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THE GREEKSIN AMERICAJ. P. XENIDES


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THE GREEKSIN AMERICA

BYJ. P. XENIDES

LATE OF ANATOLIA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAISEMINARY, MARSOVAN, ASIA MINOR, AND SEC-RETARY GREEK RELIEF COMMITTEE,NEW YORK

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BYCHARLES HATCH SEARS

NEW ^Sp YORKGEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY


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COPYRIGHT, 1922,BY GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY

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THE GREEKS IN AMERICA. IIPRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA


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INTRODUCTIONThe New American Series consists of studies of

the following racial groups, together with a studyof the Eastern Orthodox ChurchesAlbanian and Bulgarian, Armenian and Assyrian-Chaldean, Czecho-Slovak, Greek, Italian, Jewish,

Jugo-Slav (Croatian, Servian, Slovenian), Magyar,Polish, Kussian and Euthenian, or Ukrainian, Span-ish (Spaniards) and Portuguese, Syrian.Those studies, made under the auspices of the

Interchurch World Movement, were undertaken toshow, in brief outline, the social, economic and re-ligious background, European or Asiatic, of eachgroup and to present the experiencesocial, eco-nomic and religiousof the particular group inAmerica, with special reference to the contact ofthe given people with religious institutions inAmerica.It was designed that the studies should be sympa-thetic but critical.

It is confidently believed that this series will helpAmerica to appreciate and appropriate the spiritualwealth represented by the vast body of New Ameri-cans, each group having its own peculiar heritageand potentialities ; and will lead Christian America,so far as she will read them, to become a better loverof mankind.The writer, in each case, is a kinsman or has haddirect and intimate relationship with the people, orgroup of peoples, presented. First hand knowledgeand the ability to study and write from a deeply


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Ti INTRODUCTIONsympathetic and broadly Christian viewpoint wereprimary conditions in the selection of the authors.The author of this volume, Eev. J. P. Xenides, wasborn of Greek parents in CsBsarea, Asia Minor. Hispreparatory education was obtained in Asia Minorand Greece, his college course in Marsovan and histheological training at New College, Edinburgh. Hetaught for 20 years in Anatolia College and Marso-van Theological Seminary. He has traveled exten-sively in Greece and Asia Minor. He is secretaryof the Greek Eelief Committee in New York. Hisnationality, education and work peculiarly fit himto write this book.These manuscripts were published through thecourtesy of the Interchurch World Movement withthe cooperative aid of various denominationalboards, through the Home Missions Council of Amer-ica, and the Council of Women for Home Missions.At this writing arrangements have been made forthe publication of only six of the Series, namely:Czecho-Slovak, Greek, Italian, Magyar, Polish andKussian, but other manuscripts will be published assoon as funds or advance orders are secured.A patient review of all manuscripts, together witha checking up of facts and figures, has been madeby the Associate Editor, Dr. Frederic A. Gould, towhom we are largely indebted for statistical andverbal accuracy. The editor is responsible for thegeneral plan and scope of the studies and for ques-tions of policy in the execution of this work.

Charles Hatch Seaes.


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PREFACEThe subject of the present study is one dear to

the writer's heart, and on which he has been brood-ing for years. Many statements express the out-come of his long experience as an educator andworker in the Greek Field in Asia Minor, Greece andthe United States.

Valuable information was obtained from personalinterviews and discussion of the topics treated herewith prominent clergymen and laymen in the Greekcommunities in the United States. Among them,he would mention Archbishop Meletis of Athens;Bishop Alexander Kodostolou of New York ; Rev. J.Alexopoulos of Pittsburgh, Pa. ; Prof. Carrol Brownof the College of the City of New York; Prof.Theodore Ion, attorney and member of the HellenicAmerican Society, New York City; Mr. Frank W.Jackson, attorney and chairman of the Relief Com-mittee for Greeks of Asia Minor ; Rev. Thos. Laceyof Brooklyn, N. Y.; Prof. A. E. Phoutrides of Har-vard University; Rev. D. Callimahos of Brooklyn,N. Y.; M. Geo. Caranicholas, New York City; Dr.R. Demos of Harvard; Dr. S. I. Paul, Springfield,Mass.; representatives of the prominent Greekpapers, especially Atlantis and National Herald, andmany other friends and acquaintances.As a speaker of the Near East Relief, the writervisited several of the outstanding Greek communi-ties of the country, such as Boston, Lowell, Haver-hill, Springfield, Holyoke, and Pittsfield, Mass.;Newark, Trenton, and Orange, N. J.; Albany, Troy,

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viu PREFACESchenectady, Utica, Syracuse, Rochester, and Buf-falo, K Y.; Erie, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, and S.Bethlehem, Pa. ; Washington, D. 0. ; Canton, Cleve-land, Toledo, and Youngstown, Ohio; Detroit andAnn Arbor, Mich. ; and Chicago, HI. Local matterswere observed and leaders interviewed at each place.Questionnaires were sent out in the spring of 1920to all the Priests, Greek Protestant pastors andother prominent orthodox leaders in different partsof America. Those who responded to the requestsupplied valuable, suggestive and informing ma-terial.Among the various books and articles consulted,the following should be mentioned with grateful ac-knowledgment : Hellenism, or Greeks m America, byS. G. Canoutas, New York; Greek Immigration, byProf. H. P. Fairchild, of N. Y. University; Greeks inAmerica, by Rev. Thomas Burgess. Much valuableinformation was derived from the Atlantis andNational Herald, as both give daily important andinteresting news about the Greeks in America.The writer would take this opportunity to thankwarmly all the friends who gave time and attentionto answering his questions and giving valuable help.He begs specially to thank Rev. Thos. Burgess ofNew York, who kindly read the manuscript andmade many helpful and valuable suggestions. Thepresent work was prepared in the spring of 1920for the Literchurch World Movement. Owing to thediscontinuance of that organization, its printing wasdelayed. Meanwhilebetween the summer of 1920and the end of 1921such significant events tookplace in Greece and the JSTear East as to affectgreatly conditions in the Greek conmiunities inAmerica. Under the pressure of other duties thewriter revised a number of paragraphs and addedsome new material to meet and explain the new con-ditions and changes.


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PREFACE ixThe work is incomplete and sketchy, as there wasno time to make a complete survey of the entire fieldand all did not answer the questionnaire. Still theground covered is representative of the whole field

and throws light on the entire subject under discus-sion.J. P. X.


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CONTENTSCHAPTER PAGE

I EUROPEAN BACKGROUND: . . ,, . 15History and Racial Relationship ... 15Present Political Situation .... 23Political Conditions in the Near East asAffecting Emigration from America . 30Political Conditions as Inviting Unrest inAmerica 30Economic Conditions 31Social Conditions 41Recreation 46Moral Standards 47Leadership 53Religious Conditions 54

11 THE GREEKS IN AMERICA: . ... 73Immigration 73Return Movement to Greece .... 77Economic Conditions 80Standard of Living and Wages ... 84Unrest 87

III THE GREEKS IN AMERICA: . ... 88Social Conditions 88Recreation 88Family Life 91Relation to Other Racial Groups ... 94Relation to American People, Ideals, Insti-

tutions, etc. 96Social Organizations and Forces . . .102Educational Forces 107Forces of Assimilation 112Results as Reflected in War Service . . 115xi


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xii CONTENTSCHAPTER PAQBIV THE GREEKS IN AMERICA: . ... 118

Greek Churches 118Forms of Religious Approach . . . 132Evangelical "Work Among the Greeks byProtestant Churches 133Literature 136

V GREEKS IN AMERICA: 139Special Problems 139Recommendations 145

APPENDICES- I Greek Newspapers in the United States 153

II Bibliography 154INDEX 159

II


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THE GREEKS IN AMERICA


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THE GREEKS IN AMERICACliapter I

EUROPEAN BACKGEOUNDHISTORY AND RACIAL RELATIONSHIP

Greeks and greater Greece.The Greeks callthemselves Hellenes and their country Hellas. Theybelong to the Aryan or Indo-European group ofnations and have inhabited more than 3000 years theGrecian Peninsula and the islands surrounding it.Hellas was wherever Greeks lived. So there wasand is to-day a greater Greece extending to Mace-donia, Thrace and Western Asia Minor, character-istically Greek, from time immemorial, in language,customs, manners, religion and folklore.Greek colonies.The Greeks, like the Phoeniciansof old, and the British in modern times, were a sea-faring, trading and colonizing people. Since thesixth century B. C, there have been Greek coloniesall along the coasts of the Bosphorus and the ^gean,Marmora and Black Seas, which regions continueto be Greek in character, speech and influence.Spread of Greek Influence.Greek influence andcolonization were further spread through the ex^pedition of Alexander the Great (334-323 B. C.) intoAsia Minor and the further East, comprising thewhole Persian Empire. Alexander's policy to bringthe East into relationship with the West was effec-tively continued by his successors, especially the


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16 THE GREEKS IN AMERICASeleucidse in Syria and the Ptolemies in Egypt.Thus wider areas came under the spell of Hellenismin Asia and many different races and people wereHellenized.

