Greek Orthodox Churches in Anatolia Z. Ozcan...Greek Orthodox Churches in Anatolia Z. Ozcan Urban...

Greek Orthodox Churches in Anatolia

Z. Ozcan

Urban and Regional Planning Department, Faculty of Engineering

and Architecture, Gazi University, 06570, Maltepe, Ankara, Turkey

Abstract

Anatolia exhibit the traces of different cultures representing thousands of years. During the lastten centuries both the Christians and Moslems created a culture of their own together,regardless the religious differences. Among their architectural heritage, the paper, presents asummary on the historical background of Byzantine and Greek-Orthodox churches. Theexamples constructed during the Ottoman period are discussed with their architecturalcharacteristics as plans, construction techniques, as well as the estimated construction dates.The paper also includes the restoration applications of three churches chosen from twodifferent regions, and also covers the architectural and historical aspects of restoration inTurkey; as the buildings are preserved without regarding their origins, considering them all asinseperable units of the cultural heritage, not only belonging to Turkey, but accepting them asthe cultural richness of the whole world.

Introduction

It is an undeniable fact that "religion" has come into existence, as soon asmankind began to think. The fear from the "unknown, has perhaps been theorigin of beliefs. Primitive man tried to protect himself from the changingphysical conditions. Ceremonies were prepared, to continue the good will or tosmoothen the violence of natural events. As a result of this, "nature-gods" andeven "a god for each event" ruled the world for centuries. Designing places ofworship and constructing edifices dedicated to them, have been the reason ofman being on earth.

Beginning from the neolithic age nearly all the religions have beenexercised in the Middle-East, especially in Asia-Minor. The proof lies in theinnumerable sacred buildings and areas. The remnants of the pagan world canbe summarized in the extraordinary archaeological sites of Anatolia [1].Beginning from the neolithic age, not only edifices, but also prayer spaces inthe name of a god or goddess, were prepared in the Hittite and Lycian world[2]. Today, the remains of the famous Greek, Hellenistic and Roman templesare as attractive as in the period they were constructed.

Paganism left its place to the celestial religions at the end of the 3rdcentury A.D. Between 4th and llth centuries Christianity and beginning from

Transactions on the Built Environment vol 26, © 1997 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3509

46 Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Historical Buildings

that time onwards Islam, Christianity and Judaism governed the spiritual worldof Anatolia, together.

1.1. Buildings Consecrated to Celestial Religions

The believers of the these religions, namely Judaists, Christians and Moslemspresented their sincere feelings to the Lord in synagogs, churches and mosquesscattered all the regions of Anatolia. Among these the synagogs are rare whencompared to the other two. The remnants of a prosperous synagog in ancientSardis, the well-known examples in Istanbul, seven in the historical districtPunta of Izmir and a modest one in the old Jewish district of Ankara are thosethat can be counted at first hand.

A considerable number of churches and mosques representing differentperiods of time are wide-spread. Upto the 11th century only churches, but

afterwards, although there are limitations, both were constructed[3]. The smalltowns were so shaped that, the districts were composed around a church and amosque, each at one end of the settlement. There were never strict boundariesbetween the districts, furthermore there were districts where the Jews,

Christians and Moslems shared as in the 16th century Ankara[4].The mosques show a great variety in plans, in style (as being Seljukid,

Principalities or Ottoman works) and in size (beginning from small masjidsextending upto monumental examples).

Within the limits of this paper only the churches and especially the Greek-Orthodox ones will be taken into consideration.

2 Historical Background and Classification of "Greek-

Orthodox" Churches

It is a certainty that Christian holy buildings of Anatolia reflect thedifferentiation of sects and even ethnic groups. Among them, the Greek-Orthodox and the Armenian, can easily be distinguished as in the famousByzantine-Chora in Istanbul and the Armenian Ahtamar in Van[5]. TheNestorian/Suroian churches of the south-east Anatolia can be mentioned asanother group, while at the eastern-Black Sea coast, Georgian influence ishighly efficient[6]. Among such a variety only the Greek-Orthodox churcheswill be examined within the limits of this paper.

