peanuts 36 6.8 190 78 268 95
Chickpeas 41 5.0 85 85 170 70
Lentils 60 2.6 68 28 96 58
Mungbeans 31 3.5 77 32 109 34
Navy beans 20 4.2 105 43 148 30
1.11 Disease status of paddock
Peanuts are susceptible to several soil-borne diseases, especially Sclerotinia blight, white
mould and Cylindrocladium black rot. Good rotational practices, crop management and
hygienearethebestdefencesagainstthesediseases.Limitedfungicideoptionsare
available to combat peanut soil diseases.
Soil-borne diseases can lead to substantial yield and quality loss. Although some
productsareavailabletolessentheeffectsofthesediseases,thebestpolicyistofollow
a recommended rotational program (involving grass or cereal crops) and practice good
cultural management. In particular, excessively aggressive cultivation should be avoided,
especially where soil is pushed against the plant.
Sclerotinia blight can be particularly devastating in some areas. It is recommended that a
registeredfungicidespraybeusedandappliedasaprotectantbeforesymptomsappear.
29 DHerridge(2013)ManaginglegumeandfertiliserNfornortherngrainscropping.GRDC,http://grdc.com.au/GRDC-Booklet-Managing-Fertiliser-N
i More information
DEEDI Qld. Rhizobium
inoculation. Get the best
fromyourlegumecrop.
i More information
D Herridge (2013)
Managing legume and
fertiliserNfornorthern
grains cropping. GRDC.
GC Wright, GL Hammer
(1994) Distributionof
nitrogen and radiation
useefficiencyinpeanut.
Australian Journal of
agricultural Research 45.
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Thismaybeasearlyaswhenthecropis6–8weeksold,orwhenthefirstflowerpetals
drop.Oneortwofollow-upfungicideapplicationsmayberequiredifsymptomsdevelop. 30
1.12 Insect status of paddock
Peanuts can tolerate higher insect thresholds than other, more determinate crops, because
theycompensategrowthfollowingdamage.
Peanuts are indeterminate in vegetative and reproductive development. This means the
plantsdonotstopgrowinginordertoflowerandproduceacrop.Theycontinuetogrow
leavesandstemswhilealsofloweringandsettingpods.Thepodsmustthereforecompete
withtheshootsforcarbohydrateandnutrients.
In traditional peanut-growing areas (e.g. the South Burnett), soil pests can cause major
economic damage. Foliar pests rarely cause economic damage. The worst soil-insect
damageusuallyoccurswherethereisalonghistoryofpeanutgrowingwithfewnon-
legume crops in the rotation.
In drought years, Etiella is a major problem in dryland crops. Etiella larvae are able to
reachthepodsindrysoil,anddamagedpodsareatgreatlyincreasedriskofaflatoxin
contamination. Most other pest problems occur only occasionally.
As peanuts expand into newer areas, some pests, such as Helicoverpa, mites and mirids,
will be a more constant problem. Soil pests are likely to become important in newer areas
asmorepeanutsaregrown,andnewspeciesmaybeencounteredthatarespecificto
the soil type in question. Pest damage to peanuts can start as soon as the crop is planted
anditcontinuesuntilmaturity.Underintensiveproduction,anumberofpestswillwarrant
control. 31
30 PHarden,LWieck,GWright(2013)Peanutproductionguide,August2013.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2013.pdf
31 DAFF(2010)Insectpestmanagementinpeanuts.DepartmentofAgriculture,FisheriesandForestryQueensland, https://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/field-crops-and-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/integrated-pest-management/ipm-information-by-crop/peanuts
i More information
P Harden et al. (2103)
Peanut production guide.
PCA.
i More information
DAFF (2010) Soil insects
in Queensland.
H Brier et al. (2012)
Good bug? Bad bug?
Anidentificationguide
forpestsandbeneficial
insects in summer
pulses, soybeans,
peanuts and chickpeas.
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SECTION 2
Pre-planting
2.1 Varietal performance and ratings yield
In 2014, a 5-year license agreement was implemented between the processors Peanut
CompanyofAustralia(PCA)andG.CrumptonandSon,andPCAandCliftonFarming.
TheagreementallowsaccesstoallcurrentandfuturePCAvarieties(Table1).Theonly
exclusionwillbefora2-yearperiodforany‘introduced’varietycommerciallyreleasedthat
waspartofthePCAprogrampriorto1July2007.
All growers need a Sub-License Agreement to grow any PBR variety.
Seedisnotapartofthelicenseagreement.Whenavarietyiscommerciallyreleased,PCA
willprovidepureseedtotheotherprocessorsbasedontheirshareofthecrop.Eachparty
willthenberesponsiblefortheprovisionofseedtotheircontractedgrowers.
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Table 1: Peanut variety summary 2014–15
Thistableisaguidetovarietalselection.Consultyourlocalpeanutagronomistforspecificrecommendationonvarietiesforyourfarm.PBR,PlantBreeder’sRights:thesevarietiesareprotectedundertheAustralianPlantBreedersRights Act 1994 and the regulation therein
Generally recommended for: Susceptible to:
Variety Type
Weeks (Days) To Maturity South Qld (Approx)
Growth Habit
Peg Strength
Seed Size
Dryland – South Qld
North Qld Irrigated & High Rainfall Dryland
Irrigated Central & South Qld
Leaf Diseases
Soilborne Diseases
Wheeler p Virginia 20 (140) Erect Medium Large Yes No Yes Yes (Highly susceptible to net blotch)
Yes, maybe some tolerance to CBR
Middleton p Virginia 19 (135) Semi-erect
Medium Large Yes No Yes Yes (Highly susceptible to net blotch)
Some tolerance toAflatoxinIncidence
Fisher p Virginia 20 (140) Semi-erect
Medium Large Yes No South Qld only CQ - No
Yes (Some tolerance to net blotch andleafspot)
Some resistance to CBR Tolerance to Sclerotinia
Menzies p Runner 20 (140) Semi-prostrate
High Medium No Yes No Yes Some tolerance to CBR and White Mould
Holt p Runner 20 (140) Semi-prostrate
High Medium - Large
Yes (Consult Agronomist)
Yes Yes Yes Some resistance to CBR. Some tolerance to Sclerotinia and White Mould
Page p Runner 19 (135) Semi-prostrate
High Medium Yes (Consult Agronomist)
Yes (Consult Agronomist)
Yes Yes Some resistance to CBR Tolerance to Sclerotinia, White Mould & Fusarium
Redvale p Ultra Early
15 (105) Erect High Medium Yes (Consult Agronomist)
Yes (Consult Agronomist)
Yes (Consult Agronomist)
Yes Limited tolerance to rust (Susceptible to net blotch)
Susceptible to CBR
Redvaleisavaluablevarietyoptionforgrowersinallregions.Indrylandareasinsouthern
Queensland,Redvalecanavoidend-of-seasondroughtandhenceaflatoxinrisk,yetcan
still produce a high-yielding crop with good grades in above-average seasons.
Incoastalregions,Redvaleoffersanearly-maturingoptionforearlyorlateplantingtoallow
alegumebreak-croptobetterfitintoacanesystem.Itwilluseupto30%lesswaterand
fungicidesthanothervarieties,yetstillyield>5t/haifmanagedproperly.
In North Queensland, Redvale hasperformedverywellunderwetconditions.Itisworth
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consideringwhereagrowerwantstominimisecropinputs(irrigation,fungicides)yetstill
havethepotentialforyieldsof>4.5t/ha.1
2.1.1 Hi Oleic varieties‘HiOleic’isareferencetotherelativelevelsofoleicandlinoleicacid(orO/Lratio)inthe
peanutkernels.Thebalanceofthesetwooilsdeterminestheincreaseinrancidityovertime,
i.e.keeping-qualityorshelflife.OlderpeanutvarietieshaveanO/Lratiointherange1–2.
NewervarietieshaveanO/Lratiointherange20–40.Thisgreatlyimprovestheirshelflife
andflavour.AllvarietiesavailablefromPCAareHiOleic.2
2.1.2 Yielding abilityA peanut grower’s income is determined largely by the yield and quality achieved. Like
many crops, substantial variations in yield may exist. Climatically, some areas may have
differentyieldpotential,anddifferencesdoexistamongvarieties.However,management
factorsareoftenamajordeterminantoffinalyield,socaremustbetakenwithallaspectsof
growing the crop.
Similarly,kernelqualitycanbeinfluencedbymanagementfactors.Growersaredirectlypaid
onkernelquality;therefore,itisimportantthattheyunderstandwhichmanagementfactors
candirectlyaffectkernelquality.
These include:
• goodcroprotationandfreedomfromdisease
• good nutrition, especially calcium (Ca) and boron
• good irrigation/moisture management
• optimum maturity determination
• good harvesting conditions
• controlled drying
1 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
2 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
i More information
New peanut showcases
‘speed breeding’. GRDC
Ground Cover Issue 92.
i More information
PCA. Hi Oleic peanut
summary.
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On-farmyieldisnormallymeasuredintonnesperhectare(t/ha)offarmers’stockpeanuts,
whichmeansunshelledpods(in-shell)cleanedofextraneousmatterandatthemoisture
contentusedforgrowerpaymentcalculation.
Underexcellentconditions,theRunnerandVirginiavarietiesarecapableofyields>7t/ha.
Theultra-earlyvarietiestendtoyieldless,butarestillcapableofyieldsof5t/ha.
Thedifferentvarietiesproducedifferentlevelsofshell;growersshouldbeawareof
thisbecausetheyarenotpaidfortheirshell.Runnertypesproduce19–22%shelland
Virginiatypes,22–25%shell.Well-grown,irrigatedcropswillbeatthelowerendofshell
percentage,whereasimmatureanddrought-affectedcropsgenerallyexhibithighershell
percentages. 3
Ultra-early varieties, such as Tingoora ,canescapeend-of-seasondroughtsandgive
reliableyield.Ultra-earlymaturityalsoprovidesashort-rotationoptionforhigh-inputgrowers
(i.e.irrigatedregionsinsouthernandNorthQueensland)wherecommercialpodyieldsof>5
t/ha have been achieved.
3 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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However,ultra-earlyvarietieswillhaveloweryieldpotentialthanfull-seasonvarietiesin
seasonswithgoodrainfall.
ThepeanutvarietySutherlandhasdemonstratedsignificantlyhigherlevelsofresistanceto
rust (caused by Puccinia arachidis)andlateleafspot(causedbyCercosporidium
personatum) than currently grown varieties such as Menzies and Holt. It gives growers
anothermethodofmanagingleafdiseaseinpeanutcrops.4
2.2 Quality of planting seed
Peanut seed is easily damaged and must be treated as gently as possible. Once a seed is
split, the two halves will not germinate.
Seedistreatedwithfungicidebeforeplantingtoreduceseedlingdiseases.Itisnot
worthwhileforfarmerstoplantuntreatedseed,becausegerminationrateswilldropto
<40%.
Plantingcanstartanytimeafterthesoiltemperaturereaches18°Catplantingdepth(50–70
mm).Thisismeasuredat09:00(9am)for3daysinarow.Plantingisdelayedifrainis
expectedwithin3–4days.Plantingisalsotimedtoensurethatthecropisreadyforharvest
beforefrostsbeginandwhenthereisalowriskofrain.
Inhigh-rainfallareas,formationofraisedbedspriortoplantingmaybenecessary.5
2.2.1 Growing peanuts for seedPeanutseedismoredelicatethanmostotherseedandneedscareandattentionfrom
plantingoftheseedcropthroughharvesting,drying,shellingandseedpreparation.
Growingpeanutsforseedisaspecialistactivitybecausehigh-qualityseedisessentialto
4 GRDC(2010)Newvarietiesaddanothertoolinleafdiseasemanagement.ManagingLeafDiseasesinPeanutsFact Sheet, Summer 2010, GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_FS_Peanutleafdisease.FINAL.pdf
5 PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
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ensure optimum plant populations. The industry requires quality seed with high germination
rates, vigour and purity.
Peanutgerminationandvigourcanbeaffectedanytimethroughthegrowingseason.
Particularattentionmustbepaidtocropnutrition,managementofweedsanddiseases,
minimising moisture stress, and correct harvesting and drying techniques.
Clean land
Landmustbefreeofweedsandvolunteerpeanuts.Preferredpaddockshavenotgrown
peanutsforatleast3yearsanddonothaveahistoryofsoil-bornediseases.Contamination
ofseedcropsfrompeanutvolunteersofadifferentvarietyisamajorconcern.
Goodrotationsareneededtoachievecleanlandstatus.Preferredrotationsinclude
pastures, sugarcane, and grain crops such as maize, sorghum, wheat and barley.
Clean machinery
Peanutseedmustbekeptseparatefromallotherpeanuts.Allhandlingequipmentshould
be cleaned to avoid contamination.
Allmachinerymustbefreeofkernelsandpods.Thisincludesplanters,diggers,threshers,
elevators, drying bins, silos and trucks.
Irrigation
Ifwaterisavailable,irrigationcanensuregoodyieldsanddramaticallyimproveseedquality
butneedstobeconsideredintermsofbudgetandrisk.
Supplementary calcium
Peanuts,especiallyseedcrops,haveahighrequirementforCa.LowseedCaresultsin
poor germination.
Supplementary Ca can be applied as lime or gypsum, and in combination with irrigation, it
canmakeabigdifferencetogermination.
Limeispreferredifthesoilsareacidic.Ideally,thelimeshouldbeappliedandlightly
incorporatedbeforeplanting.Ratesareusually2.5–3.5t/ha.
GypsumisthepreferredoptionforapplyingCabecauseitismoresolubleandmore
availablethanlime.Gypsumisbestappliedclosetofloweringat1t/haoverthewholecrop
or banded over the row at 400–600 kg/ha. Lime can also be applied over the row where
soilsareacidic,butitmustbeappliedsoonafteremergence.
Maturity
Check crops regularly as harvest nears. The hull scrape method will help to determine the
best time to dig. Slightly immature kernels give better physical quality than over-mature
ones.
i More information
QDPI/CSIRO. Managing
cadmium in summer
grain legumesfor
premium quality produce.
Cadmium. Nuts2u.
Incitec Pivot Fertilisers.
Gypsum.
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Digging and threshing
Diggersthatinvertpeanutsarepreferredforseedcropsbecauseinvertedpeanutsdry
uniformlyandquickly.
Threshingisoneofthemostcriticalaspectsofseedproduction.Theimpactreceived
duringimproperthreshingmaydamagepeanuts,makingthemunsuitableforseed.
Mechanical injury causes broken or bruised seed tissue. Such damage leads to seed
deteriorationinstorage,increasingthechanceoffungalinvasionoftheseed.
Physicaldamagetotheseedisoneofthecausesofthe‘J-shaped’rootsystemthatcan
developwhenpeanutsaretryingtoestablish.Plantswithdeformedrootsystemsdonot
yield as well as those with a normal root system.
Slow cylinder speeds are essential. As conditions change throughout the day, the harvested
cropshouldbecheckedforlooseshellkernelandhulldamage.
Allowthepeanutbushtodrysufficientlyinthewindrowbeforethreshing.Greenbushesare
toughandrequireaggressivethreshingactiontoseparatethepodsfromthebush.Moisture
contentof18–22%isideal(Table2).
Table 2: Effect of seed moisture at threshing on germination
Source: Six steps to high quality peanut seed. North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service
Threshing moisture Average germination<20% 89%
20–25% 84%
>26% 75%
Drying
Peanutsforseedshouldgenerallybepre-cleanedbeforedrying.
Seed can be easily damaged by over-drying, rapid drying and/or drying at overly high
temperatures. Drying damage can result in poor germination and poor shelling quality, with
an increase in splits and skin slippage.
Peanutsforseedshouldbedriedatamaximumof35°C,andnomorethan7°Cabove
ambientairtemperature.Theminimumrelativehumidityforseedis65%,comparedwith
50%forcommercialcrops.Moistureshouldnotberemovedfasterthan0.5%perhour.
Peanut seed contracts
PCA has a program to produce seed peanuts. This aims to provide the industry with quality
seed with high germination rate and varietal purity. Growers are contracted to produce this
seedandmustmeetspecificconditionsincludingpaddockandmachineryclean-down
inspections,calciumapplicationandpreferablyirrigation. 6
6 PCA/DPIF(2007)Peanutseedproduction.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/7a_other_seed.pdf
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SECTION 3
Planting
Peanuts in northern New South Wales (NSW) and Queensland are usually grown through
summer,plantedanywherefromSeptembertoearlyJanuary.IntheNorthernTerritory,
irrigated peanuts can also be planted in March and harvested in September. The crop
usuallytakes18–24weeksfromplantingtodigging.Growingthroughthesummermonths
meansthatthecropcantakeadvantageofavailablerainfall.
Planningfortheharvestisessentialwhendeterminingwhentoplant.Plantingshouldbe
timedtoavoidrainatharvestandthelikelihoodoffrosts.
Soiltemperaturesshouldbemonitoredregularlyasplantingapproaches.Keeptrackofthe
soil temperature at the desired planting depth (e.g. 50 mm). Measure the soil temperature
at 09:00 (9am).
Aminimumsoiltemperatureof18°Cisrequiredforgermination(measuredat50mm
depth at 9am). Soil temperatures can be measured using a probe thermometer, or likely
soiltemperaturescanbefoundattheBureauofMeteorology (Agricultural observations
bulletins: NSW, Northern Territory, Queensland).
Temperaturehasamajorinfluenceonpeanutgrowthanddevelopment.Peanutgrowthis
favouredbywarmtemperatures>25°C.Drymatterproductiondropsby~25%whennight
temperaturesreach15°Candby50%whennighttemperaturesdropto9°C.
Careshouldalwaysbetakenwhenhandlingpeanutseed.Theseedislargeandfragileand
easilydamaged.Neverdroporwalkonbagsofpeanutseedanddonotleavetheseedin
direct sunlight. 1 Once a seed is split, the two halves will not germinate. 2
3.1 Seed dressings
Seedmustbetreatedwitharecommendedfungicideseeddressing(checkregistrations
at APVMA)toreducetheincidenceofseedlingdiseases.Itisnotworthplantinguntreated
peanutseedbecausegerminationisoften<20%. 3
1 L Wieck, P Harden, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/ growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
2 PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
3 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropestablishment.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3d_establish.pdf
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3.2 Inoculation
Peanutsarealegume.Theyareabletofixnitrogen(N2)fromtheatmospherevianodules
ontheirrootsystem.Thesenodulesarecausedbyatypeofbacteriacalledrhizobia,which
infecttheplant’srootsystem.FailureoftheplantstonodulatewillreduceN-fixingabilityand
lower yields.
Native rhizobia exist in many soils, but it is recommended that growers inoculate their
peanutstoensuregoodnodulationandanadequatesupplyofN.Therhizobialstrainused
intheinoculantisanimprovedstrain,designedspecificallyforpeanuts(GroupP),andis
regardedasmoreeffectivethanthenativestrainsinthesoil.
Growersstrivingformaximumyieldsshouldinoculatetheirpeanutseveryseason.
Waterinjectionisthebestmethodforapplyingthepeatinoculant.Donotmixtheinoculant
intoaslurryandapplytotheseed;thiswilldamagetheseed.
Granular inoculant (when available) can be applied via granular application boxes,
commonlyusedforapplyinggranularsoilpesticides,etc.However,theapplicationof
granular inoculant and granular pesticides together is not recommended. 4
3.3 Germination
InQueensland,certifiedpeanutseedmusthaveaminimumgerminationrateof80%. 5
3.4 Reduced tillage
Peanutsaremoredifficulttogrowusingreducedtillageorno-tillagemethodsthanmost
othercrops.Peanutsneedloosesoilforthecroptopegintoandtomakediggingeasier.
This is generally achieved through deep ripping prior to planting.
Fieldtrialsofno-tillpeanutsplantedintowheatstubbleintheBurnettareaofQueensland
haveyieldedmixedresults.Onsandiersoils,outcomesarelikelytobebetter,particularlyif
thesoilishard-settingwithpoorwaterinfiltration.Commercialevaluationofno-tillplanting
intosugarcaneresidueshowslittleornodifferenceinyieldcomparedwithconventional
planting.No-tillinthesugarcanerotationwillbecomemorebeneficialascontrolledtraffic
practices increase.
Weedcontrolisoftenmorecostlyintermsofchemicaluseunderaminimum-tillagesystem
becauseinter-rowcultivationisnotused.However,thiscanbeoffsetbyreducedmachinery
andfuelcosts.
OnthelighterredscrubandforestsoilsoftheBurnettregion,podlossesfromcuttingand
pullingthecropfromreduced-tillandno-tillblocksweremuchlessthanexpected.
4 L Wieck, P Harden, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
5 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropestablishment.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3d_establish.pdf
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Somegrowersusestriptillage,wheretheplantbediscultivatedandtheinter-rowisleft
uncultivated. GPS-controlled machinery enables the operator to maintain the beds in the
samepositionfromoneseasontothenext.6
Consideringthatwateristhemostlimitingresourceintherainfedenvironmentofthe
Burnett,minimumtillreducestheamountofrainfallrequiredtoprepareaseedbed.7
3.5 Time of planting
Plantingcanstartanytimeafterthesoiltemperaturesatplantingdepthreach18–20°Cat
9amfor3daysinarow.Delayplantingifthesoiliscoolorifrainisexpectedwithin3–4
days.
Plantingshouldbetimedtoensurethatthecropisreadyforharvestattheendofthewet
seasonandbeforethefirstfrost(Table1).Spanishandultra-earlytypesmatureearlierthan
Virginiaandrunnertypes,sotheycanbeplanted2–3weekslater.Insomepartsofcoastal
and northern Queensland (near Cairns), and the Northern Territory, peanuts can grow over
the winter months but growth is limited. 8
Table 3: Preferred and possible planting times for Virginia and runner peanuts
Region Preferred PossibleNorthern NSW and southern Qld Mid Oct.–late Nov. Start Oct.–mid Dec.
Central Qld Mid Nov.–mid Dec. MidSept.–earlyJan.
Atherton Tableland and Lakeland Mid Nov.–mid Dec. MidNov.–lateJan.
Bundaberg Early Sept.–mid Dec. Mid Sept.–end Dec.
Mackay Sept. (ultra-early varieties) mid Nov.–mid Dec.
Sept.–Jan.
3.6 Seeding rate
Althoughpeanutscancompensateforsuboptimalplantpopulations,thecropcannotmake
upforpoorplantstandsorlargegaps.
To achieve the correct plant density, calculate the required seeding rate to ensure that
adequatenumbersofseedsareplantedregardlessofseedsize(Table2).ForVirginia
andrunnertypes,anacceptableplantpopulationunderfullirrigationis130,000–150,000
plants/ha.Aimforpopulationsofupto180,000plants/haforSpanishorultra-earlyvarieties
underfullirrigation.Table3providestheseednumberspermetreofrowneededtoachieve
the desired plant population.
Underdrylandconditions,Virginiaandrunnertypesrequireratesof50,000–60,000
plants/ha in southern Queensland and 80,000–90,000 plants/ha in North Queensland.
6 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropestablishment.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3d_establish.pdf
7 RMason,JPage,MCloete.UsingminimumtillageandcontrolledtraffictoreducetheriskofcroppingintheBurnett, http://actfa.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Using-minimum-tillage-and-controlled-traffic-to-reduce-the-risk-of-cropping-in-the-Burnett-R-Mason-et.-al..pdf
8 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropestablishment.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3d_establish.pdf
i More information
R Mason et al. Using
minimum tillage and
controlledtrafficto
reduce theriskof
cropping in the Burnett.
Y Dang et al. (2013)
Tillage impact in long
term no-till GRDC
Update Paper.
GRDC (2007) Why
Australia has the world’s
greatest herbicide
resistance problem.
GRDC Ground Cover
Issue 68.
EA Roesner (1998)
Minimumtillageeffects
on soil structure
measured using image
analysis. Australian
AgronomyConference.
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Plant Spanish or ultra-early types at a rate to give 120,000–150,000 plants/ha in North
Queensland and 80,000 plants/ha in southern Queensland.
Afieldestablishmentof<80%istypical.Thereareseveralreasonsforthislow
establishment rate, including peanut susceptibility to seedling diseases despite seed
dressings,soilinsectdamagetoseedduringproductionandplanting,andthedifficultyof
producing good-quality seed. 9
Table 4: Planting rates (kg/ha) required for different-sized peanut seed to achieve desired plant populations, assuming 80% field establishment
Plant population (no. of plants/ha)
No. of seeds per kg:
750 1060 1300 1400 1600 1800
60,000 100 71 58 54 47 42
80,000 133 94 77 71 63 56
100,000 167 118 96 89 78 69
120,000 200 142 116 108 94 84
140,000 233 165 135 125 109 97
160,000 266 188 154 142 126 112
Table 5: Seed numbers per metre of row required to achieve desired plant populations
Plant population (no. of plants/ha)
Row spacing (cm)
86 cm 91 cm 96 cm 102 cm
60,000 5 5.5 6 6
80,000 7 7 8 8
100,000 9 9 10 10
120,000 10 11 12 12
140, 000 12 13 14 14
160,000 14 15 15 16
3.7 Sowing depth
Depthofplantingisnotascriticalforpeanutsasitisformostothercrops.Theidealis
50–70mmdeep,butplantingdepthsmayrangefrom35to100mm.Wherepeanutsare
tobeplantedintodrysoilandthenfurrow-irrigated,plantat25–35mmdepthtoavoid
waterlogging the seed.
Thepeanutseedislarge,andinordertogerminate,itmustabsorb35%ofitsweightin
water. Large-seeded varieties such as Wheeler and Middleton need better soil moisture
at planting than small-seeded varieties such as the Spanish and ultra-early types. All seed
mustbeplacedintomoistsoil,withnodrybandsofsoilintheprofile.
Ifmoistureandtemperatureareacceptable,theemergingseedlingisverystrongandcan
breakthroughsoilsurfacecrusts. 10
9 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropestablishment.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3d_establish.pdf
10 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropestablishment.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3d_establish.pdf
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3.8 Row configuration
Fieldtrialshaveshownthatgrowingultra-earlyvarietiesintwin-rowconfigurationsandat
increasedplantpopulationscanleadtoyieldscomparabletothoseoffull-seasonvarieties.
Trialshaveshownthatwithirrigation,oringoodrainfallyears,twin-rowplantingcanresultin
significantimprovementinpodyieldandkernelgradescomparedwithsingle-rowplanting,
duetobettersynchronisationoffloweringandpodding,andmoreevencropdevelopment
(Figures 1–4). 11
Figure 1: Single rows (conventional practice) of peanuts are planted with 90-cm spacing between the rows. (Photo: PCA)
Figure 2: Twin rows of peanuts are planted 20–30 cm apart under a 90-cm arrangement. (Photo: PCA)
11 RCNRachaputi,SKrosch,GWright.Optimisingrowspacingfortheultra-earlyTingoora,GRDC,PeanutCompanyofAustralia,theQueenslandGovernment,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/2010rowspacing.pdf
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Figure 3: A field trial with peanuts, comparing a single-row (foreground) and twin-row (background) configurations. (Photo: PCA)
Figure 4:
Tonn
es p
er h
ecta
re
Pod yield6
5
4
3
Do
llars
per
to
nne
Single row Twin row
Kernel gradout900
850
800
750
700
100 000
200 000
100 000
200 000
Pod yield and kernel grade of peanuts at Tingoora grown under single- and twin-row configurations under irrigated conditions (Bundaberg, 2009–10 season).