Connections between the ancient and modernGreece.There has been much valuable time andspace wasted with discussions as to the physicaldescent of the modem, from the ancient Greeks, orthe connection between them. The Greek racehas never ceased to exist in history, so thatthere must at least be some descendants ofthe ancient, among the modern Greeks. And itis equally true that many races and people inAsia Minor and elsewhere have been thoroughlyassimilated and Hellenized. All the people bearingthe name of Greek at present are imbued with thesame national consciousness, and cherish the samenational ideals. They are Hellenic in speech, man-ners, customs, religion, folklore, and temperament.The modern Greeks present the same traits andcharacters, intellectual and moral, as characterizedthe ancient. ^ ' There can be no doubt that spirituallythe modern Greeks are the direct inheritors of theancients. A familiarity with the modern peoplebrings countless illustrations of the similarity ofthought and character between the old and the new'*(Professor H. P. Fairchild). ^^In the Greeks whoseek our shores and those of whom Homer sangor whom Aristophanes caricatured, there is the samealertness of mind, inventiveness and plausibility, thesame liveliness of disposition, the same courtesy andhospitality to strangers, the same capacity for self-sacrifice, the same love of adventure and readinessto take a chance, the same delight in haggling overa bargain, and the same proneness to disputationoften running into dissension'' (Professor WilliamCole, Immigrant Races in Massachusetts: TheGreeks),


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 17Romans spread Hellenism.As students of his-

tory know, though Eome conquered Greece physi-cally, she was conquered by her captive intellectu-ally'^the captured took captives of their captors."The Eomans spread Greek ideas, language and civi-lization far and wide as missionaries of Greek cul-ture. It is indeed remarkable how the Eastern Eo-man, or Byzantine, Empire was thoroughly Hellen-ized, became Greek in reality, though continuingEoman in name. Its long rule of 1,000 years con-stitutes one of the most significant periods of Gre-cian history. In order to understand the modernGreek in his church and theology, customs and su-perstition, we must study the Byzantine history.The modem Greek church is a fine picture of Byzan-tine timesespecially in architecture, painting, rit-ual and religious ideas and usages.

Fall of Constantinople.During the Dark AgesConstantinople was the main center of learning, edu-cation, and Hellenic civilization. It is needless toremind the reader of the connection between theFall of Constantinople (1453 A. D.) and the Eenais-sance or the revival of learning in Europe.Turkish conquest and oppression.Through theTurkish invasion into Greek Territories, especiallythe conquest of Constantinople (1453 A.D.) therebegins the real Dark Ages of Hellenism. For fourcenturies, or more, the Greeks were subjected tountold oppression and persecution. The Turkishrule in Greek territoriesin fact, wherever theTurk set his foot^meant age-long slavery, tortureand martyrdom. Still in the midst of all the op-pression and tyranny the Greeks kept the torchof Hellenic culture and Christian civilization burn-ing, even though dimly, thus keeping alive the mt-ness for truth. It is indeed a matter of real wonderthat Hellenism and Christianity were not wiped outentirely under Moslem tyranny. Though weakened,


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18 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAcrippled, and even amputated in many parts, thechurch continued in life steadfastly and persever-ingly, and through the church there survived the Hel-lenic people and ideas also.War of Greek Independence.As it was in theark of the church that the Greek nation was pre-

served and kept alive, so it was through the repre-sentatives of the church that the banner of freedomwas unfurled and the War of Greek Independencestarted, March 25 (O. S.), 1821 A.D.* For sevenyears (1821-27) the Greek people were engaged inan unequal struggle against the unscrupulous hordesof Turks (in Turkey) who were still quite able toinflict vengeance and death on the adventurousGreeks who dared to rise against the Sultan. TheGreek Patriarch, as the head of the Greek people,was hanged at one of the gates of the Patriarchateat Phanar, Constantinople, which gate continuesclosed to the present day, and will be opened onlywhen the Greek race is emancipated from the for-eign yoke. Many bishops and other clergymen wereexecuted also.A fit parallel to the modern Armenian massacres,Greeks were massacred in many places, includingwomen and children. The massacres on the islandof Chios (1822) were among the darkest of suchoutrages. Almost all the Greeks on the island wereeither killed or sold into slavery. Comparativelyfew escaped. The Greeks fought valiantly through-out the revolutionary period of seven years. In thefirst three years it seemed as if Greece had won. Inthree months the Turk was driven out of Pelopon-nesus and a provisional government established.The great fleet swept clean the seas, and everywherebrilliant deeds of Greek valor were recorded. Butthe weakened Sultan called in the aid of his vassal,

* On the Day of Annunciation. This day continued to be theGreek Independence Day.


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 19IbraMin Pasha of Egypt, who boasted he would re-duce the whole of Peloponnesus into an Arabian des-ert, which he almost succeeded in doing. But Greecewas destined to live. Her day of deliverance cameat last. The admirals of Britain, France, and Eus-sia burned the Turkish fleet at Navarino, 1827 A.D.,and proclaimed Greece free and independent. Thiswas formally confirmed by the Treaty of Adrianoplein 1828, after Turkish defeat by Eussia.

Small size of Greece handicapped progress.Un-fortunately only a small portion of Greek Territorywas set free, consisting of Peloponnesus and themainland of Greece to the south of Thessaly. Al-though the Greeks kept under the Turkish yoke, tooka prominent part in the revolution, they were ex-cluded from joining the new State owing to the self-ish intrigues of certain European Powers, especiallybecause of the opposition of Austria and the HolyAlliance, Greece was kept within impossibly narrowboundaries, thus being condemned from the verystart to economic struggles and hardships, even fore-boding failure. After the assassination of Capod'Istrias, the first President of Greece, PrinceOtho, the son of the King of Bavaria, was put atthe head of the kingdom. It had a population ofbut 650,000. A monarchy was established with allthe consequent expenses of a royal court, a host ofofficials at home, and ambassadors and ministersabroad. The resources of the country were limited.The portions constituting the new state, especiallyPeloponnesus, consists of isolated mountains whichdivide the country as it was in its ancient history,into small separate city states. To add furtherhandicaps there were no means of communicationand transportation in the country.National aspiration continued.Such difficulties,

however, did not discourage the Greek people. Thenational aspiration for the ultimate emancipation


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20 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAof the Greek race continued to inspire the Greekseverywhere. Thus we have a chronic state of rest-lessness and a series of uprisings among the Greeks,kept under Turkish ruleespecially in Crete andMacedonia. Every such movement drove hosts ofrefugees into Greece. The care and sheltering ofthese refugees added greatly to the burdens and ex-penses of the treasury, creating at the same timefeelings of indignation and protest among the peo-ple, thus threatening all the time the outbreak ofwar.Change of dynasty.The autocratic rule of Othocaused another Revolution in 1862 and he was forced

to abdicate. He was replaced by the second son ofthe King of Denmark, who became George I. Eng-land, which since 1815, had kept possession of theIonian Islands (Corfu, Leukas, Cephalonia, Ithaca,and Zante), returned them to Greece in 1863. Thenew constitution of 1864 had established a parlia-mentary regime with a single assembly elected byuniversal suffrage.Union of Thessaly.Thessaly was united withGreece in 1882, although promised along with Epirusat the Berlin Conference, in 1878, at the end of theRusso-Turkish War. Epirus, however, was keptunder the Turkish yoke and was delivered at last inpart at the Balkan War, in 1913, the fate of North-ern Epirus still remaining unsettled even after theGreat War.

Greco-Turkish war.As a result of an uprisingin Crete there took place the War of 1897 betweenGreece and Turkey in which the former was de-feated, and compelled to pay a war indemnity. Stillit ultimately led to the gradual deliverance of Cretefrom Turkish tyranny and its union with Greece.The Great Powers compelled Turkey to withdrawits troops from Crete which was made autonomous,with Prince George of Greece as high commissioner.


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 21Balkan wars.The emancipation of wider areasfrom Turkish oppression was achieved as a result of

the Balkan War (1912-13). Thus Epirus with Ya-nina, southern and a part of eastern Macedonia,including" Salonica, with the Islands of Mytilene,Chios, Samos, Lemnos, Imbros, and Crete were allunited with the Kingdom of Greece. Thus Greecewas doubled in population.Great idea.Still the *^ Great idea/' (Megali

idea), cherished by all the Greeksthe emancipa-tion of all Greeks from the Turkish yoke, and theUnion of the Grecian territories with the mothercountry^was far from realization.The World War.The Great War broke thechains of many races, and people enslaved for cen-turies to autocratic rule. This it seems will effectthe deliverance of further numbers of Greeks fromTurkish oppression and their union with their be-loved Hellas.Treaty of Sevres.^According to the terms of the

treaty of Sevres, that ended the war between Greeceand Turkey, the greater part of the Greeks subjectto Turkey were to be freed and join with Greece.Such important centers of Greek life and influenceas western and eatern Thrace, thus became parts ofGreece at once, and the Smyrna region will ulti-mately do the same. According to special arrange-ments Venizelos concluded with Italy, NorthernEpirus and the Dodecanese would in due time jointhe mother country.* But the unfortunate NearEast was not to enjoy peace and settled conditionsin this way. While the Sultan's government in Con-stantinople sanctioned the treaty of Sevres (Aug.9, 1920) the nationalist Turks under MustaphaKemal Pasha started a rebellion in the interior of

* See speech of Venizelos at the Greek Parliament, New YorJfiTimes, June 13, 1920.