2.1 Historical Background of Greek-Orthodox Churches

When the Christian churches in Anatolia are examined two different phasescan easily be distinguished: those belonging to the Byzantine period and othersbuilt during the Ottoman reign. Byzantine works can be summarized as the


Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Historical Buildings 47

earliest rock-hewn churches and the built up examples. The churchesconstructed during the Ottomans also indicate to two phases as the ones uptothe midst of 19th century and the last group can be dated back to the end of it.

2.1.1 Christianity in Anatolia

The troglodyte churches of the famous Cappadocia region are accepted as theearliest examples, as there was a fair number of Christians by the end of the

2nd century A.D. [7] The plan schemes are composed of a single rectangularspace ending with an apsis. The "basilical" plan with three naves and threeapses can be accepted as a progress. The richly decorated rock- hewn churchesare a part of the geological formation.

The built-up examples are mostly from the Eastern-Roman Empire, as itwas a Christian state. This new art and architecture progressed under theinfluence of Middle-Eastern cultures. Mainly a basilical plan, semi-circularrecessed arches, a set of domes and vaults, and masonary technique thatfavoured using brick and stone together at regular intervals may shortlydescribe the primary characteristics^].

Not only new churches were constructed but, also the pagan temples wereconverted into the holy prayer places of this religion.

2.1.2 Greek-Orthodox Churches Under the Sovereignty of IslamAfter the invasion of Moslem-Turks at the beginning of the llth century boththe churches and mosques began to be built together. The prosperity of theByzantine churches continued until the economical crisis that dragged theempire to its decline.

After the conquest of Constantinople and its beign converted into Islamic

Istanbul, some of the churches too, were converted into mosques[9]. Theimperial decrees of the Ottoman Sultans permitted the repairs andmaintenance. The construction of new churches were limited if not ceasedcompletely: In case a church was demolished because of a disaster, a new onecould be built instead. The Greek subjects of the Ottoman Empire werecompletely free in their religions and liturgies but the construction of holyplaces needed the "Sultan's firman". The Greek-Orthodox churches becamethe continuation of the Byzantine tradition politically and economically.

During the 18th century the minorities gained the right of constructingnew churches and repairing the old with new materials[10]. The applicationwas realized after 1840-50's, but, prosperous new churches are mostly dated tothe middle of the 19th century or even later.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the construction of new churchesgradually declined. Following the War of Independence and the "ExchangeConvention" signed between the Turks and Greeks, the building activitycompletely ceased, as most of the Christian community migrated.



2.2 Classification of the Greek-Orthodox Churches

A classification can be made depending on their "construction materials" andrelated to this, their "sizes", The Greek-Orthodox churches that were changedwith repairs had to keep their original locations. The continuity of the oldByzantine churches and the preservation of their original places owe theirexistence to the restrictions brought by the Ottoman Sultans.

2.2.1 Construction Materials and Sizes of the Greek-Orthodox ChurchesDuring the Ottoman PeriodThe basic construction technique was the load-bearing system, easilydistinguishable as mentioned above. Furthermore, it was a conventional way,to use the materials brought from derelict pagan buildings. In the examples ofthe 8th-14th centuries the basilical plan scheme was achieved by a set ofcolumns dividing the liturgical area into three, helping the superstructure to becarried together with the exterior walls. The women's part formed at the rearwall side bears the only construction elements together with the nonstructuraldecorational elements, iconastasis before the apses, stairs and the wood-work.The roof structure of the vaults covering the central naos and side aisles, wasof brick and finished with tiles over a timber structure from the exterior. Thedome placed before the central apsis could be finished again with tiles or sheetsof lead.

Brick was an elementary building material but entirely cut-stone churchesalso existed showing the regional differences.

It is difficult to estimate the construction date of the local parish churchesbuilt during the Ottoman reign, as they were not only rebuilt in their originalspaces but also were repaired with reused materials, without examining thetitle-deed records and permissions kept in the Ottoman archives. However, it isa certainty that continuous repairs have greatly changed the buildings. In therelatively later examples timber frame system, with timber columns and roughstone infill, was used. In some, quoins of cut-stones were applied. The sills andarchitraves of the openings followed the same principle of using cut-stones asborders.

