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(ack only the artisans" a decision that helped (ring 8osip Bro; *:ito, to power in2#gosla%ia after the war :he 2#gosla% resistance largely freed the co#ntry from Germancontrol

hen Italy left the war in 7eptem(er 1940" Germany had to pro%ide the occ#pying forces

on its own" se%erely straining reso#rces in men and material :he !llies also cond#cted an#m(er of commando raids in the Balkans" incl#ding the German-occ#pied islands of theeastern +editerranean

In late !#g#st 1944" the /ed !rmy.s @nd and 0rd ?krainian )ronts la#nched an offensi%ein /omania against !rmy Gro#p 7Ad#kraine /omania and B#lgaria soon capit#lated andthen switched sides" declaring war on Germany In the case of /omania" these e%entsocc#rred on @0 !#g#st and 4 7eptem(er" and for B#lgaria" they took place on @5 !#g#stand =ecem(er 1944 In Greece" the 6omm#nists made three attempts to sei;e powerthe first came d#ring the 1940 1944 !xis occ#pation in anticipation of an early end to thewarC the second occ#rred in !thens in =ecem(er 1944C and the third effort came in the

form of a (loody and prolonged ci%il war from 194D to 1949 orld ar II in the Balkanswas extremely costly in terms of h#man cas#alties" (oth directly in act#al militarylosses and ci%ilian cas#alties res#lting from warfare and indirectly" stemming fromshortages of food and other necessities

In the immediate postwar period" the alignment of the Balkans act#ally worked o#t (yand large along the lines of the agreement made (etween 6h#rchill and 7talin at +oscowin $cto(er 1944 :he 7o%iet ?nion dominated /omania and B#lgaria" whereas Greeceended #p in the estern camp 2#gosla%ia" which was to ha%e (een a fifty-fiftyarrangement" freed itself from +oscow.s grip in 1949:#rkish ?niforms of the 6rimean Era art 1

!pril 0 " @ 1

ritten (y 6 ! &orman

$f all the armies that fo#ght in the 6rimean ar the :#rks are certainly the most o(sc#re"as anyone who has e%er attempted to research them can attest hile there has (een theoccasional attempt to o#tline the str#ct#re and organi;ation of the :#rkish army *nota(ly+arcel /o#(icek.s excellent little (ook F+odern $ttoman :roops 1 9 -1915H," their #niforms seldom rate more than a few sentences f#ll of generalities :he reason for this isnot diffic#lt to disco%erC there are no dress reg#lations a%aila(le to pro%ide g#idelines *sofar as I can disco%er" at least," and preser%ed #niforms from this period are %irt#ally non-existent !(o#t the only material readily a%aila(le is the occasional appearance of a few:#rkish fig#res in the (ackgro#nd of contemporary prints or sketches" #s#ally more to pro%ide local colo#r than to present acc#rate information

@

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)ort#nately there is a rather good so#rce a%aila(le in the sketches and notes of Generalanson" who ser%ed in the 6rimea as a yo#ng staff officer hile anson.s sketches of British" )rench" and e%en /#ssian" troops ha%e (een reprod#ced in a n#m(er of recent p#(lications" his fairly extensi%e :#rkish material remains almost #nexploited :his doesnot" of co#rse" pro%ide any sort of definiti%e st#dy of :#rkish #niforms anson did not

speak :#rkish and was #na(le to

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E#ropean c#t" #s#ally worn long o%er western-style (oots :he t#nic was generallytrimmed with red tape in m#ch the same fashion as the old 3acket" except that the c#ffshad rectang#lar dark (l#e flaps edged with red tape and decorated with (#ttons *normally0" sometimes only @, on the o#ter side" reminiscent of the )rench army c#ff

:ro#sers seem to ha%e (een normally plain for infantry" artifiery commonly ha%ing a red*or rarely (lack, stripe down the o#ter seam :he normal headgear with (oth old and new#niforms was the red fe; with a dark (l#e or (lack tassel attached to the top (y a (rass (#tton :he Fnew. ca%alry #niform is somewhat more pro(lematic anson did depict afew mo#nted fig#res wearing a long-skirted t#nic or F!ftila. with (raiding on the (reast"which pro(a(ly represents the Fnew. ca%alry #niform" tho#gh in no case did he gi%e anycolo#r details :his is pro(a(ly the #niform (eing referred to (y the correspondent6onstanfin G#ys" who descri(ed :#rkish ca%alry as follows :he men ha%e a sort of t#nic with 0 rows of (#ttons and (l#e lace *a la h#ssarde,LMC the t#nic itself was pres#ma(ly dark (l#e as a later segment descri(es ca%alry officers as wearing (l#e coatswith astrakhan collar and c#ffs

Greatcoats ha%e #s#ally (een referred to as Fhooded. in estern p#(lications In fact awide %ariety of types seem to ha%e (een #sed" some with attached hoods" some witho#tanson fre

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poorly dressed and armed men in the sketches might well ha%e (een from mo(ili;edF/edif. or reser%e #nits" which seem to ha%e (een p#t into the line alongside the reg#lars

It seems to ha%e (een not too #ncommon to see a mixt#re of Fold. and Fnew. elementsworn togetherC most commonly the Fold. 3acket worn with Fnew.-style tro#sers" the

re%erse seems to ha%e (een rather rare :his appears to ha%e (een more common in theartillery than the infantry" while ca%alry almost in%aria(ly wear estern-style tro#sersregardless of their #pper garment 6ontemporary prints fre

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anson did not depict any officers wearing greatcoats or mantles" tho#gh he did depictsome wearing capes or cloaks of a %ariety of types Ne sketched one officer wearing twot#nics" the o#ter one left open to show a second t#nic (eing worn #nderneath :heastrakhan-trimmed frockcoats mentioned (y G#ys might also (e intended as cold-weather wear res#ma(ly officers s#ited themsel%es in regard to winter gear

/eprod#ced from F7oldiers of the O#een." iss#e 5

:#rkish ?niforms of the 6rimean Era art @

:#rkish ?niforms of the 6rimean Era art 0

:#rkish ?niforms of the 6rimean Era art 4:he :#rkish !rmy in the 6rimea ar

:he origins of the modern $ttoman army date to the destr#ction of the 3anissaries (y7#ltan +ahm#d II *8#ne 1 @D, +ahm#d then laid the fo#ndation for a new militaryorgani;ation (ased on estern models Its centerpiece was a E#ropean-style infantrycorps" the :rained ictorio#s :roops of +#hammad *+#allem !sakir-i +ans#re-yi+#hammadiye" +ans#re for short, $ther military ser%ices ca%alry" artillery" andtransport were esta(lished mainly (y reforming existing military #nits +ahm#d alsocreated a modern corps of imperial g#ards o#t of the Bostanci corps" which had g#ardedimperial palaces

:here also were attempts to centrali;e the command str#ct#re :he a#thority of thecommander in chief *ser asker, of the +ans#re was grad#ally extended o%er the otherser%ices and (ranches :h#s his head

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com(ine the roles of a ministry of war and general staff" and e%ent#ally was in charge ofall land forces

?nder +ahm#d II the military engineering schools were re3#%enated and reformed Nealso esta(lished a military medical school *1 @ , and an officer school *1 04, /#ssia

and Britain sent military instr#ctors +ost #sef#l ser%ices were rendered (y a r#ssianmilitary mission that grew from one officer *Nelm#th %on +oltke, in 1 05 to twel%e in1 0

In the 1 0 s +ahm#d so#ght to strengthen the army 'arge permanent #nits with reg#larcommanding officers and staffs were formed In 1 04 a pro%incial militia *redif, wasesta(lished to pro%ide reser%e forces Nowe%er" the commissary system co#ld not s#pportthe rapid increase of the military Epidemics were rife" and o%er a

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Emperor Oianlong on Inspection :o#r

hen the )rench /e%ol#tion took place in 1 9" 6hina.s last dynasty *the Oing" 1D44 191@, had (een in power for nearly a cent#ry and a half and #nder Emperor Oianlong *r

1 05 1 9D, was at the height of its power economically" c#lt#rally" and perhaps e%enmilitarily 6hinese infl#ence in E#rope was strong" and E#ropean scholars from the Baronde +ontes

:he eastern +ongols or Khalka had (een allied to the +anch#s since (efore the +anch#con

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the frontier s#ffered from chronic political dis#nity and a de%astating series of epidemics" pro(a(ly transmitted (y farmers and traders mo%ing into their lands as the settled pop#lation increasedC and the spread of B#ddhism may also ha%e enco#raged some+ongols to a(andon their traditional warlike p#rs#its ! com(ination of factors"therefore" lay (ehind the s#dden e%aporation of the +ongol menace which had dominated