In2002,researchersfromtheUniversityofGeorgiaintheUnitedStatesreleasedtheresults
of6yearsofstudyontwin-rowplantingpatterns.Workinthe1970sinAlabamabyE
HauserandGBuchananhadalreadyshownthattwinrowsallowedforbetterweedcontrol.
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TheGeorgiaresearchwascarriedoutfrom1996to2001onnumeroussmallplotsand
on-farmdemonstrationsitesthroughoutthestate,comparing17.5–35.5-cmtwinrowswith
1-m single-row patterns. Seeding rates were kept constant: 3 seeds/30 cm on each twin
row or 6 seeds/30 cm on single-row planting patterns.
Several positive conclusions were drawn:
• Twin rows result in quicker canopy coverage than single rows.
• Yields increased by 549 kg/ha, averaged over early to late plantings.
• Gradesincreasedanaverageof1–2%.
Theresearchersestimatedthatif50%oftheGeorgiapeanutacreagewasplantedtotwin-
rowpatterns,therewasapotentialeconomicreturnofUS$28millioninincreasedyieldand
another $4 million in increased grade value to producers.
In1999,~35%oftheGeorgiapeanutacreagewasintwin-rowpatterns;by2002,50%was
in twin-row patterns.
Trialsonplantingtwinrowsunderstrip-tillagemethodsshowedthatamajorfactorfor
successwastocentrethesubsoilerbetweeneachsetoftwinrows.Theyieldresponse
was not as great as with conventionally tilled twin rows it but was still positive compared
with single rows.
Withstriptillage,itwasdifficulttoachieveanadequateplantstandandavoidexcessive
digginglossesduetoplantingonlevelsoilandlackofgoodrowdefinitionfordigging
efficiency.
Fortwinrows,itwasimportanttousea76-cmcut-frogonthediggertoavoidpulling
peanutsofftheinsidetwinrows.
Since2000,theUniversityofGeorgiahasrecommendedplanting6seeds/30cmon
single rows and 3 seeds/30-cm row on twin rows. Their research indicated no advantage
to exceeding 6 seeds/30 cm on single rows or 3 seeds/30 cm on twin rows, and that 2
seeds/30cmwasinsufficient.12
3.9 Sowing equipment
Peanuts must be planted with a row-crop planter (Figure 5). Combine planters are not
suitable.Thepeanutseedislargeandfragile.PlateplanterssuchastheCovingtonand
Jankearecommonlyused,aswellasrotaryconeandfingerpick-upplanters(e.g.Mason
DeereandKMC).VacuumprecisionplanterssuchasJohnDeereandMonosemaregentle
andwellsuitedforpeanuts.NodetandGaspardovacuumplantersmustbemodifiedto
plant peanuts. Kinze planters with ‘edible bean’ cups are not suitable.
12 PCA.Twinrowsboostyieldsandgrades.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/twin-rows-boost-yields.php
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Recommended planting equipment includes:
• JohnDeereMaxEmergevacuumprecisionplanter;MasonDeere-typeplanterwith
rotary cones
• NodetandGaspardopneumaticplanters,withmodifications
• Covingtonboxorsomeinclinedplateplanters,orflatplateplanterssuchasthe
International 186 and 184 series
• Monosem vacuum precision planter 13
Figure 5: A 4-row planter modified to plant two twin rows.
3.9.1 Press-wheelsTheuseofpress-wheelsisessential(Figure6).Theygivebetterseed–soilcontact,which
promotesfasterandmoreuniformemergence.Soft-centredortwin-inclinedpress-wheels
arepreferred,particularlyonsoilsthatformsurfacecrusts.Hard-centredpress-wheelscan
be used on some soils that do not crust, although the pressure may have to be reduced. 14
13 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated 2014) Peanut Company ofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
14 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropestablishment.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3d_establish.pdf
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Figure 6: Press-wheels on the planter are essential for good seed–soil contact.
3.9.2 PlantersThesoft-skinnedpeanutseediseasilydamaged.Therefore,theseed-meteringmechanism
oftheplantermustaccuratelydistributetheseedwithoutexcessiveagitationorshearing
action.Manydifferentseed-meteringmechanismsareavailable.Noneofthecombine
planters has acceptable seed meters but row-crop planters have more suitable metering
methods (Table 4).
Correct-sized plates will minimise damage to seed, and nylon (or similar) plates generally
accumulate less seed dressing than do metal plates.
Onallpeanutplanters,maintainanaccurateplantingrateevenifplacementdepthvaries,
becausethepeanutplantcanonlycompensateforsmallgaps.
Thehorizontalorflatplateplanterisrenownedforitstendencytoshearoffkernels.This
destroysseedandcausesmissedplantspaceswhereanon-viableportionofseedfilledthe
plate cell. Precision is not high.
Theinclinedplateplanter(e.g.Covington)isveryreliableforplantingpeanuts,eventhe
largerseedsizes.Althoughseedplacementisoftennotprecise,plantingratesareusually
reasonablyaccurate.Theseplantersarenotsuitableforroughseedbedsoroperatingat
high speed (maximum speed 6 km/h).
Rotary cone planters are reasonably reliable and provide accurate seed placement.
However, very large kernels can cause bridging—a blockage in the chute opening.
Vacuumplanters(e.g.JohnDeereMaxEmerge)arewidelyusedforplantingpeanuts.
These planters can make skin slippage worse on over-dried kernels, leaving a ‘bald’
kernelexposedwithnofungicidetreatment.Looseskinscanalsoblocktheair-holes.
This mechanism gives accurate seed placement, and adaptation to peanut planting is
reasonablystraightforward.
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BrushmetershavebeendevelopedbyKinzebutarenotsuitableforpeanutsbecauseof
thesizeofpeanutseed.Combineplantersshouldnotbeused. 15
Table 6: Seed-metering mechanisms for row-crop planters
Metering Precision Agitation Suitability CommentsHorizontal plate Low High Low High potential to shear peanut
kernels (IHC 184 and IHC 186)
Inclined plate Low Med High Commonlyused(Covington,Janke)
Rotary cone Medium Medium Medium–high
Suitableforpeanuts(MasonDeere,KMC)
Finger pickup High Low Low Not easily adapted to large peanuts (MasonDeerefingerpickup)
Vacuum pneumatic plate
High Low High Very accurate. High potential to removekernelskins(Nodet,JohnDeere, Gaspardo, Monosem)
Brush meter High Low Low Available models not readily adaptable
Combine planters – – None Unacceptable, will not work
15 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropestablishment.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3d_establish.pdf
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
The peanut (Arachis hypogaea) is a summer-growing legume that originated in South
AmericaandiswelladaptedtowarmerregionsofAustralia.Ifconditionsallow,itcanshow
perennialcharacteristicsandsurviveforseveralyears.
Like other legumes, peanuts do not rely on soluble nitrogen (N) in the soil to supply the
plant’sNrequirements.Rather,rhizobialbacteria‘infect’therootsandtakeN2from
theatmosphere,makingitavailabletotheplant.Unlikeotherlegumes,thematurefruit
developsintoalegumepodunderground(Figure1)andtheplanthasfourleafletsperleaf,
not three.
Figure 1: Inverted peanut bush.
Peanutpodsaremadeupofanoutershellthatusuallycontainstwokernels.About70%
ofthepod’sweightiskernel.Thekernelsarehighinoil(44–56%)andprotein(22–30%).
Dependingonvarietyandconditions,thepeanutplantcangrowtoaheightof~60cmand
canspreadupto100cm.Theplantisuniqueinthatitflowersabovegroundandthen,once
pollinated,producesitsfruitbelowthesoilsurface.
Theflowers,whicharesmall,yellowandpea-shaped,areproducedintheaxilsofthe
leaves.Theflowersareself-pollinated,usuallyatnight.Aftertheovaryisfertiliseditbegins
to elongate and grow towards the soil.
This‘peg’(asitiscalled)reachesthesoilabout7–10daysafterpollination.Theovaryis
carriedinthetipofthepegandstartstogrowintoapodafteritpushesintothesoil.Pods
will not develop unless there is darkness, mechanical resistance and moisture. 1
1 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
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4.1 Botanical types
Peanutsaredividedintotwobroadbotanicaltypesbasedonthefollowingdifferences:
• thebranchingpatternoftheplant
• thedormancyoftheseed
• thematurityoftheplant
TheVirginiagroupdoesnotproduceflowersonthecentralbranch,onlyonthelateral
branches. The seeds show some dormancy and the crop is relatively late maturing
(130–170 days). Within the Virginia group, there are both erect and runner (prostrate) types
(Figure 2).
Figure 2: Some varieties have runner, or prostrate, growth habit.
TheSpanishgroupproduceserectplantswithflowersonboththecentralandlateral
branches.TheseedsoftheSpanishgroupshowlittledormancyandthecropisearly
maturing (100–130 days).
The crop matures in about 18–24 weeks depending on variety and season temperatures
(Figure 3). 2
Foragepeanutsareusedforgrazingandforgroundcoverinorchards.Thesearedifferent
speciesfromthevarietiesgrownfortheirediblekernels.Onespecies,Pinto’speanut
(Arachis pintoi),isgrowninareasofQueenslandandNewSouthWaleswithaverageannual
2 GWright,PHarden,LWieck,(2014)Peanutproductionguide,August2014.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
i More information
GC Wright et al. (1991)
Physiologicalanalysisof
peanut cultivar response
totiminganddurationof
drought stress. Australian
Journal of Agricultural
Research 42.
RCN Rachaputi. More
efficientbreedingof
drought-resistant
peanuts in India and
Australia. Adoptionof
ACIAR Project outputs
2003–2004.
Y Chauhan et al. (2010)
Physiologyofmungbean
anddevelopmentofthe
mungbean crop mode.
Australian Summer
GrainsConference.
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rainfall>1000mm.Thekernelsaremuchsmallerthanthecultivatedtypesandarenot
suitablefortheedibletrade. 3
Figure 3: Trials such as this help plant breeders to assess the qualities of new varieties under field conditions.
4.2 Growth and development
Thelengthofeachgrowthstagedependsmainlyontemperature.Peanutsarenotas
sensitivetodaylengthassoybeans;however,longdaysandhighnighttemperaturescan
alterthebalancebetweengrowthofthebushandthepods.Atypicalgrowthcyclefora
Virginia variety in both south and north Queensland is shown in Table 1. 4
Table 7: Growth stages of a Virginia peanut variety in southern and northern Queensland
Growth stage
Days after planting
Southern Qld Northern Qld
Planting to emergence 6–14 6–12
Emergencetofirstflower 20–40 28–38
Flowering 35–65 28–65
Pegging 45–75 36–75
Pod-filling 60–130 55–130
Harvest maturity 140–150 125–150
4.2.1 Germination and emergenceApeanutseedhastwocotyledons,orseedleaves,andanembryo.Afteremergence,the
cotyledonsunfoldabovetheground.Theembryoisnottotallyprotectedbythecotyledons
and can easily be physically damaged during the harvesting, storage, shelling and planting
operations.
3 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
4 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
i More information
KJBoote (1982) Growth
stagesofpeanut(Arachis
hypogaea L.). Peanut
Science 9.
BE Warrick. Plant growth
anddevelopmentof
peanuts. Soil, Crop and
MoreInformation.
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A damaged embryo will not develop properly, and although it may germinate and establish,
yieldwillbemuchlowerthanfromundamagedseed.Plantsgrowingfromdamagedseed
oftenhaveacurledorJ-shapedrootsystem.Thisdefectcanalsobeasymptomofpre-
emergence herbicide damage.
Itisrecommendedthatpeanutseedisplantedatsoiltemperaturesofatleast18–20°C,but
seedwillgerminatebestatsoiltemperaturesof20–35°C.Theradicle,orroot,takes1–2
daystoemergefromtheseed.
After5days,thetaprootis10–15cmlong.Lateralrootsthenstarttodevelopand
secondaryrootsgrowfromthelaterals.After5–10days,therootissupplyingmineralsfrom
the soil to the plant.
Figure 4: Peanuts take 7–14 days to emerge.
Effectiverootingdepthofthepeanutplantis~100–120cm.Wheretherearenosoil
restrictions, the peanut plant has a long, spike-shaped root up to 150 cm long, with the
primaryrootsystembranchingtoadepthof60–80cm.
Emergencethroughthesoil,knownas‘cracking’,begins6–14daysafterplanting(Figure
4).Dryorcoolsoilscandelayemergenceforupto3weeks,oftenresultinginpoor
establishment due to soil-borne disease.
Emerging peanut seedlings can push through quite hard and crusted soil, hence the term
‘cracking’, but very crusted soil will restrict emergence. 5
4.2.2 Vegetative growthAfter20days,theremaybe8–10fullyexpandedleaves.Unlikemostlegumes,peanuts
have4leafletsperleaf,whichpartiallyfoldupatnight.
Peanutfoliagecangrowatadailyrateof150–200kg/haoncefullcanopycoverisreached.
Peanuts are indeterminate in vegetative and reproductive development. This means the
5 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
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plantdoesnotstopgrowinginordertoflowerandproduceacrop.Plantscontinuetogrow
leavesandstemswhilefloweringandsettingpods.Thepodsmust,therefore,compete
withtheshootsforcarbohydrateandnutrients.Indeterminatecropsaremorelikelytobe
abletocompensateforlowlevelsofinsectdamage.
Therearedifferencesindeterminacybetweenvarieties.TheVirginiatypesaremore
determinate than Spanish types. Newer varieties achieve higher pod yields than older
varieties,becausealargerportionofthenewervarieties’growthgoesintopodsthanto
vegetation.
4.2.3 FloweringVirginiatypes,includingtherunnertypestypicallygrowntoday,startfloweringabout28–40
daysafteremergenceandcontinuefor25–30days.Flowerscanappearthroughoutthe
season.
Theyellowflowersopenatnight,self-pollinateintheearlymorningandwitherbyevening
ofthesameday(Figure5).Flowersgrowalongthebranchesandeachnodecanproduce
severalflowers.Generally,only~15–20%offlowerssuccessfullyproduceapod.Aplant
may have 200 pods.
Droughtandtemperatures>35°Cwillreducethenumberofflowersproduced.Ifwater
stressreducesflowernumber,theplantcanrecoverbyproducingaflushofflowerswhen
adequate water is received.
Lowhumidityandhightemperaturesatfloweringcancauseshort-termplantwaterstress.
Thisresultsinflowerswithpistilsthataretooshortandadverselyaffectsthevitalityofthe
pollengrains,reducingthechancesoffertilisation.
Peanutsareself-pollinated;therefore,beesarenotneededanddifferentvarietiescanbe
grown side by side with little contamination. 6
Figure 5: The small yellow flowers open at night, self-pollinate in the early morning and wither by evening.
6 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
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4.2.4 PeggingAftertheovaryisfertilised,itbeginstoelongateandbendtowardsthesoil.Thepeg,or
strings,canbeseenabout1weekafterfertilisation.Thepegshangdownfromthestems
and continue to grow until they have penetrated the soil (Figure 6). Because one node can
produceseveralflowers,severalpegscandevelopfromasinglenode.
Pegsmaybe2–15cmlong.However,thoselongerthan~7cmoftendonotreachthe
groundorpenetratethesoiladequately.Iftheselongpegsdevelopapod,itismorelikelyto
be immature and lost at harvest.
Pegsenterthesoil8–12daysafterpollination.Thetipofthepegissharp,allowingitto
penetratethesoiltoadepthof1–7cmundercool,moistconditions.Mostofthepegsthat
onlypenetrate1–1.5cmdevelopapod,buttherateofdevelopmentisslower.
Assoilsbecomeharder,itismoredifficultforthepegstopenetrate.Thepegsaremore
sensitivetosoilcompactionthanaretheroots,sosoilmoisture,which‘softens’hardsoils,
can be critical at this stage.
Thefertilisedembryoisinthetipofthepegandbeginstodevelopandenlargesoonafter
enteringthesoil.Afterthetipofthepegenlargesunderground,itiscalledapod. 7
Figure 6: The peg forms at the base of the flower and grows down into the soil before the pods begin to develop.
7 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
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4.2.5 Pod developmentTheperiodbetweenthepegenteringthesoilandtheshellreachingfullsizeiscalledpod
development.Poddevelopmentlasts~30daysandreliesonthesoilsurfacebeingkept
moist.Thisisacriticaltimeforirrigators. 8
4.2.6 PodfillFromabout60daysonwards,podsareformedandfilled.Podsarefullsizeabout3–4
weeksafterpegburial,eventhoughseedgrowthinsidethepodhasbarelybegun.Theshell
reachesmaximumdryweightwellbeforethekernels.
Peanutpodnumberscanincreaseatadailyrateof100,000–500,000pods/haovera
15–25-dayperiod,andpodweightcanincreaseatadailyrateofupto100kg/haforthe
75–150daysafteremergence.
Some nutrients, particularly calcium (Ca) and boron, are absorbed through minute hairs
onthepegandshell.Thismethodofnutrientuptakeisrelativelyinefficient,whichmeans
thatpeanutshaveamuchhighersoilCarequirementinthetop5–10cmofsoilthanother
plants.
When soil Ca levels are very low, the developing kernels abort and the empty shell is called
a ‘pop’ (Figure 7). 9
Figure 7: Pops (shells without a kernel or with a shrivelled kernel) of Virginia or runner types are typical of low soil calcium levels. A mild deficiency may cause the embryo to turn dark.
4.2.7 MaturityCrops may take 110–170 days (16–24 weeks) to reach harvest maturity, depending on
variety, planting time, seasonal conditions and location. Temperature largely controls the
time to harvest.
Aspeanutsmature,theinsidelayeroftheshellchangescolourfromwhite,throughyellow,
orange,browntoblack.Thisgivesanindicationofharvestmaturity.
8 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
9 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
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Oncethepodsmature,thepegsbegintodeteriorate,particularlyiffoliardiseaseshave
affectedthecrop.Yieldlossbeginstooccurifpeanutsarenotharvestedwithin7–10days
ofpeakmaturity,becausethepegsweakenandthepodsfallofftheplant.
Peanutsoftenproduceaveryunevencrop,witharangeofmatureandimmaturekernels
presentatharvest.Therelativeproportionofmatureandimmaturekernelsisassessedand
willaffectthequalitygradingofthecrop(Figure8).Thepaymentsystemsarebasedon
gradingthecropintodifferent-sizedkernels,eachwithadifferentvalue.Immatureorsmall
kernels receive a lower price. 10
Figure 8: Inspect the kernels to determine the best time to harvest.
4.3 Seed dormancy
Mature peanut kernels are dormant to some degree. Interestingly, seeds that develop at the
pegendofthepodhavealongerdormantperiodthanthoseattheoppositeend.
Theperiodofdormancydependsonvarietyandstorageconditions.
Spanish types have virtually no dormancy (5–50 days), whereas Virginia types can be
dormantfor100–120days.
Ifsufficientmoistureisavailable,seedswithlittleornodormancyperiodcansproutinthe
fieldbeforeharvest.CurrentlygrownSpanishvarietiescanhavethisproblem,butpre-
harvest sprouting is generally not problem with Virginia or runner types. 11
10 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
11 PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
Peanutsdifferfromothercropinsomeoftheirnutritionalneeds.Mostofthepod’scalcium
(Ca)andboron(B)istakendirectlyfromthesoilratherthanviatheroots.Calciumisoften
appliedtothecropbeforeflowering.Peanutrootsdependonarbuscularmycorrhizal(AM)
fungi(previouslyknownasvesiculararbuscularmycorrhizal,orVAM)andareveryeffective
atutilisingresidualphosphorus(P)frompreviouscropsintherotation.1
5.1 Nutritional requirements
Peanutshavespecialnutritionalneedsbecausethefruitgrowsundertheground.The
fertilityofthesoilwherepegsandpodsdevelopisimportantbecausethepodabsorbs
mostofitsrequiredCaandBthroughtheshell,ratherthanthroughtheroots,andthen
throughthepeg.Thisinfluencesthemethodandtimingofsomefertiliserapplications,
whichmaydifferconsiderablyfromthoseofothercrops.
Soilsnaturallycontainbeneficialfungithathelpthecroptoaccessnutrientssuchas
Pandzinc(Zn).Thecombinationofthefungusandcroprootisknownasarbuscular
mycorrhiza(e)(AM).Manydifferentspeciesoffungicanhavethisassociationwiththeroots
ofcrops.Manythatareassociatedwithcropsalsoformstructurescalledvesiclesinthe
roots.
TheseverereductionorlackofAMshowsupaslong-fallowdisorder—thefailureofcrops
to thrive despite adequate moisture. Ongoing drought in the 1990s and beyond has
1 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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highlightedlong-fallowdisorderwhereAMfungihavediedoutthroughlackofhostplant
rootsduringperiodsoflongfallow.Ascroppingprogramsrestartafterdryyears,ayield
dropislikelyfromreducedAMlevels,makingitdifficultforthecroptoaccessnutrients.
Long-fallowdisorderisusuallytypifiedbypoorcropgrowth.Plantsseemtoremainintheir
seedlingstagesforweeksanddevelopmentisveryslow.
BenefitsofgoodAMlevelsare:
• improveduptakeofPandZn
• improved crop growth
• greater drought tolerance
• improved soil structure
• greater disease tolerance
Ingeneral,thebenefitsofAMaregreateratlowerlevelsofsoilPbecauseAMincreasea
plant’s ability to access this nutrient. 2
Peanutshaveanexceptionalabilitytoextractsomenutrientsfromthesoil,particularlyP
andZn.Thisiswhypeanutshaveareputationforbeingabletorespondbettertofertiliser
leftafterpreviouscropsthantofertiliserdirectlyappliedtothepeanutcrop.AMfungiare
onereasonforthisphenomenon.Thesefungioccurnaturallyinmostsoilsandreadilyinfect
peanut root systems.
TheAMfungiassisttheplant’srootstoextractPandZnfromthesoil.Sodependentare
peanutsonAMfungiforuptakeofPthatifthefungiarenotpresent,thecropneedssoilP
levels up to 10 times higher than normally required.
IntheSouthBurnett,Queensland,peanutsarecommonlyfertilisedwithPbyover-fertilising
thepreviousmaizecrop.SomegrowersalsoapplyPbeforeoratplanting.Similarly,on
theAthertonTableland,peanutsareoftengrownontheresidualfertiliserfollowingapotato
crop.
Differentfertiliserprogramsareneededonothersoiltypes.Iron(Fe)deficiencyisaparticular
problemonheavierclaysoilswithpH>8.0,becausepeanutrootsarenotveryefficientat
accumulating Fe.
Copper (Cu), magnesium (Mg) and Zn responses have also been recorded on lighter sands
incoastalandinlandareas,andZndeficiencycanalsobeaproblemonsoilswithpH>7.5.
Otherfactorscancausesymptomssimilartothoseofnutrientdeficiencies.Forexample,
nighttemperatures<9°Ccauseleafyellowingandaslightinterveinalchlorosis(Figure1),
andVerticilliumwiltshowsasapale-greencolouraroundtheleafmargins.
2 DAFF(2010)Nutrition—VAMandlongfallowdisorder.DepartmentofAgriculture,FisheriesandForestryQueensland, 14 Sept. 2010, http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/field-crops-and-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/nutrition-management/nutrition-vam
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Figure 1: Yellowing between veins is typical of cool temperatures, <9°C.
Table1presentstheessentialnutrientsforpeanutsandtheconcentrationsfoundinthe
youngestfullyexpandedleaves.Usethesevaluesasaguideonly.Nutrientlevelsvary
dependingonthepartofplantthatissampled.Levelsalsochangeastheplantmatures
andnutrientsarerelocatedintothepodsasthekernelsdevelop.AsoiltestforCaprovides
theonlyreliableguideforpoddevelopment.3
Table 1: Classification of nutrient status of peanut crops by analysis of the youngest fully expanded leaves
Note:thesevaluesapplyonlybeforethecropstartstofillpods.Sources:Belletal.1990;ReuterandRobinson1986;Reuter and Robinson 1997
Nutrient Severely deficient
Deficient Marginally adequate
Adequate High
N(%DM) <3.2 3.2–3.7 3.8–4.1 4.2–4.5 >4.5
P(%DM) <0.19 0.19–0.23 0.24–0.26 0.27–0.40 >0.40
K(%DM) <0.7 0.7–1.3 1.4–1.7 1.8–2.5 >2.6
S(%DM) <0.15 0.16–0.20 0.21–0.25 0.26–0.30 >0.3
B (mg/kg DM) <13 13–23 24–30 30–50 >50
Mo (mg/kg DM) <0.02 0.02–0.05 0.05–0.13 0.13–1.0 >1.0
Cu (mg/kg DM) <1.3 1.3–1.7 1.8–2.1 2.2–5.0 >5.0
Mg(%DM) <0.2 0.2–0.25 0.25–0.3 0.30–0.80 –
Ca(%DM) – <1.0 1.0–1.2 1.4–2.0 –
Mn (mg/kg DM) – <10 – 50–350 600–800
Zn (mg/kg DM) <12 15–18 18–20 20–50 >200
Fe (mg/kg DM) <25 25–35 35–50 50–300 –
3 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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5.2 Soil fertility
Soilfertilityisveryimportantforpeanuts.Duringthegrowingofthepeanutpod,CaandB
are absorbed through the shell rather than through the plant’s roots. This has implications
forthemethodandtimingoffertiliserapplications.
Peanutstolerateawiderangeofsoilaciditylevels;however,theidealpHis6.0–7.0.Soils
that are more acidic (pH <6.0) should be limed. Ensure your soil test is properly interpreted
byaqualifiedagronomist.4
Potassium(K),P,Caandsulfur(S)arethenutrientsmostcommonlyappliedtopeanuts,
but growers should also check magnesium levels, which are becoming depleted in some
Australian soils.
Micronutrientsmustnotbeignored—deficiencycansometimesleadtomajoryieldlosses.
Zinc,Bandmolybdenum(Mo)arecommonlyapplied.Copperisoftendeficientonvery
sandysoils.Somesoilsalsohavemanganese(Mn)deficiency.
Foliarapplicationsofmicronutrientsarecommon;however,soilapplicationsarealso
suitableforsomenutrients.5 Your agronomist can provide advice.
5.3 Crop removal rates
Nutrientmanagementneedstotakeintoaccounttheremovalfromthefarmofnutrients
contained in crop products such as grain and hay (Table 2). Peanuts have a high K content
comparedwithmostgraincrops(althoughonlyhalftheKconcentrationofsoybeanseed),
andwhenhayistakenfromthepaddock,evenmoreKisremoved.
Table 2: Mineral content of peanut kernel, shell and hay
Source:Thistablehasbeencompiledfromarangeofsources;thereisagreatdealofvariationbetweensamplesandsourcesandthesevaluesprovideageneralguideonly;n.a.,notavailable
Mineral element content (%) Nutrients removed (kg/t)
Kernel Shell Hay Hay Nut-in-shell
N 4.6 1.3 1.5 15 40
P 0.4 0.03 0.15 1.5 3
K 1.0 0.9 2 20 8
S 0.2 n.a. 0.2 2 2+
Ca 0.07 0.2 0.8 8 1.3
Mg 0.2 0.1 0.3 3 2
Fe 0. 001 0.15 n.a. n.a. 0.5
Cu 0.001 0.001 0.0005 0.005 0.01
Zn 0.006 0.002 0.001 0.01 0.05
Mn 0.002 0.004 n.a. n.a. 0.02
B 0.03 0.001 0.003 0.03 0.2
4 PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
5 PCA.Peanutsandfertilisers.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/peanuts-and-fertilisers.php
i More information
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Australia. Peanuts and
fertilisers.