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22 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAAsia Minor with Angora as their capital, organizeda so-called National Assembly claiming to representthe Turkish Empire, repudiated the Treaty ofSevres, and declared they would fight to a finish forthe integrity of Turkey, asserting that Thrace andSmyrna were integral parts of the Empire. Greecehad to fight to defend her cause, which is not im-perialistic as some mistakenly assert, but a war ofemancipation. Both sides are determined to fightto the end. The outcome is problematical. Thewar against Kemal was started by Venizelos withthe approval of the Entente Powers, but since thereturn of King Constantine, the Entente declaredneutrality and Greece fought single-handed during1921.The Nationalist program of extermination.TheNationalists, taking advantage of the war withGreece, have been carrying out their program of ex-termination of the non-Turkish elements in AsiaMinor. They have deported almost all the maleGreeks and Armenians from Pontus (modern Trebi-zond), the towns and villages along the southernshore of the Black Sea and plundered their posses-sions. Many regions in the interior of Asia Minorhave been scenes of deportation, massacre, impris-onment and execution of innocent people after mocktrial. The deportees wander in inhospitable Turk-ish and Kurdish regions in the interior. The Arme-nian deportations of 1915-1919 had already demon-strated what an effective means of exterminationdeportation is in the hands of the Turk. If Greeceachieves the union of the greater part of her chil-dren under her rule, 75 to 80 percent of the ten mil-lion Greeks in the world will be united. The restare scattered mostly in what remains as Turkey,Caucasus, Egypt, U. S. A., England, France, etc.The rights and security of those remaining in Tur-key are guaranteed by treaty amendments.


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 23PEESENT POLITICAL. SITUATION

Military revolution.To understand the presentpolitical situation in Greece we must review themain events leading to, and following the militaryrevolution or uprising there in 1909, and the appear-ance in affairs of Eleutherios Venizelos of Crete.The defeat in the Turkish War of 1897 aroused theindignation of the leaders in the army and createdwide discontent against the royal family, particu-larly against the Crown Prince, later, King Constan-tine, who was field marshal. The prevalence offavoritism and the want of proper discipline in thearmy and in fact in all the other departments of thelittle state, the political corruption and rank par-tizanship throughout the country gave ground tomuch complaint and stirred up the indignation ofpatriotic and ardent army men, which at last burstinto the rebellion of Ghoudi in 1909, a military up-rising that aimed at clearing the army of corrup-tion, restoring order and discipline, and thus givingthe country a military force worthy of its nationalaims and aspirations. Constantine had to leave thecountry, and the patriotic officers took charge of thesituation.

Greece had long been suffering through lack ofgood leadership. There were too many leaders andpetty politicians hunting offices. Greece needed aman, a leader, and he was found in the person ofEleutherios Venizelos of Crete. He was called fromCrete to come over and help the country in her workof regeneration, and preparation for the fulfillmentof her national program.Eleutherios Venizelos.** Venizelos, a chivalrous

character and a true patriot, had taken a leadingpart in the affairs of Crete in her uprising as well asin time of peace. His father was one of the heroes


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24 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAof the Greek War of Independence (1821-27) andhad left him as his only legacy, an ardent patriotism.He was for order and discipline in the army, andthroughout the state. He believed in the rule ofprinciple, rather than the personal whims of theformer political leaders.'' He recalled the crownprince from exile and Constantine was reinstated inthe army. Thus the two principal factors in therecent events and the present political situation inGreece appear on the stage, and Venizelos beganwith Constantine to cooperate first, unanimously forthe good of Greece.

''The arrival on the scene of a single man, of anupright, unselfish and decided character, was enoughto coordinate all the active and capable men of thecountry, and to give Greece an exceptional forwardmovement. By appealing to France for a militarymission in order to reorganize the army, and toEngland for a naval mission to do the same for thenavy he put his country in shape^ to participategloriously in the Balkan War against Turkey in1912-13, and victoriously to counter the treachery ofBulgaria in June, 1913.''Balkan league.Mr. Venizelos as a true and far-sighted statesman was for friendship with Bulgariaand other Balkan states and thought a league amongthem would be the best means for the pacificationand prosperity of the Balkans and Europe at large.Turkish revolution.He saw that the so calledTurkish Revolution of 1908 with its motto of *' Lib-erty, Equality, Fraternity and Justice" was a mereartifice intended to deceive Europe and the world,whereas the Young Turks aimed in reality at theTurkification of the non-Turkish and non-Moslemelements in Turkey, in accordance with their openprogram ''Turkey for the Turks." The YoungTurks' program was detrimental to the best inter-ests of all the Balkan nations as well as of the Arme-


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 25nians, Arabs, Jews and other non-Turkish elements.It aimed at the ultimate assimilation and absorptionof these superior elements in Turkey by the inferiorTuranian Turks.Balkan wars.The Balkan League gave a fatalblow to the Young Turks. The first Balkan Wardemonstrated the weakness and rottenness of theTurkish State on the one hand, the vitality and thestrength of the Union and cooperation of the Balkannations on the other. Had the league continued inharmony, or rather had the intrigues of the CentralPowers allowed it, the Balkan allies could easilyhave marched on Constantinople and driven theTurks, bag and baggage out of Europe.Unfortunately the intrigues of Germany and Aus-

tria combined with the treachery and insatiablegreed of Bulgaria, led to the second Balkan War(June, 1913) ending with the defeat of Bulgaria.The Treaty of Bucharest gave a decided superiorityto Eumania, Serbia and Greece in the Balkans.World War.This upset subtle and long plannedschemes of Germany and Austria, as well as Bul-garia and Turkey, and thus served as a precursorof the terrible World War, 1914-18.

Constantine and Venizelos differ.So far Con-stantine and Venizelos as well as all the leaders inGreece worked harmoniously. But when the matterof Greece joining the Great War was taken up,opinion was divided. Venizelos was from the verystart for joining the Entente Allies ; the very inter-ests of Greece, he thought, required it; her geo-graphic position, the historical, traditional friend-ship of the Entente to Greece, as well as economicreasons demanded it; besides, by the terms of atreaty with Serbia, Greece was in honor bound tojoin the conflict. Not so thought King Constantineand the General Military Staff. They regardedPrussian militarism invincible, and repudiated or


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26 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAexplained away the Serbian Treaty. They thoughtthe best interests of Greece required her remainingneutral. To join the war, Constantine asserted,would mean entire ruin for Greece, and he wantedto save her from the fate of Serbia and Rumania.Besides, if Greece joined the Entente, he furtherasserted, the hatred of the Turks would be arousedand millions of Greeks residing in Turkey would bein danger of massacre and outrage.

Venizelists and Royalists.Thus developed thetwo groups or parties of Venizelists and Royalists.The latter claim to have been for neutrality, but theVenizelists charge them with pro-Germanism.Venizelos ousted.As Constantine did not ap-

prove the policy of Venizelos, he dismissed himfrom office, February, 1915, though he was electedby the people by a great majority. Venizelos wasreelected in May, 1915, but contrary to the constitu-tion, Constantine ousted him again, October, 1915.Revolutionary government at Salonica.Failingto persuade the king to follow the majority of theGrecian people and thus save Greece and his dy-nasty, Venizelos, along with General Danglis andAdmiral Coundouriotis, left Athens, June, 1917, andwent to Crete and then to Salonica, and started therevolutionary movement which resulted in the de-thronement of King Constantine by the Allies at therequest of the revolutionary government of Veni-zelos. Alexander, the second, son of Constantine,ascended the throne.

Services of the Greek army.The Greek armyrendered a great service to the Entente cause inMacedonia. The first shaft was driven into the Bul-garian front by the Greeks, and the yielding ofBulgaria was the precursor of the total break of theCentral Powers. Venizelos was hailed by promi-nent statesmen as one of the foremost leaders atthe Peace Conference in Paris and San Remo. He


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 27secured for Greece the main points she fought for.While Greece was rejoicing over the success of thetreaties Venizelos secured, there happened an un-toward accident that caused upheavals in the po-litical history of Greece. King Alexander wasbitten by a monkey in Tatoi, the royal summer resortnear Athens, as the result of which he died. Ad-miral Coundouriotis was made regent and thecrown was offered to Prince Paul, the youngest sonof Constantine. He refused on the ground that itbelonged first to his father and his elder brotherGeorge, the Crown Prince. It was then electiontime. Venizelos made it clear in his appeal to thepeople that it was a contest between himself andConstantine. They must choose one or the other.November 14, 1920, was a signal day in Greek his-tory. In spite of all the diplomatic victories and un-precedented advantages he had secured for Greece,Venizelos was defeated. He at once left Greece.In his farewell to his party followers he asked themto respect the vote of the people and support theparty in power. The aged statesman, DemetriusEhallis, headed the new government, and thedowager Queen Olga took the regency as AdmiralCoundouriotis resigned. Although the vote of No-vember 14 was at the same time a plebiscite on thequestion of the return of Constantine, still a sep-arate plebiscite was taken on December 5th in whicha vast majority voted for the return of King Con-stantine to the throne. According to newspaper re-ports the Venizelists took little part in the plebis-cite. On December 19, 1920, the king and queenreturned to Athens, after living in Switzerland sinceJune, 1917. Their family had preceded them. Themain causes for the defeat of Venizelos were (1) Thewar weariness of the Greek people.