6hinese military policy for so long7#ccess on other fronts led to the 6h.ien-l#ng reign (eing remem(ered for its F:en Greatictories." altho#gh they were not all of e

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# 7an-k#ei and the other F)e#datories." along with lesser colla(orators" were of %italimportance to the +anch# con

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indi%id#al agreements with the Greeks and +ontenegrins" who themsel%es reached anagreement By 7eptem(er 191@ this loose confederation" the Balkan 'eag#e" was ready toachie%e its goals

:NE )I/7: B!'K!& !/

+ontenegro (egan the )irst Balkan ar on $cto(er 191@ (y declaring war on the$ttoman Empire Before the other allies co#ld 3oin in" the $ttomans declared war on 1$cto(er on the Balkan 'eag#e :he $ttomans were confident that their army" recently#pgraded with the help of German ad%isers" wo#ld

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state Beca#se of this demand" 7er(ian forces aiding the +ontenegrin siege withdrew:he +ontenegrins persisted in the siege" howe%er" and s#cceeded in taking the town on@@ !pril ! Great ower flotilla off the !driatic coast forced the +ontenegrins towithdraw less than two weeks later" on 5 +ay

+eanwhile in 'ondon" peace negotiations res#lted in the preliminary :reaty of 'ondon"signed on 0 +ay 1910 (etween the Balkan allies and the $ttoman Empire By thistreaty" the $ttoman Empire in E#rope consisted of only a narrow (and of territory ineastern :hrace defined (y a straight line drawn from the !egean port of Enos to the Black 7ea port of +idyaB!'K!& !/7 art II

!pril @ " @ 1

critcalmass Nolding Nistory 'ea%e a comment

7E6$&= B!'K!& $/ I&:E/!''IE= !/ =#ring the )irst Balkan ar" while the B#lgarians contended with the ma3or portion ofthe $ttoman army in :hrace" the 7er(s had occ#pied most of +acedonia !#strian prohi(itions had pre%ented the 7er(s from reali;ing their am(itions to an !driatic port innorthern !l(ania :he 7er(s then so#ght to strengthen their hold on +acedonia incompensation for the loss of an !l(anian port :he Greeks had ne%er agreed to anysettlement o%er +acedonia" and also indicated that they wo#ld retain the +acedonianareas they had occ#pied :he B#lgarians had fo#ght the $ttomans for +acedonia :heyremained determined to o(tain this area Nostilities among the allies o%er the +acedonian

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:he Balkan ars res#lted in h#ge military cas#alties :he B#lgarians lost aro#nd D5"men" the Greeks 9"5 " the +ontenegrins 0" " and the 7er(s at least 0D" :he$ttomans lost as many as 1@5" In addition" tens of tho#sands of ci%ilians died" fromdisease and other ca#ses =eli(erate atrocities occ#rred thro#gho#t e%ery theater of war"especially in Koso%o

:he conse

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6oncise Nistory of the Balkan ars" 191@ 1910 !thens" 199 Nelmreich" E 6 :he=iplomacy of the Balkan ars" 191@ 10 &ew 2ork" 19D9

:he 7alonika 6ampaign

B#lgarian Infantry

:he railway from the strategically important port city of 7alonika *:hessaloniki, innorthern Greece to Belgrade %ia 7kop3e *?sk#(, offered a direct ro#te to em(attled7er(ia In 7eptem(er 1915" with B#lgaria mo(ilising for an attack on 7er(ia" Britain and)rance accepted an offer from the pro-Entente Greek prime minister Ele#therios*Elephferios, eni;elos to land troops at 7alonika :he force at 7alonika was initiallycomposed of !nglo-)rench #nits" many of which had come from Gallipoli It wasreinforced (y the 7er(ian army in exile on 6orf#" Italians and a small /#ssian contingentIt remained #ntil the war.s end

:he force landed on 5 $cto(er 1915" the same day that the pro-German Greek king"6onstantine I who was married to the Kaiser.s sister forced eni;elos to resign $n D$cto(er 1915" the 6entral owers in%aded 7er(ia !nglo-)rench #nits at 7alonika p#shednorth #p the ardar *!xios, ri%er %alley to help the 7er(s It was too little" too late :he7er(s retreated thro#gh !l(ania to the !driatic coast while the 7alonika force retired (ack to the city B#lgarian and German forces *with some :#rkish #nits, then gathered alongthe Greek 7er(ian and Greek B#lgarian (orders" while the Greek army" s#pposedlyne#tral" handed Greece.s )ort /#ppel" which commanded the 7tr#ma *7trimSn, %alley" tothe B#lgarians *@D +ay 191D, In response to these threats" the s#preme commander at7alonika" the )rench general +a#rice 7arrail" transformed the city into a fortress

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s#rro#nded (y fieldwork defences Ne took f#ll control of the city from the Greeks inmid-191D" esta(lishing the city as an alternati%e centre for pro-Entente Greek forces and politicians" a policy that em(roiled the garrison in internal Greek politics

hile )rance was keen on the 7alonika operation" senior British military ad%isers to theBritish go%ernment" s#ch as illiam /o(ertson" 6hief of the Imperial General 7taff" werene%er con%inced of the #sef#lness of peripheral operations s#ch as 7alonika" which tooktroops away from the main western front By early 191D the n#m(er of British troops at7alonika exceeded 15 " /o(ertson %igoro#sly #rged a withdrawal from 7alonika (#t political factors made this diffic#lt :he defeat at Gallipoli had lowered !nglo-)rench prestige in the Balkans and the Entente co#ld ill-afford for Greece to 3oin the 6entralowers

7arrail.s record of military achie%ement against the 6entral owers was not impressi%e$n 1 !#g#st 191D" Entente troops (egan preliminary attacks at 'ake =orian *=o3ran, (efore a general a#t#mn 191D offensi%e German- B#lgarian forces pre-empted this withattacks on the western and eastern extremities of 7arrail.s line In the west" thereconstit#ted 7er(ian army in the )lSrina sector retreated to 'ake $stro%o * egorrTtis,)ighting then contin#ed along the 6rno *6rna, ri%er east of )lSrina In the eastern sectorof the front" the B#lgarians took the Greek town of 7erres *7Urrai, in the 7tr#ma %alley on@5 !#g#st" threatening the port of Ka%ala *Ka%Vlla, whose Greek garrison s#rrenderedwitho#t a fight on 14 7eptem(er 191D ?nder press#re" 7arrail p#t a halt to the falteringoffensi%e at 'ake =orian

hen 7arrail.s troops did finally attack towards 7kop3e in 7eptem(er 191D" he hoped thatthis wo#ld relie%e the hard-pressed /#manians 7arrail.s forces took +onastir *Bitola, inthe western sector of the front on 19 &o%em(er 191D (#t they ad%anced no f#rther !s the

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British str#ggled #p the 7tr#ma %alley" operations descended into western front-styletrench deadlock 6hecked" allied troops sat o#t the winter doing little By early 191 "7arrail had some D " men at his disposal a mixt#re of )rench" British" 7er(ians"Italians and /#ssians that made command and control diffic#lt :his force was morenominal than real as the #nhealthy" swampy climate of 7alonika was a (reeding gro#nd

for diseases s#ch as malaria" paratyphoid and dysentery" which left m#ch of 7arrail.sforce in hospital and red#ced his fighting strength to a(o#t 1 "

7arrail attacked again in +arch 191 ! )ranco-7er(ian force ad%anced on a line (etween+onastir and 'ake respa" while the British spearheaded an attack at 'ake =orian!d%ances were minimal a few h#ndred metres were won at the cost of some 15"cas#alties By the end of +ay" with /#ssian #nits in m#tiny" 7arrail called off theoffensi%e" and the front (ecame static +arie G#illa#mat replaced the #npop#lar 7arrail in=ecem(er 191 In 8#ly 191 " another )rench commander" 'o#is )ranchet d.Esperey"replaced G#illa#mat In 8#ne 191 " with eni;elos (ack in power" Greece entered the war *@9 8#ne 191 ," adding @5 " men to the 7alonika force $n 15 7eptem(er 191 " at the

war.s end" the 7alonika force la#nched the ardar offensi%e against weary and ill-e

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In 7eptem(er German strategy was #nfoc#ssed :he new German commander" Erich %on)alkenhayn" p#shed at the left and centre of the main )rench front" at erd#n and7oissons" while at the same time deploying forces to the north to en%elop the exposed)rench left wing &one of these operations pro%ed decisi%e