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Table2providesvaluesindicatingthequantityofeachelementremovedatharvest.Thisisa
guidetowhatmustbereplacedtomaintainsoilfertility.Forexample,eachtonneofhaywill
containabout20kgK,requiring40kgofmuriateofpotash(orequivalent)toreplaceit.6
5.4 Soil testing
Soiltestingisessential.Aswellasteststothetraditionaldepthof0–1cm,deepertests
shouldbeconsideredtochecknutrientlevelsatdepth.Manysoilshavereasonablelevelsof
nutrientsinthetopsoilbutnutrientsareverylowdeeperintheprofile.Consider10–20and
20–30 cm tests.
It is recommended that growers obtain a complete nutrient analysis or soil test prior to
plantingpeanuts.Peanutsareregardedasgoodscavengersfornutrients,butifany
nutrients are lacking in the soil, including micronutrients, then yield potential may be limited.
Your soil test should be analysed through an ASPAC-accredited laboratory and properly
interpretedbyaqualifiedagronomist.
Onceyouhaveanalysedsoiltestresultsyoucanplanafertiliserprogrambasedon
availablenutrientsand,mostimportantly,yourbudgetorexpectedyield.Ifthehayistobe
baledafterharvest,youwillneedadifferentfertiliserprogram.
Replacementsrateswillneedtobeadjustedbasedonremovalofbothpeanutsandhay.
5.5 Nutrient availability and soil pH
AllpHlevelspresentedhererefertothesoilaciditytestingmethodusing1partsoil:5parts
water (pHH2O).Soilacidity,orpH,affectstheplant’sabilitytotakeupnutrientsfromthesoil.
IfthepHisnotwithintherangerequiredforoptimalplantgrowth,theplantisnotableto
makethebestuseofthenutrientsinthesoil,evenifthecorrectamountsarepresentinthe
soil. It is important to correct soil pH so that the investment in nutrient applications is not
wasted.
Peanutstolerateawiderangeofsoilaciditylevels.TheidealsoilpHrangeis5.5(slightly
acidic)to7.0(neutral).Ifthesoilismoreacidic(i.e.pH<5.5),nodulationandN2fixationcan
be reduced and trace element imbalances can occur, potentially causing aluminium (Al) and
Mntoxicity.Ifthesoilismorealkaline(i.e.pH>7.0),deficienciesinZn,andpossiblyFe,can
develop.
A soil test will show whether the pH needs adjusting with products such as agricultural lime.
TheamountoflimeneededtocorrectlowpHdependsonthebufferingcapacityofthesoil
andtheextenttowhichitisnecessarytoraisepH.Thebufferingcapacityofasoilisits
ability to ‘absorb’ Ca without causing a change in soil pH.
Clay soils and soils with higher organic matter, such as the red volcanic soils around
Kingaroy,Queensland,generallyhaveahigherbufferingcapacitythansandysoils.Although
6 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
i More information
PCA/QDPIF. Crop
nutrition.
i More information
C Guppy et al.
Interpreting soil tests in
thelightofP, K and S
research.
M Bell, C Guppy.
Interpreting soil test
resultsforthenorthern
region.
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morelimemaybeneededtocorrectthepHinhighlybufferedsoils,thesesoilsareableto
‘hold’thepHatthenewlevelforlongerthanpoorlybufferedsoils.
Whenyouhaveyoursoilsanalysed,askfora‘limerequirement’figure,whichrepresents
the lime required to reach, say, pH 6.5. This is based on well-researched data that take
intoaccountthebufferingofthesoilandtheamountthepHistoberaised.Thecalculation
usedgivestheamountoflimerequiredtotreata10-cmlayerofsoilonly,soifthelimeis
mixedintothetop20cmofsoil,therecommendedratemustbedoubledtotreattheextra
soil.
ThereisanimportantdistinctionbetweencorrectingpHandcorrectingCadeficiency.Once
thepHiscorrect,Caapplicationsmaystillbeneededtofeedthecrop(Figure2).Calcium
nutritionisparticularlyimportantforgrowersonsandysoils.7
Figure 2: Lime or gypsum banded over the row will provide calcium to the plant.
5.6 Calcium
Becauseoftheirundergroundfruitinghabit,peanutshavearelativelyhighrequirementfor
Ca. Calcium is not very mobile within the plant, and the peanut pod takes up its own Ca
directlyfromthesoil.Consequently,availableCamustbepresentinthepoddingzone(the
top2–10cmofsoil).GrowersshouldcheckthatapplicationsofCapost-plantareavailable
to the crop.
7 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
i More information
Incitec Pivot Fertiliser.
Nutrient advantage.
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AdequateCaisessentialforensuringhigh-qualitykernels.InsufficientCamayleadto
smallerkernelsandkernelswithhollowhearts(notcompletelyfilled).LowCawillalso
reducethegerminationofseedpeanuts.Inlargerseededpeanuts(Virginiatypes),low
Ca can lead to kernel abortion, causing empty pods or ‘pops’ 8 as well as splits and poor
germination. 9
ToprovideanadequatesupplyofCainthepoddingzone,naturalgypsum(calciumsulfate)
isusuallyappliedatearlyfloweringoverthepeanutrow.Gypsumisarelativelysoluble
sourceofCathatiseasilyabsorbedbythepods.Gypsumcontains23%Caandisapplied
atratesof600–1000kg/ha.10
GypsummaybeusedasaCafertiliser,butitmaynotbetheproductofchoice.Lime
should be used on acid soils that are low in Ca. Not only does lime supply Ca, it also
correctsacidity(raisesthesoilpH).However,itisineffectiveinneutralandalkalinesoils.
Typically,gypsumisappliedduringthefallowperiod.Therateatwhichgypsumisapplied
asaCafertiliserwherethepHdoesnotneedamendingis1–2.5t/ha.Thiscanremain
effectiveforseveralyears.11
Dolomite contains Ca and Mg. It can correct soil acidity and supply some Ca. However, you
shouldfindouttheratioofCatoMginthesoilbeforeusingdolomite.TheCalevelshould
beatleastdoublethatofMg.Otherwise,theMgcaninterferewiththepod’suptakeofCa.
Alternatively,finelimecanbeapplied4–6weekspriortoplanting(ifsoilpHis<6.0)and
lightlyincorporated.Limeislesssolublethangypsum.Itisusuallyappliedatratesof2.5–5
t/haandcontains35–40%Ca.12
NotethatpeanutsneedmuchhigherCalevelsinthesurfacesoil(top5–10cm)thanother
crops.Itisamajorfactorinkerneldevelopmentandquality.
DeficiencysymptomsarelikelywheresoilsurfaceCalevelsarelow,largekernelvarieties
arebeinggrown,andthesoilsurfaceisdry.SandysoilsgenerallyhavelowCalevels.
AseverelackofCainthepoddingzonewillcausepops(fullsizepodswithnokernels
inside)orpodswithonlyonekernel(Figure3).Amilddeficiencymaycausetheembryoto
turn dark, reducing germination and vigour.
LowsoilmoisturecanlimittheuptakeofCabecausesoilCacanonlymovethroughthe
soilwhenitisdissolvedinwater;therefore,popsarealwaysworseinadryseason.Itis
commontohavepaddockswherenopopsarerecordedinwetseasonsandquiteafewin
drier seasons.
8 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
9 PCA.Peanutsandfertilisers.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/peanuts-and-fertilisers.php
10 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
11 IncitecPivot.Gypsum.Fertfacts.IncitecPivotLtd,http://www.incitecpivotfertilisers.com.au/en/Soil%20,-a-,%20Plant%20Tests/~/media/Gypsum%20Fact%20Sheet.ashx
12 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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FoliarsymptomsofCadeficiencyincludeyellowing,multiplebranching(rosetting),deathof
thegrowingpointandpetiolecollapse.Suchsymptomsarerareinfieldconditions.
Figure 3: Pops (shells without a kernel or a shrivelled kernel) of Virginia or runner types are typical of low soil calcium. A mild deficiency may cause the embryo to turn dark.
Calciumdeficiencyinthepoddingzonecanbeovercomewithapplicationsofgypsumor
lime.LimingwillgenerallycorrectCadeficiencyforseveralyears.However,insomevery
sandysoils,theabilitytoholdalargeamountofCaintheshallowpod-zoneislimited
andsomeCamaybeleachedfromthezonewithinaseason.AnnualapplicationsofaCa
sourcemaythenberequired.ChoosepH-neutralandmoresolublesourcesofCa,suchas
gypsum, rather than lime in this situation.
Where soil pH is acceptable but Ca is low, gypsum applied in bands over the row (i.e. into
thepeggingzone)ismoreeconomicalandmoreeffectiveovertherelativelyshortperiodof
pod-filling.
Arateof400–600kg/haappliedinbands30–40cmwideisusuallyadequate,although
soils with very low Ca or high Mg may need a higher rate.
ChooseSpanishandrunnertypesforsoilswithalowabilitytoholdpositivelycharged
nutrientssuchasCa(i.e.soilswithacationexchangecapacity,orCEC,of<4cmol/kgor
meq/100 g). In these situations (e.g. on sandy soils), the soil cannot hold enough Ca to
adequatelyfillpodsinthelargerVirginiatypes,whicharelessefficientataccumulatingCa.
Inthesesoils,the‘exchangeable’Caneedstobe~70%ofthetotalCEC,i.e.thedesired
cationbalanceisCa70%,Mg15%,K5%,andothers,includingsodium(Na)10%.
InredandbrownforestsoilsoftheinlandBurnett,theCECandCalevelsareusually
adequate, but extra Ca is sometimes applied because the topsoil is dry, reducing the
efficiencyofCauptake.Normallimingpractices(tomaintainpH)usuallymeetthis
requirement.
Only10–14%oftheCatakenupbythecropendsupinthepods;mostisinthefoliage
(66%)androots.TheshellsandkernelsextracttheirCadirectlyfromthesoilinthepodding
zone, whereas Ca absorbed by the roots is carried to the stems and leaves but not down
the peg to the pod.
LargerkernelvarietiesofpeanutsneedhighersoillevelsofCa.Small-seededSpanish
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types are much less susceptible to low soil Ca than runner types, which in turn are less
susceptible than Virginia types.
Forlarge-seededvarieties,theneedforCaalsodependsonthelevelofsoilK.Popscan
resultfromlowCainthepoddingzoneand/orinhibitedCauptakebecauseofhighlevelsof
other nutrients, particularly K.
ApplyCaifasoiltestshowsanyofthefollowing:
• Ca<70%oftheCECandCEC<6cmol/kg
• Ca>70%oftheCECandCEC6–10cmol/kg,butsoilslikelytobequitedryduring
pod-filling
• CEC<4cmol/kg,regardlessoftheproportionofCECasCa
LowCacanaffectthegerminationofseed,aswellasthepeanut’sabilitytoresist
pathogens such as Aspergillus flavus(thecauseofaflatoxin),Rhizoctoniaandsomefungi
causing pod rots.
AnalysisofpeanutfoliagewillnotshowwhethersufficientCaisavailableforkernel
development. A soil test in the pod-zone will give a better indication.
SeedpeanutsfromcropsgrownundermarginaltolowCahavepoorgermination.Thelevel
ofCainthekernelneedstobe≥420mg/kgforsatisfactorygermination.Asaprecaution,
apply extra Ca to all seed crops.
Gypsumismoresolublethanlimeandispreferableforover-the-rowapplications,
particularlyiftimingisclosetoflowering.GypsumalsocorrectsdeficiencyofSandshould
beusedonalkalinesoils(pH>7)insteadoflime.
Adrawbackoftherelativelyhighsolubilityofgypsumisthatveryheavyrainmayleachit
fromthepeggingzoneinsandysoils.Whenusinggypsumonthesesoils,timeapplication
ascloseaspracticaltoflowering.
Becauselimeislesssoluble,itisbestappliedatleast1monthbeforeplantingtoensure
that the Ca has become available. Calcium is needed in the pod-zone, so do not
incorporate the lime deep into the soil. Lime applied to soils with a pH >6.5 may cause Zn
orMgdeficiency.13
5.7 Nitrogen
HighlevelsofNareneededforhigh-yieldingpeanutcrops.However,likeotherlegumes,
peanutsfixN2fromtheairviasymbioticbacteria(rhizobia)livinginnodulesformedonthe
peanut plant roots (Figure 4).
Nitrogenisrequiredforgrowthandistakenupthroughouttheseason.Itissourcedfrom
thesoilorfromNfixation.Growersmustinoculatepeanutseedwithefficientstrainsof
13 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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rhizobiapriortoplantingtoensureoptimumNfixation.Whenthesuitablerhizobiabecome
establishedinfields,farmersmaynotneedtoaddNfertiliserstopeanutcrops.14
Figure 4: Many nodules, like those on these roots, are needed to fix sufficient nitrogen. Inoculating the soil with rhizobia at planting is essential.
Poornodulation,waterloggingoralackofothernutrientsessentialforNfixation,such
asPandMo,cancauseNdeficiency.Generally,plantsrecoverquicklyfromtemporary
waterlogging.Ashallowcultivationwillallowthesoiltoaerateandwillhastenrecoveryfrom
waterlogging.
SymptomsofNdeficiencyincludestuntingoftheplantandyellowingoftheleaves,
frequentlywithareddishdiscolorationofstems(Figure5).
RatesofNupto50kg/hamaybeusefulwherewaterlogginghaskilledrhizobiaorwhere
nodulationissloworhasfailed.GreatestbenefitwillcomefromapplyingNwhenthecrop
ispodding;however,20–30kg/haofearly(starter)Nmaybewarrantedinsituationswhere
soilNisverylowpriortonodulesbecomingestablishedandfunctional(afterabout1
month).Thiscanhappenwhenasugarcanetrashblanketisincorporatedbeforeplanting
the peanut crop.
Toavoidtheseproblems,inoculateseedcarefully,donotplantinareasproneto
waterlogging,andprovidethenutrientsessentialforsuccessfulnodulation.
ExcessivesoilN,fromeithernaturalfertilityorfertiliser,candelaynodulation,cancause
excessivevegetativegrowth,andleadtofewerflowersproducingmaturefruit.
Nitrogenfixationcanprovideupto70%ofthetotalNuptakeoftheplant,often≥200kg
N/ha.Theremainderisobtainedfromthesoil.High-yieldingcropswillfixmoreNthanlow-
yielding ones.
Checktheplantrootsforsignsofnodulation.Slicethroughthenoduleandnotethecolour
inside.ReddishcolourindicatesthatNisbeingfixed;green,thenoduleismaturebutnot
fixingN;white,thenoduleisimmature;andbrown,oldnodules.
14 PCA.Peanutsandfertilisers.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/peanuts-and-fertilisers.php
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Nitrogenfixationof100kg/haunderdrylandconditionshasbeenrecordedatKingaroy,and
200 kg/ha under irrigation at Bundaberg.
TotalNuptakefromsoilreservesandsymbioticfixationunderhigh-density,irrigated
conditions may reach 300–350 kg/ha (excluding N in the roots) and under dryland
conditions100–200kg/ha.Commonly,anadditional30–40%oftheNisstoredintheroots
and pods (i.e. 100–120 kg N/ha under irrigation and 40–80 kg N/ha in dryland situations).
About25%ofthetotalcropNremainsintherootsafterharvestand30–50%isremovedin
theharvestedpods,withtheremaining25-45%leftasstubbleorremovedashay.
Peanut crops generally do not add N to the total soil N store, although they will contribute
solubleNtothenextcrop.Peanutresiduestypicallycontain2%Nbyweightand,ifleftin
thepaddock,releaseNquitequicklytoafollowingcrop.
Itispossibletogainupto100kgN/hainthesoilstorefromthepeanutcrop,butonlyifa
cropoflarge,healthyplantsdoesnotyieldaswellasexpected.Withthenew,high-yielding
varieties,thenetNbalanceafterthepeanutcropismorelikelytobenegative,becausethe
peanut crop has put more N into the pods than what remains in the plant residues. 15
Figure 5: Pale plants and leaves are typical of low nitrogen levels, often associated with poor nodulation or wet soils.
5.8 Phosphorus
PeanutsalsorequirerelativelylargeamountsofPbutthepresenceofarbuscular
mycorrhizal(AM)fungiontheirrootsmakesthemveryefficientatabsorbinganyreservesin
the soil.
ExperimentsatKingaroybytheDepartmentofAgriculture,FisheriesandForestry,
15 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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Queensland(DAFF)showedthatveryhighlevelsofPwereneededwhennoAMfungi
werepresent.Soilsthathadbeensterilisedrequired~240kgP/hatoachievefullgrowth
potential,butwhentheAMfungiwerenotdestroyed,theratewasjust30kgP/ha.
PeanutgrowershavetraditionallyusedhighratesofPonalternatecrops(e.g.maize)during
croprotation.Peanutsrespondbettertofertiliserleftoverfromthepreviouscropthanto
fertiliserdirectlyappliedtothelatestcrop.16
PeanutplantsrequiremoderateamountsofP.WhenAMfungiarepresentinthesoil,
peanutplantsbecomeveryefficientatextractingsoilP.Phosphorusisrequiredforgeneral
plant growth and plays an important role in root development and crop maturation.
DeficiencysymptomsshowwhensoilPlevelsare<20mg/kgofsoil(Colwellorbicarbonate
Ptests)orwhereAMfungiarenotpresent.ManyAustraliansoilsarenaturallylowinP,but
manycroppedsoilshaveaconsiderablePbankbecauseofresidualphosphatefertilisers
applied over the years.
ThefirstsignofPdeficiencyisalightflecking,graduallybecomingmoreyellowuntilparts
oftheleafdie(Figure6).SeverelyP-deficientplantsarestunted,withsmallleaflets,often
bluishgreenincolourandlaterdevelopingpalespotsbetweentheveinsbeforeturning
yellowandfallingoff.Thestemsmaybepurplish.Severedeficiencysymptomsmayonly
appearwhengrowthhasalreadybeendepressedby70–80%.
Figure 6: Top: light flecking gradually becoming more yellow until parts of the leaf die indicates phosphorus deficiency. Bottom: leaves folded together can also indicate a lack of phosphorus.
16 PCA.Peanutsandfertilisers.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/peanuts-and-fertilisers.php
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PeanutgrowerstraditionallyappliedhighratesofPonothercropsintherotation,rather
than directly applying P to the peanut crops.
DirectapplicationsofParenecessarywhensoillevelsare<20mg/kgofsoil(bicarbonate
P).ForirrigatedcropsandcropsontheredsoilsoftheAthertonTableland,Pratesof30
kg/ha,andoccasionallyhigher,maybeneeded.Thiscontrastswithratesof~10kgP/ha
fordrylandcropsonmanyredsoilsinsouthernQueensland.IntheSouthBurnett,where
soiltestlevelsare<10mg/kg,apply10kgP/habroadcastbeforeplantingandafurther10
kg P/ha at planting.
ThetotalPtakenupbyapeanutcropmayrangefrom5kg/hato>30kg/ha.AMfungihelp
peanutplantstoexploitresidualPfromearlierfertiliserapplicationsandsoilPreservesthat
areunavailabletomanyothercrops.PeanutsextractsomePfromrelativelydeepinthesoil,
butmostisextractedfromthetop40cm.
ActivityofAMfungalisreducedathighsoilPconcentrations;therefore,banded
applicationsoffertiliserdonotachievethebestuptakeofP(unlikeformostothercrops).
ThemaximumrateofuptakeofPstartsatflowering.About65%ofthePtakenupbythe
plantistranslocatedtothepodsandremovedfromthepeanutfieldatharvest.17
5.9 Sulfur
PeanutsrequireS,alongwithN,toformproteins.SoilreservesofSdeclinewheresoilsare
croppedformanyyearswithoutapplicationsofS-containingfertilisers.
Sulfurdeficiencyinpeanutsisdifficulttodiagnosefromfoliarsymptoms.Thesymptoms
canincludepaleyellowingofyoungleaves,whileolderleavesremaindarkergreen(Figure
7).Thisissimilartotheappearanceofothernutrientdisorders,suchastheearlystagesof
NandFedeficiency,andtosomenon-nutrientdisorders.
Figure 7: Pale yellow leaves on the top of the plant are typical of sulfur deficiency. Sulfur deficiency is unlikely where gypsum is used to supply calcium.
17 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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Applicationsof10–20kgS/haaregenerallyadequateunlessaveryhighyieldpotential
exists. Total S taken up by peanut crops can be up to 60 kg/ha, with very high-yielding
crops expected to require more.
SourcesofSincludesomeN(sulfateofammonia)andK(sulfateofpotash)fertilisers,as
well as superphosphates.
High-analysisPfertiliserssuchastriplesuperphosphate(20%P)containlessSthansingle
superphosphate(1%Sv.11%S),whichmeansthatSinputsmaybecomenecessaryas
theuseofsinglesuperphosphatedeclines.Ifgypsumisused(seeCalcium above) no other
sourceofSshouldbeneeded.
Useofsuperphosphate(with~11%Scontent)onlight-texturedsoilshasoftenmaskedS
deficiency.TheformofsoilStakenupbyplants(sulfate-S)issolubleandcanbeleached
downthesoilprofile.Therefore,soilteststhattakeaccountoftheSindeepersoillayerswill
betterguidefertiliserrequirements.18
5.10 Potassium
PeanutsrequirelargeamountsofKtogrowthecropcanopy,althoughonly20–30%ofthe
total crop K is removed in the harvested product.
Deficienciesaremostlikelyinsandysoilsandarealsocommoninlong-termcroppingareas
ontheredandbrownforestsoilsintheSouthBurnett.Deficienciesaremorelikelyonsoils
withahistoryofhay-making.
SoilKcontentisoftenhighestinthetopsoillayers,becausemostoftheplant’sKisstored
inthecropresiduesandKdoesnotleacheasilythroughtheprofile(exceptinlightsands).
Underdirectdrill,theKaccumulatesinjustthetop5–10cm.Thislayerisoftendrywhen
thepeanutcropneedstotakeupKforlatergrowth,anddespiteahighsoil-testvalue,the
cropcanstillbecomeK-deficient.
Potassiumdeficiencyinpeanutscausestipandmargin(andsometimesinterveinal)
yellowing,followedbyearlyleafdropanddeathoftissue(Figure8).Symptomsfirstappear
on older leaves. Stems may also show some dead spotting and are shorter and thinner
than in adequately supplied plants.
18 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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Figure 8: Potassium deficiency typically showing yellowing then browning of the tips and leaf edges.
Indeficientsituations,anapplicationof50–100kgK/hamaybeneededandshouldbe
placed below the pod-zone.
Wheresoillevelsare<0.15cmol/kg,apply50–100kgK/haforafewcropsuntilsoillevels
increase.Annualapplicationsof~15kg/hawillmaintainsatisfactorysoilKlevels.Peanuts
remove~10kgKforeachtonneofpodsharvested.
Occasionalsamplingofthesubsoil(30–40cmdeep)willhelpyoutodevelopthebest
strategyforKfertiliserapplication.
PeanutscanextractKfromthesoilfasterthantheyneedit,especiallyintheseedlingstage.
As a result, the K concentration in the plant can be high in the early growth stages until
flowering,whenitstartstoberedistributedfromleavestopods.
HighlevelsofKinthepod-zonewillinhibittheCauptakeofdevelopingpodsifthesupply
ofCaislimited.Althoughtheshellwilldevelop,onlyonekernelorevennokernelswillform.
HighlevelsofKinthepod-zonecanalsoleadtoreducedshelflifeofpeanutkernelsby
causinganincreasedincidenceofbreakdown.TrytoavoidlargeapplicationsofKtothe
soilsurfacejustbeforeplanting.Ifpossible,applyKdeeperthan5cm.
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Removing peanut hay will rapidly deplete soil K levels, because there is ~20 kg K in each
tonneofpeanuthay. 19
5.11 Boron
Borondeficiencycanhavesevereeffectsonpeanutyieldsandquality.Boron,likeCa,must
betakenupdirectlyfromthesoilbythedevelopingpod.Eventhoughnofoliarsymptomsof
deficiencyoccur,thedevelopingpodsmaybedeficient.
Boronishighlysolubleandreadilyleachedfromsandyandsandy-loamsoils.Theselight-
texturedsoilsandcalcareoussoilsofhighpHaremostlikelytobedeficientinB.Somered
soilsoftheAthertonTablelandarealsodeficient.
Thekerneldevelopsa‘hollowheart’andtheembryoofthekernelmaygodark(Figure9).
Theseeffectsreducekernelweightandlowerthelikelihoodofgermination.Hollowheartis
theclassicsymptomofBdeficiencyanditwillshowuplongbeforeleafsymptoms.
PeanutplantsseemtotoleratelowlevelsofBbetterthanmanyotherplants.Foliar
symptomsofBdeficiencyincludestubby,rosettedbranches(similartothesymptoms
ofCadeficiency),crackingofbranches,discolorationofnodalareas,andleaveswitha
yellow–greenmosaicappearance.Deficienciesalsocauseshelldeformityandrandomshell
cracking (other conditions also cause cracking).
Figure 9: Kernels with ‘hollow heart’ are classic symptoms of low soil boron. Hollow hearts will form well before deficiency symptoms on the foliage.
BorondeficiencycanbecorrectedwithsoilapplicationsofBfertilisers,suchaboraxor
regular liquid applications to the soil under a growing crop. Boron applied to the leaves can
be taken into the plant but cannot be moved to the pod to supply the developing kernels.
Limitapplicationsto0.5kgB/ha,whichis~5kg/haofboraxappliedtothesoilorSolubor®
sprayed at 2.5 kg/ha. Do not apply more B unless there has been leaching rain.
19 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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Soiltestsusinghot-water-extractableBcanhelpdeterminetheneedforB,butarenotvery
reliable.
ExercisecautionwhenapplyingBbecauseitiseasytochangedeficiencyintotoxicity,even
usinglowratesofBfertiliser.Ratesofonly4kgB/hahaveproducedsymptomsofboron
toxicityinpeanuts.BorontoxicitylookslikeKdeficiency,withyellowingatthemarginsand
betweentheveinsand,eventually,browningofthemargins.20
5.12 Copper
LowsoilCuisnotcommon;itwouldmainlybeexpectedonlightsandysoils.
CopperdeficiencyhasbeenseenonsomeofthecoarsesandysoilsoftheMareeba–
DimbulahIrrigationArea,andinsomeofthecoastalsandsnearBundaberg.
Plantsareseverelystuntedandtheycandieifthedeficiencyisnotcorrected.Leavesshow
aninterveinalchlorosis,withthetipsandleafmarginsdying.Theleaveseventuallywither
anddropoff.Thepinchedand‘burnt’leaftipscanbeverydistinctive(Figure10).
Threeorfourapplicationsofcoppersulfateorcopperoxychloridewillusuallycorrectthe
deficiency.Besurethatthereissufficientleafareaforfoliarapplicationstobeeffective.
Coppersulfatecanbecorrosivetobrassboom-sprayfittings.
Figure 10: Top: leaf symptoms of low copper levels—distorted leaf tips. Bottom: copper deficiency in the field showing yellowing and browning leaf tips.