Causes for Venizelos* defeat.Venizelos, him-self, gave this reason, during his visit to New York.


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28 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAHe said that though by nature peace-loving, it sohappened that there was war whenever he was inpower. So the people thought there would be nopeace as long as he was in power. His opponentspromised the disbanding of the troops and a procla-mation of peace. (2) Absorbed in diplomatic fightsin the interest of Greece, he was often absent fromhome and internal affairs were left to his followers.Abuses ascribed to some of them embittered thepeople and spoiled the internal policy of Venizelos.He is assailed by his opponents as arrogant, over-bearing, tyrannous and dictatorial. (3) Constantinowas viewed by many under the glamor of the halogiven him as a result of the victories in the Balkan,Wars. They could not believe their great field mar-shal could have ever been unpatriotic. Conse-quently they thought a great injustice was done himwhen he was removed by the Allies. Many alsoresented it as an interference in the internal affairsof Greece. (4) The long delays by the powers inthe settlement of Greek affairs caused much tensionand strain on the nerves of the people. After thearmistice they were left to their own resources inthe fight against the Turks. There seemed no endof fighting and no peace in sight, while the powersshifted from place to place the discussions of Greco-Turkish affairs. The long pent-up feelings burst atthe election, as Venizelos was a3Sociated and iden-tified in the minds of the Greek people with theEntente Powers. (5) Old party leaders, while dif-fering among themselves, worked together to over-throw him. Venizelists assert that graft, andmanipulation at the polls occurred. Endless dis-cussion continues all the time on this and manyother political points, between the Venizelists andConstantinists. Soon after the Venizelist defeat,the Entente Powers expressed their disapproval andannounced definitely that they would withdraw all


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 29economic support from Greece if Constantine re-turned. In February, 1921, representatives of theEntente met in conference in London, the repre-sentatives of Greece, headed by Premier Kalogero-poulos, and the two Turkish delegations,one of theSultan's government headed by Twefik Pasha, theother of the Nationalist at Angora headed by BekirSami Bey. The powers offered to mediate betweenthe Greeks and Turks and settle their differences,sending special commissioners to Smyrna andThrace to determine the relative strength of thevarious elements there. Neither party would acceptthe offer and fighting started early in the spring of1921 and continued all summer. Premier Gounarisof Greece visited the entente capitals to find loans,and to discuss and prepare grounds for possiblepeace terms with Turkey. The results of his visitare not known. If no terms can be found for a defi-nite peace, war will continue, and the unfortunateNear East people have to face further devastation,bloodshed and suffering. France has recognized theNationalist government under Kemal and evacuatedCilicia, for v/hich France had a mandate from theLeague of Nations. She has also received favorableeconomic and other concessions from the Kemalists.The French evacuation has exposed the Christiansthere again to massacre and outrage. The Arme-nians have taken refuge in Syria, Greek territory,Constantinople and other places of safety. ManyGreeks have left Cilicia. The withdrawal of Frenchtroops set free numerous Turkish troops, so thatGreece has stronger forces to face if the war con-tinues. But the morale and equipment of the Greekforces is excellent. Both sides have economic dif-ficulties, but Kemal is in the worst plight. Thus far,he has to a great extent, depended upon plunderingand confiscating the properties of the Christiansand others he executes, massacres or deports.


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so THE GREEKS IN AMERICAPOLITICAL. CONDITIONS IN THE NEAE EAST AS AFFECTING

EMIGKATION FEOM AMERICAQuestions of emigration as affected by the politi-cal situation in Greece and Turkey depend on the

solution of the Eastern Question. If conditions inthe Near East are pacified and settled, if Greecerealizes her national aspirations by gathering to-gether under her fold her children scattered inWestern Asia Minor, Thrace and the islands underItalian occupation and a strong, righteous govern-ment is established in what remains as Turkey,there will be wider openings and many new fieldsfor enterprise in the Near East, and many Greeksin America will go back, especially those who hadcome to America to escape Turkish oppression ormilitary enslavement. Others will return for rela-tives. The percentage, however, of those who re-turn will not be great. Inquiries in many cities andof various individuals indicate that those settled inAmerica, and prospering, will not easily give up cer-tainty for uncertainty. Besides those accustomed toAmerican ways, ideas and custom.s are disappointedon setting foot in the old country and finding theirdreams of ease and comfort there far from reality,and take the first steamer back to the United States.Soon after the declaration of the Armistice, therewas a rush to return of those who had been waitingfor years to see their relatives and friends, espe-cially those who had not heard from them, and wereanxious to learn their whereabouts.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS AS INVITING ITNEEST IN AMERICAPolitical conditions in the Near East and unrest

in America.Ordinarily conditions in Greece orTurkey would scarcely affect any situation in Amer-


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND SIica. But these are extraordinary times and there isa great deal of speculation as to possible combina-tions between the Young Turks, the Bolsheviki andthe Tartars. They first dream of a Pan-TuranianAlliance between the Turks in Asia Minor and theTartars of Caucasus and Turkestan; they furtherdream and scheme of Pan Islamism, uniting the Mos-lems all over the world under the leadership of theTurks. Enver and Djemal Pashas are representedas scheming with the Bolsheviki in carrying* outsuch plans.The Balkans still constitute a danger spot andthe Eastern Question has always been a cause of

unrest in Europe and even in the world at large.Should the Bolsheviki form alliances with Pan-Islamic and Pan-Turanian elements and succeed increating chaos in the Near and Far East, the effectsmay be far-reaching in Europe and even America.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONSThe East unchangeable.The East is unchange-

able or moves slowly, consequently customs, arts,trades, continue pretty much in the same way forages. The fields are plowed with the same kind ofplow used in patriarchal times. Sheep and goatsare tended by shepherds to-day as in classical orBiblical times.

Trader's banks.Greeks are commercial and sea-faring people. So they are the principal traders,bankers, and merchants in the Levant. The Na-tional Bank of Greece, the Bank of Athens, theIonian Bank, the Bank of Mytilene, the Bank ofOrient are the principal houses, and have branchesin many important cities both in Greece and Turkey.Export and import.There is a great deal of im-port and export business between Greece and Tur-key on the one hand, Europe and America on the


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32 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAother. Articles of luxury, manufactured goods,woolen and cotton are imported; English goodsstood very high both in price and quality. Frenchgoods competed with them, but the German andAustrian goods flooded the Levant before the war,and at cheaper prices and usually of lower quality.Eeady-made clothes from Austria filled the marketsin Constantinople, Smyrna, etc. Italy graduallygained ground and competed with other Europeannations successfully both in the price and qualityof the goods.The principal exports from Greece and Turkey areraw material, wool, cotton, silk, flax, tobacco, cur-

rants, raisins, olive oil, dry figs, sponges, silver,lead, zinc, manganese, and iron. (The imports in1901 were $27,733,010; in 1914 they were $35,026,-905, and the exports $23,425,375.) The imports atthe beginning of the war had decreased enormouslyin spite of their apparent increase owing to thedoubling of the prices. Commerce between theUnited States and Greece has greatly increasedsince the armistice, November, 1918. In 1916, 1,718,-500 pounds of figs were exported to the UnitedStates, but not a pound was shipped in 1917 owingto lack of shipping facilities. The export of to-bacco to the United States grew. In 1915 the valueof the tobacco export to the United States was$2,914,627 and in 1917 $14,422,703. Eepresentativesof the American Tobacco Co. are in Kavalla, Mace-donia, and in Samsoun, Asia Minor. The importsfrom the United States to Greece during the elevenmonths ending November 30, 1921, were $28,826,853as compared with $35,761,896 in the same months of1920. The exports from Greece to the United Statesduring the months ending November 30, 1921, were$20,713,044 as compared with $19,278,039 of the sameperiod in 1920. (Atlantic Monthly, January 7,1922.)


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND S3Navigation.Greek ships and sailing boats visit

the principal ports along the Black, Marmora,^gean and the Mediterranean seas. They evenvisit England and America. The Greek NationalSteamship Company, with headquarters in Piraeus,Greece, has regular steamer service betweenPiraeus and New York.Greek ships commandeered by the Allies duringthe war rendered a great service to the cause ofthe Entente, although the Greek owners had toforego much of the profit they would otherwise havereaped. Still many shipowners accumulated im-mense wealth. The number of steamships that en-tered the port of Piraeus during 1916 was 2,658 of2,329,919 tons and of these 2,494 steamships of1,898,059 tons carried the Greek flag.