:he allies hoped to #se their ad%antage in ca%alry to make a wide o#tflanking mo%ementacross Belgi#m :o this end the BE) was relocated from the ri%er !isne to )landers inearly $cto(er )alkenhayn too wished to sweep westwards to the 6hannel coast" (#t (efore he co#ld do so the key fortress of !ntwerp" ref#ge of the Belgian field army afterit had (een separated from its allies in !#g#st" had to (e red#ced hether the British and)rench armies co#ld re-deploy northwards (efore !ntwerp fell" and rest their flank onthat sec#re (astion" was cr#cial !llied disagreements on the strategy to (e followed pro%ed ac#te" pre%enting decisi%e action on the northern flank

&othing epitomised the chaos in allied command more than the impro%ised and

#ns#ccessf#l defence of !ntwerp :he British wanted to march directly to the city.s relief"fearing that the Belgians wo#ld a(andon this %ital port if not rapidly assisted 8offre.s priority was to defeat the German forces ad%ancing into )rance (y an offensi%e towards'ille" and he felt that first line troops co#ld not (e spared for !ntwerp !t the (eginningof $cto(er British /oyal +arines and na%al reser%ists" the only a%aila(le troops" weredespatched to reinforce the Belgian defences inston 6h#rchill" the )irst 'ord of the!dmiralty" h#rried to !ntwerp to enco#rage the exha#sted Belgians to hang on #ntil mores#(stantial reinforcements arri%ed Britain.s last reg#lar di%ision" the th =i%ision" was tofollow" he promised" along with a corps of )rench marines and territorials In the firstweek of $cto(er the s#per-hea%y German artillery which had s#(d#ed Belgi#m.s frontierfortresses in !#g#st was (ro#ght to (ear on !ntwerp.s defences" and the o#tlying defenceworks were systematically red#ced itho#t cons#lting his allies 8offre di%erted the promised )rench corps to co%er the redeployment of the BE) aro#nd BUth#ne :he th=i%ision co#ld not relie%e !ntwerp aloneC its task was now to co%er the escape of theexha#sted Belgian field army along the coast !ntwerp s#rrendered on 1 $cto(er" (efore8offre.s offensi%e commenced

!s British and )rench di%isions arri%ed in the north they were thrown into alliedoperations to ad%ance eastward and capt#re 'ille Initial progress against a weak Germanca%alry screen was not s#stained as new German di%isions" released (y the fall of!ntwerp" came into line General )och" assigned the task of coordinating the actions ofthe )rench" British and Belgian armies" hastily esta(lished a defensi%e line from &ie#porton the coast to !rras" to hold off repeated German p#shes to (reak thro#gh to the 6hannel ports :he fighting centred aro#nd the Belgian town of 2pres :o the north the Belgianstook #p position on the extreme left of the allied line (ehind the ri%er 2ser Nard pressed (y the enemy they protected their thinly-held line (y in#ndating the ri%er.s flood plainBetween mid-$cto(er and mid-&o%em(er s#ccessi%e German assa#lts were la#nchedagainst !nglo-)rench positions f#rther so#th )ighting was partic#larly hea%y in theBE).s sectors at 2pres and !rmentiWres" where the (attalions of Britain.s pre-war reg#lararmy sacrificed themsel%es in the allied ca#se British and )rench formations (ecame

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nearly all the other secret societies" the 6ar(onarist lodges were modeled on thefreemasonic lodges that had spread widely in E#rope in the late eighteenth cent#ry andwere officially promoted thro#gho#t &apoleon.s empire *1 4 1 14R15, !s oppositionto )rench imperialism grew" howe%er" the secret societies offered the emperor.sopponents a less %isi(le alternati%e to freemasonry

:he first references to the 6ar(onari in so#thern Italy came at precisely the moment whenrelations (etween &apoleon I and his (rother-in-law 8oachim +#rat *1 D 1 15," were (reaking down +#rat had r#led &apoleon.s satellite Kingdom of &aples since 1 " (#trelations with aris deteriorated to the point that in 1 11 he nearly lost his throne !s+#rat.s position in the imperial enterprise weakened" he (ecame more dependent on his &eapolitan s#pporters" who in t#rn pressed for a constit#tion:his (ecame the principal political platform of the 6ar(onarist lodges" whose name wasadopted from the 6har(onnerie" an informal secret association among the charcoal (#rners *char(onniers, of the 8#ra +o#ntains (etween )rance and 7wit;erland :he nameseems to ha%e (een taken at random (y a gro#p of )rench officers" hostile to &apoleon"whose regiment took part in the con

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the 6ar(onari" (#t in &aples the generals reported that the lodges were too many and too powerf#l for a frontal attack hen the 7panish re%ol#tion took place in 8an#ary 1 @ "so#thern Italy at first seemed calm B#t when a protest (egan in the ca%alry (arracks at &ola at the (eginning of 8#ly" within days the protest spread to other regiments )acedwith a general m#tiny the monarchy was forced to concede the 7panish constit#tion

:he re%ol#tions in &aples and 7icily in 1 @ s#cceeded (eca#se the constit#tional program had o%erwhelming s#pport in the army" (#t there is strong e%idence to s#ggestthat they were planned in the 6ar(onarist lodges" where the constit#tional pro3ect was prepared and which d#ring the nine months of constit#tional go%ernment played animportant role in maintaining order B#t it was hardly s#rprising that the 6ar(onaristre%ol#tion in &aples and 7icily rang fresh alarms thro#gh /estoration E#rope and manynow claimed that the secret societies were the in%isi(le hand that linked the re%ol#tions in7pain" &aples" and 7icily to the 6ato 7treet conspiracy in 'ondon" the m#rder of the d#cde Berri in )rance and of the 3o#rnalist !#g#st %on Kot;e(#e in Germany in 1 19" whichwas the immediate pretext for the draconian 6arls(ad =ecreesIn &o%em(er" rince 6lemens %on +etternich *1 0 1 59, s#mmoned the E#ropean

r#lers to meet at :roppa# in $cto(er to coordinate action against the forces of re%ol#tion=#ring the meeting" when the tsar" !lexander I" was informed of a m#tiny in one of the7t eters(#rg regiments" he immediately detected the work of the secret societies iththe willing complicity of the king of &aples" an !#strian army was dispatched to so#thernItaly in +arch 1 @1" and the re%ol#tions were cr#shed :he 6ar(onarist lodges wereclosed" and their mem(ers arrested or placed #nder police s#r%eillance" dismissed from p#(lic office" and (anned from the professions!ccording to +etternich" the 6ar(onari were FFprelates" priests and citi;ens ofdisting#ished rank .. In fact" they also incl#ded many artisans and lesser landowners" (#to%erwhelmingly the 6ar(onarist lodges ga%e political %oices for the first time to the pro%incial gentry" of which they were now depri%ed Nowe%er" the police records alsoshow that their n#m(ers were m#ch smaller than the a#thorities liked to (elie%e" and their s#ppression ser%ed primarily to 3#stify political p#rges that extended to the entire army" p#(lic officials" and the clergy=espite the defeat of the re%ol#tions in &aples and 7icily" elsewhere in E#rope fear of thesecret societies now reached a peak In =ecem(er 1 @1 the 6ar(onari were (anned (y the pope" (#t the disco%ery of plans (y a )rench 6har(onnerie to stage re%olts in Belfort and7a#m#r in =ecem(er 1 @1 ca#sed new alarms that were exacer(ated when fo#r sergeantswho were p#t on trial at 'a /ochelle for complicity ref#sed to di%#lge any information=E6'I&E $) 7E6/E: 7$6IE:IE7By 1 @4 the panic was s#(siding" E#rope was not in flames" and +etternich decided thatthe threat had (een grossly exaggerated all along By now the re%ol#tionaries were alsolosing patience" and the failed ins#rrections that took place in the apal 7tate in 1 01were the last strike of the 6ar(onari ! year later Gi#seppe +a;;ini *1 5 1 @, fo#nded2o#ng Italy" the re%ol#tionary society that explicitly re3ected the tradition of secretconspiracy +a;;ini had (eg#n his career as a mem(er of the 6ar(onari in Genoa" (#tnow he called on Italian re%ol#tionaries to declare themsel%es openly and to proselyti;ethe yo#ng to the national ca#se" acc#sing the 6ar(onari of adhering to the re%ol#tionarystrategies of the )rench 8aco(ins that he (elie%ed to (e o#tdated and #nworka(le

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:he 6ar(onari now disappeared as