The reformist edicts of the 19th century gave permission to use cut-stones,brand new materials, use of domes and heavy decorations at the exteriors. Inthis period even the women's galleries are constructed in stone. The local stoneor marble columns helped to carry stone vaults of various forms, but againcovered with tiles from the exterior. Although modest churches could have asingle space and a single apsis, the plan schemes of the Greek-Orthodoxchurches followed the basilical plan in general. The central nave/naos waslarger and higher when compared to the sides. This brought naturally a largerapsis/bema in the middle with two relatively smaller on both sides. Thesuperstructure system completely turned into vaults as the Ottomans always



linked the dome with the Islamic idea. Depending on the restrictions about thematerials, the churches were smaller in size and lower in height whencompared to the Byzantine examples, as timber brought its own limitationswhen used as a construction material. Interiors were richly decorated, as thesewere not limited at all, as well as the liturgy itself.

2.3 Greek-Orthodox Churches During the Republican Period

The Christian community reduced gradually during the Republican period andmany of the churches and monastries distrubuted all around Anatolia wereabandoned for a long time. During 1940-50's edifices with sufficient sizes wererefunctioned as movies, local theatres and even as prisons or storages.

After 1970's when the cultural properties are considered to be conservedwithout regarding their origins or original functions by the governments theywere taken under protection and were registered if they have not been done sobefore. The churches were abandoned again, but for the sake of the buildingsthis time.

Usually the reuse of the 19th century Greek-Orthodox churches are easy torestore, as most of them are still in good condition. They are refunctioned asmuseums mostly. Art galleries, exhibition, conference or performance halls arethe preffered functions as they do not contradict with the holy origin of thebuildings.

The modest parish churches, some of which badly in need of restoration,are currently taken into consideration. Some others are in the restorationprogrammes of either the local municipalities or the Ministry of Culture.

3 Restoration Applications

Although conserving the old buildings has a long past, the restoration activity,where modern techniques are applied, is a relatively new task for Turkey. Theambition to restore the vernacular/traditional architecture examples began at1980's. The first attempts were carried out on stone constructions rather thanthe timber-frame ones. One of the great difficulties arise in finding skillfulmaster-builders as they are either considerably old or have left the job and beenexperts on reinforced concrete refusing to turn back. As the architect-conservationists are very few in number, reliable measured drawings,restoration projects can hardly be obtained. A part from the economicalsituation, thousands of monuments or modest buildings making up thehistorical sites, belonging to various cultures and periods are waiting theirturns to be consolidated, restored, reused, refunctioned.

In this paper, three examples are chosen as the case-study, one from theBlack-Sea littoral, the other two from inner-western Anatolia. The first is anexample of a stone construction of the 19th century. The other two are timber



frame system. The first is restored; the others are at the phase of project,design...

3.1 A Masonary Construction Along the Black-Sea Coast

"Gogara Church" located at the Black-Sea coast in the small province-Giresunhas taken its name from the plane trees of the district it was constructed in."Gogara" was the local Greek word meaning the "plane trees". (The same nameis used for the district in its Turkish version today.)

The building has a basilical plan with three naves and three apses. (Fig. 1)

Figure 1: Plan of Gogara Church

The central nave and apse are relatively larger and higher than the ones ontwo sides. The naves are enclosed with barrel vaults and the dome before thebema together with the main construction material, the cut-stone, indicate a19th century building. The local records and travelogues estimate the midst ofthe century.

When the measurements were taken and drawings were prepared in 1979-80 the load-bearing walls were structurally solid except the demolished frontpart of the main apsis. All the carpentry including the door leaves were lost(Fig. 2). The floor finishing at the interior, where the traces declaring itsmaterial, could never be found. It was entirely destructed together with theinstruction panels. The wall-paintings on the side-walls and under the vaultswere badly deteriorated with moisture and leakages from the roof. Still therewere traces at various places. Underneath the dome there was a thick layer ofsooth. One of the most important problems was a fig tree growing among thestones at the transition zone between the roof cover and the dome.