Industries.Greece, and Turkey are not indus^trial countries. Industry is yet in a primitive state.Masons, carpenters, tailors, shoemakers and allother artisans in Thrace and Asia Minor, and^ ofcourse in Greece are Greeks. But factories are lim-ited to certain centers as Piraeus, Salonica, andSmyrna. Still there has been remarkable progressin industry during the last ten or fifteen years, andif peace and settled conditions prevail soon, therewill be rapid strides taken in many lines.The following notes on the industrial census re-cently taken in Greece were published by the UnitedStates Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,in 1918, and show remarkable progress in allbranches of industry during the last ten or fifteenyears.^^ According to the details given, there are inGreece 2,213 large or small factories employing atotal of 36,124 hands. Of these 1,188 are small con-cerns employing a total of 3,579 hands ; 743 are mod-erate concerns employing a total of 23,700 hands.Among the 232 businesses which represent princi-


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S4- THE GREEKS IN AMERICApally the large industries, spinning and weaving fac-tories which represent 28 in all, with 10,004 hands,are most prominent. Next come 72 factories ormills for the preparation of various kinds of pro-visions with 3,665 hands ; 28 engineering works with2,003 employees ; 23 chemical works with 1,890 hands16 tanneries and leather working factories with 776hands ; and other smaller factories engaged in vari-ous industries. The total value of the 2,213 fac-tories amounts to 260,363,647 drachmas ($50,250,-184), and their total annual returns are estimatedat 372,274,308 drachmas ($71,851,801). Of the lattertotal the small factories are responsible for 106,-550,025 drachmas ($20,564,155); larger factoriesfor 250,794,810 drachmas ($48,403,378) , and thelarge factories for 314,940,473 drachmas ($60,783,-511). Almost one-half of the value of the annualproducts of the 282 large factories is derived fromthe 12 large flour mills. With regard to the motivepower, 570 of the factories are driven by steampower, 583 by electricity, 326 by hydraulic power,308 by gas, and 235 by petroleum (oil engines)."

Agriculture.Greece is a mountainous country,and although peasants are occupied mainly withagriculture, it is in a backward state. Great prog-ress, however, has been made in recent years, andthe government is exerting every effort to promoteit. English and American agricultural implementsare being introduced. The prospect for the future isvery bright. The government has agriculturalschools and model farms for encouraging agricul-ture. Agricultural expositions are held from timeto time to promote and stimulate it.

Chief crops.Only one-half of the soil in oldGreece is arable. The chief crops are currants,olives, tobacco, grapes, cereals, fruits, and figs. Theyield of currants in 1917 was 140,000 tons, and in1919, 145,000 tons. Olives are the next important


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 35crop. The yield of tobacco in 1917 was placed at102,275,710 pounds. The estimated yield of winefor 1918 was 10,566,800 gallons or nearly doublethat of the year before.American Machines.Thessaly is rich and fertilein agriculture, and the Kavalla region in Macedoniafor tobacco. Tobacco is being cultivated with goodsuccess in Peloponnesus. American machines are be-ing introduced into Smyrna and many parts of Tur-key. The American Mission and the Near East Re-lief representatives are rendering a great service inintroducing modern methods and instruments intoagricultural work in the Levant.Cows and dairies.In Greece, people had someprejudice against cows' milk, so goats and sheeppredominate for milking. The number of cows isgrowing. Mr. J. E. Chrysakis, of Athens has ren-dered a great service in promoting dairy-farmingand his tea-rooms, in Constitution Square, Athens,with all the farm products, are well known to Amer-icans and Europeans visiting Athens. His farmsare near Phaleron. He has been instrumental inintroducing cows from Switzerland.

Minerals.The chief mineral products are mag-nesite, marble, and emery. In 1914 there were pro-duced 117,430 tons of magnesite ; in 1919, 133,858in 1916, 176,363; and in 1917, 99,518. Transporta-tion difficulties caused a great decrease in mining,and almost stopped marble production.

Roads.The greatest need of Greece is the goodroads. Now there are over 3,000 miles of roads. Itis to the credit of the Greek government that in themidst of all the distractions of war that among otherpublic works which have engaged their energies arethe construction and restoration of harbors, the erec-tion of lighthouses, the construction of drainageworks, etc.

In 1883 there were only 58 miles of railway, but


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36 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAin 1914 about 1,365 were open and 100 more wereunder construction. A ship-canal across the Isthmusof Corinth (four miles) was opened in 1893. Greeceis now connected by rail with the rest of Europe.Athens expresses are running regularly to Paris.Wages and prices.Greeks in general are ex-tremely temperate in living and wages are propor-tionate to that standard. Of course there are greatdifferences according to localities, in country andtown, in Greece or Turkey. The pre-war priceswere very low everywhere. But since then the pricesjumped up as elsewhere in the world, money lostits purchasing power and things got dearer anddearer, and the rate of exchange changed from dayto day.Simple life.In the interior of Turkey andGreece, Greeks live in primitive fashion, with veryplain diet. Breadwholesome, wholewheat breadis the staff of life. Onions, cheese, milk, and souror curdled milk, yopJiourd, are in daily use in thevillages. Fruits are abundant and cheap. Olives,olive oil, and fish are very popular. Meat is used inthe villages sparingly, and is almost exclusivelylamb and kid.The unit of value in Greece is the dracluna, whichis equivalent to a franc, 19.3 cents; the exchange

value in dollars in 1918 w^as 19.4 cents. In 1921 itvaried between 4 and 5 cents.In Turkey, the Turkish lira is nominally 100 pias-

tres, gold, but the paper lira is greatly deteriorated.$1 before the war was worth 24 piastres. In 1921it brought 200 and more piastres.Prices of commodities were doubled, tripled andmultiplied manifoldly both in Greece and Turkey.

Students paid in Marsovan before the war $78.In 1920 they paid $200. Conditions in Turkey areentirely abnormal. Some have accumulated more


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 37wealth, while many suffer in ntter destitution andmisery.

Greece prosperous.In Greece, people oij thewhole are prosperous. Some persons, such as sh]owners, merchants, real-estate and property own-ers, grocers and farmers made large fortunesduring the war. There was no lack of profiteers,but many made money honestly. Besides, the Al-lied Armies in Macedonia spent large sums of moneywhich added much to the prosperity of the country.The workers could find ample employment and highwages in ammunition works and otherwise under theAllies.As British, French and Italian money fell off, notto say anything about German, Austrian, Eu-manian or Turkish money, the Greek drachma couldnot remain an exception. The economic ban of theEntente towards Greece since February, 1921,greatly lowered the exchange.The law of supply and demand regulates interna-tional and commercial relation, and as long as Greececontinues importing from America more than shecan export to it, the drachma will fetch less.Another reason for such deterioration as given byGreek statesmen in 1920 was that Greece served asthe medium of commercial transactions betweenAmerica and certain Balkan and other states. TheGreek merchants paid gold to America, whereas theyreceived in turn deteriorated currency from theother nations and the effect was the deterioration ofthe drachma.Revenue and expenditure.The revenue for 1916was reported at 86,183,924 drachmas. The following

figures taken from an English source are given inpounds: revenue and expenditure for 1917 respec-tively 8,200,000 and 17,280,000, and for 1918,12,000,000, and 36,400,000. The enormous ex-


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S8 THE GREEKS IN AMERICApenses of the army are constantly adding to the na-tional debt.

Still there is great hope that when settled condi-tions come, Greece will have such resources of wealthin the newly acquired territories, that she will pros-per, and will be able gradually to pay her debt.Immigration from Greek lands.Greeks began tocome to the United States in great numbers in1891. Before that only a few had come, either rep-resenting commercial houses, like the Ralli Bros., orfor study in Colleges and Universities, but after1891 there followed a growing stream of new comers,at first from Peloponnesus, especially from Tripolis,and gradually the fever of immigration spread notonly to all parts of Peloponnesus, but to Attica,Thessaly, Epirus, and Euboea, to Macedonia, Thraceand Asia Minor and the islands. Indeed no part ofGreece proper and the Greek regions in Turkey andelsewhere was unaffected by it.

Causes of emigration: 1. Natural tendency toadventure.As causes of the emigration of theGreeks may be mentioned: The inborn tendencyin the Greek people for trading, seafaring and ad-venture. The impulse of enterprise and daring thatsent out the Argonauts and various colonies fromancient Greece to distant lands drove the modernGreek to America and the uttermost parts of theworld.

2. Economic.The Argonauts went to fetch thegolden fleece from Colchis in Caucasus. So theGreek immigrants came to America in search ofgold. Economic condition constitutes the main causeof Greek emigration, both from Greece and Turkey.Greece was poor and limited in opportunities forwider enterprises. The failure in crops and currantsin 1891 drove many to America in search of workand opportunities for improvement in living. Thenaturally enterprising Greek finds better outlets for


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 39his love of adventure and enterprise in the UnitedStates and generally he succeeds.

3. Success of the immigrants in America.^Fur-ther cause of emigration is the effect of the letterswritten and the money sent by the immigrants inAmerica to their homes in Greece and Turkey. Thereports of their success spread in exaggerated form,as if people could sweep up gold in the streets orpick it up anywhere, and the reports drew others,relatives, friends, enemies and all. Gradually it be-came a fashion to go to America. Besides peoplemade comparison of wages and value. Sums ofmoney comparatively insignificant in the UnitedStates seemed very substantial in Greece. Theycould not take into consideration the relative valuesand the difference of the circumstances in Greeceand America.