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Karl 7and assassinated the conser%ati%e playwright !#g#st %on Kot;e(#e in hisapartment in +annheim Kot;e(#e had (een a %ocifero#s critic of the radical nationalistmo%ement *one of his (ooks was on the list (#rned at the art(#rg )esti%al,C moreo%er"as a prolific and highly s#ccessf#l a#thor of light comedies he was widely seen as theem(odiment of $ld /egime fri%olity and lasci%io#sness /ecently it had (ecome known

that Kot;e(#e was sending reports on German c#lt#ral affairs to the /#ssian tsar 7and" ast#dent of theology at 8ena and a mem(er of the local B#rschenschaft" resol%ed to takematters into his own hands" striking down this FFtraitor.. to the German nation ithKot;e(#e dead" 7and attempted to kill himself (#t was instead arrested" tried" ande%ent#ally exec#ted +eanwhile" a deranged st#dent had made an attempt on the life of adistrict official in &assa#" adding to the sense of #nrest and imminent re%ol#tion7and.s act represented a s#(stantial re%ersal for the reform party in r#ssia" as moderateslike Karl !#g#st %on Narden(erg and Karl %on !ltenstein lost infl#ence with )rederickilliam III *r 1 9 1 4 , to more reactionary mem(ers of his ca(inet !t a meeting in:eplit; on 1 !#g#st" +etternich and the r#ssian king agreed that their states wo#ld takea common hardline policy against the FFre%ol#tionary party.. in Germany :he o#tlines of

that policy were hammered o#t two weeks later at a conference of ministers from tenleading German states" which took place in the resort locale of 6arls(ad :he conferencedrafted a series of decrees" which were then appro%ed #nanimo#sly at a meeting of the)ederal =iet on @ 7eptem(er 1 19:he 6arls(ad =ecrees consisted of fo#r laws :he ?ni%ersity 'aw esta(lished a state plenipotentiary for each #ni%ersity" who was responsi(le for maintaining properdiscipline and morality :he state go%ernments were o(ligated to remo%e any teacher whota#ght s#(%ersi%e doctrines or otherwise a(#sed his a#thority and to enforce existing lawsagainst secret st#dent organi;ations *that is" the B#rschenschaften, rofessors fired (yone #ni%ersity co#ld not (e hired (y another" and st#dents fo#nd g#ilty of in%ol%ementwith the B#rschenschaften were (anned from f#t#re employment in p#(lic office :heress 'aw re

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li(eral reforms in a n#m(er of other states 7till" it re

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+ost experts on this historical period agree that the nearly 4 years of warfare against the6athars r#ined the most ci%ili;ed nation in thirteenth-cent#ry E#rope :he pitiless cr#eltyand (r#tal licentio#sness" which was ha(it#al among the 6r#saders" achie%ed new depthsof inh#manity against the !l(igenses &o man was spared in their wrath &o woman wasspared their %iolence It has (een o(ser%ed that no /oman" N#nnish" +#slim" or +ongol

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!lfred the Great.s defence against the ikings!pril @5" @ 1

critcalmass Nistory Nistory 'ea%e a comment

! reasona(le attempt at ill#strating the larger si;ed English ships and therefore theircrew.s ad%antage in (attle !lfred responded to the threat (y constr#cting a fleet of largelong(oats" each of which co#ld carry a h#ndred men" to meet and fight off the in%aders (efore they landed :his na%y.s first (attle was against fo#r =anish ships in the 7to#rEst#ary in @" (#t it was his %ictory o%er the in%ading forces in the :hames est#ary andoff the coast of Essex in 9 that won !lfred the epithet Fthe Great. King !lfred is nowconsidered to (e" in a way" the fo#nder of the /oyal &a%y:he treaty with G#thr#m ga%e !lfred the (reathing space he needed to fortify andre%itali;e essex !s the last o#tpost of independent England" it was essential for essexto ha%e an efficient military:hro#gho#t his realm" !lfred (#ilt strongholds known in !nglo-7axon as (#rhs *theorigin of the modern English word (oro#ghM, Each held a garrison of a(o#t 1D men" pl#s an #ndetermined n#m(er of ser%ants to do all the cooking" cleaning" and tending ofhorses :raditionally the English army mo%ed on foot" (#t !lfred reali;ed that gi%en thespeed with which the ikings str#ck English targets" the English m#st (e a(le to respond

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as the settlers from 7candina%iaC (eaten and h#miliated" G#thr#m agreed )o#r yearslater" G#thr#m" apparently witho#t gi%ing !lfred any more tro#(le" died in Nadleigh:he In%asions 6ontin#eIn spite of G#thr#m.s defeat and death" the ikings contin#ed to mo#nt sporadic raids on!lfred.s territory B#t a serio#s in%asion with eighty ships was mo#nted from )rance in

9@" led (y a iking chief named Nastein who had (een terrori;ing the inha(itants of the'oire alley Ne ordered part of his force to disem(ark in Kent" then (eached his ships atBenfleet in Essex =anes from East !nglia and 2ork 3oined Nastein.s army" (#t onceagain !lfred.s military pro%ed its worth :he infantry harried the ikings" while !lfred.sna%y destroyed many of Nastein.s long ships in a (attle off the coast of =e%on in 90!fter se%eral more re%erses on land" Nastein and most of his army retreated #p the old/oman road" ading 7treet" to 6hesterBad l#ck p#rs#ed Nastein.s army for another three years :he ikings a(andoned 6hester in 94 and in%aded northern ales" (#t the ferocio#s resistance of the elshmen and thelack of s#pplies forced the ikings to retreat :he next year they attempted to esta(lish a (ase on the /i%er 'ea north of 'ondon" no do#(t positioning themsel%es to take the city

(ack from !lfred" (#t the English hit them so hard that the ikings had to retreat forsafety into the =anelaw" lea%ing their dragon ships (ehind In 9D" the ikings wereencamped along the 7e%ern when !lfred attacked again :he ikings scattered 7omewent north to 2ork" and others sailed (ack to )rance in hope of easier pl#nder!s the sole English king of the old stock" !lfred (ecame an inspiration and arg#a(ly e%ena rallying point for the English" especially for the English in the =anelaw Ne had come (ack strongly from almost certain annihilation" smashed his enemies" reclaimed hiskingdom" and made that kingdom so strong it co#ld dri%e off or defeat e%ery ikingin%asion for the rest of his lifeB#t !lfred also reali;ed that there was more to a nation than military strength 7o here%i%ed learning and literat#re" reformed the English legal code" fo#nded newmonasteries to replace the ones destroyed (y the ikings" and (ro#ght o%er monks fromthe 6ontinent to get the new comm#nities off to a strong start/arely has a co#ntry teetered so closely on the (rink of destr#ction than did England in

/arer still has it fallen to one man to (ring his nation (ack from near-disaster 2etthat was the destiny of King !lfredC witho#t him" England as we know it wo#ld not exist

)remde Neeres $st *)oreign !rmies East,

!pril @5" @ 1

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critcalmass Nolding Intelligence 'ea%e a comment

?nder the leadership of 'ie#tenant 6olonel /einhard Gehlen" )oreign !rmies East

directed military espionage against the 7o%iet ?nion It (ecame infamo#s for (l#ndersand contri(#ted to the #ltimate defeat of German in%asion and occ#pation forces in the7o%iet ?nion

here the /#ssians really fooled the Germans was in the lead #p to $peration Bagration"which destroyed !rmy Gro#p 6enter in 8#ne-!#g#st 1944 :he Germans expected theattack against !rmy Gro#p 7o#th" and had strengthened it at the expense of !G 6enter:he week (efore the /#ssian assa#lt" 6ol Gehlen predicted a

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6ommander of German ?-(oats i;eadmiral *%ice admiral, Karl =\nit; welcomed theentry of the ?nited 7tates into the war in =ecem(er 1941 as an opport#nity to widen the?-(oat offensi%e in the !tlantic In planning $peration !?KE&76N'!G*=/?+BE!:," =\nit; intended to operate against the ?nited 7tates and into the6ari((ean larger :ype I_ ?-(oats with greater operational range Ne wo#ld employ

shorter-range :ype II ?-(oats off &ewfo#ndland and &o%a 7cotia" which were m#chcloser to his ?-(oat (ases =\nit; re

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/eferences Blair" 6lay Nitler.s ?-Boat ar ol 1" :he N#nters" 1909 194@ &ew 2ork/andom No#se" 199D Gannon" +ichael $peration =r#m(eat :he =ramatic :r#e 7toryof Germany.s )irst ?-Boat !ttacks along the !merican 6oast in orld ar II &ew 2orkNarper and /ow" 199 +orison" 7am#el Eliot Nistory of ?nited 7tates &a%al$perations in orld ar II ol 1" :he Battle of the !tlantic" 1941 1940 Boston 'ittle"