Withmicronutrientapplications,somephytotoxicitycanoccur;however,thisdamagedoes
20 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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notaffectthecrop.21Duringfloweringinweeks4and5,applyfoliarfertilisers(1%solution),
especially Cu (on very sandy soils) and Zn. 22
5.13 Iron
LackofFeisanimportantfactortoconsiderwhengrowingpeanutsonalkalinesoils.
PeanutplantsrequireFeearlyinthecropgrowthtohelpestablishfunctioningnodulesto
startNfixation.
IrondeficiencyismostlikelyoncalcareoussoilsorothersoilsofpH≥8.0.Waterloggingor
toomuchlimeinsomesoilscaninduceFedeficiency.Eventemporarywaterloggingfrom
floodirrigationcanbeenoughtoinducedeficiencyifsuppliesofplant-availableFeare
already marginal.
IrondeficiencyhasbeenseenonsomeoftheheavysoilsoftheBurdekinandMareeba
irrigationareas,andonpartsoftheDarlingDowns.Ithasalsobeenconfirmedonsome
heavysoilsaroundBiloela,wheretheupperleavesturnaverylightyellowafterrainor
irrigation.IrondeficiencyiscommononthealkalinesoilsintheNorthernTerritory.
Plants are usually stunted and pale, with leaves showing interveinal chlorosis (yellowing),
eventually becoming very pale yellow and almost white (Figure 11).
Figure 11: Top: iron deficiency, showing the pale leaves with the veins staying green and eventually losing most of their colour. Bottom: iron deficiency at Jandowae on a high pH soil.
21 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
22 PCA.Peanutproductionseasonplan.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/checklist.pdf
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ThereissomedebateoverthebestwaytotreatFedeficiency.Foliarsprayswith3%Fe
solutionasferrousammoniumsulfateareusedintheUSA.Thisgenerallycorrectsthe
deficiencyforafewweeks;threespraysmaybeneeded.UreahelpstheuptakeofFe.
ChelatedFe(Fe-EDDHA)canbeusedinbothsoilandfoliarapplications,butferrous(Fe2+)
sourcesarenotusefulassoilapplications.InIsrael,Feisplacedinabandatplantingto
supply both the plant and rhizobia.
Irondeficiencycanpreventtheformationofhealthyrhizobialnodules.Asaresult,lowFe
levelscancauseNdeficiencybecausetherhizobiaareunabletosupplyNtotheplant.
SomevarietiesaremoretoleranttolowlevelsofFe. 23
5.14 Magnesium
PeanutsarelesssusceptibletoMgdeficiencythanothercrops.AtlevelsofsoilMgwhere
aresponsewouldbeseeninmaizeandsoybeans,peanutsdonotshowsymptomsof
deficiencyorrespondtoMgfertiliser.Itappearsthatpeanutsaremoreefficientatextracting
Mgfromsoil,justastheyhaveagreaterabilitytoextractP,althoughthemechanismsare
probablydifferent.
SandysoilsareoftenMg-deficient,forexample,InnotHotSpringsinNorthQueensland,
thetobaccosoilsoftheMareeba–DimbulahIrrigationAreaandsomeofthesoilsaround
Bundaberg.HighlevelsofKcaninduceMgdeficiency.
Magnesiumdeficiencyshowsasyellowing(beginningatthemarginsandmovingtowards
themidrib)followedbyorangediscolorationandfinallynecrosis(death)ofolderleaves.
Veinsoftenshowabrowndiscolorationontheundersideoftheleaf(Figure12).Younger
leavesremainrelativelynormalinappearance.Magnesiumdeficiencysymptomsare
generallyseenonleavesinthemiddleoftheplant;boththeoldestandyoungestleavescan
look normal.
Dolomite will supply both Mg and Ca but can raise the pH, so should be used with care on
high-pHsoils.FoliarfertilisersareavailabletotreatMgdeficiency.
23 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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Figure 12: Top: typical symptoms of magnesium deficiency with browning patches on the leaf. Bottom: in the early stages, the veins on the top of the leaf are slightly lighter yellow than the rest of the leaf and the veins underneath the leaf are a darker colour.
UptakeofMgiscloselyrelatedtodrymatteraccumulation.Thus,theconcentrationofMg
intheplanttissueremainsrelativelyconstantthroughoutthelifeofthecrop.
HighlevelsofsoilMgcanreducekernelquality.Magnesiumcanmovefromthefoliageto
thepodandcanpartiallyreplaceCaunderCa-deficientconditions,reducingkernelquality.
AddingMgtothepod-zonecanalsoreducetheuptakeofCaandthereforeincreasethe
incidenceofpopsandpodrots.
ThesoiltestlevelforMgisnotwelldefinedforpeanuts.Cropresponseshavebeen
obtainedinothercropsifexchangeableMgis<0.2cmol/kg.Ifasoiltestisatorbelowthis
value, apply a test strip to determine whether there is a crop response to Mg. 24
5.15 Manganese
Manganesedeficiencyortoxicityisunlikely,exceptinveryhighorverylowpHsoils,
respectively.However,shortperiodsofMntoxicitycanoccurduringperiodsoflowoxygen
availability(waterlogging,orwetsoilwithalotofincorporatedorganicmatter)insoils
otherwiseadequateforpeanutproduction.
Deficienciesaremostlikelyonalkalinesoils,duetotheinsolubilityofMnathighpH,andon
some very sandy soils.
Manganesetoxicitymayoccurunderwetconditionsonveryacidsoils;however,inthese
24 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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soils,otherlimitingfactorssuchasCadeficiencyorAltoxicityarealsolikely.Rhizobiaare
oftenmoresensitivethantheplantitselftoMntoxicity.Asaresult,short-termwaterlogging
orwetperiods,combinedwithburied‘lumps’oforganicmattersuchascanetrash,can
resultindeathofrhizobiaandshort-termNdeficiency.Ifthishappensearlyintheseason,
theplantsmayre-nodulate,butifitoccursduringpodfill,re-nodulationmaynotoccurand
fertiliserNtopdressingsmaybeneededforthecroptomature.
WithMndeficiency,theolderleavesturnyellowandtheveinsstaygreen(Figure13).
Younger leaves are green and distorted.
Figure 13: Laboratory symptoms of manganese deficiency (field symptoms may be slightly different). Older leaves turn yellow with green veins, and young leaves are green and distorted.
Lime will correct Mn toxicity by raising soil pH. Inter-row cultivation may help to restore soil
oxygenlevelsquicklyandreducetoxiclevelsofMnafteraverywetperiod.25
5.16 Molybdenum
MolybdenumisessentialforproteinsynthesisandNfixation.Molybdenumdeficiencyis
most likely where peanuts are grown on acidic soils (pH <5.5). Soil tests over time will show
whether the soil is becoming more acidic and is more likely to respond to Mo.
IfthelevelofMoistoolowforNfixation,symptomsofNdeficiencywillappear.The
samesymptomswillshowifnodulationhasfailedortherhizobiahavediedfollowing
waterlogging.
Molybdenumcanbesuppliedbymixingwithotherfertiliserorasafoliarspray.Mo-
superphosphatewith0.04%Moorafoliarsprayofsodiummolybdateat300g/hawill
supply100g/haofMo.
In most situations where Mo is low, it will need to be applied to each crop. In some cases,
ModeficiencycanbecorrectedindirectlywithlimeordolomiteraisingsoilpHto~6.Often
theproblemisoneofunavailabilityatlowpH,ratherthanactuallowMo. 26
25 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
26 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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5.17 Zinc
PeanutsappeartotoleratelowerlevelsofZnthanmanyotherlegumesbecauseAMfungi
help to extract this nutrient. However, growers in Israel suggest that peanuts can be more
sensitivethanmaizeorcottontolowlevelsofZn.
ZincdeficiencycanoccurinsoilswithapH>7butisunlikelyinacidsoils,exceptforthe
very light sands and wallum areas in the coastal Burnett.
Zincdeficiencyappearsasinterveinalyellowingwithabrowningaroundthemidribofthe
leaf(Figure14).
Figure 14: Top: leaf symptoms of zinc deficiency in the laboratory (note the browning around the midrib of the leaf). Bottom: field symptoms may be slightly different.
ZincdeficiencycanbecorrectedwithfoliarorsoilZnfertiliserapplications.
PeanutsareverysensitivetoZntoxicity,whichmaybuildupaftercontinualapplications
onothercrops,suchasirrigatedmaize.SymptomsofZntoxicityincludestunting4weeks
aftergermination,leafchlorosis,andflattenedstemsthatdevelopacharacteristicvertical
split at soil level. See Cadmium managementbelowformoreinformationonZntoxicity. 27
27 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
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5.18 Cadmium management
Soilswithalonghistoryofsuperphosphateapplicationscanhaveproblemswithcadmium
(Cd) accumulation in the peanut kernel.
Cadmium is a heavy metal that accumulates in the human body and can cause health
problems.ItisthereforeimperativethatCdinpeanutkernelsisminimised.
CadmiuminAustraliansoilshasprimarilybeenintroducedasacontaminantofphosphatic
fertilisersfrommarinedepositsofphosphaterockfromnearbysources(e.g.Nauruand
ChristmasIslands).Thehighuseofphosphate(andother)fertilisershasaddedCdtosoils
that now grow peanuts.
NotallCdinasoilisavailableforuptakebyplants.Cadmiumuptakeisgreatestwhenthe
soil has low pH (i.e. acidic soils), low clay content (i.e. sands) and low organic matter levels.
MarketingcompaniessuchasthePeanutCompanyofAustralia(PCA)requiresoiltests
beforeplantingifCdcontaminationislikelyinasoil.
GrowerscanmanageCduptakebythepeanutplant,andsubsequentmovementoftheCd
into the developing kernel.
LimeapplicationstokeepsoilpH≥6willreducetheamountofplant-availableCd,as
willincorporationoforganicmatter(e.g.acanetrashblanket).However,bothofthese
strategiesrequireafewmonthsoftimeandsoilmoisturetohaveasignificantimpact.
PlacementmustoccurwhereverthereisCdinthesoilprofile(mostlythetop40cm,orto
thedepthofpreviouscultivationorploughings)tobeeffective.Rememberthattolimethe
top30cmofthesoilprofiletoatargetpH(e.g.6.5),limemustbeappliedattherequired
rate to treat each 10 cm layer.
PeanutvarietiesdiffersubstantiallyintheirabilitytomoveCdfromtheleavesdownintothe
developing kernel. Low Cd-accumulating varieties should be grown on high-risk soils. Seek
advice on the varieties best suited to your situation as new varieties become available.
ThepeanutplantalsoseemstomoveZnpreferentially,insteadofCd,tothekernel,so
strategicapplicationsoffoliarZnwillhelptoreduceCdinthekernelstoacceptablelevels.
Todothis,regularapplicationsofupto1kg/haofelementalZn(4kg/hazinchepta-
hydrate)arerequiredthroughoutthepod-fillingphase.Becarefulnottoover-fertilisewith
Zn—toxicity can occur. Conduct soil tests and consult your local agronomist.
Zinc applications to the soil can reduce kernel Cd, but increased Cd uptake by the plant
andZntoxicitycanoccur;therefore,soilapplicationsinvolvemorerisksthandofoliar
applications. The best solution is to build soil Zn levels slowly over time and conduct regular
soil tests to avoid over-application. 28
28 PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
i More information
QDPI/CSIRO. Managing
cadmium in summer
grainlegumesfor
premium quality produce.
Cadmium. Nuts2u.
Incitec Pivot Fertilisers.
Gypsum.
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SECTION 6
Weed control
Weedscompetewiththepeanutcropformoisture,nutrientsandlight.Theycausemajor
problemsatharvesttime,andreducethequalityofthecrop.
Peanuts do not grow very tall and consequently do not compete very well with weeds. Early
controlofweedsduringthecrop’sfirst6weeksiscritical.Yieldswillbeslashedifweedsare
allowed to compete unchecked at this stage.
Thepresenceofweedsalsocauseslossesduringdigging,threshinganddrying—
entanglingmachinery,knockingpeanutsoffthebush,andleadingtomoulddamageby
causing uneven drying in the windrow.
Weedscanalsorestrictairflowduringthedryingprocess,creatingpocketsofmoisture,
whichhavethepotentialtocauseaflatoxin.
Acombinationofcultivation,herbicidesandhand-chippingisusuallyrequiredtocontrol
weeds. 1
Manyherbicidesareregisteredforuseinpeanuts.Correctuseofherbicideshasproved
relativelysafeandveryeffectiveagainstadiversityofbothgrassandbroadleafweeds.
However,growersshouldavoidsprayingbroadleafherbicidesduringthemainflowering
periodifpossible.
1 PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
i More information
Australian Pesticides
and Veterinary Medicines
Authority.
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Mechanicalcultivationisstillusedinmanyareas;however,growersneedtobecarefulof
rootpruningandespeciallyofthrowingdirtupagainsttheplantstemduringcultivation.
These activities have been shown to exacerbate several soil-borne diseases, such as white
mould. 2
Controlofweedsisoneofthemajorfactorsinvolvedinsuccessfullygrowingpeanuts.
Because the peanut crop grows underground, weeds make digging and threshing
operationsverydifficult,resultinginhighlosses.Peanutplantsthemselvescanalsobea
problemweedwhengrowinginfallowsandothercrops.
Aweedmanagementprograminpeanutsrequiresthetimelyuseofcultural,mechanical
and chemical practices (Figure 1).
Weedmanagementisawhole-of-farm,whole-of-yearconcern.Weedsshouldneverbe
allowedtoseedinfallows,peanutcropsorrotationcrops.Preventingweedsfromseeding
willreduceweedpopulationsinthelong-termandreducetheriskofweedsdeveloping
resistance to herbicides.
Weedsreducetheeffectivenessoffungicideapplicationsbecausesomeofthefungicide
fallsontheweedinsteadofonthepeanutfoliage.
Figure 1: The weed on the left is at the 2-leaf stage and requires less herbicide to control than the more mature weed on the right.
Weed control in the crop starts with the seedbed preparation. Do not plant peanuts unless
weedsareundercontrolatthetimeofplanting.
Studiesofweedsinmanycropsshowthatweedsstarttocompetewiththecropassoon
as they have germinated. For peanut crops, it is especially important to have weeds under
control early, because the peanut plants do not compete well with weeds, particularly in the
first6weeksofthecropcycle.
Peanutsusuallymaintainyieldpotentialifthegrowereradicatesweedswithinthefirst3–4
weeksafterplantingandthepeanutcropremainsweed-freefortherestoftheseason.
Yieldswillgenerallysufferifweedsremaininthecropduringthe4–8weeksafterplanting.
Someweedscanonlybecontrolledwithherbicidesthatalsohaveanadverseeffecton
peanuts.Theseweedsmustbecontrolledbeforeplantingpeanuts.
Weeds in peanuts are a major problem at harvest time. Losses occur during digging,
2 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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threshinganddrying.Somepeanutfarmershavelostfingerstryingtofreeapeanutpuller
choked with weeds. 3
6.1 Digging
Duringdigging,thepeanutplantisremovedfromthegroundwithmachinessuchasa
digger-inverter,toplacethepeanutsupside-downfordrying.
Weedsbecomeentangledwiththepeanutcrop,causingpeanutstobelostfromthebush
andmakinginversiondifficult.Theyalsocauseunevendryingandmoredirttoberetained
in the windrow. Grasses with extensive root systems or creeping growth habits, such as
couchgrassandcrowsfootgrass,cancausemajorproblems.
Diggingisaffectedbythedragorbaulking,whichoccursoverthebladeswhentryingtocut
through these grasses.
Diggers require coulter blades to break up bellvine and convolvulus vine, allowing them
toflowthroughthebladesection.Despitethecoulters,thevinewilldragoverthecutter
sectionandcausepoorinversion.Thewindrowwillalsobefarlessopenandconsiderable
moulddamagecanoccurtopeanutsinapoorlyinverted,tightwindrowifitrains.
Otherweedswithstrongtaproots,suchasSida,dragandcausethebunchingofpeanuts
andsoilintheinvertersectionofthedigger.
Largebroadleafweedswiththickstems,suchasthornapple,causepoorinversionand
result in dragging and choking in the cutter section.
Growersoftenusearotaryhoeordiscstoloosenthesoilontheheadlands,toallowthe
cutterbladestopenetratebeforereachingthepeanutplants.Thispracticealsohelpsto
control weeds that may otherwise invade the crop area. 4
6.2 Threshing
Weedsalsoaffectthethreshingoperation.Bindingweedssuchasconvolvulusandbellvine
producelargevolumesofleafmatter,whichtheharvestermustseparatefromthepodsin
the sieving process.
Taprootedandthick-stemmedweedsbecomecaughtinsieves,furtherreducingthe
capacityandefficiencyoftheharvester.
Soilleftonweedrootsreducestheseparationefficiency,resultinginhigherlevelsofleafand
trash remaining in the harvested product. This contamination reduces the crop value. 5
3 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingweeds.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4c_weed.pdf
4 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingweeds.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4c_weed.pdf
5 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingweeds.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4c_weed.pdf
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6.3 Drying
Efficientcuringreliesonacleanpeanutsample.Weedsmaycausehighlevelsof
extraneousmatter(leafmaterial,sticksanddirt),whichreducesair-flowthroughthe
peanuts.Thiscausespocketsofmoisturetoremainandcanresultinmouldandaflatoxin
development.
Thefruitofwildgooseberries,wildcucumberandwildgherkinscanalsocausecuring
problems.Thepodorfruitisastorehouseofmoistureanditwillnotdryasquicklyasthe
peanuts.Thiscanleadtothedevelopmentofmouldand,potentially,aflatoxin,despite
correctcuringpractices.Pre-cleaningbeforecuringwillhelp,butitisnotalwayspossibleto
removethefruitcompletely.6
6.4 Management options
Acombinationofcultivationandherbicidesisusuallyneededtocontrolweedsinpeanuts,
although in irrigated crops, weeds are usually controlled using only herbicides.
6.4.1 CultivationIn dryland crops, growers may use two inter-row cultivations to control weeds, to loosen
thesoilforthepegstopenetrate,andtomakecuttingeasier.Inveryloose,friablesoils,
inter-rowcultivationmaynotbenecessary.Afterheavyrainorprolongedwetperiodsoron
soilsthatcrust,aninter-rowcultivationtoaeratethesoilmaybenefitthecropevenifvery
fewweedsarepresent.
Cultivatorsshouldbesetsotoavoidthrowingsoilontothepeanutplant;thiscancause
damageanddisease.Movesoilupto,butnotontotheplant.Ifalatecultivationis
unavoidable, do not disturb pegs that have entered the soil. Avoid late inter-row cultivations
in situations where Sclerotinia blight is a known problem.
Hand-chippingcanstillbeverycost-effectivetocontrol‘escaped’weedsbeforeharvesting
the crop.
6.4.2 HerbicidesThefollowinginformationregardingherbicidesandtheiruserelatestoQueensland
registrations.Checkthelabelforuseinotherstates.
Grass weeds
Grassesareusuallycontrolledbeforeplantingbyusinganincorporatedherbicidesuchas
trifluralinorpendimethalin.Imazethapyr(e.g.Spinnaker®) or imazapic (e.g. Flame®) applied
post-emergencecangivegoodsuppressionofnutgrass.
S-Metolachlor (Dual®) applied post-plant pre-emergence controls some grasses.
Fluazifop-p(e.g.Fusilade®), sethoxydim (Sertin®),quizalofop-p-ethyl(e.g.Targa®) and
6 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingweeds.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4c_weed.pdf
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haloxyfop(e.g.Verdict™)willcontrolgrass‘escapes’aftercropemergenceandarealso
effectiveonJohnsongrass(Sorghum halepense) and volunteer sugarcane.
Paraquat will control only very small grasses.
Glyphosateprovidesusefulfallowweedcontrol.
Broadleaf weeds
Bentazon (Basagran®),acifluorfen(Blazer®), 2,4-DB (Buttress®), paraquat, imazapic (e.g.
Flame®) and imazethapyr (e.g. Spinnaker®)arethemaincontrolsavailableforbroadleaf
weeds.
Basagran®willcontrolmanybroadleafweeds;however,itwillnotcontrolwildgooseberry
or Sesbania. Use Blazer®iftheseweedsarepresent.UsingBasagran® or Blazer® under
conditionsofhightemperatureandlowhumiditymayresultinpoorweedcontrol.Spraying
may need to cease by 9am to 10am. Even irrigated crops can have stressed weeds in the
middleofthedaydependingontheevaporativedemandonthatday.
Paraquatgivescheap,effectivecontrolofseveralcommonweeds.Itcanscorchpeanut
leaves;however,theydorecoverrapidly.Thepeanutcropshouldbesprayedbeforethe
7–8-leafstage.Goodcoverageisessential.UnlikeBasagran® and Blazer®, paraquat will
controlstressedweeds,butusually,theymustbeyoungerthanthe4-leafstage.Many
growers mix Basagran® with paraquat to reduce the burn on the peanuts that can result
fromusingparaquatonitsown.Thismixwillalsoreducecontroloflegumeweeds.
Dual® is sometimes banded over the row at planting to control Commelina benghalensis.
Unliketrifluralin,Dual® does not require mechanical incorporation, but it does need rain or
irrigationwithin10daysofapplication.
Prometrynprovidesgoodcontrolofmanyweedsinirrigatedpeanuts.Itscostandtheneed
formoisturemakeitunsuitablefordrylandpeanuts,exceptinhigh-rainfallareas.Some
damagetopeanutshasoccurredwhereatankmixofDual® and prometryn was used on
heavysoils.Growersshouldconsulttheirpeanutagronomistbeforeapplyingprometryn.
Ropewickweederswithglyphosateareusedtocontrollargebroadleafweeds,Johnson
grass and volunteer maize and sorghum.
Weed peanuts
Volunteerpeanutplantsgrowinginothercropsandinthefallowbetweencropsarevery
difficulttocontrol.
Manyherbicidesandcombinationsofherbicideswillseverelydistortpeanuts,butmay
notreliablykillthem.ResearchatKingaroyhasidentifiedseveralproductsthatwillcontrol
volunteer peanuts, but they are not yet registered.
Fallowspraysofglyphosateatupto2L/haandSpray.Seed® (paraquat + diquat) have not
killed all volunteer peanuts even when used in combination with other herbicides such as
2,4-D amine, dicamba and atrazine.
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Herbicidesusedinrotationcropsofsorghumandmaizedonotalwaysgivereliablecontrol
ofvolunteerpeanuts.CombinationsofatrazineandStarane™(fluroxypyr)haveproventhe
mosteffective.Contactyourlocalagronomisttofindoutthelatestinformationoncontrolling
volunteer peanuts.
Forconservationcroppingfallowmanagement,infallowpaddocksuseglyphosate,2,4-D
amine,dicamba,atrazineandStarane™tocontrolgrasses,broadleafandwoodyweeds.
Section 7 PEANUTS - Insect control
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SECTION 7
Insect control
Variousinsectpestsattackpeanuts;however,comparedwithhorticulturalcropsand
cotton,insectsarenotconsideredamajorproblemforpeanuts.Regularscoutingforinsect
pestsisstillwarranted.GrowersshouldbudgetonatleastonesprayforHelicoverpa.
Peanut crops in cotton- and lucerne-growing areas may have more aboveground pests
thancropsthataremoreisolated.Soilpestssuchaswhitegrubsandwhitefringedweevil
(Graphognathus leucoloma)aresignificantpestsinestablishedpeanut-growingareas.
Intraditionalpeanut-growingareas,foliarinsectpestshavenotbeenamajorproblem.
However, this has changed recently as peanuts have moved into new production areas,
especially areas that have predominantly grown cotton or horticultural. 1
7.1 Types of insect pests
Foliage feeders
ThemainfoliagefeederstendtobeHelicoverpa sp. and cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera sp.).
Largenumbersoftheselarvae(>6larvae/m)canbedamagingwhentheplantsarevery
small;controlmeasuresmaybewarranted.
Growersalsoneedtocheckcropscarefullyduringthemainfloweringandpeggingperiod.
Theseinsectswillattackbothflowersandpegsandcanreduceyieldpotential.Controlmay
bewarrantedwherethereare>2larvae/mofrow.
1 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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InNorthQueensland,redshoulderedleafbeetle(Monolepta australis) can be a regional pest
ofsignificance.Theyhaveashortlifecycle,andtwopopulationsgenerallyoccurthroughout
the season. Expect heaviest pressure in paddocks adjacent to avocadoes and other tree
crops.Apreventativeapproachtomanagementisrecommended;managethepestin
thetreecrop(wheremanyregisteredcontroloptionsexist).Effectiveinsecticideoptionsin
peanutsarefew;however,forlatestinformationpleaseconsultyouragronomist.
Sucking insects
Severalsuckinginsectswillattackpeanutsandareoftenresponsibleforthespreadof
viruses.Themostcommonlyobservedarethevegetablejassidandthelucerneleafhopper.
Thesecanattackthecropatanystageandoftenbuilduptohugenumbers.Growers
oftenoverlookthesepestsbecausetheyarenoteasilyseen,butinlargenumbers,they
cancausesignificantcropdamage.If≥25%ofthecrop’sleaveshavesmallyellowspotsor
stippling, and or the leaves are turning yellow at the tips and margins, then chemical control
measures may be warranted.
Thrips,miridsandmitescanalsobeaprobleminsomeareas.Regularscoutingofthecrop
is essential to determine whether control measures are warranted. 2
7.2 Growth stages
7.2.1 Pre-emergencePest damage to peanuts can start as soon as the seed is planted, but this is not common.
Wherepre-emergencedamageoccurs,itisusuallyfromlarvaeofthewhitefringedweevil.
Falsewirewormlarvae,whitefringedweevil,largewhitegrubs(‘canegrubs’)andmole
crickets all can occasionally damage germinating seeds.
7.2.2 Emergence to first flowering Duringvegetativegrowth,damageismainlytofoliagebyeitherleaf-chewingorsap-feeding
pests.Sap-feedingpestsincludelucerneandvegetableleafhoppers(jassids),peanutmites
andcowpeaaphids,andmayoccuranytimeaftercropemergence.
Peanut mites can damage peanuts during prolonged dry periods (Figure 1). The mite
disappears with rain and the plant outgrows the damage.
Thetwo-spottedmiteisnotusuallyapestofpeanuts.However,ifpeanutsaresprayed
heavily with non-selective (hard) pesticides, or are grown in areas where adjacent crops
areheavilysprayed,thentwo-spottedmiteinfestationsmayoccur.Inthevegetativestage,
controlmayberequiredifthemiteisstillpresentand>10plantsoutof30have>30%
reductioninleafarea.
Leaf-chewingpeststhataffectpeanutsincludeHelicoverpa and the cluster caterpillar.
Redshoulderedleafbeetleoccasionallydamageisolatedpatchesofacrop.
Almost every peanut crop will contain some Helicoverpa larvae. Control is rarely needed,
2 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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aspeanutsareverytolerantofdefoliation.Naturallyoccurringoutbreaksofnuclear
polyhedrosisvirus(NPV)willoftenkilllarvaebeforetheydamagethecrop.
Cluster caterpillars are less common than Helicoverpa and rarely need control.
InNorthQueensland,whitefringedweevilscancauseseveredamage.Larvaechewthe
taproots,whichcancauseplantstodie,andadultscandefoliateyoungplantswhen
present in large numbers.