4. Military service in Turkey.As to Greek emi-gration from Turkey, we might mention as a furthercause the Turkish military service. Up to thedeclaration of the Turkish revolution in 1908, Chris-tians and Jews were exempted from military service.Every male paid a tax of $1.60 a year from birth todeath. With the declaration of so-called equalitybetween the Moslems and non-Moslems, Christianswere admitted into the army. But experienceshowed that it meant really the enslavement andmoral and physical ruin of Christian youth. Thewhole Turkish constitution was a camouflage to en-force the Turkish Nationalist program to Turkify thenon-Turkish elements by assimilating them throughIslam, or eliminating them through military en-slavement, hardships and purposeful neglect of thehealth of the soldiers. To escape such treatment,many Christian youths left Turkey. Young menfrom the shores of the Black Sea, Trebizond, Ordu,Fatsa, Kerasunde, Samsun, as well as the hinter-land, Karahissar, Sivas, Kaisseri, Angora, Konia,


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40 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAfrom Smyrna and its hinterland, from Thrace, Adri-anople, Kirkkilissa, Constantinople and all overTurkey, left the country usually secretly withoutpassports.Another cause of the emigration from Turkey was

religious, due to the conflict between Christianityand Islam. To accept Islam, would end the troublesand persecutions of Christians. Like the persecutedPuritans of England, the Huguenots of France, thevictims of oppression in Germany and other lands,the Greek Christian young men sought shelter,refuge, and liberty in the ^^Land of the Free and theHome of the Brave."

Peasant and poor emigrants.At first the emi-grants from Greece were from the peasant class,mostly illiterate, and poor. Many were of the classthat had failed at home and wanted to try their for-tunes in new lands. They were mostly young men,single, or if married, who had left their families inthe home land.

Later came better classes.Gradually more cul-tured and educated classes began to go to America.Merchants with capital, physicians and lawyers withdiplomas, capable young men, anxious to enter thenumerous educational institutions in America,rushed to the New World to seek their fortunes.Future depends on political conditions.Thefuture of the emigration from Greece and Turkeydepends on the outcome of the political situation.The establishment of a just and liberal governmentwill open up the sources of wealth in the countryand the enterprising will find ample fields at hometo utilize their energies.

Still as long as the impulse to adventure and thelove of enterprise continue living in the bosom ofthe Greeks and while the economic and commercialopportunities here continue there will keep comingstreams of Greek emigrants to the United States.


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 41The mimber will depend largely on the political con-ditions in the Near East.

Legislation about emigration from Greece.Therapid growth of emigration from Greece occupiedthe attention of the Greek government for a long-time. Whole villages were being emptied of theirmanhood and young manhood, women alone remain-ing behind. The Greek government planned to re-strict though not to forbid the emigration. Certainrestrictive measures and cautions were consideredwith a view to protect the emigrants from the snareof grasping agents, and also to keep the young forwork in the homeland. See National Herald, March1920.American three percent immigration law.Afterthe adoption of the immigration law in March, 1921,by the American Congress, according to which, thenumber of immigrants to the United States betweenJune 3, 1921 and June 30, 1922 should not exceedthree percent of the people from any given countryas shown by the census of 1910, only 3,283 could comefrom Greece. The restrictions include those fromThrace, Smyrna and Turkey. The application ofthe law presents many difficulties and works greathardship on those fleeing from persecution and op-pression, and seeking shelter in the United States,as a refuge for the oppressed and downtrodden.There should be a special provision for Greek andArmenian refugees from the Near East, as a humani-tarian feature of the law.

SOCIAL CONDITIONSGreeks' love of wisdom: Education.Greeks have

always been fond of wisdom and knowledge, andeducation has taken a prominent place throughouttheir history. Even during the Dark Ages of Greeceunder Turkish rule and oppression, while illiteracy


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42 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAprevailed among the people, the monasteries werecenters of learning, and patriotic and godly prieststaught the children elements of learning at night withthe light of the torch or the candle.With the Independence of Greece, conditionschanged both in Greece and Turkey. Since the mid-

dle of the 19th century, there has been great progressin education. The educational system of Greece isvery complete. There are three grades of schools,the demotic or primary national schools, the Hellenicor secondary grammar schools, and the gymnasia inwhich the range and the level of teaching are muchthe same as in a German gymnasium or in the uppergrades of the American public schools. In all threegrades education is gratuitous and in the primaryschools is compulsory on children between ^ve andtwelve. Every village has its demotic or primaryschool, and all the prominent cities their gymnasia.The university at Athens is attended by nearly 3,500students many of whom came before the World Warfrom Turkey. The medical and law students pre-dominate with the result that the number of politi-cians and office-hunters grows whereas the countryneeds more men in practical and scientific lines ofwork. There are also the Polytechnic Institute, twoagricultural schools, a military academy, severalnaval schools, besides many private schools for busi-ness training. There is also a Normal school (Didas-caleion) to train teachers for primary schools.

Education of girls.The girls take the samecourses of study in the girls' schools. The highestinstitution of learning for girls in Greece is Arsa-keion, a girls' college or high school with normaltraining courses. The university is now open towomen, and a good many are taking courses in medi-cine, science, and arts.Education among the Greeks in Turkey.One ofthe privileges granted by the Sultan to the Greek


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 4SPatriarchate regarded the matter of schools andeducation. The Greeks kept their schools undertheir own control with programs of their own mak-ing. They contributed liberally for schools and theirupkeep. The Turkish government supplied schoolsfor the Turks and Moslems, taxing the Christiansalso with an education tax. The most prominentbuilding in many villages and towns is the Greekschool built by private contribution or by some pa-triotic Greek, as a tribute of love to his native place.System of instruction.The system of instructionis similar to those in Greece. Prominence is givenboth in Greece and Turkey to languagesespeciallyto Greek. Mathematics, history, and geography re-ceive proper attention. Instruction in scientific sub-jects needs much improvement. Memorizing is veryprominent at the expense of originality of thought.The following table show^s the number of Greeks,schools and pupils in Thrace and Asia Minor

GREEKSVilayet of Adrianople 366,363" " Constantinople 364,459" " Brusa 278,421" " Sivas 99,376" " Koniah 87,021" " Angora 45,873" " Kastamuni i24,919" " Trebizond 353,533" " Adana 70,000" " Smyrna 622,810Independent Governments 105,964Dodecanese 102,727Imbros, Tenedos and Kastelorizo

Islands 21,877

SCHOOLS


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44. THE GREEKS IN AMERICAOld and New Testaments in graded courses for lowerand higher classes, the Catechism in elementary andadvanced courses, including an exposition of theNicene Creed, the Decalogue, the Beatitudes, and theSacraments. Symbolics is given usually as a sepa-rate course. The text of Scripture is not studiedmuch, excepting the quotations in history and cate-chism books. Whole passages are given in readersas part of the language study. The New Testamentis studied as part of the religious course in gym-nasia, iAdvanced schools.Constantinople, and Smyrna,'have advanced schools in academic courses, both for

boys and girls. Gymnasia exist in many prominentcities in Thrace, Asia Minor, and the islands, e.g.Adrianople, Trebizond, and Samsun. Even inZindji Dere, near Caesarea, Cappadocia, in the heartof Asiatic Turkey, there is a Greek gymnasium.Zappeion is the highest school for girls in Constan-tinople, erected through the munificence of Zappas,a rich Greek from Epirus.American schools.Greeks have lately taken ad-vantage of the American schools in the Near East,although at first they were very reticent and suspi-cious about them. The majority of students inEobert College, Constantinople, and InternationalCollege, Smyrna, are Greeks. The same was true ofAnatolia College, Marsovan, until the deportationsof 1915 overthrew it. It started after the armistice,operating only the preparatory department, but itwas closed again, March, 1921 by the NationalistTurks.French schools.Large numbers of Greeks at-tended the French schools in Turkey conducted by

the Jesuits, Franciscans, and other orders of theRoman Catholic Church. The French schools gavea practical knowledge of the French language, withan outward polish of manners, but without really


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 45training the mind. The American institutions aimedin developing true manhood and womanhood, teach-ing the students to think and judge for themselves.Housing in towns.There are great differencesas to housing, both in Greece and Turkey. In largecities there are houses with dining, sitting and sleep-ing rooms, modern kitchens, and sanitary arrange-ments. At present, certain cities, especially Con-stantinople, Smyrna, Athens, Salonica, etc., are ex-tremely overcrowded, so that it is a serious questionto find accommodations in them, for newcomers. Innormal times, people are properly housed. Bed-steads are in common use in Greece and in manyparts of Turkey.

In the interior.^In the interior of Turkey intowns as well as villages, the same room often servesas dining, sitting and sleeping room. The floor iscovered with carpets or rugs. There are divans orsofas with cushions, and chairs are being introducedmore and more. At meals the table-cloth is spreadfirst, then the wooden table upon it, or a large coppertray on a framework. People sit on the groundwith the edge of the table cloth on their laps, andordinarily all dip their spoons or forks in the samedish. At night beds are spread on the divans or thefloor, and in the daytime they are kept piled up inwardrobes. In some villages the home is simply ahut consisting of one or two rooms; the fire placeserving for the kitchen as well. Of course palatialbuildings are not rare even in small places. ^Sanitation.Sanitary arrangements are in needof great improvement. Throughout the East, thestreets are narrow and crooked and the houses toomuch crowded, with no parks or public squares.Still people in general live outdoors, and have plentyof fresh air and sunlight. The climate, too, is veryfavorable and conducive to health. Stagnant waterscause malaria in many places.