Brown" 1949illiam 7holto =o#glas" *)irst Baron =o#glas of Kirtleside, *1 90 19D9

!pril @5" @ 1

critcalmass Nolding Biography 'ea%e a comment

British air chief marshal Born on @0 =ecem(er 1 90 at Neadington" $xfordshire"illiam =o#glas was raised in 'ondon Ne attended $xford ?ni%ersity (#t left to 3oin the

/oyal )ield !rtillery at the start of orld ar I =o#glas soon transferred to the /oyal)lying 6orps" where he

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=o#glas retired from acti%e d#ty in 194 and was awarded a peerage as )irst Baron=o#glas of Kirtleside Ne ass#med a seat in the No#se of 'ords and ser%ed on the (oardsof the two British state airlines !fter completing two a#to(iographies" illiam 7holto=o#glas died in &orthampton on @9 $cto(er 19D9

/eferences =o#glas" illiam 7holto" with /o(ert right 7holto =o#glas 6om(at and6ommand :he 7tory of an !irman in :wo orld ars &ew 2ork 7imon and 7ch#ster"19DD $li%er" =a%id /!) )ighter 6ommand 'ondon :rafalgar 7

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!merican presence and the liaison effort By !#g#st 1944" Barrett and a team thate%ent#ally n#m(ered more than @ people" incl#ding 7tate =epartment officials 8ohn 77er%ice and /aymond '#dden" (egan to meet with the most senior political andmilitary leadership of the 6omm#nist mo%ement and to gather information a(o#t the8apanese and their allies as well as the 6hinese 6omm#nists :he mission also pro%ided

the opport#nity in &o%em(er for +a3or General atrick 8 N#rley" in his capacity as aspecial emissary of ? 7 resident )ranklin = /oose%elt" to (egin an effort to get the two6hinese factions to foc#s their efforts on fighting the 8apanese rather than each other=#ring the co#rse of the mission" the =ixie gro#p sec#red the resc#e and ret#rn of morethan 1 !merican pilots:he mission ser%ed perhaps its most important f#nction after the war as a (ridge (etweenthe ?nited 7tates and the 6hinese 6omm#nists ! mission headed (y General George 6+arshall (ro#ght the two sides to the negotiating ta(le in an effort to sec#re a sol#tion tothe infighting in 6hina that had (een going on for decades :he collapse of the +arshallmission in 8an#ary 194 led to the end of the o(ser%er mission/eferences Barrett" =a%id = =ixie +ission :he ?nited 7tates !rmy $(ser%er Gro#p in

2enan" 1944 6hina /esearch +onograph m(er 7ix Berkeley ?ni%ersity of6alifornia ress" 19 6arter" 6arolle 8 +ission to 2enan !merican 'iaison to the6hinese 6omm#nists" 1944 194 'exington ?ni%ersity ress of Kent#cky" 199/oman#s" 6harles ) " and /iley 7#nderland 7tilwell.s 6ommand ro(lems ashington"=6 ? 7 Go%ernment rinting $ffice" 19 5'I&K

Strategic Egypt!pril @5" @ 1

critcalmass Nistory 6olonial" Nistory 'ea%e a comment! col#mn of !xis prisoners capt#red in 'i(ya nearing the massi%e walls of the 6itadel of6airo" showing the +ohamed !li +os

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:hro#gho#t orld ar II" ort 7aid and !lexandria remained ma3or British (ases foroperations in the eastern +editerranean !s head

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Battle of Leyte

General =o#glas +ac!rth#r" s#preme !llied commander in the acific" was eager to (egin the campaign to retake the hilippines" which he had (een forced to a(andon at the (eginning of the war Nis forces had capt#red +orotai" (etween &ew G#inea and+indanao" e%en as the III +arine 6orps had con

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sec#red (y =ecem(er 1 " and the th made contact with the th =i%ision :he two #nitsnow ad%anced #p (oth ends of the $rmoc alley and con%erged at 'i(#ngao on=ecem(er @ 7ix days later" on 6hristmas =ay" alompon" the last 8apanese-held port on'eyte" fell $n =ecem(er @D" the Eighth ? 7 !rmy */o(ert Eichel(erger, ass#medcommand on the island *as __I 6orps left for the $kinawa 6ampaign, and spent the

next fo#r months in diffic#lt mop-#p operationsictory on 'eyte cost the !mericans 15"5 4 cas#alties" incl#ding 0"5 4 killedC 8apaneselosses totaled more than " men

)#rther reading 6#tler" :homas 8 :he Battle of 'eyte G#lf @0 @D $cto(er 1944!nnapolis" +d &a%al Instit#te ress" @ 1C ego" +ilan & Battle for 'eyte" 1944!llied and 8apanese lans" reparations" and Exec#tion !nnapolis" +d &a%al Instit#teress" @ 5C illmott" N :he Battle of 'eyte G#lf :he 'ast )leet !ctionBloomington Indiana ?ni%ersity ress" @ 5

'I&K

:he Battle of 'eyte G#lf!pril @4" @ 1

critcalmass Nolding &a%al Battle 'ea%e a comment

:he Battle of 'eyte G#lf was fo#ght d#ring $cto(er @0 @D" 1944" in response to theattempt of 8apanese na%al forces to disr#pt and destroy ? 7 landings on the hilippineisland of 'eyte :he Battle of 'eyte G#lf de%eloped into the largest na%al (attle of anywar and was also disting#ished (y the first kamika;e attacks

'earning where the !merican landings on 'eyte were to take place" !dmiral :oyoda7oem#" commander in charge of the 8apanese 6om(ined )leet" la#nched $peration 7ho-Go * ictory," (y which he intended to draw the :hird ? 7 )leet *#nder !dmiral illiamB#llM Nalsey, into (attle north of 'eyte G#lf so that the 8apanese na%al forces co#ldcatch the landing forces as well as the smaller 7e%enth ? 7 )leet *#nder ice !dmiral:homas Kinkaid," which was co%ering the landing" in a massi%e do#(le en%elopment" or pincers hereas in pre%io#s (attles" ? 7 &a%y commanders had en3oyed the ad%antageof ?ltra decrypts" which ga%e them extensi%e knowledge of 8apanese radiocomm#nications" the 8apanese changed codes (efore 'eyte G#lf and maintained a highdegree of radio silence :oyoda.s trap %ery nearly s#cceeded

:oyoda assigned ice !dmiral $;awa 8isa(#ro" commander in charge of the +o(ile)orce" tactical command of $peration 7ho-Go $;awa di%ided his ships" incl#ding the

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two largest (attleships e%er (#ilt" 2amato and +asashi" fi%e con%entional (attleships" and1D cr#isers" into two striking forces" #nder ice !dmirals K#rita :akeo and Kiyohicle7hima $;awa himself led a decoy fleet" incl#ding fo#r aircraft carriers" to l#re Nalsey tothe north while K#rita and 7hima closed the pincers ! portion of 7hima.s force" incompany with a n#m(er of K#rita.s ships *#nder ice !dmiral 7he3o &ishim#ra," were

detailed to sail into the 'eyte G#lf %ia 7#rigao 7trait" while K#rita approached the g#lf (yway of the 7an Bernardino 7trait :he rest of 7hima.s force escorted 8apanese troopreinforcements to 'eyte Island

$n $cto(er @4" :ask )orce 0 " #nder ice !dmiral +arc +itscher" la#nched air strikesagainst K#rita as his ships crossed the 7i(#yan 7ea" sinking one (attleship" damagingothers" and prompting K#rita to re%erse co#rse for a time K#rita.s excess of ca#tion p#thim (ehind sched#le" (#t Nalsey o%erestimated the damage that had (een done to himand disco#nted K#rita as a threat :his played into the 7ho-Go plan ith K#ritaapparently o#t of the way" Nalsey p#rs#ed $;awa.s decoy fleet

:he trap was set" (#t ? 7 : (oats *followed (y destroyers" then (attleships and cr#isers,attacked &ishim#ra as he entered 7#rigao 7trait on the night of $cto(er @4 &ishim#rawas killed and all ships (#t a single destroyer of his force were s#nk 7hima" who had (een following &ishim#ra" withdrew witho#t 3oining the fight :h#s one arm of the8apanese pincer was destroyed &e%ertheless" the other arm" K#rita.s force" was stillintactC K#rita sailed into the g#lf %ia the 7an Bernardino 7trait on the morning of $cto(er @5 ! ? 7 escort carrier gro#p #nder /ear !dmiral 6lifton 7prag#e sighted the force off7amar Island Both the !merican and the 8apanese commanders were taken (y s#rprise" (#t K#rita ass#med that 7prag#e.s ships were part of a m#ch larger force and thereforeordered his ships to attack independently rather than risk committing his entire force Nadhe #sed all that was a%aila(le to him" he co#ld easily ha%e destroyed 7prag#e.so#tn#m(ered" o#tg#nned escort carriers !s it t#rned o#t" howe%er" in independent action7prag#e.s aircraft s#nk two 8apanese cr#isers" and torpedo fire from a ? 7 destroyerdamaged a third cr#iser 7prag#e lost two of his escort carriers" one of them to akamika;e attack :wo of his destroyers and a destroyer escort were also s#nk" while an#m(er of other ships s#stained serio#s damage It was perhaps the most desperate na%alengagement of the acific war" (#t K#rita" pres#ma(ly short on f#el and do#(tless stillfearing the presence of a larger force s#ddenly (roke off the engagement and withdrew