Thelarvaeofthepeanutwhitegrub,Heteronyx piceus,andrelatedspeciescaninflict
damagesimilartothatcausedbywhitefringedweevillarvae,butthisseldomresultsinplant
death.Adultpeanutwhitegrubscancauseseveredefoliationinyoungplants. 3
Figure 1: Peanut mites cause damage like this only in dry years.
7.2.3 Flowering, pegging and podfillSap-suckingpestspresentduringthevegetativestagecancontinueintoflowering,pegging
andpodfill.Miridsmayalsoaffectthecrop,feedingonbudsandflowersandcausingthem
to abort.
Helicoverpa, usually H. armigera,sometimesfeedonflowersandpegs.Ifsignificant
numbersofflowersandpegsarebeingchewedoff,somecontrolmaybeneeded.Cluster
caterpillars also attack peanut pegs. This pest is more common in coastal regions and the
tropics.
Root-chewinglarvaeofwhitefringedweevilandwhitegrubscancausesignificantplant
losses and pod damage.
Heavyinfestationssilverleafwhitefly(SLW,Bemisia tabaci)atfloweringandpoddingcan
greatlyreduceplantvigourandyield.However,peanutsarenotfavouredhostsforthis
exotic pest, and populations in most years are usually low.
Westernflowerthrips(Frankliniella occidentalis) are another exotic pest and a potential
threat to peanuts, mainly because they transmit Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). Although
TSWVinfectionsareofteninitiatedbywesternflowerthripsfeedingduringthevegetative
3 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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stage,severeTSWVsymptomsareusuallynotmanifesteduntilflowering.However,the
incidenceofTSWVinAustralianpeanutshasnotyetreachedthedamaginglevelsreported
in other crops or in peanut crops overseas. 4
7.2.4 Mature cropsThe lucerne seed web moth (Etiella) may leave holes in pods and appear close to harvest,
particularly during dry seasons. Damage is less common in irrigated crops and runner types
seemmostaffected. 5
7.3 Damage caused by pests
Soil insects and pod damage
InsomepartsofQueensland,whitefringedweevilscancauseseveredamage.Larvaeofthe
weevilattackthetaprootoftheplant.Thismaycausedirectdeathoftheplantorindirectly
leadtoitsdemisebyprovidinganentrysitefordiseasessuchasCylindrocladium black rot
(CBR).Thelarvaewillalsochewpegsanddevelopingpods.Thebeststrategyformanaging
thispestappearstobetocontroltheadultsbeforetheylayeggs.
Variouswhitegrubsandcanegrubswillalsofeedonroots,pegsanddevelopingpods.
Mechanicalcultivationcanbeusefulincontrollingsomeofthesepestsandsomesoil-
applied insecticides may also be warranted.
Etiellamothsandlarvaemaybecommononsomeofthesandiersoiltypesandareoften
especiallyactiveagainsttherunnertypespfpeanuts.Theadultmothlaysitseggsonthe
peanutplant.Thelarvaehatchandmovedowntheplantintothesoiltofeedonthepods.
Growers should check crops at least 1 month prior to harvest. In extreme cases, the crop
mayhavetobedugearly.Irrigationisthebestformofdefenceagainstthispest.6
7.4 Management of insect pests
Inweeks2and3duringcropestablishment,checkforsoilandfoliarinsects,especially
Helicoverpa and cutworms (Agrotis sp.).
Inweeks4–7duringflowering,checkforfoliarinsects,especiallyjassids,leafhoppers,mites
and Helicoverpa.Continuetoscoutforfoliarinsectsduringweeks8and9,whenpegging
occurs, and through to canopy closure and pod-setting in weeks 12 and 13.
Inweeks14and15whenpod-fillingisunderway,checkforinsects,especiallyarmyworms
(Spodoptera sp.),whichstayatorjustbelowgroundlevelduringthedaybutfeedonpegs
during the night. 7
4 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
5 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
6 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
7 PCA.Peanutproductionseasonplan.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/checklist.pdf
i More information
Australian Pesticides
and Veterinary Medicines
Authority.
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7.5 Major insect pests of peanuts
7.5.1 Aphids (Aphididae)Importance: Cowpea aphids (Aphis craccivora) are common (Figure 2). They are not
consideredapest;however,theyarevectorsofthePeanut mottle virus. Peanut mottle virus
is usually not a problem in peanuts, but can be a major concern in navy beans growing
nearby.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website. 8
Figure 2: Cowpea aphids.
8 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.2 Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura)Importance:Clustercaterpillars(Figure3)aresignificantbutinfrequentintraditional
growing regions such as the South Burnett. They are more abundant in coastal regions and
the tropics, where serious damage has been reported.
Damage:Clustercaterpillarsarefoliageandpegfeeders.Younglarvaefeedingroups,
leavingthebiggerveins.Largerlarvaearesolitary,chewinglargepiecesofleafand
attacking and severing pegs, causing pod death.
Action level:Sampleweeklyduringthevegetativestageandfromfloweringtotheendof
podfill.Examinefiveplantsatsixwidelyspacedlocations(i.e.30plants).
Control:RarelyaproblemifinsecticidesareusedtocontrolHelicoverpa. 9
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website.
Figure 3: Cluster caterpillar (top left), eggs (top right), and moth (bottom).
9 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.3 Cutworms (Agrotis spp.)Importance: Minor and sporadic.
Damage:Seedlingsarechewedoffaroundgroundlevel(Figure4).Damageisusually
patchyandtendstoprogressoutwardsfromtheinitialdamagesite.
Action level: Not determined. Check presence with germinating seed baits.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website. 10
Figure 4: Cutworms.
7.5.4 Lucerne seed web moth (Etiella behrii)Importance:Majorbutsporadic.Canbesevereindroughtyears.Infestationsareworse
onlighter,sandiersoilsandindryseasons.CropsofvarietyFlorunnertendtobemore
affectedbyEtiella than other varieties. Can also be a problem in irrigated crops when soils
aredryingdownbeforeharvest.Etielladamageisamajorriskfactorforaflatoxin.
Damage: In dry seasons when soils are dry and cracked, newly hatched larvae are able
toreachtheundergroundpods(Figure5).Larvaeborestraightintopodsandfeedwithin
themuntilreadytopupate.Larvaethenemergefromthepodsandsometimesproduce
webbing around the pods. Note that other, less damaging caterpillars (e.g. Endotricha sp.)
commonlymakewebbingatthebaseofplants.
Etiellaexitholesare2–3mmindiameterandtheseallowtheaflatoxin-producingfungus
Aspergillus flavustoenterpods.AflatoxinlevelsinEtiella-damaged pods can be >4 times
greaterthaninundamagedpodscontainingaflatoxin.Etiella damage is not obvious until
harvest. Etiellalarvaearefrequentlystillinsidepodsatharvestandcanbedrivenoutintheir
thousands when pods are dried postharvest.
Action level:Ifithasbeenadryseason,checkthecropregularly,startingatleast1month
priortoharvest.Samplefiveplantsatsixpositionsalloverthepaddock(i.e.30plants).
10 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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Ifpodshavemuchwebbingandfrass,pullearlyanddry.Lighttrapsarebeingtrialledto
monitor Etiella moth activity and predict pod damage.
Figure 5: Left: lucerne seed web moth—a problem in dry seasons, particularly on light sandy soils. Right: the blue green larvae tunnel into pods and destroy the kernel. It is difficult to separate damaged and sound pods at harvest.
Registered chemical: None registered.
Cultural control: Pull crop early and dry. Eliminate alternative hosts such as Sesbania and
rattlepod (Crotolaria spp.). 11
11 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.5 False wireworms (Gonocephalum spp. and Pterohelaeus spp.)
Importance: Minor and sporadic.
Damage:Larvaefeedondecayingvegetablematter,cropresiduesinthesoilandnewly
germinatedseed(Figure6).Boththeseedandthegrowingpointoftheplantaredamaged,
resultinginpatchystands.Duringsummer,adultsring-barkorcutoffyoungplantsatorjust
below ground level.
Action level: Not determined. Check presence with germinating seed baits.
Control: Seed treatment will reduce but not eliminate the problem.
Registered chemical: None registered. 12
Figure 6: False wireworm.
12 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.6 Helicoverpa punctigera and H. armigeraImportance:Minorandfrequent.Cancausedamagefromemergencetopegging.
Damage: Most crops will contain some Helicoverpa larvae (Figure 7). Heliothis punctigera
mainly attacks the leaves and growing points whereas H. armigerausuallydamagesflowers
andpegs.Peanutsaretolerantofdefoliation,andevenquitehighpopulations(e.g.5larvae/
m2)havelittleimpactonyieldinwell-growncrops.However,severedefoliationorflower
and peg damage during podding can reduce crop potential. Usually, naturally occurring
outbreaksofNPVkilllarvaebeforetheydamagethecrop.
Action level:Sampleweeklyduringvegetative,floweringandpeggingstages.Sample
five1-mlengthsofrowatsixpositionsacrossthepaddock.Duringthevegetativestage,
sprayifthereare>12larvae/mofrow.Duringfloweringandpeggingstages,sprayif>3–5
larvae/marepresentandlarvaearefeedingonflowersandpegs.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website.
Biological control: NPV products, e.g. ViVUS. 13
Figure 7: Helicoverpa larvae mainly eat leaves, but can chew flowers and pegs.
13 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.7 Lucerne leafhopper (Austroasca alfalfae)Importance:Minortosignificantandfrequent.Lucerneleafhopperisyellow-greenand
moredamagingthantheemeraldgreenorblue-greenvegetableleafhopper.Thispestis
more common in tropical regions.
Damage:Nymphsandadultsfeedonthesap-conductingsystemandinjectatoxin.
Leavesturnyellowanddiefromthetip(hopperburn)andplantgrowthisstunted(Figure8).
Damage is worse when plants are stressed.
Action level:Sampleweeklyduringthevegetative,floweringandpeggingstages(30
leaves/week).Samplefiveleaveshalfwayuptheplantatsixpositionsacrossthepaddock.
Sprayif>7of30leaveshaveyellowingorburninthevegetativecropstage.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website. 14
Figure 8: Top: lucerne leafhopper. Bottom: ‘hopper burn’, typical yellow leaf tips caused by lucerne leafhoppers.
14 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.8 Vegetable leafhopper (Austroasca viridigrisea)Importance:Minorandfrequent.Vegetableleafhopperisemerald(blue-green)incolour
andlessdamagingthantheyellow-greenlucerneleafhopper(Figure9).Itisverycommonin
most peanut crops.
Damage:Nymphsandadultssuckthecontentsofleafcells.Theleafcelldies,leaving
awhitespot.Adjacentspotsformthestipplepatterncharacteristicofvegetablejassid
damage. Damage is worse when plants are stressed.
Action level: Usually does not need control, except where there are extremely high
populationsduringhot,dryweather.Sampleweeklyduringvegetative,floweringand
pegging stages.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website. 15
Figure 9: Vegetable leafhopper.
15 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.9 Pineapple mealybug
Importance: Minor and sporadic. Its importance may increase in irrigated crops.
Damage:Infestedplantsarestunted.Nutsoftencollapseandassumeablackishcolour
whenthewaxy,fluffy,whitemealybugsarepresentinlargenumbers(Figure10).Damageis
usually in poorly drained sites.
Action level: None determined.
Registered chemical:Noregistrations.Pesticidecontrolisnotfeasibleforthispest.
Cultural control: Avoid planting in poorly drained areas. 16
Figure 10: Mealybug.
16 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.10 Mirids (Miridae), green and brown (Creontiades sp.)Importance: Widespread but probably not as damaging as in mungbeans. Peanuts in
lucerne-growing areas are at most risk.
Damage:Miridsinfestingcagedpeanutplantshavebeenshowntoreducethenumberof
pods produced (Figure 11). Mirid attack may result in uneven crop maturity.
Action level:Aprovisionalthresholdof3–4mirids/m2hasbeensetforpeanuts.
Registered chemical: None registered. 17
Figure 11: Mirids are widespread and suspected of damaging peanuts in the field.
17 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.11 Peanut mite (Paraplonobia spp.)Importance:Minorandinfrequent;shouldnotbeaprobleminoverheadorspray-irrigated
crops.
Damage:Ageneralyellowingandsilveringoftheleaveswillshowupinpatchesofthecrop
during prolonged dry periods. As damage becomes more severe, lower leaves are shed
andplantsdie.Mitesjumpofftheplantattheleastdisturbance(evenashadowacrossa
leaf),socareisneededtofindtherelativelylarge,darkgreen–blackmites(0.5mmlong)on
theunder-surfaceofthelowerleaves(Figure12).
Themitesdisappearafterrainandplantsusuallyoutgrowthedamage.
Action level:Sampleweeklyiftheweatherhasbeendryforaprolongedperiod.Only
spraythepatcheswithobvioussilveringifrainisnotexpected.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website. 18
Figure 12: Peanut mite damage to a leaf.
18 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.12 Two-spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae)Importance: Minor and sporadic. A problem where peanuts grow next to cotton.
Damage:Suckingofthetissuecausesleafmottlingandyellowing.Inseverecases,leaves
will die (Figure 13).
Action level: Not determined.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website. 19
Figure 13: Two-spotted mites are usually a problem only in cotton districts.
19 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.13 Redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis) Importance:Minorandsporadic.Mostcommonincoastalregionswherethelarvaefeed
on sugarcane roots.
Damage:Adultswarmsfeedonfoliageandflowers.Overalldamageininlandregionsis
generallyminor;adultsusuallyoccurinisolatedpatchesinacrop(Figure14).However,
very high populations across whole crops have caused major damage in coastal regions,
shreddingleavesandflowers.Larvaldamagetorootsisnotsignificant,aspeanutsarenot
apreferredlarvalhost.
Action level: Not determined.
Registered chemical: None registered. 20
Figure 14: Redshouldered leaf beetle.
20 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.14 Silverleaf whitefly (Bemisia tabaci, type B)Importance: Potentially a serious pest in coastal and tropical regions (Figure 15). Heavy
SLW populations severely damaged many peanut crops in central Queensland in 2002.
However, this was an exceptionally bad season, and in most seasons, SLW is not a
problembecausepeanutsarenotapreferredhost.
Damage:SevereSLWdamagecanreduceplantvigourandyield.SevereSLWinfestations
in young plants can stunt plant growth and greatly reduce a crop’s yield potential. Later
infestationsatfloweringandpoddingcanreducepodsetandpodyield.Generally,the
impactofSLWismoresevereindrought-stressedcrops.
Action level: Not determined.
Registered chemical:NopesticidesregisteredforSLWmanagementinpeanuts.Inthe
longterm,solerelianceonpesticidesforSLWisnotsustainableandtheintegratepest
management(IPM)-friendlyoptionsavailableincottonaretooexpensiveforpeanuts.Avoid
theuseofnon-selectivepesticidesagainstotherpests,tohelpconserveSLWparasites.
Cultural control: Avoid planting peanuts close to earlier maturing susceptible hosts such
as cotton, cucurbits and sweet potatoes.
Biological control:SLWareparasitisedbyanumberofsmallnativeandintroduced
wasps.LadybirdsandhoverflylarvaehavealsopredatedonSLW.Therefore,useofnon-
selective pesticides should be avoided. 21
Figure 15: Silverleaf whitefly.
21 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.15 Storage insectsImportance:Widespreadandsignificant.Indianmealmoth(Plodia interpunctella) and the
tropical warehouse moth (Ephestia cautella)arethemostcommon.Larvaeofthelucerne
seed web moth (Etiella behrii) can be delivered to storage depots inside the pod but do not
re-infestinstorage.
Damage: Storage moth larvae damage kernels, particularly at high moisture levels (Figure
16).
Action level:Controlmeasuresshouldbeundertakenatthefirstsignofdamage.
Cultural control: Adopt good hygiene by cleaning threshers, bins, elevators and around
sheds.Keepharvestedcrop<12%moisturecontentonnut-in-shellbasisandkeepcool.
Checkwithpeanutshellersbeforeusinganystoredgraininsecticidesonpeanuts.22
Check current registrations on the APVMA website.
Figure 16: Insect damage to stored kernels.
22 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.16 Thrips (Thysanoptera)Importance:Mostdamagebythripsisminorandinfrequentandshouldnotbeaproblem
inirrigatedcrops(Figure17).However,therecentlyintroducedwesternflowerthrips
(Frankliniella occidentalis)isasignificantthreattopeanuts.Sincethearrivalofwestern
flowerthripsinAustralia,therehasbeenadramaticincreaseintheincidenceofTSWVand
Capsicum chlorosis virus in many other susceptible crops. TSWV has severely damaged
peanut crops in many overseas countries, including the USA.
Damage:Thripsdamageischaracterisedbyageneralyellowing,silveringanddistortionof
theleavesthatshowupinpatchesofthecropduringprolongeddryperiods.Thripsmay
alsoattackflowers,leadingtoflowerabortion.TSWVsymptomsaremanyandvaried,but
includestunting,yellowinganddistortionofplants,followedbywilting,plantcollapseand
death.Earlyleafsymptomsincludepaleringspots.
Action level:Sampleweeklyifithasbeendryforalongtime.Onlysprayaffectedpatches,
orifthereare>4–6thripsperflower.However,beawarethatwesternflowerthripsare
resistanttomanypesticides,andthatpesticidesareineffectiveinstoppingthespreadof
TSWV. 23
Figure 17: Thrips.
23 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.17 Whitefringed weevil (Graphognathus leucoloma)Importance: Major and sporadic.
Damage: Larvae chewing into the taproot cause the most damage (Figure 18). This results
inseverelyreducedvigourorthedeathoftheplant.Pegscanalsobedamagedandmature
larvaewillchewthedevelopingnut.Infestationsinacropareusuallypatchy.Adultswill
chew leaves and may cause patchy seedling stands in North Queensland. Root damage
fromlarvaemayallowCBRinfection.
Action level:MonitorcropsafterrainfromNovembertoJanuaryforemergingadults.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website.
Cultural control:Reducelarvaecarryoverfromthepreviousseason’scrop.Remove
volunteerpeanutsfrommaizetoreducethecarryoveroflarvaeinthesoil.Avoidplanting
on land planted to, or adjacent to, peanuts or lucerne in the previous season. Reduce
thefrequencyoflegumeandtubercropsintherotationtohelpreducepopulations;for
example,avoidplantingpotatoesafterpeanuts. 24
Figure 18: Whitefringed weevil. Left: the larvae chew into pods and roots; they do not have an obvious head like a white grub. Right: adults feed on leaves and do little damage
24 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.18 Cane whitegrubs (Lepidiota spp.)Importance:SignificantandsporadicinNorthQueensland,usuallyfollowingagrass
pasture(Figure19).MinorandinfrequentinsouthernQueensland.
Damage:Younglarvaefeedonsoilhumusandsmallplantroots.Olderlarvaeattackmajor
roots,killingsomeplantsandreducingthevigourofothers.Thiscanprovideanentrypoint
forCBR.Thedevelopingnutscanalsobeattacked.
Action level: Not determined.
Cultural control: Cultivation may physically damage many canegrubs, but is not a reliable
controlmethod.Ifgrubnumbersarehigh,thefirstcropfollowingpasturemayneedtobe
pulledearly.Alternatively,plantanon-legumecropinthefirstyearafterapasturerotation.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website. 25
Figure 19: Canegrubs are a greater problem in North Queensland than in southern districts
25 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.19 Peanut whitegrubs (Heteronyx piceus)Importance:IntheSouthBurnett,majorandfrequent.Inotherareas,infrequent.
Damage:Younglarvaefeedonsoilhumusandpossiblysmallplantroots.Olderlarvae
chew into both immature and mature pods, reducing yield and quality (Figure 20). Unlike
canegrubs, peanut whitegrub larvae do not cause plant death.
Action level: Not determined.
Registered chemical: Check current registrations on the APVMA website.
Cultural control:Intensivepeanutrotationsinaregion,oronasinglefarm,leadtopeanut
whitegrubproblems.AvoidplantingbeforeNovemberiftheareahasawhitegrubhistory.
Conventionaltillagehasverylittleeffectonwhitegrubs. 26
Figure 20: Damage by whitegrubs is often underestimated, as damaged pods are left behind at harvest.
26 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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7.5.20 Wireworms (click beetles, Elateridae )Importance:Notfullydocumented.UsuallynotaproblemintheSouthBurnettbut
significantdamagehasbeenreportedinCentralandNorthQueensland.Onaverage,
infrequentratherthanregular.
Damage: Larvae can attack germinating seed and damage seedling roots. Larvae also
attack pods, sometimes boring numerous small holes per pod (Figure 21).
Action level: Not determined. Check adult presence with germinating seed baits.
Control: Seed treatment will reduce, but not eliminate damage to seedlings.
Registered chemical: None registered. 27
Figure 21: Wireworm damage to a peanut kernel (top) and to a peanut pod (bottom).
27 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
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SECTION 8
Nematode control
Nematodes are microscopic, thread-like organisms that live in soil and plant roots. There
aremanyspeciesofagriculturallysignificantnematodes,andresistanceandsusceptibility
ofcropscandifferforeachroot-lesionnematode(RLN)species.Peanutstendtobe
affectedmostbyPratylenchus brachyurus,whichcancausesignificantreductionsinyield
andquality.Podsarediscoloured;therefore,thecropwillnotachievenut-in-shellquality.
Concerns also exist regarding the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne hapla.
Incereals,significantRLNspeciesareP. thornei and P. neglectus. Peanutsarenothostsof
these two species. 1
SymptomsofP. brachyurus include stunted bushes and small lesions on roots, pegs
and shells that may not be obvious. Nothing can be done to treat these nematodes in
thecurrentcropandnochemicalsareregisteredforuseagainstnematodesinpeanuts;
however, croprotationcanreducenematodepopulationssignificantly(Table1).Maizeisthe
mosteffectiverotationcrop.2
Table 1: Research showing effects of rotations on the incidence of known peanut pathogens 3
Foreachpathogenandyear,meansfollowedbythesameletterarenotsignificantlydifferent
Pathogen Continuous peanut, winter fallow
Continuous peanut, winter oats
Peanut rotated with soybean, oats and maize
Year 7 Year 9 Year 7 Year 9 Year 7 Year 9Root-knot nematodes (/g DW root)
465a 1580a 690a 1775a 32b 29b
Root-lesion nematode (/g DW root)
480 215 668 63 376 201
Verticillium wilt at harvest (%plants)
16.5a 47.8a 4.4b 37.8ab 3.7b 23.1b
Sclerotinia at harvest (%plants)
0 5.8a 0 3.6a 0 15.9b
Plant mortality due to crown rot (%plants)
23.7a 20.7a 24.6a 17.8a 1.6b 6.3b
1 GMMurray,JPBrennan(2009)ThecurrentandpotentialcostsfromdiseasesofwheatinAustralia.ReportforGrainsResearchandDevelopmentCorporation,https://www.grdc.com.au/~/media/B4063ED6F63C4A968B3D7601E9E3FA38.pdf
2 DAFF(2012)Root-lesionnematodes.DepartmentofAgriculture,FisheriesandForestryQueensland,http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/field-crops-and-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/peanuts/managing-peanut-diseases/root-lesion-nematodes
3 MBell,GHarch,JTatnell,KMiddleton(2003)Theimpactofcroprotationonpeanutproductivityinrainfedcroppingsystems.AustralianAgronomyConference,AustralianSocietyofAgronomy,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2003/c/5/bell.htm
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AsurveyofpeanutplantingsinNorthQueenslandshowedthattheRLNM. hapla was
confinedtoredbasalticsoilsaroundTolgaandAthertonwithalongcroppinghistory.The
RLN P. brachyuruswaswidespreadthroughouttheAthertonTablelandsbutnotfound
insoilsthathadrecentlybeenbroughtintocultivation.Infestationsofbothspecieswere
heavierwherepeanutshadbeengrownonthesamelandfortwoormoresuccessive
seasons.YieldresponseswereobtainedonlyintrialswhereinfestationsofM. hapla were
severe, and not where P. brachyurusoccurredbyitself.4
8.1 Types of nematodes
8.1.1 Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus brachyurus)Importance:MostwidespreadnematodeaffectingpeanutsinAustralia.
Damage:Cancausesignificantreductionsinyieldandquality.Podsarediscoloured,
meaning that the crop will not achieve nut-in-shell quality.
Symptoms: Stunted bushes. Small lesions on roots, pegs and shells may not be obvious
(Figure 1).
Management strategies:
• .Chemical:Nothingcanbedoneinthecurrentcrop,excepttoidentifynematodesas
thecause.Nochemicalsareregisteredforuseagainstnematodesinpeanuts.
• Cultural:Croprotationcanreducenematodepopulationsignificantly.Maizeisthemost
effectiverotationcrop.5
Figure 1: Root-lesion nematodes: the dark markings on these pods are caused by nematodes burrowing into the shell. The small white lumps are lenticels (or pores) which swell up in wet soil.
4 RABroadley(1981)Distributionandcontrolofroot-knotandrootlesionnematodesonpeanutsinnorthQueensland. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 21, 223–226, http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/EA9810223.htm
5 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
i More information
M Bell et al. (2003) The
impactof crop rotation
on peanut productivity
inrainfedcropping
systems. Australian
AgronomyConference.
RA Broadley (1981)
Distribution and control
ofroot-knot and root
lesion nematodes
on peanuts in north
Queensland. Australian
Journal of Experimental
Agriculture 21.
GM Murray, JPBrennan
(2009) The current and
potentialcostsfrom
diseases ofwheatin
Australia. GRDC Report.
K Owen et al. Root lesion
nematode—Queensland.
Fact Sheet. Soil Quality
Pty Ltd.
DAFF (2012) Root-lesion
nematodes. DAFF Qld.
Pratylenchus brachyurus.
Wikipedia.
i More information
EL Davis, AE
MacGuidwin (2000)
Lesion nematode
diseases. The Plant
Health Instructor.
Root lesion nematode
dominates in the north.
GRDC Plant Parasitic
Nematodes Fact Sheet.
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8.1.2 Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne hapla)Importance: Not a major problem in traditional peanut areas, but may become important in
new production areas.
Symptoms:Typicalrootgallsareformedandinseverecases,plantsarestunted(Figure2).
Management strategies:
• .Chemical:Noactionispossibleinanaffectedcrop,exceptconfirmingnematodes
asthecauseofthedamage.Nochemicalsregisteredforuseagainstnematodesin
peanuts.
• Cultural: Rotation with cotton, sorghum or maize will reduce the population. 6
Figure 2: Root-knot nematodes: the typical root galls should not be confused with nitrogen-fixing nodules.
8.2 Effects of cropping history on nematode status
Nematode (Pratylenchus) numbers build up steadily under susceptible crops and cause
decreasingyieldsoverseveralyears.Theamountofdamagecausedwilldependon:
• thenumbersofnematodesinthesoilatsowing
• thetoleranceofthevarietyofthecropbeinggrown
• the environmental conditions
GrowerscroppingpeanutsinrotationwithcottonshouldconsidertheeffectofRLNspecies
oncropsfollowingcotton.Someresearchersreportthatthenematodeisquiteoftenfound
in cotton. 7
6 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
7 AMachado,LFerraz,MInomoto(2012)PathogenicityofPratylenchus brachyurus on cotton plants. The Journal of Cotton Science 16, 268-271, http://www.cotton.org/journal/2012-16/4/upload/JCS16-268.pdf
i More information
Pratylenchus brachyurus.