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46 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAEECREATION

Recreation neglected.^People do not think muchof recreation in the Near East. They take lifeeasily, working with leisure. Men are busy withtheir work in stores and offices, and women withhousehold work, knitting and sewing. The mostprevalent mode of recreation in Greece and Turkeyis sitting in groups in houses or at the coffee housestalking, discussing politics and sipping Turkishcoffee.

Games.Gossip is a great source of pleasure. OnSundays and holidays people make calls, and talk.Card playing and other games like dominoes, chess,and trictrac are inseparable from the coffee houses.Billiards and pool-rooms are common in large cities.Cards and other games are frequently played infamily circles. Gambling is very common, thoughoften played for moderate and trifling sums. Thelaw forbids gambling but ways are easily found toevade it.

Athletics.Athletics in the open air or gymnas-tics are not prevalent. Children have their gamesand plays, especially those with balls. But thegrown-up people think games are for children. Theyoung are very fond of athletics and many of thembelong to athletic societies in Athens, Constanti-nople, and Smyrna, doing excellent work in pro-moting athletics. Unfortunately such work is lim-ited to a few centers only. Athens has a large mar-ble stadium seating 75,000 where Olympic, Pan-Hellenic and school games are held, all of which tendto promote love of sports and athletics. Tennis isbeing introduced in centers like Athens, Smyrna andConstantinople. Greeks everywhere need to learnthe Anglo-Saxon and American love of games andexercise in the open air.

Societies.^Literary and musical societies play an


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND ^7important part in Greek communities in promotingculture among the people. Thus the Society Parnas-sos, Athens, the Greek Literary Society in Constan-tinople, and other similar organizations in othercities, conduct courses of lectures and public meet-ings that are very instructive and beneficial.Newspapers.Newspapers play a very importantrole in Greek life. Athens alone has 33 dailies, be-sides many weeklies and monthlies, and other pe-riodicals. Almost every town in Greece has its localpaper. A great number of Greek dailies and pe-riodicals are issued in Constantinople, Smyrna, andother important centers in Turkey. Greeks are fondof news and devour the newspapers. Coifee-housesare almost all the time full of people sipping coffee,reading newspapers and discussing the news enthu-siastically.

Theaters.There are numerous theaters inAthens, Smyrna and Constantinople, and Greekspatronize the plays very much. In many other cen-ters both in Greece and Turkey dramatic perform-ances are presented, even when there is no propertheater. Amateurs and students make such presen-tations. Moving pictures are very prevalent andare spreading rapidly. Every village and town inGreece has its karagenzea show similar to Punch,and Judy.

MOEAL STANDARDSGreeks temperate.Greeks are generally tem-

perate and sober. Wine is commonly used at mealsin families and restaurants, and is offered at all so-cial and family gatherings, and coffee houses, in ad-dition to tea, coffee and pastry, can provide liquors.Even small groceries have tables where people canhave drink and refreshments. But everywhere mod-eration is the rule. Though some may go to excess


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48 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAsometimes, still it is remarkable that there is so lit-tle drunkenness.Moral life.The moral life of the people is ingeneral pure, though there is much difference be-tween the sea-coast and the interior, or the largecities and the country places. The populous centersare more lax than the interior.Family life is everywhere respected, kept pure,and blessed with children. Only in places where wes-tern ways are introduced, the number of childrendiminishes. The so-called European or a-la-Francacustoms are often corrupting influences in the NearEast.

Outside of large centers divorce is almost un-known, and everywhere is looked down upon and dis-couraged.Unfortunately the double standard prevails among

the Greeks as to sex morality. Women are closelyguarded and strict morality is required of them. Asto young men, it is taken for granted that they willsow their wild oats and cannot be expected to bevery strict.

Influence of the war.The morals of the peoplewere greatly undermined during the World War,especially in large cities and army centers. All goodpeople bemoan the prevailing immorality in societyin Constantinople, Athens, Salonica, etc.There is much work for the moral refoimers inlarge cities. In most of them, there are houses ofill-fame under legal control and protection, but al-ways condemned in respectable circles, as places ofevil and corruption, but regarded by public opinionas a necessary evil.

Dowries.Unfortunately the custom of dowriesprevails in Greek Society. Brothers often remainsingle, or postpone their marriage in order to pro-vide dowry for their sisters. In fact it is customaryfor brothers not to marry while the sisters remain


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 49unmarried. Young women spend most of their timein preparing their trousseaus. It is only in recentyears that young women began to help in office workand feel somewhat independent.Laxity in truthfulness.In general, people be-lieve that honesty is the best policy, but lies and

equivocations are very common. While in the mat-ter of sex relations the Greeks stand pretty high, incomparison with many other nations, they are morelax in the matter of truthfulness.How developed.Centuries of oppression andpersecution developed in Greeks as also in otherNear East people, a tendency to cover the truth, andto resort to disguises and subterfuges and even di-rect lico as a means of self-defense and protection.Often pursued by the enemy and hunted down by theTurks, their tyrants. Christians have saved theirlives or the honor of their families through craft,tricks or even deceptions. It is not strange thatpeople brought up under such circumstances do notfeel the same conscientious scruples against false-hood as those who are brought up under the influ-ences of Christian principles and free institutions.Attachment to relatives.Greeks are strongly at-tached to their families and relatives. Family lifein many parts, especially in Turkish sections, is ofthe patriarchal type. It comprises father, motherand the children, and as the sons grow up they bringtheir brides to the paternal home, where the motherrules and all daughters-in-law obey her. But it is aigrowing custom for married couples to open theirown homes separately, especially in cities.In certain sections, especially the Peloponnesus,there is clannishness, and quarrels are not rareamong different clans. The effect of this is oftenseen in politics. The various parties consist of thefollowers of certain heads of prominent families orclans.


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50 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAGreeks are very neighborly and helpful to each

other, especially in small places. Neighbors visitand help one another. ^'A good neighbor is closerthan a brother," says a Greek proverb. *'In select-ing a house consider first the neighbors,'' says an-other.Are democratic.Greeks are very democratic.There is no aristocracy or rank or class distinc-tion among them. As industries are not developedthere is no capitalist and labor question. Everyonecan, and prefers, to have his own trade and holdproperty. Thus there are small traders and mer-chants everywhere. Individualism, that character-izes the race, hinders the formation of trusts or largeorganizations, and also of Communism. The Greeksare never Bolshevists.

Socialists.There is a small Socialist party dis-cussing questions of capital and labor, but it is con-fined almost wholly to Athens and Piraeus. Thereare also clubs and other organizations of clerks andvarious tradesmen.

All patriotic.Greeks are nationalists. The loveof country and nation outranks every other feeling.Indeed, it is more than religion to them. The wordsthat Plato makes Socrates say in Crito^^Patris,the fatherland, is dearer than father and mother,"are believed in and practiced, even to-day. The con-sciousness of national unity of the whole Greekrace unites all Greeks together. Wherever they live,they all cherish love and devotion to Hellas, themother country.Help old country.Greeks in the United Stateshelp their home folks in every way, especially finan-cially. They help their village or town, providingfor their needs in church and school matters; theybuild and repair the bridge in the village ; open up anew well, or build a water course and reservoir. TheGreek society, *'Kozani," in New York is collecting


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 61funds to build public baths in their native townKozani, Macedonia. The Icarian Society has plansfor a gymnasium or high school in their nativeisland, Icaria ; others raise funds for a belfry or anew bell to their church at home.Athens is the capital of Hellenism. Greeks whoamass wealth in Egypt, Africa, India, England,France, or Rumania, remember in their wills thevarious national, educational and philanthropic in-stitutions of Athens. Thus Averof, Arsakes, Sinas,Varvakis, Syngros, Zappas are a few out of the hostof patriots who have contributed munificently forthe adornment of Athens with public buildings.

Greeks have never been strong in internationalism,though not lacking in idealism. The ancient Greekshad the Amphictyonic Council, Plato had his visionof the World Republic, Venizelos believed in theBalkan League and endeavored to preserve it evenwith the sacrifice of Greek interests. He alsostrongly supported the League of Nations at theParis Peace Conference.Though strongly nationalistic, the Greeks desireto live amicably with other nations and would gladlydo their part in promoting the welfare of the worldand cultivating peace and good will among the na-tions.Language question.The Greek language con-tinues as a living memorial. It was never dead, norceased being spoken. It underwent many changesin modification, accretions, growth and development.Greek language living.There are stages in theprocess of these changes, and we have the Homeric,Attic, Alexandrian, Byzantine and modern periods.In the course of time there crept in many foreignwords and expressions, especially from the Italian,French and Turkish, which have become part of thelanguage as spoken by the people to-day. Besidesthere are many local differences in Athens, Crete,


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52 THE GREEKS IN AMERICACyprus, Pontus, etc., wliich may be regarded asdialects.There is, however, uniformity or a commonstandard in the written style or language, which isrespected by literary Greeks everywhere.Two schools.There are two schools at presentin regard to literary form in modern Greek. 1. Thepurists who aim at purging the modern Greek of allforeign accretions in words and phrases and desireto conform it as much as possible to the ancient orAttic Dialect, as represented by Xenophon or theChurch Fathers. The grammar is the same as theAttic, only simplified, and many words and phrasesare to be added to meet modern needs and ideas.