In the meantime" !dmiral Kinkaid had radioed Nalsey" who was in fighting p#rs#it of$;awa" for aid Nalsey responded (y sending one of +itscher.s task gro#ps so#th toengage K#rita 2et he apparently did not f#lly reali;e the desperate nat#re of the sit#ationin 'eyte G#lf and therefore retained some ships #nder /ear !dmiral illis ! 'ee tocontin#e the fight against $;awa *who had already lost fo#r carriers to +itscher," ratherthan send them so#th to c#t off K#rita.s escape $nly after 'ee was within range of whatremained of $;awa did Nalsey" at last waking to the f#ll danger to the 'eyte landings andthe ? 7 7e%enth )leet" order 'ee to (reak off and steam so#th as well ! smaller forcecontin#ed to p#rs#e $;awa" and two more ships were s#nk" (#t $;awa ne%erthelessmanaged to escape complete annihilation !s for 'ee" the delay imposed (y Nalsey meantthat he arri%ed in the g#lf too late to intercept K#rita

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:he Battle of 'eyte G#lf was a great !merican %ictory" al(eit flawed (y Nalsey.smis3#dgment :he 8apanese lost three (attleships" fo#r aircraft carriers" 1 cr#isers" andnine destroyers as well as many aircraft +ost important" the 8apanese failed to disr#ptthe 'eyte landings" there(y %irt#ally ens#ring that the !mericans wo#ld retake the

hilippines)#rther reading 6#tler" :homas 8 :he Battle of 'eyte G#lf @0 @D $cto(er 1944!nnapolis" +d &a%al Instit#te ress" @ 1C illmott" N :he Battle of 'eyte G#lf:he 'ast )leet !ction Bloomington Indiana ?ni%ersity ress" @ 5

Battle of '#;on!pril @4" @ 1

critcalmass Nolding Battles 'ea%e a comment

ictory on land at the Battle of 'eyte" in concert with the na%al %ictory in the Battle of'eyte G#lf" was the opening act in =o#glas +ac!rth#r.s promised ret#rn to thehilippines :hese two (attles allowed +ac!rth#r to la#nch an amphi(io#s in%asion of'#;on" the principal island of the %ast hilippine archipelago

reliminary to the in%asion of '#;on was the landing (y ? 7 Eighth !rmy #nits #nder/o(ert Eichel(erger on +indoro" so#th of '#;on" on =ecem(er 15" 1945 !t 7an 8osU"the infantry sec#red a large (eachhead and immediately scratched o#t two airfields toaccommodate air s#pport for the '#;on operation

$n '#;on" 8apanese general 2amashita :omoy#ki prepared his defenses (y di%iding the)o#rteenth 8apanese !rmy into three defensi%e gro#ps 7ho(# *14 " men, in thenorth" Kem(# *0 " , in the center" and 7him(# * " , in the so#th :he 8apanese also#nleashed a massi%e kamika;e campaign against the ships of the :hird )leet *#nderilliam Nalsey," which f#rnished carrier-la#nched air s#pport" and the 7e%enth )leet*:homas Kinkaid," which pro%ided principal transport for the ? 7 7ixth !rmy in%aders#nder alter Kr#eger Kamika;e attacks sank @ ? 7 ships and se%erely damagedanother @4

Kr#eger landed at 'ingayen G#lf on 8an#ary 9" 1945 D " men in that first day andimmediately (egan a dri%e inland" penetrating 4 miles (y 8an#ary @ I 6orps" which p#shed eastward" enco#ntered the hea%iest initial opposition from 2amashita.s 7ho(#Gro#p Eichel(erger kept po#ring in reinforcements" incl#ding the 15 th /egiment" the

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yaw(we 1945!pril @0" @ 1

critcalmass ?ncategori;ed B#rma 'ea%e a comment:ho#gh the !llied force had ad%anced s#ccessf#lly into central B#rma" it was %ital tocapt#re of the port of /angoon (efore the monsoon rains (egan :he temporarily#pgraded o%erland ro#tes from India wo#ld disintegrate #nder hea%y rain" which wo#ldalso c#rtail flying and red#ce the amo#nt of s#pplies which co#ld (e deli%ered (y air)#rthermore" 7o#th East !sia 6ommand had (een notified that many of the !mericantransport aircraft allocated to the theatre wo#ld (e withdrawn in 8#ne at the latest :he#se of /angoon wo#ld (e necessary to meet the needs of the large army force and *asimportantly, the food needs of the ci%ilian pop#lation in the areas li(erated:he British @nd =i%ision and British 0Dth =i%ision were withdrawn to India to red#ce thedemand for s#pplies :he Indian ___III 6orps" consisting of the Indian th =i%ision andIndian @ th =i%ision" mo#nted )o#rteenth !rmy.s secondary dri%e down the Irrawaddy/i%er %alley" against stiff resistance from the 8apanese :wenty-Eighth !rmy Indian I6orps made the main attack" down the /ailway alleyM" which was also followed (y the7ittang /i%er

British !rmy atrol at the Battle of the 7ittang Bend:he Indian 1 th =i%ision and @55th !rmo#red Brigade (egan I 6orps. ad%ance on D!pril (y striking from all sides at the delaying position held (y the remnants of 8apanese:hirty-:hird !rmy #nder 'ie#tenant General Nonda at yaw(we" while a flankingcol#mn *nicknamed 6la#dcolM, of tanks and mechani;ed infantry c#t the main road (ehind them and attacked their rear :his col#mn was initially delayed (y the remnants of the 8apanese 49th =i%ision defending a %illage" (#t (ypassed them to defeat the remnantsof the 8apanese 50rd =i%ision and destroy the last tanks remaining to the 8apanese 14th:ank regiment !s they then t#rned north against the town of yaw(we itself" theyattacked Nonda.s head

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attacking them in their forming #p places " with com(ined Infantry and :ank BattleGro#ps:he 9th Battalion :he Border /egiment took part in se%eral s#ch actions" nota(ly atetlet" 2indaw" Kinde and ywa(we It was after the last (attle that the enemy finally

(roke and made for the 7ittang /i%er" a(andoning its hold on /angoon :he Battalion

p#rs#ed the enemy some @ miles to eg# when it ga%e #p the chase with the onset ofthe monsoon and the conse

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:he cas#alty fig#res for BM 6ompany for the day were 9@ 8aps killed for 1 wo#nded inthe 6ompany" six of them in the shelling (efore NM ho#r

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!llied /e-con

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Imphal $ffensi%e!pril @0" @ 1