Figure 2:Gogara-Church in 1980 Figure 3:Gogara-Church after restoration

The first proposal in refunctioning the building, was an arena theatre, but,depending on the local necessities Gogara Church was converted into aprovincial museum. The restoration programme suggested a system ofprinciples beginning from the well-known towards the least[l 1].

As the original quarry is still known, the local stone to complete thedemolished part, is easily obtained. The project proposed the chiselling of thestones, in order to distinguish them from the original, but unfortunately it isneglected. As far as an inscription panel dating the restoration is also lacking,the repair work will never be understood later. For the missing window framesand door wings a comparative study is done. Depending on the existingexamples of the region the original wing system and glass bars are fixed. Therestoration is completed with these details and in timber. In order to preventmisleading imitational decorations for the doors a plain timber set is applied.

The patches of wall-paintings on the walls and vaults could not be saved asthey crumbled into pieces at every attempt. With the fear of losing the whole,the paintings under the dome are left untouched. Ten years after when anexpert on the subject is found the patina is cleaned off. After the laboratory testof the colours, the restoration is completed and the elaborately painted"portrait of Jesus Christ" is seen again. As far as the floor finishing is lackingan entirely new stone pavement of light colours matching the original stoneparts of the church and a dark coloured border is added to indicate that it is anapplication of the 20th century. The decorative marbles of the exterior of theentrance openings were cleaned by just washing and the cracks areconsolidated with achemy.

In order to prevent a permanent division of the interior space aprefabricated system made of aluminium studs and beams is used to composethe storages and staff-rooms. It only acts as a seperator with a very simple



appeance and in dark colours again to indicate that it is a new addition.Necessary illumination equipments are applied by the help of the tie-rodsbetween the columns and arches connecting them. Some of them found placeon column capitals. The sanitary units are deliberately excluded. They areplaced in the neighbouring restored traditional house, once used as the priestslodge. This building also serves as the museum office.

The branches of the fig tree on the transition zone is cut off and dilutedsulfuric acid is injected to the roots. After waiting for three months the driedroots are picked up and the cracks are filled with cement mortar.

The building is in use with its new function since 1990. (Fig 3).

3.2 Two Timber-Frame System Churches from Inner-Western Anatolia

The churches chosen as examples are of timber frame system; "KavakhChurch" in Burdur and "Haghios Stephanos Church" in Egirdir-Isparta. Theyare approximately 70 km from each other. Not only the constructiontechniques but also the materials used are the same. In both churches, thestructural timber frame and the circular sectioned columns inside are of junipertrees, once frequently met in the region. The infill material is the local roughstones.

When the plan schemes are examined, Burdur Kavakli Church reveals atypical basilical plan with three aisles and three apses. Haghios Stephanos alsohas three aisles but just one apse before the main nave (Fig 4,5).

Figure 4:Plan of Kavakli Church-Burdur Figure 5:Plan of Haghios StephanosChurch-Egirdir, Isparta

Kavakh church is enclosed with three barrel vaults in the conventionalway but, H. Stephanos has just one vault over the main nave, the side aisleshave flat roofs. By the help of the lath and plaster technique they were finished



in the form of soffits. The profiled timber haunches formed the ribbed-vault.The traces of timber laths indicate that they were also finished in the sametechnique with the side aisles. The damaged superstructure of this church givesclues for the Burdur one, as they both reflect same peculiarities.

Kavakli Church still has a women's section although the stairs werecancelled during the years when it was used as a movie. The narthex, also builtby timber studs, were enclosed with cement blocks during this period. Thetraces on the rear wall of H. Stephanos indicates a timber constructed gallery.From the exterior there was once a shed roof instead of a proper narthex.

Both churches are plastered with loam-mortar, painted over from theinterior and bare stones are observable from the exterior. The floor finisheshave been demolished entirely. There are no specific ornamentations inKavakh Church, but in the other, there still exist decorative medallions ofgypsum plaster on walls and over the arches connecting the timber columns.They reflect resemblances with the ornamentations of a 19th century church ata distance of approximately 30 km.