AtlasofLivingAustralia.
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SECTION 9
Diseases
Peanutsaresusceptibletoseveralfoliardiseases,especiallyleafspot,rustandnetblotch.
Protectivefungicidesareavailabletokeepmostfoliardiseasesatbay.1
Itiscommontoseesomepeanutplantsdyingthroughouttheseasonfromarangeof
causes.Onlywhentheplantpopulationissignificantlyreducedshouldconcernberaised.2
Peanuts are also susceptible to several soil-borne diseases, especially Sclerotinia blight,
white mould and Cylindrocladium black rot (CBR). Good rotational practices, crop
managementandhygienearethebestdefenceagainstthesediseases.Effectivefungicides
areavailabletocontrolthefoliardiseases;however,fungicideoptionsarelimitedforcontrol
ofthesoil-bornediseases.3
Conditionsfavouringrapidcropgrowthalsofavourthedevelopmentofdisease.4
Theyoungseedlingisnormallyprotectedbytheseeddressing(afungicide).Acommon
seedling disease in peanuts is crown rot, caused by Aspergillus niger, which is endemic in
mostsoils.Crownrotoftenkillsveryweakseedlingsandisveryprevalentwhensoil
1 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
2 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
3 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
4 GRDC(2010)Newvarietiesaddanothertoolinleafdiseasemanagement.ManagingLeafDiseasesinPeanutsFact Sheet, Summer 2010, GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_FS_Peanutleafdisease.FINAL.pdf
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temperatures are high. 5Notethatthisisadifferentdiseasefromthataffectingcerealcrops
(caused by the Fusarium pathogen).
9.1 Damage caused by disease
InherentproblemsofkernelqualityandaflatoxincontaminationcausedbyAspergillus flavus
can be aggravated by poor disease control. Peanut producers have access to an excellent
rangeofprovenoptionsthatworkwellifrecommendationsarefollowed.Theseinclude
combiningimportantelementsofIntegratedDiseaseManagement(IDM)thatwillassist
overalldiseasecontrol.Sticktotherulesof:
• controlofpeanutvolunteers,whichharbourdiseasebetweencropcycles
• preventionnotcure—fungicidesaremuchmoreeffectiveifusedpreventatively
• thorough and regular disease scouting
• timelyroutineandstrategicfungicideapplicationinlinewithlabelrecommendations
• rotationofchemistrytoavoidresistance
• good spray-application technology
• effectivecroprotation—rotationsminimiseincidenceofleafandsoil-bornediseases
(lessofanissueincane-farmingsystems)6
9.2 Management of disease
Total prevention is not possible. Peanut volunteers on headlands and in rotation crops can
carrydiseases,andinfectedresiduesfromlastyear’scropscanbeasourceoftheleaf
pathogens.Athree-prongedapproachmustbetakentomanageleafdiseasesinallpeanut
varieties:controlofvolunteerpeanutplantsthatmayharbourtheleafspotandrust
pathogens,carefulpaddockselection,andanappropriatefungicidesprayregime.Avoid
planting peanuts in the same paddock as the previous year and beside paddocks where
5 PHarden,LWieck,GWright(2013)Peanutproductionguide,August2013.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2013.pdf
6 GRDC(2010)Newvarietiesaddanothertoolinleafdiseasemanagement.ManagingLeafDiseasesinPeanutsFact Sheet, Summer 2010, GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_FS_Peanutleafdisease.FINAL.pdf
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peanutsweregrownthepreviousyear,particularlyiflateleafspotwaspresentinthe
previous crop.
9.2.1 Crop rotationCroprotationcanhaveasignificantimpactonmanydiseases.Forexample,whereone
peanutcropfollowsanother,seedlingdiseasesaregenerallymorecommonandleafspot
will appear earlier and be more severe.
Peanutdiseasesspreadintonewpeanut-growingareasindifferentways.Rustspores
canbeblownwiththewindforlongdistances,whereasleafspotsporestravelforshorter
distances. Equipment, particularly diggers and threshers, can spread soil-borne diseases.
Some diseases are already present in almost all soils, e.g. Aspergillus flavus(theaflatoxin-
producingfungus).
Inmanyenvironments,afungicideprogramisneededtocontrolfoliardiseasessuchasleaf
spot, rust and net blotch. This may involve 2–10 sprays, depending on district and season.
Foliar diseases are a greater problem in more humid areas such as North Queensland and
coastal areas than in the inland Burnett and Central Queensland.
Diseases can be divided into categories depending on when and how they attack the
peanut plant. Some alternative causes, such as seed damage, are also included. 7
9.2.2 Fungicide program for high risk areas
Toachievehighyields,growersmustcontrolleafdiseases.Thetimingoffungicidesprays
will depend on the disease incidence in the region.
In areas where diseases are always present and disease pressure is almost always severe,
itiscriticalthatearlyprotectantfungicidesareappliedassoonas21daysafteremergence
(DAE)ofthecrop.Thefungicideprogramshouldcontinueuntiljustbeforedigging.
7 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
i More information
Australian Pesticides
and Veterinary Medicines
Authority.
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IntheBundabergarea,applicationofchlorothalonilproductsfrom21DAEat10-day
intervalshasbeenshowntoeffectivelycontrolleafspotandrustinsusceptiblevarieties.
AdditionofoneortwospraysusingotherproductssuchasAlto® (cyproconazole) or
Folicur® (tebuconazole) can also assist. In an average year, 14-day schedules are not
frequentenoughbecausethecropgrowstooquicklyintheseregions,withnewleaves
beingproduced(andthereforeunprotected)onthetopofthecanopyeveryweek.If
growingamoretolerantline(i.e.thenewlyreleasedD281-p40-236A),protectivefungicide
spraysshouldstillcommencefromweek4,butthesprayintervalmaybeextendedupto
21 days later in the crop.
InNorthQueensland,theseschedulesarejustasimportant,butmorefrequentrainfall
eventsrequiregrowerstomanagefungicideapplicationintervalswithamorevaried
approach. Always seek advice on the latest registrations and recommendations. 8
9.3 Disease symptoms
Symptomsofdiseasewillbeconsideredasfollows:
1. Seedlings dying
2. Leaves with brown spots
3. Leaves with colour variations
4. Branch wilting or plant death
5. Ill-thrift
6. Pods damaged at harvest
9.3.1 Causes of seedlings dying (or poor emergence)
Soil-borne fungi including Aspergillus niger (Aspergillus crown rot) and Rhizopus arrhizus
Importance: Widespread.
Damage: Can be serious, causing low plant population or creating large gaps in the stand.
Remaining plants may not compensate.
Symptoms: Seed does not emerge. Seedlings die. Fungal growth on the seed may or may
not be present (Figures 1 and 2).
Spread: Already present in all soils.
Management strategies:
• Chemical:Treatseedwitharecommendedfungicide.
• Cultural:Plantintowarmsoil(~18°C).Donotplantifweatherconditionsarelikelyto
causesoiltemperaturetofallbelow18°Corriseabove50°C.Plantingtoodeepwill
increasetheriskofseedlingdisease.
8 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
i More information
Australian Pesticides
and Veterinary Medicines
Authority.
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Figure 1: Aspergillus crown rot infection (left). Seedling showing crown rot symptoms (right).
Figure 2: Close-up view of crown rot fungus.
Damaged seed
Importance: Minor.
Damage:Similareffecttosoil-bornefungi,exceptthatthelossesareunlikelytocontinue
afteremergence.Remainingplantsmaystillshowpoorvigour.
Management strategy:
• Cultural: Check planting equipment to minimise damage to seed. Handle seed
carefully.Selectseedfromcropsthathavenotbeenaffectedbydroughtandhave
been cured slowly. 9
9 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
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9.3.2 Causes of leaves with brown spots
Early and late leaf spot (caused by Cercospora arachidicola and Cercosporidium personatum)
Importance:Majorinmostpeanutareas.Favouredbyhighrainfallandsprinklerirrigation.
TheSutherlandvarietyisresistanttoleafspot.
Damage:Leavesfalloffandstemsandpegsareweakenediftheepidemicstartsearly
andisuncontrolledandweatherconditionsfavourdiseasespread.Conditionsfavouring
rapidpeanutgrowthalsofavourthespreadofleafspot.Leavesmustbewetfromrain,dew
orirrigationforlongperiods(~10h)totriggerinfections.Croppotentialisreducedwhen
infectedleavesfalloff(Figure3).Harvestinglossesincreaseasinfectedpegslosestrength
and break during pulling and threshing.
Figure 3: Leaf drop caused by leaf spot (left) compared with a non-diseased area (right).
Symptoms:Small,darkspotsbecomebrowntoblackonbothsidesoftheleafasthey
enlargeupto10mm;theremaybeayellowhaloaroundthespots(Figure4).Spotsappear
onthelowerleavesfirst,butarenotvisiblefor7–10daysafterinfection.Symptomsoflate
leafspotaresimilar,butspotsdonothaveaprominentyellowhalo,andmassesofspores
areoftenseenontheundersideoftheleaf(Figure5).Lowerleavesareinfectedfirst,and
infectionisonlynoticedifthedensepeanutcanopyisparted.Later,stemsandpegsmay
alsobecomeinfected.Sporesarespreadmainlywhendewdriesoffinthemorningor
whenrainstarts.Theydonotspreadoverlongdistances,soinfectionswilloftenstartfrom
infectedcropresidues.
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Figure 4: Early leaf spot: brown spots on upper (left) and lower (right) leaf surfaces, some showing a yellow halo around the spot.
Figure 5: Late leaf spot: black spot on the underside of the leaf (left) and coalesced black spots near the base of the leaf (right).
Spread:Thefungalsporesarespreadbywindandrain.However,theresidueofprevious
peanutcropsisthemainsourceofinoculum,sopeanutsfollowingpeanutsareoftenthe
mostheavilyaffected.
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Management strategies:
• Chemical:Bothdiseasescanbecontrolledbythesamefungicides.Inhigh-rainfall
areasandforirrigatedcrops,asprayscheduleof10–14daysisneeded.Leafspot
increases rapidly during warm, wet weather and irrigation. Fungicides also break
down more quickly under these conditions and a shorter interval between sprays
mustbeusedtoprotectnewfoliage.Somefungicidescanonlyprovideprotection,
whereasotherscancontrolinfectionsthatoccurred3–6daysbeforeapplication.These
eradicantfungicideswillnotcontrolwell-establishedinfections.Sprayupto4weeks
beforeharvest.Whenchoosingfungicides,considerotherdiseasesinthecropand
whetherthecropwillbebaledforhay.
• Cultural: Total prevention is not possible. Peanut volunteers on headlands and in
rotation crops can carry the diseases between crops and they should be destroyed.
Avoid peanut–peanut rotations. Sow the Sutherland variety, because it is resistant to
leafspot.
Rust (caused by Puccinia arachidis)
Importance:WidespreadinmostpeanutareasnorthofKingaroy.TheSutherlandvarietyis
resistant to rust.
Damage:Cancausemajorcroplossesifitstartsearlyandisuncontrolled.Onceruststarts
inacrop,dewsandfogsaresufficienttocreateaseriousepidemic.
Symptoms: Small, yellow spots quickly produce typical ‘rusty’ spores (Figure 6). Spores
arenotvisiblefor7–10daysafterinfection.Theyareusuallyfoundunderthelowerleaves
andspreadveryrapidly.Infectionsareoftenfirstfoundasa‘hotspot’withafewplants
covered in rust (Figure 7).
Spread: The spores can blow long distances between crops.
Management strategies:
• Chemical:Spraywithafungicideuntilthecropiswithin2weeksofharvest.Aspray
programsimilartothatforleafspotmaybeneeded.Considerotherdiseasesthatmay
be in the crop.
• Cultural:Rustsporescannotsurviveforverylongintheabsenceoflivingplants,so
destroy volunteer peanut plants between crops, especially on headlands, contour
banksandaroundbuildings.Therearenoknownalternativehostsforpeanutrust.
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Figure 6: Typical rust spores on upper and lower surfaces.
Figure 7: Rust-affected crop.
Thefirstsignsofinfection,thesmallyellowflecksontheleaves,soondevelopintosmall
orange pustules. The pustules contain numerous red-brown powdery spores that are
spreadduringdry,windyweather.However,liketheleafspots,prolongedleafwetnessfrom
rain,irrigationordewisnecessaryforinfection.10
Puccinia arachidisisadifferentspeciesofrustfromthosethattypicallyaffectcerealcrops.
10 GRDC(2010)Newvarietiesaddanothertoolinleafdiseasemanagement.ManagingLeafDiseasesinPeanutsFact Sheet, Summer 2010, GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_FS_Peanutleafdisease.FINAL.pdf
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Net (or web) blotch (caused by Didymosphaeria arachidicola)
Importance:ItisnowthemajorfoliardiseaseintheSouthBurnettinwetyears.
Damage:Causesrapiddefoliation(andsubsequentyieldloss)duringcool,showery
weather.
Symptoms:Anetworkofveryfinebrownlinesdevelopsonthetopsurfaceoftheleaf.
Thesejointogethertoformbrownishblotches,whichmaygothroughtheleaf(Figure8).
Spread:Thefungussurvivesonpeanutresiduesfromthepreviousseason.
Management strategies:
• Chemical: Spray as soon as symptoms are seen during cool, showery weather. Not
allfungicidescontrolnetblotch.Sprayprogramsforleafspotandrustprotectagainst
netblotchprovidedappropriatefungicidesareused.InthedrylandcropsoftheSouth
Burnett,anincreaseinthenumberoffungicideapplicationswillbeneededtomanage
net blotch in wet years.
• Cultural:Netblotchepidemicsaredifficulttopredict,butirrigationmaycreateideal
conditionsforinfection.Itmaybenecessarytoadjustirrigationpractices.Spanish
varieties are more susceptible than Virginia types, which are more susceptible than
runner types. For variety characteristics, see GrowNotes Peanuts Section 2. Pre-
planting.
Growersshouldnotconfusethisdiseasewiththenetblotchthataffectscerealcrops.
Figure 8: Net blotch may occur with slightly differing appearance on affected leaves.
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Pepper spot and scorch (caused by Leptosphaerulina arachidicola)
Importance: Minor but widespread.
Damage:Leavesdropoff.Isoftenoneoftheearliestfoliardiseasestoinfectcrops.
Symptoms:Thesamefunguscausestwodifferentsymptomsunderdifferentweather
conditions.Pepperspotoccurswhenverysmallspots,<1mm,developonthetopofthe
leaf(Figure9).ScorchoccurswhenaV-shapedpartoftheleafdies(usuallyonthemargin)
andayellowzoneformsnexttoit.
Spread:Thefungussurvivesonpeanutresiduesandisspreadbywind.
Management strategies:
• Chemical:Thefungicidesusedforcontrollingtheotherfoliagediseasesusuallycontrol
thisfungus.Useaprotectantfungicideifnootherdiseaseinfluencesthechoice.
• Cultural: These diseases are not usually serious in traditional production areas using
the current varieties.
Figure 9: Pepper spot looks sooty.
Physiological spotting
Importance: Minor.
Damage:Leafsymptomsonly.
Symptoms:Darkbrownmarkingsonleaves,similartoleafspot.Someoftheseappearlike
‘eyebrows’ (Figure 10).
Cause: Unknown.
Management strategies: None needed. 11
11 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
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Figure 10: Physiological spotting; note ‘eyebrow’ markings.
9.3.3 Leaves with colour variations
Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV)
Importance:Usuallyminor;sometimesoccursateconomicallydamaginglevelsincoastal
Queensland.
Damage:Affectedplantssetfewkernelsandthosethatdosetaresmallandofpoor
quality.Severelyaffectedplantsarestuntedandmaydie,leavinggapsinrows.
Symptoms: CaCV causes mottling and dark (necrotic) spots on leaves (Figure 11).
Internodesarereducedinlengthandtheterminalgrowingpointswiltanddie.Affected
plantsarestunted,particularlywheninfectedearlyinlife,andmayeventuallydie.
Spread: Several thrips species spread the virus, e.g. tomato thrips and melon thrips. CaCV
belongs to the same virus group as Tomato spotted wilt virus and the transmission process
forbothvirusesisalmostidentical.Thripsacquirethevirusfrominfectedplantsasimmature
larvaeandtransmittootherplantsasactiveadultinsectsafterthevirushascirculatedand
multiplied in the insect. The virus is not spread by other insects such as aphids and jassids.
CaCV is not spread by contact, in soil or in seed.
CaCVinfectscapsicum,tomatoandpeanut.Billygoatweed(Ageratum conyzoides) is a
majorweedhostofthevirusthroughoutcoastalQueensland.Thisweedcommonlyoccurs
aroundcane-fieldsandalongroadsides.
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Figure 11: Capsicum chlorosis virus: mottling and dark (necrotic) spots develop on leaves, internodes are reduced in length, and terminal growing points wilt and die.
Management strategies:
• Treatment:Infectedplantscannotbecured.Managementaimstoreducedisease
levelsincrops,particularlyearlyinfection.
• Cultural: Control weeds around and within crops, particularly billygoat weed. Avoid
planting new peanut crops adjacent to old crops or near capsicum crops.
Peanut mottle virus (PMV)
Importance: Minor.
Damage:Slightleafmottlinginpeanutvarietiescurrentlygrown.
Symptoms:Leavesshowalightmottlethroughtopatchesofdarkgreen(Figure12).
Spread: By aphids.
Management strategies:
• Cultural:UsePMV-freeseed,ifavailable,innewandisolatedareas.Onlyseedshown
tobePMV-freecanbegrownintheBurdekinBeanSeedQuarantineArea.
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Figure 12: Peanut mottle virus: leaves showing a light mottle through to dark green.
Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV)
Importance: Minor, but potentially serious under certain conditions.
Damage:Theincidenceofinfectedplantsisusuallylow.Plantsinfectedearlymaybe
stuntedandproducefewnuts.Plantsinfectedafter40daysareusuallynotstunted,but
somebranchesmaybeaffected.
Symptoms: This virus produces distinctive patterns on leaves, usually including concentric
yellow rings or lines (Figure 13).
Spread:Thripsspreadthediseasefromhostplants—capsicum,tomato,lettuceand
broadleafweedssuchasstinkingrogerandcobbler’spegs.Onlyadultthripsthatdevelop
frominfectedlarvaecantransmitthevirus.Thesethripscanbeblownlongdistances.
Management strategies:
• Cultural: Control weeds in and near the crop. Avoid planting young crops next to old
cropswherediseaseispresent,becausesignificantmovementofthripsoccursover
relatively short distances.
• Chemical:Controlthripsifpossible.Often,however,insecticidesarenoteffective
againstTSWVbecausethripsfeedingtimesthatleadtotransmissionareshort,about5
minutes,andspreadisoftenfromincomingthripsthatfeedbutdonotsettleandbreed
in the crop.
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Figure 13: Tomato spotted wilt virus: affected plants are stunted with small, distorted leaves (top) showing green and yellow mosaic patterns, often circular (bottom).
Verticillium wilt (caused by Verticillium dahliae)
Importance:Minoroverall,butcanbeseriousonsomefarmsinsomeseasons.Often
occurs on crops grown on the best soils in the South Burnett and in irrigated crops in low-
rainfallareas.
Damage:Infectionbeforeearlypodfillmayreduceyield,buttheimpactissmallifleaf
symptomsappearafterthistime.
Symptoms:Pale-greenblotchesappearbetweentheveinsandaroundtheleafmargins
(Figure 14). The margins then become brown and die. Under dry conditions, these areas
dry out, giving the plant a scorched appearance. The vascular tissues in stems and roots
are discoloured reddish brown. Wilting and plant death sometimes occur.
Spread: Hosts include the weeds cobbler’s pegs, Noogoora burr and Anoda weed, and
many crop plants such as cotton.
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Management strategies:
• Treatment:Onceinfectionoccurs,nothingcanbedonetocontrolVerticilliumwilt.
• Cultural:Removeweedhostsandinfectedcropresidues.Makinghaymaybe
warrantedifalargeamountoffungalinoculumispresentintheleavesandstems
throughout the paddock. Dig the crop as early as possible. 12
Figure 14: Verticillium wilt: close-up view of yellow leaves with green veins and water-soaked margins (top); plant stunted by Verticillium wilt (bottom).
12 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
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9.3.4 Branch wilting or plant death
Sclerotinia blight (caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and S. minor)
Importance: Major and expanding. Sclerotinia minor is the main problem in the South
Burnett, and S. sclerotiorum is the main problem on the Atherton Tableland and at
Coominya, south-eastern Queensland.
Damage:Thesediseasescandevastateacropinafewdaysifitiscontinuouslywet.
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum,particularly,showsupfirstinwetterpartsofthepaddockwherethe
bushesarelargerorwheretheremaybeshadeforlonger.
Symptoms:Usually,thefirstsignofSclerotiniablightisawiltingbranchorbush(Figure
15).Theplantwillbegintoshowvisiblewiltingonlyafterithasbeeninfectedformany
days.Earlydetectionisessential.BothspeciesofSclerotiniaproducefluffy,whitemould
likecottonwool.However,thesizeoftheblackrestingbodies(sclerotia)formedonandin
stemsisdifferent;thoseofS. sclerotiorum are larger than a wheat grain, whereas those
ofS. minor are smaller and similar in size to raw sugar crystals (Figure 16). Stems wilt and
becomedryandbleachedwherethefungusispresent.
Thelifecyclesofthetwospeciesdiffer.Sclerotinia minor does not usually produce small
mushrooms that release spores into the wind, whereas S. sclerotiorumdoes.Infectionsof
lowerstemsandpegsdevelopfromgerminatingsclerotia.
Spread: Sclerotinia minorspreadsbyphysicalmovementofthesclerotia;S. sclerotiorum
spreads by sclerotia and by wind-blown spores.
Figure 15: The first sign of Sclerotinia blight is a wilting branch or bush.
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Management strategies:
• Cultural:Preventioninfuturecropsisdifficult.Avoiddamagetoplantsfrominter-row
cultivations.
• Chemical:Monitorthecropforinfection,especiallyincool,dampconditions.Spray
withafungicideassoonasthediseaseisseen.Correcttimingisessentialtoachieve
themosteffectivecontrol.Applyregisteredfungicide(Rovral®, a.i. iprodione).IfthefieldhasahistoryofSclerotiniablight,considersprayingasaprecautionwhenthe
rowhashalf-closed.Morethanonespraymaybeneeded.Avoidthecontinueduse
ofchlorothaloniltocontrolleafdiseasesinfieldswhereSclerotiniablightisaproblem.
Continuetousechlorothalonilifthedamagefromleafspot,rustandnetblotchislikely
to be worse than the Sclerotinia blight.
Figure 16: The white fluffy mycelium of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is similar to S. minor. Note the relatively large black sclerote of S. sclerotiorum, which is the main type on the Atherton Tableland and at Coominya (left). Small black sclerotes are produced by S. minor, which is the most common in peanuts in the South Burnett (right).
Cylindrocladium black rot (CBR) (caused by Cylindrocladium crotalaria)
Importance: Major in the Burnett and Atherton Tableland.
Damage:Thediseaseiscausedbyasoil-inhabitingfungus.Althoughwetconditionsallow
infection,particularlywhenplantsareyoung,CBRismoreevidentwhenconditionsturndry
and bushes start to wilt and die.
Symptoms:Thetaprootandsiderootsstarttodecayfromthetiptowardsthemain
crownoftheplant(Figure17).Thereisinternal,darkbrowndiscolorationoftheroots,
andsometimesthestems,buttheonlysymptomseenonfoliageisageneralyellowing.
Eventually,theplantdiesfromlossoftherootsystem.Redfungalstructures(aboutpinhead
size)mayformondeadordiseasedtissue.Thesestructuresdonotusuallyoccuron
infectedtissueintheSouthBurnett.
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Spread:Byinfectedplantpartsandsoil.
Management strategies:
• Treatment:Nothingcanbedoneforthecurrentcrop.Thefutureofgrowingpeanuts
onthatlandlikelydependsonsurvivingoneortwobadcrops,afterwhichlossesmay
be acceptable.
• Cultural:SomegrowersontheAthertonTablelanduseirrigationandfertiliserto
reducetheeffectsofCBR.Thelateralrootsfeedonthemoistureandnutrientsafterthe
taproothasdied.Arotationof2yearsofmaizefollowedbypeanutsseemseffectivein
keeping the inoculum to a low level on the Atherton Tableland.
IntheSouthBurnett,CBRcanbequitesevereinaffectedpartsofafieldforafew
successive crops, but generally, the severity decreases in subsequent crops. This does not
appeartobethecaseontheAthertonTableland,wheretheseverityofthediseasevaries
fromseasontoseasondependingonweatherconditions.
DamagetotherootsystembysoilinsectsandnematodescanincreaseCBRinfections.
Soybeans,lupinsandlucernearehostsforCBR.
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Figure 17: Cylindrocladium black rot: roots usually become blackened and die back from the tips (top left). The red resting bodies are typical of CBR, but are not always present (top right). Kernels infected with CBR (bottom).
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White mould (caused by Sclerotium rolfsii)
Importance: Major. Widespread across all peanut-growing areas. Worse in some years
andinsomefields.
Damage:Wiltinganddeadplants.Preferstoliveondeadplantmatter.Attackspeanut
plants mainly when soil organic matter levels are low. Diseased leaves drop and are
responsibleforthemovementofinoculumbetweenplants.
Underdryconditions,thefunguscanliveunderthesoilinthemoisturearoundrootsand
pods.
Symptoms:Producesfluffywhitemycelium,thickerthanthatofSclerotinia spp. In the
mycelium are very small, spherical, white and then brown resting bodies, about pinhead
size (Figure 18). Plant stems may be destroyed near soil level, and pegs and pods can be
attacked.Podscanbeaffectedwithoutanysignofinfectiononthesoilsurface.
Spread: Already present in virtually all soils.
Management strategies:
• Treatment:Nothingcanbedoneforthecurrentcrop.
• Cultural: Avoid damaging the plants or throwing too much soil around the crown when
inter-row cultivating. Build up soil organic matter status. Decomposed soil organic
mattermayreducetheincidenceofwhitemouldbystimulatingantagonisticorganisms.
Fresh (or under-composed) organic matter can stimulate white mould and make the
problem worse. This is particularly the case where decomposed soil organic matter
levels are low. The best control is usually to have a good rotation with grass or cereal
crops.
ThewhitemouldsituationinNorthQueenslandmaybedifferentfromthatintheBurnett.
White mould is appearing where crops have been well rotated, soil organic matter levels
appearhigh,and,inparticular,wherestubbleisretainedonthesoilsurface.
InNorthQueensland,avoidplantingpeanutsintofreshstubbleorcropresiduesmaintained
onthesoilsurface.Giveorganicmattertimetobreakdownordecompose.Deepploughing
maybeanoption,assclerotiadonotsurvivedeepburyingformorethanayear.
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Figure 18: White mould: the white mycelium is slightly thicker than that of Sclerotinia and tends to form more on the soil surface (top). Note the sclerotia, which are spherical and white, then turn brown (bottom) (those of Sclerotinia are black and an irregular shape).
Collar rot (caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae)
Importance: Major problem in the Central and South Burnett, but is known in all peanut
growing areas.
Damage: Losses can be severe, up to total crop loss across an entire paddock. The
disease seems to be worse where the soil is degraded through erosion or scalping during
land levelling.