critcalmass ?ncategori;ed 6olonial" India 1 6omment

:his was the key t#rning point in the B#rma 6ampaign 'ie#tenant General +#tag#chi/enya led his )ifteenth 8apanese !rmy in a high-stakes attack from B#rma into India"targeting the !llied s#pply (ases at Imphal in +anip#r Nis immediate o(3ecti%e in thisaction was to preempt an offensi%e (y illiam 7lim.s )o#rteenth British !rmy" (#t hislonger-term goal was to gain a p#rchase for the 8apanese-controlled Indian &ational!rmy and there(y incite a re%olt against the British ra3 *colonial go%ernment, in IndiaNad the Imphal $ffensi%e s#cceeded" the British might well ha%e lost control of India"and with India lost" 6hina wo#ld ha%e (een doomed +#tag#chi knew that he waso#tn#m(ered and lacked air s#periority Nis only hope" he decided" was to achie%ecomplete tactical s#rprise and to mo%e with great speed :o e%en the odds as (est heco#ld" +#tag#chi preceded the offensi%e (y ordering 'ie#tenant General Kawa(e+asaka;# to attack !rakan in )e(r#ary" there(y drawing off some of 7lim.s reser%es+#tag#chi form#lated a plan intended to di%ide and dil#te 7lim.s forces $n +arch " his00rd =i%ision attacked from the so#th" p#shing 7lim.s 1 th =i%ision from its position at:iddim and into a fighting retreat 7im#ltaneo#sly" +#tag#chi.s 2amamoto )orceattacked the @ th =i%ision near :am# (#t was checked at 7henam 7addle :he followingweek" +#tag#chi sent his 15th and 01st =i%isions across the 6hindwin /i%er in anattempt to catch 7lim in a pincers action and create a decisi%e do#(le en%elopment of hisforces :his might well ha%e worked" had it not (een for the defeat of the earlier 8apanese!rakan offensi%e ith this attack ne#trali;ed" 7lim airlifted his 5th and th =i%isions toImphal (eginning on +arch 19By this time" the main (ody of the 8apanese ad%ance was a mere 0 miles away B#t thiswas not the only cliff-hanger of the campaign !ltho#gh 7lim had anticipated thatKohima" 3#st northwest of Imphal" wo#ld (e attacked" he relied on the r#gged terrain hereto impede s#ch an action Ne calc#lated that the 8apanese wo#ld (e #na(le to deploymore than a single regiment in the attack :his pro%ed to (e a nearly catastrophicassessment as" asto#ndingly" 'ie#tenant General 7ato Kot#k# was a(le to field his entire01st =i%ision" which engaged the %astly o#tn#m(ered 5 th Indian arach#te Brigade at7angshak and took Kohima on !pril 0 $n !pril 1@" +#tag#chi.s 15th =i%ision se%eredthe road (etween Kohima and Imphal and positioned itself a(o%e 7lim.s 4th 6orps:he achie%ements of (oth 7ato and +#tag#chi were extraordinary and certainly exploitedthe element of s#rprise to the #tmostC howe%er" tra%el and (attle o%er the hostile terraintook a terri(le toll on the attackers" %ictorio#s tho#gh they were" and +#tag#chi.s menwere simply too exha#sted to press their hard-won ad%antages In a co#nterattack thatrelied hea%ily on armor *against which the 8apanese" lacking armor themsel%es" were powerless," 7lim p#shed (ack +#tag#chi (#t co#ld not reco%er #se of the Kohima-Imphal road :herefore" 7lim relied wholly on airlift to maintain s#pply of his nowisolated forces =esperate as this sit#ation was" 7lim knew that +#tag#chi was in an e%ento#gher spot 7tar%ed for s#pplies" +#tag#chi o%er-extended his forces in an attack on

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=imap#r 7lim checked this effort and forced +#tag#chi into a contest of attrition" whichfa%ored 7lim !s the misera(le monsoon encroached in +ay" +#tag#chi.s men" star%ingand assailed (y tropical diseases" melted away !t last" on 8#ly 1 " +#tag#chi withdrew (ack across the 6hindwin /i%er !ltho#gh 7lim.s forces were s#(3ect to many of thesame miseries" they were not in nearly as dire straits 7lim p#rs#ed the withdrawing

8apanese and transformed the 8apanese retreat into a ro#t :he res#lt was disaster for the8apanese in B#rma $f 5" 8apanese troops committed there" 50" (ecamecas#alties 7ome 0 " were killed in com(at" and tho#sands more died of disease and pri%ation recio#s weapons and hea%y e

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3oining the &orth !tlantic :reaty $rgani;ation *&!:$, :he pact also facilitated 7o%iet political control of Eastern E#rope (y a#thori;ing the 7o%iet ?nion to station forces inarsaw act territory 7o%iet policy pro%ided the main directi%e to arsaw act plansthro#gh the olitical 6ons#ltati%e 6ommittee * 66, as the highest alliance organ"altho#gh the pact stated that relations among the signatories were (ased on e

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!/)IGN:I&G 7:/!:EG2

!pril @0" @ 1

critcalmass Nolding =octrine 'ea%e a comment

:he ang#ard of $peration =esert7hieldR7torm

arfighting strategyM is a term #sed to descri(e the strategy of a political entity.s armedforces for cond#cting warfare !ltho#gh lacking an official definition" it has gainedacceptance as a way to express the means (y which military force is employed to achie%eo(3ecti%es within the context of an expected or act#al armed conflict =#ring the 6oldar" those who ad%ocated a n#clear co#nterforce targeting strategy %ers#s a co#nter%al#en#clear doctrine were said to s#pport a partic#lar warfighting strategy :hey (elie%ed thatit was possi(le for the ?nited 7tates to emerge significantly (etter off than the 7o%iet?nion from a n#clear conflict arfighting theorists (elie%ed that the (est n#cleardeterrent was (ased on a n#clear warfighting strategy that held at risk 7o%iet n#clear andcon%entional military forces and did not simply generate a risk of m#t#al ass#reddestr#ction

7trategy relates ends to means arfighting" like warfare" is a means to achie%e ends thatin%ol%es the exchange of act#al or threatened lethal force (etween ad%ersaries o%er timeNistorically" the means of a warfighting strategy ha%e incl#ded the f#ll range of militarycapa(ilities" from sword-(earing infantry to missile-deli%ered weapons of massdestr#ction 'ikewise" the ends ha%e reflected the entire spectr#m of political o(3ecti%esespo#sed (y city-states" fe#dal kingdoms" nation-states" and others !ro#nd 5 B 6 " forexample" 7#n :;# artic#lated a warfighting strategy for the 6hinese Kingdom of # thatemphasi;ed the #se of deception to disr#pt an ad%ersary.s plans and alliances in order toachie%e %ictory" ideally witho#t e%en fighting =#ring orld ar II" the &a;i regime ofGermany implemented a warfighting strategy known as Blit;kriegM that integrated landand air forces to o%erwhelm the ad%ersary thro#gh speed and force &orth ietnameffecti%ely employed a g#errilla warfare strategy against )rance and the ?nited 7tates"and !l Oaeda" the %iolent non-state actor centered in the +iddle East" relies on terrorismas a warfighting strategy

In its c#stomary #sage" warfighting strategy is a form of military strategy" which is the artand science of employing the armed forces of a nation to sec#re the o(3ecti%es of thenational policy (y the application of force or threat of force +ilitary strategy is deri%ed

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from national strategy" which is the art and science of de%eloping and #sing political"economic" military" and informational powers d#ring peace and war to sec#re policyo(3ecti%es arfighting strategy has application at all le%els of war strategic" operational"and tactical !t the strategic le%el" it links the military capa(ilities of a nation-state tospecific sec#rity o(3ecti%es as artic#lated in glo(al or regional strategic plans It g#ides

the de%elopment and str#ct#ring of military forces" incl#ding s#ch o%erarchingoperational concepts as n#clear deterrence" power pro3ection with con%entional forces" orinformation s#periority It is more often #sed to refer to warfare at the operational le%el Itg#ides the planning and cond#ct of act#al military campaigns and ma3or operations Inaddition to reflecting (road concepts s#ch as offense" defense" mo(ility" and asymmetry"warfighting strategy addresses the role of specific capa(ilities" s#ch as airpower" inachie%ing o#tcomes" s#ch as air s#premacy" in relation to o%erall campaign o(3ecti%es"s#ch as the annihilation of an enemy.s armed forces Its #se at the operational le%elimpacts the tactical le%el (y shaping when and how specific (attles will (e fo#ght

/eferences aret" eter" ed " :he +akers of +odern 7trategy )rom +achia%elli to the

clear !ge * rinceton" &8 rinceton ?ni%ersity ress" 19 D, arfighting" ? 7 +arine6orps =octrinal #(lication 1- 1" 199

GE$/GE B/I=GE7 /$=&E2 *c 1 1 1 9@,

:he 1 0 oil on can%as :he Battle of the 7aints" 1@ !pril 1 @ s#rrender of the ille dearis (y :homas hitcom(e

George Bridges /odney :he British admiral" in an engra%ing (ased on a 1 D1 painting (y 8osh#a /eynolds

)irst (aron /odney" British admiral and politician George /odney was (apti;ed on 14

)e(r#ary 1 1 at 7t Giles-in-the-)ields" +iddlesex" on the edge of 'ondon Nis soldierfather lost hea%ily in the 7o#th 7ea B#((le and George (ecame dependent #pon wealthier relati%es" an experience which may partly explain his later eye for pri;e money Ed#catedat Narrow 7chool he 3oined N+7 7#therland as a FF%ol#nteer per order".. a yo#ng prospecti%e officer" on 8#ly 1 0@ Ne (ecame a lie#tenant in 1 4 and a post captain on01 +arch 1 40 /odney disting#ished himself in Nawke.s FFgeneral chase.. action off?shant on 14 $cto(er 1 4 and was commodore and go%ernor of &ewfo#ndland *1 49 1 5@," after which he t#rned to politics and the gaming ta(les =#ring the 7e%en 2ears.