The openings of the churches have been made distinguishable with aborder of cut-stones. The superstructures are finished with over and under-tilesas it is a conventional way in the whole region. Finally, both the churches lackdomes (Fig. 6,7).

Figure 6: Kavakli Church-Burdur Figure 7: Haghios Stephanos Church-Egirdir

Depending on the peculiarities mentioned above, it can be noted that theymust be constructed before the reformist edicts of 1830's. They should havebeen repaired or rebuilt before. Even a part of the apsis wall of H. Stephanoshas the brick and stone wall construction technique which is met in theByzantine period. But, the ornamentations applied indicate a 19th centuryrestoration.



The restoration of H. Stephanos Church will be realised by the Ministry ofCulture. As the neighbouring building is a school, it will be refunctioned as asmall cultural center. In the restoration the original materials still solid will bekept and the damaged ones will be replaced with the new, in the same form andsize. As the juniper trees are at a point of extinction, they will not be used.Unfortunately cement mortar will be applied as it is cheaper. Bare mouldingsof ornamentations will be placed just to show their places and forms.

Kavakly Church will be refunctioned as a conference hall. Themunicipality is responsible for the restoration. The 20th century annex at thenarthex will be removed. Comparative studies on the missing wood-work andfloor finishing is still continuing. Over and under tiles will be used in bothchurches.

4 Conclusion

Restoration activities in Turkey still has problems. The number and variety ofbuildings waiting to be restored are numerous. Especially, the restoration ofmonuments depend on the financial sources of the related ministries and localmunicipalities. The priorities in the choice of the buildings to be restoreddirectly rely upon the necessity programmes of the concerning region.

Technical staff, both in design and application phase are insufficient innumber. Unexpected problems arise ending in undeniable mistakes. Althoughrestoration attempts are in considerable numbers, it is difficult to speak aboutmature examples yet.

Even though there are various negative conditions at several phases,restorations are realised on different kinds of buildings. Both thearchaeological and architectural cultural properties are tried to be restoredwithout considering their origins, the cultures and societies they belong to.They all deserve to be restored, maintained and preserved, as they make up thecultural heritage of the world indeed.

References

1. Akurgal, E., Ancient Civilizations and Ruins of Turkey, Haf>et Kitabevi,Istanbul, 1978.

2. Schirmer, W., Hitit Uygarlydy, Ark. ve San. Yay. Istanbul, 1982.Metzger, H., Fouilles du Letoon de Xanthos, Vol. II, pp. 791-803, TheProceedings of the Xth International Congress of ClassicalArchaeology, Ankara-Yzmir, 1973.

3. Beige, M., Istanbul Gezi Rehberi, Tarih Vakfy Yurt Yay., Istanbul, 1994.



4. Faroqhi, S., Osmanly'da Kentler ve Kentliler, Tarih Vakfy Yurt Yay.,Istanbul, 1993.

5. Gulersoy, £., Chora, Turkiye Turing ve Otomobil Kurumu Yayyny, 19.Bozkurtlar, C. & Tab F-, Cw/M/?wrzyerm JO. }/y/yM̂ Ko/?, f mvmcz'a/Almanac, Istanbul, 1973.

6. Bilge, Y., Suryaniler, Yeryuzti Yay., Istanbul, 1996.Horuluo61u, t>., Tarihi Eserleriyle Trabzon, Cihan Matbaasy. Ankara, 1978.

7. Otiiken, Y., Goreme, Publication of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism,Ankara, 1987.

8. Eyice, S., Anadolu Uygarlyklary Ansiklopedisi, Turkiye'de Bizans Sanaty,Vol. 3, pp. 531-559.

9. Kos, K., Istanbul Pehir Tarihi ve Mimarisi, Kiiltur Bakanlydy Yay., Ankara,1995.

lO.Karaca Z., Istanbul'da Osmanly Donemi Rum Kiliseleri, Yapy KrediYayynlary, Istanbul, 1995.

1 l.Ozcan, Z., Church at "Gogara" Giresun, Unpublished M.A. Thesis, METU,Ankara, 1978.


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