Symptoms:Arapidcollapseofplantsfromcompleterottingoftherootsandstemsat
ground level (Figure 19). Plants die throughout the season.
Infectionoccursatsoillevelwherestemsandcrownssufferfromheatstress,soilabrasion
or drought.
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Management strategies:
• Treatment:Nothingcanbedoneforanaffectedcrop.
• Cultural:Maintainlightirrigationswherepossible,sotheplantcansurviveonsurface
roots.Donotdelayharvest.Rotationofatleast2yearsinothercropsshouldreduce
thelevelofsporesinthesoil.Tominimiserisk,plantearlyandconsiderplantingon
bedstoobtaingroundcoverbeforethemiddleofsummer.
Figure 19: Collar rot: bushes rapidly wilt and rot at ground level (top). Affected pods go grey inside in the early stages, then the whole pod rots (bottom left). Note the characteristic small black resting bodies on the stem (bottom right).
Aspergillus crown rot (caused by Aspergillus niger)
Importance: Widespread in all peanut-growing areas.
Damage:Causesseriousplantlossesinsomefieldsinsomeyears.Plantsmaybekilledat
anystageuptoharvest,althoughdeathofyoungplantsismorecommon.
Symptoms:Inseedlings,thesoft,below-groundstemisattackedandcanbekilledrapidly.
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Theaffectedtissuebecomesyellowanddepressedandusuallydevelopsasooty,black
massofspores(Figure20).Therotfrequentlydevelopsnearoldpiecesofseedattachedto
the stem.
Inplants,atypicalcrownrotdevelopsandthesootygrowthofthefungusisoftenpresent
onaffectedtissues.Ifthedamageisnearthebaseoftheundergroundpartofthestem,
theplantwillsurviveforawhileonrootsthatgrowabovetheaffectedarea.Suchplants
generally die during dry weather.
Spread:Thefungusispresentinallpeanut-growingareas.Itismostseriouswhere
peanutshavebeengrowninthesameareaforanumberofyears.
Thefungusisoftenpresentinseedthatbecomesinfectedinthefieldorduringharvesting
and handling.
Management strategies:
• Chemical:Usegoodseedtreatedwithrecommendedfungicides.
• Cultural:Avoiddamagetotheseedbeforeplanting.Donotplantdeeperthan
necessary. Take care when cultivating to avoid damaging plants. Rotate with other crops.
Figure 20: Aspergillus crown rot can kill plants from seedlings to maturity. The infection usually starts at ground level (top). Note the characteristic black spores (bottom).
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Charcoal rot (caused by Macrophomina phaseolina)
Importance: Not normally a major problem. May become serious in crops where soil
temperature becomes very high during the growing season. It also appears to be drought-
induced.
Damage: Plants die progressively during the season.
Symptoms: Root tissues are discoloured beneath the bark layer. Developing pods can rot
(Figure 21).
Spread: Already present in most soils.
Management strategies:
• Cultural:Ifpossible,keepthesoilsurfacemoisttominimisestressduetohighsoil
temperatures or drought. To minimise risk, plant early and consider planting on beds to
obtaingroundcoverbeforethemiddleofsummer.
Figure 21: Charcoal rot.
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Rhizoctonia stem rot (caused by Rhizoctonia solani)
Importance: Rarely causes problems under traditional dryland peanut production
conditionsinAustralia.Maybeaproblemundersprinklerirrigationwherethesoilsurface
stays cool and moist.
Damage:Plantscanbekilledfromseedlingtomaturity.
Symptoms: Distinctly zonate brown sunken lesions, which can completely girdle stems,
causingpartoralloftheplanttodie(Figure22).Pegsandpodsmayalsobeaffected.
Spread:Thefungusisalreadypresentinmanysoilsandcansurviveinsoilformanyyears.
Management strategies:
• Cultural:Littlecanbedone,excepttoirrigatesothattheplantiswetfortheleast
possible time. Gypsum application may reduce pod rots. Avoid covering the crown and
branchesoftheplantwithsoilduringcultivation.Rotatecropstoincreaseormaintain
levelsofsoilorganicmatter.13
Figure 22: Rhizoctonia stem rot. (Photo used with kind permission of Chip Lee, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX, USA)
9.3.5 Ill-thrift
Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus brachyurus)
Importance:MostwidespreadnematodeaffectingpeanutsinAustralia.
Damage:Cancausesignificantreductionsinyieldandquality.Podsarediscoloured(Figure
23);therefore,thecropwillnotachievenut-in-shellquality.
Symptoms: Stunted bushes. Small lesions on roots, pegs and shells may not be obvious.
13 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
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Management strategies:
• Chemical:Nothingcanbedoneinthecurrentcrop,excepttoidentifynematodesas
thecause.Nochemicalsareregisteredforuseagainstnematodesinpeanuts.
• Cultural:Croprotationcanreducenematodepopulationsignificantly.Maizeisthe
mosteffectiverotationcrop.
Figure 23: Root-lesion nematodes: the dark markings on these pods are caused by nematodes burrowing into the shell. The small white lumps are lenticels (or pores), which swell up in wet soil.
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne hapla)
Importance: Not a major problem in traditional peanut areas, but may become important
in new production areas.
Symptoms:Typicalrootgallsareformed(Figure24),andinseverecases,plantsare
stunted.
Management strategies:
• Chemical:Noactionispossibleinanaffectedcrop,exceptconfirmingnematodesas
thecauseofthedamage.Nochemicalsareregisteredforuseagainstnematodesin
peanuts.
• Cultural: Rotation with cotton, sorghum or maize will reduce the population. 14
14 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
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Figure 24: Root-knot nematodes: the typical root galls should not be confused with nitrogen-fixing nodules.
9.3.6 Pods damaged at harvest
Soil insects
Lucerne seed web moth (Etiella),whitegrublarvaeandwhite-fringedweevillarvaeall
damage pods (see GrowNotes Peanuts Section 7. Insect control).
Pod-rotting fungi, including Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Pythium spp. and Rhizoctonia solani
Importance: Major and widespread.
Damage: Many pods (and pegs) are mouldy and/or decayed, causing serious yield and
quality losses.
Management strategies:
• Cultural: Harvest quickly to reduce losses.
Aflatoxin-producing fungi (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus)
Importance: Major and widespread, particularly in dryland crops.
Damage:Kernelscontaminatedwithaflatoxinbringareducedpriceand,incasesofvery
high levels, may be downgraded to oil quality (Figure 25).
Highsoiltemperaturesanddroughtduringfloweringandpodfillarethemajorcausesof
aflatoxincontamination.Podsdamagedbyinsects,diseaseorrainafteradryperiodor
afterharvestallowthefungusaccesstothekernels.
Aspergillus flavusdevelopsmostrapidlyat25°–35°Candwhenpodmoistureis14–35%.
Symptoms:Thegreenishyellowfungiarenotalwaysvisibleinharvestedkernels.The
toxins can only be detected in a laboratory using chemical extraction and analytical
instruments.
i More information
DEEDIQld.AfloMan.
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Cultural management strategies:Irrigationwillminimisetheriskofpre-harvestaflatoxin.
However,iftheplantisallowedtostressjustpriortomaturity,A. flavus can still invade the
pod.
Dig as soon as the crop is mature.
Leavingpeanutsinthewindrowtodryto13%moistureincreasestheriskofaflatoxin
becauseofthechanceofrainre-wettingthecrop.Theriskismuchhigheriftheplants
weremoisture-stressedbeforeharvest.Peanutsinwell-invertedwindrowshavealowerrisk
because they dry quicker.
Harvestirrigatedareasseparatelyfromdrylandareas.Thismaymeanturninginthemiddle
ofarowiftheirrigatordoesnotcoverthepaddock.Mixingpeanutsfromthesedryendsof
rowscommonlyresultsinaflatoxin-positiveloadsfromirrigatedcrops.
Clean out threshers, bins and elevators between seasons, as one contaminated nut can
downgrade a whole load.
Startcuringthecropwithin3hofharvesttostopfurtherdevelopmentoftheaflatoxin.
Harvestednutsshouldnotbeleftovernightbeforecuring,evenifonlypartofabinis
threshed.
Lowsoilcalciummayincreasetheriskofaflatoxinwheresoilconditionsarefavourablefor
A. flavus mould development.
Gypsummayreducetheriskofaflatoxincontamination.15
15 PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
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Figure 25: Aflatoxin: peanuts contaminated with aflatoxin will be downgraded and may be rejected.
9.4 Soil-borne diseases
Severalsoilbornediseasescanleadtosubstantialyieldandqualityloss.Threediseasesof
particular consequence are white mould, Sclerotinia blight and CBR.
Althoughsomeproductsareavailablethatcanlessentheeffectsofthesediseases,the
bestpolicyistofollowarecommendedrotationalprogram(involvinggrassorcerealcrops)
and practice good cultural management. In particular, excessively aggressive inter-row
cultivation should be avoided, especially where soil is pushed against the plant.
Sclerotinia blight can be particularly devastating in some areas. It is recommended that
aregisteredfungicidespray(e.g.Rovral®at1L/ha)beappliedasaprotectantbefore
symptoms appear. This may be as early as when the crop is 6–8 weeks old, or when the
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firstflowerpetalsdrop.Oneortwofollowupfungicideapplicationsmayberequiredif
symptoms develop. 16 Roval®ismoreeffectiveatcontrollingS. sclerotiorum than S. minor.
9.4.1 Neocosmospora vasinfectaNeocosmospora vasinfectaisamajorsoil-bornefungalroot-rotpathogenfoundinall
peanut-growingareasofAustralia.Ithascausedyieldlossesofupto90%.
ThereisalackofinformationavailablegloballyregardingNeocosmosporainfectionin
peanuts, but this is being addressed through new research work being undertaken by
GrainsResearchandDevelopmentCorporation-fundedPhDstudent,KylieWenham.
Theprojectisassessingthepathogen’sformandstructuralcharacteristics,thegrowthand
developmentofthefungusbothin vitro and in situ,theoptimalgrowthconditionsfavoured
bythefungus,aswellastheoptimalenvironmentforthefungustoproliferateandinfect
crops.
16 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
i More information
New research tackles
devastating peanut root
rot. GRDC Media Centre.
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SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Notapplicableforthiscrop.
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SECTION 11
Crop desiccation/spray out
Notapplicableforthiscrop.
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SECTION 12
Harvest
Peanutsareanindeterminatecrop,whichmeansthatfromabout4weeksonwards,
thecropwillcontinuewithbothfloweringandvegetativegrowth.Commonly,thecropis
stillfloweringatharvest.Becausethecropdoesnotmatureevenly,itcanbedifficultto
determine the best time to dig.
Ifthecropisdugtooearly,significantweightandqualitylossmayoccurbecausethepods
havenotproperlyfilledout.Ifitisdugtoolate,thepeanutsmaybeover-ripeandoftenthe
largestandbestpodsareleftinthesoilduringdigging.1
12.1 Hull scrape test
Themostcommonmethodfordeterminingcropmaturityiscalledthehullscrapetest.This
involvestakingnoteofcolourchangesundertheouterskinoftheshelltoindicatekernel
maturity.
Theouterskinofthepod(exocarp)isremoved,whichexposesthecolouringunderneath.
Theexocarpcanberemovedbyscrapingthepodwithapocketknifeor‘blasting’thepods
withthestreamofwaterfromahigh-pressurewatercleaner.Thepodsareusuallyplacedin
a mesh basket while the exocarp is removed.
Itisimportanttonotethecolourinthesaddleareaofthepod(Figure1).Thisiswherethe
colourchangesfirstoccuronthepod.
1 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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Figure 1: The saddle area of the pod is where colour changes first appear.
The colours that occur are:
• black: mature to over-mature
• dark brown: mature
• orange/light brown: close to mature
• yellow: immature
• white: immature to underdeveloped
Approximately200podsshouldbescraped.Thismeansdiggingcarefullybyhandatleast
sixorsevenrepresentativebushesfromdifferentpartsofthepaddock.Excesssoilshould
beremoved(usuallybywashing).Allpodswithadiametergreaterthanthatofaballpoint
pen(i.e.5–8mm)shouldberemoved.Growersshouldtakenoteofthepegstrengthas
each pod is removed.
Podsshouldbeplacedinmaturitycategoriesastheyarescraped.Thecolourswillfadeas
thepodsdryout,andkeepingthemmoistwillavoidthis.Sometimesitisdifficulttotellthe
differencebetweenorangeandbrown.Colourchartsareavailableforcolourcomparisons.
Alternatively,growerscanshell-outanypeanutstheyareunsureofandlookattheinsideof
the shell and the kernel.
Peanuts that are mature will be dark brown inside the pod and the seed coat will be thin
and tight on the kernel. With experience, growers become more adept at observing the
maturitydifferences.
Growersmustconsidertheotherfactorslistedbelowindeterminingwhentodig,butasa
generalguide,thecropisreadyfordiggingwhenthefollowingmaturitylevelsarereached:
• Virginiavarieties:digwhen60–65%brownandblack
• runnerandultra-earlyvarieties:digwhen65–80%brownandblack2
2 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated 2014) Peanut Company ofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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12.2 When to dig
The crop’s maturity is assessed to determine harvesting time. Harvesting is a two-part
operation. First, the taproot is cut and the plant shoots and peanut pods inverted to dry
partiallyinthefieldforseveraldaysbeforeaseparatethreshingoperationisdone.
Thehullscrapetestshouldbeusedasaguideonlyfordeterminingwhentodig.Other
factorswillalsoinfluencethedecision,including:
• peg strength
• disease (bush health)
• weather conditions
• soil conditions
• area to be harvested
Allofthesefactorsshouldbeconsidered.3
12.2.1 Peg strengthThepegextendsfromthebranchesofthepeanutplantanditisthe‘lifeline’connectingthe
pod,belowthesoil,totherestofthebush.Ifthepegbecomesweakanddetachesfrom
the pod, then the pod cannot be recovered during harvesting and is lost.
Themainfactorsreducingpegstrengthinclude:
• over-maturity
• foliardisease
• soil-borne disease
Totestpegstrength,carefullydigseveralbushesfromdifferentpartsofthepaddock
(usually when collecting the maturity sample). Shake the bushes to simulate the mechanical
diggingaction.Ifasignificantnumber(10–20%)ofthepodsfalloff,thenpegstrengthis
3 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated 2014) Peanut Company ofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
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declining and urgent digging needs to be considered. The hull scrape test should be done
though;thismaystilldeterminethefinaldiggingdate.
12.2.2 DiseaseSometimes it is evident that disease is spreading rapidly through the crop, and there is not
sufficienttimetowaitforthecroptomatureproperly.Insuchsituations,adecisionmay
have to be made to dig the crop early to salvage the peanuts.
12.2.3 Weather conditionsGrowers must take into account the expected weather conditions when determining the
timetodig.Forexample,ifprolongedwetweatherisforecast,itmaybebettertodigalittle
early and have the peanuts properly inverted in a windrow, rather than still in the ground.
Thismaybeespeciallysoifthecropisdiseased.
Soiltrafficabilityfollowingheavyrainmustalsobeconsidered.
12.2.4 Soil conditionsGrowerssometimesdigbasedontheirexperienceofwhentheirsoilismostfriable.Asoil
that sets very hard when dry may make it almost impossible to avoid large losses when
digging.Itmaybenecessarytoirrigateanddigsuchpaddocksbeforetheybecometoo
dry.
Heavy soils usually have only a ‘narrow window’ available in which to harvest in relation to
soil moisture.
12.2.5 Area to be harvestedIfagrowerhasaverylargeareatobeharvestedandthecropsappeartobematuringallat
once, it may be necessary to dig some paddocks earlier than the optimum in order to avoid
lossesresultingfromthelastdugpeanutsbeingover-mature. 4
12.3 Digging and inverting
Aspeciallydesigneddiggerorpullerisusedtoremovethepeanutsfromthesoil.These
machinesarelinkage-mountedandmaycomein2-,4-or6-rowconfigurations.Cutter
blades are usually either attached to the digger or mid-mounted on the tractor. It is essential
to keep these blades sharp and to check that they are not cutting either too deep or too
shallow.
Duringdigging,thetaprootoftheplantiscutjustbelowthelevelofthepeanutsandthesoil
around the pods is loosened. The bush, with pods attached, is usually carried to the back
ofthediggerwhereitistheninverted.Thisleavesthepeanutslyinginawindrow.Tworows
ofpeanutsarenormallycombinedintoonewindrow.
Itisimportantthatthepeanutsareproperlyinvertedtoallowgoodaircirculationtofacilitate
4 PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/
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drying(Figure2).Ifthepeanutsarewellinverted,theyarelesslikelytobedamagedif
rainfalls.Italsokeepsthepodsupawayfromthesoilsurfaceforeasierharvestinganda
cleaner sample.
Amoisturecontentof16–18%isoptimalforthreshing.Controlleddryingbringsthepeanuts
slowlytosafestoragemoisturecontentandensuresoptimumquality.Extendedperiodsof
paddockdryingcancausehigherlosses,moresplits,poorerqualityandincreasedriskof
rain damage. 5
Acombineorthresherisusedtoseparatethepeanutsfromthebush.6
Factorsinfluencingharvestlosses:
• Soil type and soil management. Hard-setting and heavy soils are unsuitable.
• Poor late-season disease control can reduce pod quality and harvestability.
• Harvest management and timely access to harvesting equipment is critical.
• Cropmaturityshouldbecarefullyassessedtooptimiseyieldandquality.
• Kernelqualitylossesandaflatoxincanresultfromdelayedthreshinganddrying.7
Several practices, outlined below, have been shown to reduce actinomycete growth post-
harvest,andthusreducethechanceof‘off-flavour’contamination.
• Whenwindrowsremainwetfromrainaftercutting,fluffingisessentialtoimprove
aerationandensurerapiddry-downofpodsinordertominimiseactinomycetegrowth
on and around the pods.
• Short digging-to-thrashing intervals (3–5 days) can minimise the time that pod or kernel
moistureisinarangesuitableforactinomycetegrowth(i.e.>15%podmoisture).
Windrowsshouldnotbeleftinthepaddockfor>5days,becauseactinomycete
growthonpods(andthusoff-flavourcontamination)islikelytooccur.Thisisespecially
importantinareassuchasNorthQueensland,wherepost-harvestrainfallislikely.
• Thoroughpre-cleaningofharvestedpodsremovesextraneousmatterincludingdirt,
sticks,corncobs,gherkins,immaturepodsandpotatoes.Iftheproductisnotcleaned,
build-upofextraneousmaterialscancausewet,hotspotsandsubsequentoff-flavour
contamination in storage bins. 8
5 PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/
6 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
7 GMills,RRachaputi,GWright,YChauhan,JBarnes(2004)YieldpotentialofpeanutsatMackay.Whatarethe key barriers to obtaining it? GRDC Update Papers February 2004, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2004/02/Yield-potential-of-peanuts-at-Mackay-What-are-the-key-barriers-to-obtaining-it
8 GRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March2013,GRDC,http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-PeanutOffFlavour
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Figure 2: A peanut crop with well-inverted and aerated windrows allows rapid drying after wet weather at harvest. (Photo: PCA)
12.4 Windrowing
Peanutsusuallycontain40–50%moisturewhendug.Thepeanutsareleftinvertedinthe
windrowforseveraldaystobringthemoisturecontentdowntotheoptimumforthreshing,
whichis~12–16%.Thismaytake3–10days,dependingonprevailingweatherconditions.
Growerswithoutaccesstodryersoftenhavetoletthepeanutsdrydownto10%moisture
inthewindrow.Thismaytake5–14days.Theriskofdamagetothecropfrominclement
weather increases the longer the crop remains in the paddock. Also, as the crop dries
downto<12%,thepegsmaybecomeweakerandmorebrittleandcroplossesarelikelyto
increase.
Inaddition,theriskofaflatoxincontaminationismuchhigherifthepeanutsareleftformore
thanafewdaysinthewindrow.Thebestoptionisalwaystothreshearlyandartificiallydry.
12.5 Threshing
Threshersorpeanutcombinesaredesignedtopickupthewindrowfromthepaddock
andseparatethepodsfromthebush.Thepodsaredeliveredtoabinontopofthe
thresherwhilethebushiscarriedoutofthemachineandeitherspreadoverthepaddock
ordroppedinawindrowforhay-baling.Thresherscomeinconfigurationsof2–8rows.
MostofthemodernmachinesareimportedfromtheUSAandareattachedtothedraw
barandhydraulicsofthetractor.AMADASIndustriesandJohnDeere,however,havealso
developedself-propelledthreshersineither6-or8-rowconfigurations.
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Theidealmoisturecontentforthreshingis~12–16%.Below12%,threshinglossescan
increasefromthepick-up,podsandkernelsmaybedamaged,andtheincidenceofloose
shell kernels (LSKs) increases.
The thresher should be checked and maintained regularly. Excessive drum speed can also
resultindamagedpods.Inaddition,fansandblowersmayneedappropriateadjustments.9
12.6 Wet harvest issues and management
Wetconditionsatthetimeofharvestcanencouragethegrowthofactinomycetes,and
increasethechanceofcropcontamination.Alongintervalfromcuttingtothrashing(>5
days)incombinationwithpoorlyaeratedwindrows,whichpreventtheplantandpodsfrom
dryingrapidlydowntosafemoisture(i.e.<10%podmoisturewithin2–4days)canleadto
conditionsidealformicrobialgrowth.10
9 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf,
10 GRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March2013,GRDC,http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-PeanutOffFlavour
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SECTION 13
Post harvest handling and storage
PeanutdiggingstartsinlateautumnandextendsthroughtheperiodMarch–June,when
theyarelefttoair-dryinthefieldfor3–5daystoreducekernelmoisturecontentsto12–16
%.Thisisfollowedbythreshingoperationstoseparatethepodsfromthebush.
Podsarethenplacedinaerationdryersiloseitheron-farmorattheshellingplanttofurther
reducethekernelmoisturecontentdownto8.5%,thedeliverystandardenablingsafe
storage(Figure1).Typically,peanutsareonlyheldon-farmforabriefperiod(1–2days)
beforedeliverytoashellingplant,wherequalityisassessedandkernelsareremovedfrom
thepodsandundergofurtherprocessingpriortosaletocustomers.
13.1 How to dry and store peanuts on-farm
Toproducepeanutsofoptimumquality,mostgrowersartificiallydrytheirloads.Regular
checks are required because over-drying can lead to kernel damage (especially higher
levelofsplits),whichresultsinreducedgrade-outandlowerpricespertonne.Peanuts
thatarenotdriedtotheproperintakemoisturereadyforstoragewillhavetobedriedafter
delivery.PeanutCompanyofAustralia(PCA)hasfacilitiesinKingaroy,GayndahandTolga
forcontractdrying.Growersshouldensurethattheybooktheirloadsinfordryingwiththe
depot’sIntakeOfficer.
Tomaintainquality,loadsmustbedriedslowlyandcarefullyundercontrolledconditions.
Thefollowingguidelinesshouldbefollowed:
1. Pre-clean loads to remove dirt.
2. Startdryingwithin3–6hofthreshingtopreventmouldandrelatedaflatoxin
development.
3. Keepanevendepthofpeanutsoverthedryerfloor,generally≤2mispreferred.
4. Airtemperatureintheplenumshouldnotexceed11°Caboveambienttemperatures
(uptoamaximumof35°C).
5. Themoistureremovalrateshouldnotexceed0.5%perh,averagedoverthetimeof
drying.
6. Therelativehumidityofthedryingairshouldbe50–65%.
7. Useaminimumcontinuousairflowof200L/sperm3ofpeanuts.
8. Regularly check the temperature and humidity in the air tunnel.
9. Thepeanutsmusthavetimetoequilibratefollowingdryingandbeforedelivery(at
least 24 h).
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10. Regularlycheckthemoisturecontentofthepeanuts.1
Peanutsshouldonlybestoredaftertheyhavebeendrieddowntoapodmoisturecontent
of<~10%.
13.1.1 AflatoxinInorderminimisetheriskofaflatoxincontamination,peanutsshouldbedriedevenlyand
gently,andthreshers,bins,trucks,etc.,shouldbefreeofanyoldpeanutsororganicmatter.2
13.1.2 Off-flavour contamination Ifpeanutsaregoingtobestoredon-farm,theyneedtobeinsecureandaeratedstorage
binsthatpreventleakageandingressofmoisture.Moisturecanleadtodevelopmentof
microbialhotspotsandoff-flavourcontamination.
Contaminationofpeanutsbymicroorganismscalledactinomycetescanoccurinthe
fieldduringthegrowingseasonandduringpost-harveststorageandhandling.These
actinomycetes produce volatile compounds that contaminate the peanuts, causing must
yandearthyoff-flavours.Actinomycetesporesareprevalentintheenvironmentandoccur
onsoiladheringtopeanutpods,inforeignmaterialaccompanyingpods(soil,sticks
and other plant debris, including immature potatoes) and in storage bins. Post-harvest
off-flavourcontaminationofpeanutsisariskiftemperature,humidityandpodmoisture
conditionsareconducivetothegerminationandgrowthofactinomycetespores.
Temperatures>25°Candrelativehumidity>70%arehighlyconducivetoactinomycete
growth. Storage above these limits is discouraged. 3
Generally,on-farmstorageafterJulywillresultinahighriskofactinomycetegrowthand
potentialoff-flavourcontaminationduetoincreasingambienttemperatureandrelative
humidity. 4
1 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustraliahttp://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
2 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
3 GRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March2013,GRDC,http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-PeanutOffFlavour
4 GRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March2013,GRDC,http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-PeanutOffFlavour
i More information
DAFF(2012)Aflatoxinin
peanuts.
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Figure 1: Peanut-drying silos allow pods to dry down to safe moisture content for storage. (Photo: PCA)
13.2 Pre-cleaning
Pre-cleanersarespecificallydesignedtoremovesoil,sticks,stonesandotherextraneous
matterfromaloadofpeanuts.Theyusuallyconsistofasetofrollersandscreensand
sometimes use blowers. Pre-cleaning a load prior to drying makes curing much more
efficientanduniformandovercomesproblemswithwetspotsintheload.
Pre-cleaningwilloftenremovemanyofthelooseshellkernelsandimmaturepodsthat
tendtoharbouraflatoxininfection.Manygrowershavefoundthatbypre-cleaningtheycan
dramaticallydecreasetheincidenceofaflatoxinintheirloads.
ForgrowerswhoarealongdistancefromPCA’sreceivaldepots,pre-cleaningensuresthat
theyarenotpayingfreightonextraneousmatter.Manygrowershavecommentedthatthey
havepaidfortheirpre-cleanerthroughsavingsmadeonfreightoverseveralyears.
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SECTION 14
Environmental responses
14.1 Climate
Basedonclimatealone,peanutscanbegrownfromVictoria,throughNewSouthWales
(NSW) to North Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. However,
commercialpeanutproductioninareassouthofNarrabriinNewSouthWalesandinthe
north-westofAustraliahasbeenlimited.
In the USA, peanuts are mostly grown at much higher latitudes.
Growersindifferentlocationsneedtochoosedifferentvarietiesandmanagementstrategies
iftheyaretomaximisecropyields.
In some areas, planting times are critical. For instance, in southern regions, crops must
beplantedtomaturebeforecoldweatherinautumn.Early-maturingvarietieswillperform
betterintheseareas.Innorthernregions,cropsshouldbeplantedsotheywillbereadyfor
harvestafterthemainwetseason.