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$n 9 !pril 1 @ /odney intercepted =e Grasse near the islets called the 7aints (etweenG#adelo#pe and =ominica )or three days /odney str#ggled to close with the )rench asthey worked their way to windward $n 1@ !pril he s#cceeded" forming line of (attle andengaging the )rench center soon after ! + :he wind now %eered fo#r points" creatingopenings in the )rench line /odney at once ordered his ships thro#gh the gaps" (reaking

the )rench line into fragments !ll afternoon /odney p#rs#ed the disorgani;ed s#r%i%orsand (y e%ening his ships had already taken six ships of the line" a frigate" and a sloophen =e Grasse.s flagship" the 11 -g#n ille de aris" str#ck" /odney finally called offthe chase In theory" as Nood was all too

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?ni%ersity ress" 19 7yrett" =a%id :he /oyal &a%y in !merican aters" 1 5 1 0!ldershot" ? K 7cholar ress" 19 9

British !rmy !rtillery 19th 6ent#ry :actics!pril @@" @ 1

critcalmass Nolding =octrine 'ea%e a comment

$rdnance B' 15 po#nder 6irca 1 9 - /)! g#n crew with B' 15 po#nder" apparently onmano#e%resIt may (e differentiated from the 1@ po#nder cwt (y the 10-spoke wheels

Experienced commanders fre

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In defensi%e operations" it was initially not considered part of the artillery.s mission toengage in co#nter-(attery fire against the enemy.s g#ns In operations in India in the1 4 s" a hea%y preparatory artillery (om(ardment was shown to minimi;e friendlycas#alties :he large-scale employment of artillery also made the (attle shorter and moredecisi%e" and limited cas#alties :o maximi;e the effects of the g#ns" proponents arg#ed

that they sho#ld (e massed and sho#ld fire at the enemy at a range of yards6o#nter-(attery fire then (ecame an accept a(le tactic +oreo%er" the ratio of g#ns per1" men in the force increased from @ to D

By 1 D the /oyal !rtillery had adopted rifled g#ns Battery commanders werea#thori;ed independent action in an 1 5 artillery man#al 7hortly thereafter seats wereadded to g#ns so all crew mem(ers wo#ld ride" which increased the speed of mo%ementof the g#ns

In 1 0" the 1@-po#nder was introd#ced for (oth the Norse and /oyal *)ield, !rtilleryBy 1 95 the 15-po#nder" #sing smokeless powder" was the standard g#n of the )ield

!rtillery:he first artillery tactical man#al was iss#ed in 1 9@ )o#r years later" )ield !rtillery=rill was p#(lished" which stated the role of the artillery was to s#pport other arms (yfire esta(lishing s#ch a fire s#premacy in the (attle area that the enemy can neitherinterfere with operations nor de%elop his own effecti%elyM* +arix E%ans @ " p 1 , :ohelp in the concentration of fire d#ring the 7econd Boer ar" artillery di%isions of three (atteries each were organi;ed =istant to medi#m artillery ranges were set at @"5 to0"5 yards" and infantry fire at ranges o%er 1" yards was disco#nted G#ns weres#pposed to (e on firm gro#nd with a clear %iew of the target hen coming into action"they were to (e positioned @ yards in front of the lim(ers and amm#nition wagons"with @ -yard inter%als (etween g#ns and well (ehind the attacking infantry Indirectfire which co#ld exploit the potential of smokeless powder" minimi;e g#nner expos#reto rifle fire" and s#stain effecti%e concentrated fire was not explicitly a#thori;ed :heartillery tactics employed d#ring the 7econd Boer ar were (asically the same as those#sed at aterloo #nprotected g#nners fired their g#ns" #sing open sights" against a%isi(le enemy If the artillery failed to (e positioned far eno#gh to the rear of the friendlyinfantry and o#tside the range of enemy small arms and artillery fire" the res#lt wasfre

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6apt#re of +agdala" *10 !pril 1 D ,!pril @@" @ 1

critcalmass Nolding 7iege 'ea%e a comment

British expeditionary force mo%ing artillery across the Ethiopian highlands into positionat !rogye

:he fortress of +agdala (#rning after the British expeditionary force defeated :ewodrosof EthiopiaM

:he mission of the British expeditionary force sent to !(yssinia in 1 D 1 D " #nder thecommand of 'ie#tenant General *later )ield +arshal 'ord, 7ir /o(ert 6 &apier" was tofree the hostages held (y !(yssinian Emperor :heodore *:ewodros, and to p#nish himfor his pet#lance and actions

:he ad%ance party of the British force arri%ed at `#la on !nnesley Bay" so#th of+assawa" on @1 $cto(er 1 D +ost of the soldiers were ashore (y =ecem(er 1 D " and &apier and his staff arri%ed on @ 8an#ary 1 D By this time" it had (een ascertained that

:heodore" with " warriors" his hostages" and artillery" was mo%ing to his mo#ntainfortress at +agdala :he British force deployed from `#la toward +agdala on @5 8an#ary1 D :he ro#gh terrain and large s#pport element made mo%ement slow" with the main (ody arri%ing at !ntalo" @ miles from the coast" on @ +arch 1 D !fter areorgani;ation of the force into assa#lt *1st, and s#pport *@nd, di%isions and a ten- dayhalt" the force contin#ed marching toward +agdala on 1@ +arch 1 D

:he force entered =ildi" from which they co#ld see +agdala" on @4 +arch 1 D :her#gged terrain re

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platea# ith a small escort" 6olonel / hayre" dep#ty

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8ameson" with a force of a(o#t D mo#nted troopers" six +axim g#ns" two -po#ndermo#ntain g#ns" and a 1@ 5- po#nder artillery piece" assem(led within the 6ape 6olony (order :he #itlander re%olt in 8ohannes (#rg was sched#led to take place near the end of=ecem(er 1 95" (#t it soon (ecame apparent the rising had fi;;led o#t like a damp

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:he tri(es met reg#larly in a great co#ncilM to disc#ss and make decisions on iss#escr#cial to all omen of each tri(e chose the sachems" or chiefs" who ser%ed on this 5 -mem(er co#ncil :he co#ncil go%erned the confederacy and dealt with matters ofintertri(al war" peace" and diplomacy :he confederacy had no %oice in the affairs of theindi%id#al tri(es except to act as a mediator in internal disp#tes

In the early 1D s" the =#tch in &ew &etherland employed the Iro

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=#ring 1 and 1 9" a com(ined force of British led (y 6olonel 8ohn B#tler andIro

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:he intent of )ort )rontenac was to control the l#crati%e f#r trade in the Great 'akesBasin to the west and the 6anadian 7hield to the north It was one of many )rencho#tposts that wo#ld (e esta(lished thro#gho#t the Great 'akes and #pper +ississippiregions :he fort was meant to (e a (#lwark against the English who were competing

with the )rench for control of the f#r trade !nother f#nction of the fort was the pro%isionof s#pplies and reinforcements to other )rench installations on the Great 'akes and in the$hio alley to the so#th )rontenac hoped that the fort wo#ld also help f#lfill his own (#siness aspirations

:he fort was (#ilt (eside a small sheltered (ay that the )rench co#ld #se as a har(o#r forlarge lake-going (oats ?nlike the $ttawa /i%er f#r trade ro#te into the interior" whichwas only accessi(le (y canoes" larger %essels co#ld easily na%igate the lower lakes :hecost of transporting goods s#ch as f#rs" trade items" and s#pplies thro#gh at least thelower Great 'akes wo#ld (e red#ced :he fort wo#ld protect this har(o#r

/enU-/o(ert 6a%elier" 7ie#r de 'a 7alle" the original administrator and commander of thefort" (#ilt many additional (#ildings and e%en (ro#ght in domestic animals with the hopeof ind#cing settlers to come to the 6atara

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=enon%ille.s troops. location 7ome were sent to )rance to (e #sed as galley sla%es=enon%ille.s troops and nati%e allies went on to attack the 7eneca

In retaliation for these incidents the Iro

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In 4 " the !((asids la#nched their re%olt in Kh#rasan :o rally s#pport" they #nf#rled (lack flags" sym(ols of the +ahdi" a messianic fig#re in pop#lar Islam :hey spoke oftheir mo%ement in terms of a millennial" di%inely ordained #phea%al" to sweep away thewicked +arwan

7ei;ing the frontier town of +ar% in )e(r#ary 4 " the !((asid commanders !(# 7alamaand !(# +#slim (egan their westward ad%ance icking #p moment#m and s#pport asthey ad%anced" the !((asids reached central Iran in !#g#st :he next year" most of Ira