Irrigation is necessary in most areas to produce reliable economic peanut yields. 1
14.2 Temperature
Warmtemperaturesof~25–30°Cwillpromptvegetativegrowth,whereastheoptimum
temperatureforreproductivegrowthis~22–24°C.Plantingshouldbescheduledsothat
cropsexperiencewarmtemperaturesearlyintheseasonfollowedbycoolerweatherfor
floweringandthenmaturebeforethereisanyriskoffrost(Figure1).Hotsoilscanalso
damage peanut plants (Figure 2).
1 PCA/DPIF(2007)Climateandsoils.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3a_climate.pdf
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Figure 1: Upper panel: yellowing between the veins of leaves is typical of cool night temperatures <9°C. Lower panel: frost kills the leaf tips but plant growth and pod-filling cease long before it is cold enough to frost.
Figure 2: Hot soil can cause leaf distortion and thickening as well as pollen sterility in peanuts during flowering.
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To determine when to sow, measure the soil temperature at planting depth at 09:00 (9am)
eachday.Whentemperaturesof18–20°Carerecorded3daysinarow,itistimetoplant
providedadequatesoilmoistureispresent.Ifseedsaresownintocoolsoil,emergence
will be slow because the seeds and seedlings are more susceptible to disease attack. Rain
within2–3daysofplantingwilllowersoiltemperatureandmayaffectemergenceifthesoil
temperaturefallsbelow18°C.
Lengthofthegrowingseasonrangesfrom110to170days(16–24weeks),dependingon
location and variety. For example, Early Bunch, an early-maturing variety, matures in ~170
days in Victoria, 140 days in Kingaroy and 120 days in Bundaberg. This delay in maturity is
due to cooler temperatures in elevated and southern regions. Very dry conditions can also
delay maturity.
Youcanpredictthecroplifecyclequiteaccuratelyusingtheheat-sumapproach.Thermal
timeiscalculatedastheaccumulationofheatunitsaboveabasetemperatureof9°Cup
toanoptimumof29°C.Thus,atypicaldayof35°Cmaximumand23°Cminimumwill
yieldameandailytemperatureof(35+23)/2=29°C,andathermaltimeof29–9=20°C
degree-days.Thethermaltimesforeachofthedaysthroughouttheseasonarethenadded
togethertogivethetotalheatunitsforaparticularenvironment.
Virginiaandrunnertypesrequirethermaltimeof~550degree-daystoprogressfrom
plantingtothebeginningofflowering,950degree-daystothebeginningofpodfilland2150
degree-daystomaturityformostlocationsinQueensland.
Cropscanflowerin~35daysinBundabergbuttakeupto45daysinKingaroy,as
thecritical550degree-daysareaccumulatedmuchfasterunderBundaberg’shigher
temperatures.
Temperaturecanalsoinfluencegrowthratesthroughitseffectsonphotosynthesis.Low
nighttemperatureshavealargeeffectongrowthrates.Kingaroy’snighttemperaturesare
~5°ClowerthanBundaberg’s,andcropstakeabout30dayslongertomatureinKingaroy.
However, Virginia Bunch produces similar dry matter amount and pod yield in both
locations. Although growth rates are lower in Kingaroy, the crop has longer to compensate,
and so yields are similar.
Asminimumtemperaturesdropto<17°C,peanutgrowthbeginstoslowdown.Drymatter
productiondropsbyabout25%whennighttemperaturesreach15°Candby50%at9°C.
Theplantsvirtuallyceasegrowingandfillingpodslongbeforeitiscoldenoughforfrost,so
cropsmustbeharvestedbeforefrostislikely.IninlandsouthernQueensland,thismeans
thatcropsshouldbereadyforharvestbeforetheendofApril. 2
14.3 Rainfall
Peanuts are moderately drought-tolerant but, like all crops, need readily available moisture
throughouttheseasontoproducehighyields.Whererainfallisreasonablydistributed
throughthegrowingseason,cropsproduceabout5–10kg/haofpodspermmofrainfall.
2 PCA/DPIF(2007)Climateandsoils.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3a_climate.pdf
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FordrylandpeanutsinQueenslandandnorthernNSW,averagerainfallof≥400mmfrom
September to March is needed to produce a reasonable crop.
Foroptimalyields,~600mmofwaterisrequired.Thismeansirrigationrequirementsmay
be2.5–6ML/hadependingonvariety,location,rainfallandirrigationmethod.
Areaswithhighrainfall(>900mmannually)orconsistentlyhighhumiditygenerallyhave
moreproblemswithleafdiseases.Awell-managedfungicideprogramisneededinthese
areastocontrolleafspot,rustandnetblotch.
Dryconditionsatharvestareessential.Harvestlossescanresultfromextendedraineither
justbeforeorjustafterdiggingthepeanuts.High-rainfallareashaveagreaterriskofharvest
losses due to delayed harvest. 3
14.4 Daylength
Peanutsarenotaffectedbychangesindaylengthtothesameextentassomeothercrops
(e.g.soybeans).Thegrowthstagesofpeanutsaremainlycontrolledbytemperature.
However,reproductivegrowthmaybereducedwhendaylengthis>14hifnight
temperaturesarealso>20°C.AreasinsouthernAustraliamaythereforebeaffected,but
therearenoresearchdatatoconfirmthis.
Theamountofsunlightcanstronglyinfluencepeanutgrowth.Inwettropicalareas,such
asnorthQueensland,peanutsoftenshowrankgrowthwherethevegetativegrowthfar
outweighspodgrowth.Thisappearstobeaneffectofmoistureandtemperature.Short
daysandcloudyconditionscombinetoreducetheamountoflighteachday. 4
14.5 Soils
Soiltypeisamostimportantaspectofgrowingpeanuts.
Peanutsyieldbestinwell-drained,friable(loose)soils(Figure3).Eventhoughpeanutshave
traditionally been grown in red soils, texture rather than colour that determines whether a
soilissuitableforpeanutproduction.Peanutswillgrowandproduceacropinmostsoils,
buttheabilitytoharvestthecropwithminimallossesdeterminesthesoil’ssuitabilityfor
peanuts.
Soiltypeisprobablyoneofthetwomostlimitingfactorsforpeanutgrowth,alongwiththe
typeofirrigation.
Peanutstolerateawiderangeofsoilaciditylevels,howeverideallythepHshouldbe
between 6.0 and 7.0. Soils that are more acidic than this (below pH 6.0) should be limed.
Makesureyoursoiltestisproperlyinterpretedbyaqualifiedagronomist.5
3 PCA/DPIF(2007)Climateandsoils.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3a_climate.pdf
4 PCA/DPIF(2007)Climateandsoils.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3a_climate.pdf
5 http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
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Heavy clay and poorly drained soils may not be suitable, because waterlogging at harvest
makesitdifficulttoextractthepodsgentlyandcleanly.
Blackcrackingclaysoilsusedforirrigatedcottonandothercropsaregenerallynotsuited
topeanuts.Asaruleofthumb,asoilissuitableforpeanutsifharvestingequipmentcan
operateeffectively4–5daysafterheavyrainorirrigation.
Figure 3: Some black soils are suitable for peanut production, but they must be friable and well drained.
Thetypeofsoilcaninfluencethevarietygrown,becausesomevarietiescanbeharvested
fromheaviersoilswithfewerproblems.Spanishvarieties,whichhavestrongpegsandpods
tightlyclusteredaroundthetaproot,canbesuccessfulinheaviersoils.However,wetsoilat
maturity will cause Spanish types to germinate and split. By contrast, some Virginia types
haveweakerpegsandtheirpodsarespreadover≥30cm.Thesetypescanhavehighyield
losses in soils that set hard at harvest.
Irrigationmanagementcanbeusedtosoftenthesoilandhelpharvestingonsomeheavier
or hardsetting soils, provided the soil does not become waterlogged.
Soilsmustbefreeofsticks,stumpsandlargestonesthatcaninterferewithharvestingand
damageequipmentworkingbelowandonthesoilsurface.
Peanutsarerelativelytolerantoflow-fertilitysoilscomparedwithothercrops.However,for
irrigatedcrops,amoderatefertiliserprogramisusuallyneeded.Asoiltestwillprovidea
guidetothenutrientstatusofthesoil.
IrondeficiencyisaproblemonsoilsofpH>7.5,usuallymoresoonheavysoils,especially
in wet conditions.
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Soil calcium is a critical nutrient in peanuts. Lighter sandy soils usually have low calcium
levelsinthepod-zoneandgrowersmustcorrectanydeficiency(Figure4).
Pesticide residues and heavy metals can contaminate peanuts. Organochlorines (e.g.
dieldrin, endrin, BHC, heptachlor and DDT) are the most common problems. A soil test,
along with the pesticide history, will indicate likely problems. 6
Figure 4: Light-textured soils are often deficient in calcium.
6 PCA/DPIF(2007)Climateandsoils.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3a_climate.pdf
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SECTION 15
Marketing
15.1 Consumption
Domesticpeanutconsumptionis~50,000tonnes(t)ofnut-in-shell,increasingat2–3%
per year. The Australian industry has worked hard to increase production and processing
efficienciestomeetthisdemand.
Australian peanut production usually meets the domestic demand, unless there is a severe
drought. The industry is now actively developing and supplying export markets.
Australiaisoneofthefewpeanut-producingcountries,ifnottheonlycountry,where
importsarepermittedwithminimaltariffs.
Recently,Australiahasimported5,000–8,000tofpeanutseachyear,mainlyfromArgentina
and Nicaragua.
Thereareabout120manufacturersinAustraliausingpeanutsforsnack-food,confectionery
orpeanutbutter(Figure1).Sevenprocessorsaccountfor~80%ofthemarket.
Figure 1: Peanuts are widely used in snack foods.
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Peanuts are sold as:
• nut-in-shell raw, boiled or roasted
• kernels raw, roasted, blanched or salted
• kernelsmanufacturedintopeanutbutterorusedinconfectionery
• peanutoilforcooking,foodprocessingandmargarine(Figure2)
• peanutmeal,theresidueafteroilextraction—ahigh-proteinstockfeed
• shellsforstockfeed,pottingmixandsoilconditioners1
Figure 2: Worldwide, most peanuts are crushed for oil.
15.1.1 Food valuePeanutscontain26%protein,higherthaneggs,dairyproductsandmanycutsofmeatand
fish.Thishighproteinlevelmakespeanutsanutritionalsnack-food,evenimprovingthe
nutritionalvalueofconfectionery.
Peanutshavehighfibrecontentandalowglycemicindex,oneofthelowestofallfoods.
Peanuts are:
• cholesterol-free
• verylowinsaturatedfat
• richinvitaminE,thiamine,niacin,folicacid,vitaminK
• agoodsourceofvitaminB6,biotinandpantothenicacid
• alow-sodiumfood(unsaltedpeanuts)2
1 PCA/DPIF(2007)Peanutindustry.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2c_indust_hist.pdf
2 PCA/DPIF(2007)Peanutindustry.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2c_indust_hist.pdf
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15.2 World production
Worldconsumptionofpeanutsisincreasingatarateof~3%perannum.Peanutsare
calledgroundnutsinmanypartsoftheworld,particularlyAsiaandAfrica.Theyhavealso
beencalledgooberpeasinsouthernstatesoftheUSA.
In2004–05,worldpeanutproductionwas31,582milliont,ofwhichAustraliacontributed
<0.2%.China,IndiaandtheUSAarethemainproducers,growing15,7.0and2.2milliont,
respectively (see Table 1).
About95%oftheworld’sproductionisconsumedwithinthecountryoforigin,with>50%
crushedforoilandusedforcooking.Only~5%istradedontheworldmarket,themajority
ofwhicharerunnerpeanuts.
Thepriceofpeanutsontheworldmarkethasshownlittlemovementoverthepast10
years, except in those years when the USA has had a crop shortage. The USA tends to set
worldpricesasadominantexporter.PeanutsfromChinaandArgentinausuallytradeata
price5–20%lessthantheUSprice.
Worldpeanutpriceshaverisenrecentlybecauseofincreaseddemandforoilseeds
worldwide. 3
Table 1: 2004–05 peanut production, imports and exports (’000 t, nut-in-shell)
Source:PeanutCompanyofAustralia
Production Imports ExportsChina 15,000 UK 250 China 600
India 7,000 Netherlands 260 Argentina 500
USA 2,200 Germany 230 USA 400
Indonesia 920 Japan 150 SouthAfrica 25
Argentina 800 Indonesia 120 Brazil 2
Senegal 695 Canada 100 India 0
Burma 500 Hong Kong 85 Sudan 0
Sudan 400 France 66
Other 4067 Other 544 Other 278
Total 31,582 Total 1,805 Total 1,805
15.3 Contract options
Contractoptionsformarketingarebasedonapriceforeachgradeofpeanutsintheload.
For example:
Snackfood (Jumbo) ](Grade 1) ](Grade 2) ] } Edible Kernel Portion
Manufactuing (Grade 5 Splits) ](Grade 7 MFG)
Oil Through Sieve Oil crushingHand picked
3 PCA/DPIF(2007)Peanutindustry.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheriesQueensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2c_indust_hist.pdf
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Thisgradingsystemappliestoallvarietiesofpeanuts,i.e.Virginia,runnerandultra-early
types.Paymentismadeonthebasisofkernelweightandqualityasdeterminedfromthe
sample taken at intake (see sample receival advice, Figure 3).
Jumbo,Grade1andGrade2refertothesizecategoriesineachpeanuttype.Althoughthis
gradingsystemappliestoallpeanuts,aJumboinaVirginiavariety(750kernels/kg)isadifferent
sizetoaJumboinarunnervariety(1300kernels/kg)anddoesnothaveanequalpayment.
Contractsareonaper-hectarebasisandofferflexiblepaymenttermsdependingon
growers’ individual requirements. Growers’ payments are processed through the PCA
KingaroyOffice,andqueriesregardingthepaymentsystemshouldbedirectedtothe
growers’localPCArepresentativeorGrowerPaymentsOfficer,Kingaroy.4
Growershaveachoiceofthreeprocessors:
PCA:
133 Haly Street, Kingaroy, Qld
PO Box 26, Kingaroy, Qld 4610
Ph: (07) 4162 6311
Email: [email protected]
G Crumpton & Sons Co. Pty Ltd
PO Box 672, Kingaroy, Qld 4610
Ph: (07) 4162 3547
Fax: (07) 4162 4582
Email: [email protected]
CliftonFarmingPtyLtd
118WillowSpringsRd,Clifton,Qld4361
(07) 4697 3311
4 P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) Peanut CompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
Section 16 PEANUTS - Current research
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SECTION 16
Current research
Soon to be populated.
Section 17 PEANUTS - Key contacts
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SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
HunterValleygrowerJamesbringsextensiveknowledgeand
experienceindrylandandirrigatedfarmingsystemstothe
NorthernPanel.Hehasbeenamemberofthepanelsince2005
andchairmansince2008.Jamessaysthepanel’sroleisto
capture and invest in growers’ priorities and empower them to
adopt new production gain opportunities. He strongly believes
the grains industry needs to continue building RD&E capacity to
ensure growers remain competitive.
M 0427 545 212
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 years’ experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth.Sheisatechnicalspecialistfornorthernfarming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers, industry
andagronomistsintheproductionofsummercrops.Shehasa
passionforhelpinggrowersimprovefarmefficiencyandseesher
role as a conduit between advisers, growers and the GRDC to
ensure that growers’ needs are being met.
M 0427 311 819
John Sheppard
John,apanelmembersince2006,hasawealthofpractical
farmingexperienceandbringsawheatbreeder’sperspective
tothepanel.Heviewsthepanelasanopportunityforgrowers
andprofessionalstoworktogethertoshapethefutureofthe
industry, and develop best management practices, as well as new
varieties and products. He is particularly interested in genotype-by-
environmentinteractionandthepreservationofgeneticresources.
M 0418 746 628
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Jack Williamson
Jack,aprivateagriculturalconsultant,runsabroadacrecommodity
productionfarminGoondiwindi.Previousrolesasaterritorysales
managerforNufarmandasacommercialagronomistforMcGregor
GourlayAgriculturalServiceshavegivenJackextensivefarming
systemsknowledge,anddiversecropmanagementandfieldwork
experience.JackisamemberoftheNorthernGrowerAlliance
(NGA) local consultative committe and Crop Consultants Australia,
andwaspreviouslypresidentoftheMacIntyreValleyCottonField
Day Committee.
M 0438 907 820
Julianne Dixon
JulesismanagerofAMPSResearchandapassionateagronomy
consultant, communicator and industry advocate. Her role
involvesthedevelopmentandexpansionofself-funded,privatised
research, development and extension. Her experience in project
managementandstrategicdevelopmentextendsacrossallfacets
ofanintegratedgrainsbusiness.Shehasanestablishednetwork
in eastern Australia and Western Australia, including researchers,
leading growers, agronomy consultants and commercial industry.
M 0429 494 067
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 years’ experience in property management. Keith,
based on the Liverpool Plains, NSW, consults to Romani Pastoral
Companyonthemanagementofitshistoricholdings‘Windy
Station’and‘Warrah’,nearQuirindi.Heseesthemainaimof
the panel as representing growers and conducting research that
provides growers with the tools they need to maximise property
performanceandminimiserisk.
M 0428 157 754
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Kelly Becker
BasedatTheodore,Queensland,Kellyisacertifiedmungbeanand
chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat, corn
and sorghum crop production. She has been involved with variety
trialsonacommercialbasisandindustryfarmpracticetrialsas
an agronomist. She strives to be proactive within the industry and
aimstoassistgrowerstoimprovefarmingoperationsbyensuring
that they are up to date with new practices and technology.
M 0409 974 007
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on the
NorthernPanel.Sheiscommittedtomaximisingtheprofitabilityof
grainproductioninalow-rainfallenvironmentthroughincreased
productivity and good risk management practices. She was
principalinafarmadvisorybusinessincentralwestNSWand
workedwithgrowersacrossnorth-westNSWbeforejoining
DeltaAgribusiness,wherehermainfocusistheWarren,Nyngan,
Tottenham and Gilgandra areas.
M 0428 474 845
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queensland’s Darling
Downsandfarms2300hectaresofmaize,sorghum,wheat,barley
andchickpeasontheJimbourPlain.Robiscurrentlychairofthe
AgrifoodSkillsInitiativefortheWesternDownsRegionalCouncil
area.Robviewshisroleonthepanelastakinginformationand
feedbackfromgrowers,advisersandresearcherstotheGRDCto
ensure research is targeted.
M 0427 622 203
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011. Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
ontheirperformance,focusingonwhole-farmprofitabilityrather
than individual enterprise gross margins. His main role on the panel
isidentifyinginvestmentareasthatwillenablegrowerstoremain
economic and environmentally sustainable.
M 0427 466 245
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Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
BeforejoiningtheGRDCSteveheldaseniorpositionwiththeNSW
DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesatOrange.Inearly2009hewas
appointed executive manager practices at the GRDC and in 2011
was appointed executive manager research programs. Currently
Steveholdsthepositionofexecutivemanagercommercial.He
sees the GRDC’s role is to interact with growers regularly to
determinetheirneedsandfocusonthebigpictureacrossentire
farmingsystems.
T 02 6166 4500
Sharon O’Keeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
SharonistheNorthernRegionalManagerfortheGrains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC), based in Boggabri
NSW.Sharon’sroleistoidentifyandoverseeregionalresearch,
development and extension (RD&E) needs, manage the regional
deliveryofinformationandpromotetheGRDC’sproductsand
services. Her role strengthens links between GRDC panels,
researchers, industry, advisors and growers. Sharon holds a
MastersinAgricultureandaBachelorofRuralScience(hons).
M 0409 279 328
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting. For the
pastfouryearshehasworkedasaprojectofficerforIndependent
Consultants Australia Network (ICAN), which has given him a good
understandingoftheissuesgrowersarefacinginthenorthern
grains region. David’s new role is Northern Panel and Regional
GrowerServicessupportofficer.
M 0422 082 105
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SECTION 18
References
A: IntroductionCCollis(2012)Peanutsbackinflavourbutmysterylingers.GroundCover,Issue97,March–April2012,
GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Ground-Cover/Ground-Cover-Issue-97-March-April-2012/Peanuts-back-in-flavour-but-mystery-lingers
GRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March 2013, GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/Downloads.ashx?q=/~/media/07956E2C47544ED9BA2F677D6576C567.pdf
P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
PCA.Areyouinterestedingrowingpeanuts?PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/growing-peanuts.php
1: Planning and paddock preparationMBell,GHarch,JTatnell,KMiddleton(2003)Theimpactofcroprotationonpeanutproductivity
inrainfedcroppingsystems.AustralianAgronomyConference,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2003/c/5/bell.htm
RD Connolly, M Bell, G Wright (1998) Simulating peanut/wheat cropping in the Burnett with APSIM. 9th AustralianAgronomyConference,AustralianSocietyofAgronomy,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/1998/9/177connolly.htm
GRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March 2013, GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/Downloads.ashx?q=/~/media/07956E2C47544ED9BA2F677D6576C567.pdf
CHam(2004)GrowingpeanutsintheTopEndoftheNT(Arachis hypogaeaL.).NTDepartmentofPrimary Industry, Fisheries and Mines, http://www.nt.gov.au/d/Content/File/p/Crop/177.pdf
PHarden,LWieck,GWright(2013)Peanutproductionguide,August2013.PeanutCompanyofAustralia, http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2013.pdf
P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
DHerridge(2013)ManaginglegumeandfertiliserNfornortherngrainscropping.GRDC,http://grdc.com.au/GRDC-Booklet-Managing-Fertiliser-N
GMills,RRachaputi,GWright,YChauhan,JBarnes(2004)YieldpotentialofpeanutsatMackay—What are the key barriers to obtaining it? GRDC Update Papers, February 2004, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2004/02/Yield-potential-of-peanuts-at-Mackay-What-are-the-key-barriers-to-obtaining-it
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PCA.Benefitsofpeanutsincanerotation.PeanutFactSheet.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/factsheets/peanutsandsugarcane.pdf
PCA.Cottongrowers:haveyouconsideredpeanuts?PeanutFactSheet.PeanutCompanyofAustralia, http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/factsheets/peanutsandcotton.pdf
PCA.Irrigationversusdrylandcropping.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/irrigated-vs-dryland-peanuts.php
PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au
GWright,ARobson,GMills(2004)Applicationofremotesensingtechnologiestoimproveyieldandwater-useefficiencyinirrigatedpeanuts.12thAustralianAgronomyConference,AustralianSocietyofAgronomy,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2004/poster/1/5/698_wrightg.htm
2: Pre-plantingGRDC(2010)Newvarietiesaddanothertoolinleafdiseasemanagement.ManagingLeafDiseasesin
Peanuts Fact Sheet, Summer 2010, GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_FS_Peanutleafdisease.FINAL.pdf
P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
PCA/DPIF(2007)Peanutseedproduction.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustries and Fisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/7a_other_seed.pdf
3: PlantingPCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
PCA.Twinrowsboostyieldsandgrades.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/twin-rows-boost-yields.php
PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropestablishment.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesand Fisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3d_establish.pdf
RCNRachaputi,SKrosch,GWright.Optimisingrowspacingfortheultra-earlyTingoora,GRDC,PeanutCompanyofAustralia,theQueenslandGovernment,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/2010rowspacing.pdf
L Wieck, P Harden, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/ growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
4: Plant growth and physiologyP Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014)
PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
PCA/DPIF(2007)Thepeanutplant.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesand Fisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2a_peanut_plant.pdf
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5: Nutrition and fertiliserDAFF(2010)Nutrition—VAMandlongfallowdisorder.DepartmentofAgriculture,Fisheriesand
Forestry Queensland, 14 Sept. 2010, http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/field-crops-and-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/nutrition-management/nutrition-vam
IncitecPivot.Gypsum.Fertfacts.IncitecPivotLtd,http://www.incitecpivotfertilisers.com.au/en/Soil%20,-a-,%20Plant%20Tests/~/media/Gypsum%20Fact%20Sheet.ashx
PCA.Peanutsandfertilisers.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/peanuts-and-fertilisers.php
PCA.Peanutproductionseasonplan.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/checklist.pdf
PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
PCA/DPIF(2007)Cropnutrition.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3b_nutrition.pdf
6: Weed controlP Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014)
PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
PCA.Soilpreparation.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/soil-preparation.php
PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingweeds.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesand Fisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4c_weed.pdf
7: Insect controlP Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014)
PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
PCA.Peanutproductionseasonplan.PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/checklist.pdf
PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingpests.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4b_insect.pdf
8: NematodesMBell,GHarch,JTatnell,KMiddleton(2003)Theimpactofcroprotationonpeanutproductivityin
rainfedcroppingsystems.AustralianAgronomyConference,AustralianSocietyofAgronomy,http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2003/c/5/bell.htm
RABroadley(1981)Distributionandcontrolofroot-knotandrootlesionnematodesonpeanutsinnorthQueensland. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 21, 223–226, http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/EA9810223.htm
DAFF(2012)Root-lesionnematodes.DepartmentofAgriculture,FisheriesandForestryQueensland,http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/field-crops-and-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/peanuts/managing-peanut-diseases/root-lesion-nematodes
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AMachado,LFerraz,MInomoto(2012)PathogenicityofPratylenchus brachyurus on cotton plants. The Journal of Cotton Science 16, 268-271, http://www.cotton.org/journal/2012-16/4/upload/JCS16-268.pdf
GMMurray,JPBrennan(2009)ThecurrentandpotentialcostsfromdiseasesofwheatinAustralia.ReportforGrainsResearchandDevelopmentCorporation,https://www.grdc.com.au/~/media/B4063ED6F63C4A968B3D7601E9E3FA38.pdf
PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesand Fisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
9: DiseasesGRDC(2010)Newvarietiesaddanothertoolinleafdiseasemanagement.ManagingLeafDiseasesin
Peanuts Fact Sheet, Summer 2010, GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_FS_Peanutleafdisease.FINAL.pdf
PHarden,LWieck,GWright(2013)Peanutproductionguide,August2013.PeanutCompanyofAustralia, http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2013.pdf
P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
PCA/DPIF(2007)Managingdisease.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesand Fisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/4a_disease.pdf
12: HarvestGRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March2013,GRDC,
http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-PeanutOffFlavour
P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
GMills,RRachaputi,GWright,YChauhan,JBarnes(2014)YieldpotentialofpeanutsatMackay.What are the key barriers to obtaining it? GRDC Update Papers February 2004, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2004/02/Yield-potential-of-peanuts-at-Mackay-What-are-the-key-barriers-to-obtaining-it
PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/
13: StorageGRDC(2013)Peanutoff-flavours.Northernregion.PeanutOff-flavourFactSheet,March2013,GRDC,
http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-PeanutOffFlavour
P Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014) PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
14: Environmental issues
PCA/DPIF(2007)Climateandsoils.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesand Fisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/3a_climate.pdf
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15: MarketingP Harden, L Wieck, G Wright (2013) Peanut production guide, August 2013. (Updated August 2014)
PeanutCompanyofAustralia,http://www.pca.com.au/pdfs/growing-peanuts/ppg2014.pdf
PCA/DPIF(2007)Peanutindustry.PeanutCompanyofAustralia/DepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries Queensland, http://www.pca.com.au/bmp/pdfs/2c_indust_hist.pdf