2. The demotists, who advocate that the spokenGreek, should be the medium of expression in all lit-erary style, in society, courts, schools, church andeverywhere. People, they hold, should write as theyspeak. A strong conflict is going on between thetwo schools. It is not simply a dispute about dic-tion; grammatical forms also, are involved in thediscussion. The purist condemns the demotic asbarbaric. The supporters of the demotic regard thepurist style as artificial, crude and doomed to die.The spoken style has already won the field in fic-tion, poetry and stories, whereas history, science,philosophy, law and theology cling to the puriststyle. The newspapers are divided, but almost alluse both styles according to the subject matter. Theeditorials are usually in the purist style.

Strangely most of the newspapers in America pre-fer the purist.Language has a great bearing on the education,

training and development of the young. The chil-dren use the demotic at home, as do the parents, how-ever cultured and educated they may be. But assoon as a child goes to school the purist comes inwith the big words and phrases, even in the primary.


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 53The government of Venizelos made the great re-form that the demotic is to be the medium of instruc-

tion in primary education. Higher courses are tobe given in the purist style.The matter of dual language is a great hindranceand handicap in the mental growth and development

of the people of Greece. The conflict has importantbearing, too, on church and religious matters.

LEADERSHIPNeed of leaders.Leadership is the greatest needamong the Greeks. Unfortunately there are toomany leaders. All aspire to leadership, none want

to be led. Factiousness, division and disputationshave been among the chief weaknesses of the Greekpeople. **Where there are four Greeks, there are^ve captains or leaders,'' says a proverb.

Sources of leadership.^Happily there has beenno lack of good leaders at all the stages of Greekhistory. At present the University of Athens sup-plies the principal leaders. Graduates from its vari-ous departments, especially the law school, are themain leaders. Greece is a land of lawyers and fromamong them have come her chief politicians. Thusthe latest great leader of Greece, Venizelos himself,is a graduate of the law school, and was a lawyer inCrete.Members of Parliament have great influence andplay an important role in the national life. EveryBouleutis (M. P.) was at times a dictator in hisown sphere of influence. The press is an immensepower, as Greeks are great readers, consequentlythey are led and misled through the press.

Leaders in Turkey.Among the Greeks in Turkeythe clergy play a far greater part, as the Patriarchsand the Bishops, or Metropolitans, are national aswell as religious leaders. Teachers also are of great


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54 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAinfluence. In many villages the only man able toread and address the people is the teacher. He maybe of greater force than the priest. Physicians playan important role as leaders in all community af-fairs because they are educated and far in advanceof the people among whom they practice.Merchants and prominent business men are potentforces in all communities, both in Grreece andTurkey.

RELIGIOUS CONDITIONSThe Greeks almost all belong to the Greek Church,

called also Greek Orthodox or Eastern OrthodoxChurch. It is often mistakenly called by AmericansGreek Catholic. The church of this name or*^Uniate'' is a wholly different denomination, com-prising no Greeks, but Kuthenians, Slovaks, Eu-manians, Syrians, and a few others, who keep theEastern Orthodox rites and customs, but have comeunder the authority of the Pope of Eome.Greek Church.The Greek or Eastern OrthodoxChurch is the church of Eussia, Serbia, Eumania,Montenegro, Bulgaria (though considered schis-matic), as well as of Greece, and the Greeks in thewhole of Turkey, including Egypt, and those scat-tered in other countries and part of the Syrians andAlbanians.

All the various national churches have the samedoctrine, practice and liturgy. Each national churchis autocephalus, i. e., independent and self-govern-ing, administered by a Holy Synod consisting ofbishops, the president being called Metropolitan, insome cases patriarch. Thus the church in Greeceis governed by a synod of bishops with the Metro-politan or Archbishop of Athens as its president.

Patriarchates.There are four historic patri-archates of the Eastern Orthodox Church, compris-


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 55ing tlie territories in what was once Turkey i. e.Macedonia, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt.They are of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem andAlexandria. The Patriarchate of Constantinople isalso called ecumenical and is the highest authorityin the entire Greek Church comprising all the vari-ous national churches. It was and is still the greatrival of papacy. Yet the patriarch makes no suchpretentious claims as the Pope.

State church in Greece.The Greek Church is thestate church in Greece and though independent indoctrinal matters, it is practically under the Min-istry of Ecclesiastical affairs and Education, and arepresentative of the King sits at the sessions of theHoly Synod.

Greeks in the early church.The history of theGreek Church is really the story of Christianity inthe Near East. The Greeks were among the veryfirst to accept the Christian religion. Churches wereorganized among them by Paul and other apostles.The preachers, missionaries, and theologians in theearly church were largely Greeks. The New Testa-ment was written in Greek. The Greek Fathers werethe leaders of thought, administrators of thechurches and formulators of Christian doctrine.

Doctrinal standards.The leading personalitiesin the early councils that formulated the doctrinesof God as the Holy Trinity, and of the person ofJesus Christ, were Greeks, as Athanasius, Origen,Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Naz-ianzus, Chrysostom and many others. In fact, evento-day the Greek Church is based upon the doctrinesformulated by the early ecumenical councils. Thefirst six, 325-687 A.D., dealt with the dogmas of theTrinity and the Person of Christ, and the seventhwith the image controversy. The Nicene Creed, for-mulated at the First Ecumenical Council, 325 A.D.,and completed at the second, A.D. 381, is the basis


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56 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAof its theology, and is recited daily at the Liturgyor Eucharist and other services. The candidate forbaptism or the godfather recites it before baptism.St. John Chrysostom is even to-day the main au-thority in the exegesis or interpretation of Scrip-ture and John of Damascus in Systematic Theology.The Greek Church claims to be *^holy, catholic,and apostolic.'' But the characteristic adjectiveshe particularly and emphatically appropriates forherself is ^'Orthodox." She claims to have pre-served the teaching of Christ and the Apostles asin the early church in all its purity and integrity.In all the essentials of Christian doctrine the GreekChurch, in its official teaching, is Orthodox and con-servative compared with many another denomina-tion. Thus, in regard to the doctrines of God, theTrinity, the Divinity of Jesus Christ, redemption,and eternal life, she holds the most orthodox posi-tion.There is no Pope, no papal supremacy, nor infalli-bility, no doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.

Tradition is regarded as a source of revelationalong with the Scriptures and the work of the HolySpirit in the church.There is no doctrine of purgatory, but prayers are

said for the dead. There is no doctrine of penancesnor indulgences, though pilgrims to Jerusalem canbuy papers of absolution from their sins. Thereare three orders of ministry, bishop, presbyter orpriest, and deacon. The bishops of the prominentcities are called archbishops or metropolitans. TheArchbishops of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalemand Alexandria are called patriarchs. Archiman-drite is the title of the monastic clergy of the rankof presbyter. Bishops and monks alone must becelibate; the rest of the clergy can marry.

Sacraments.The Greek Church is strongly ritu-alistic and great prominence is given to ceremonial-


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EUROPEAN BACKGROUND 57ism. There are seven sacraments: baptism, confir-mation or anointing with sacred oil or chrism, eucha-rist, confession, orders, marriage, and unction.There is infant baptism by immersion and infantconfirmation and communion. Communion is par-taken in both elements by the laity. (The churchteaches transubstantiation.) Marriage is a sacra-ment and is dissolved only through infidelity:though the canon law allows certain other groundsfor divorce. Unction is not confined to the deathbedit can be had before every communion ; and in time ofsickness or at any other time.Separated churches.Partly for political reasons

and partly as a result of doctrinal controversies par-ticularly on the person of Christ there split off aboutthe 5th century some of the old historical orientalchurches. Thus the Nestorian controversy, 431 A.D.,concerning the relation of the human and the divinein Christ, resulted in the separation of the NestorianChurch which doctrine tended to split the personof Jesus in two. The opposite view, called Monoph-ysitism, taught the fusion of the human and Di-vine into one nature. As a result of the controversyon this doctrine the Armenian, called the Gregorianchurch, the Coptic Church in Egypt and the Jacobitein Syria were separated. Though these churchestheoretically cling to certain old formulae, essentiallyand in reality they hold the same Christology as therest of the Orthodox Churches. The Monothelitecontroversy concerning the nature of the will inChrist as human and divine was settled in the SixthEcumenical Council, A.D. 680. It only lingered onamong the Maronites of Lebanon till they came un-der the sway of the papacy.

Filioque.The controversy regarding the relationof the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son in theHoly Trinity is known as the filioque controversyfrom the addition of filioque (''and from the Son"),


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58 THE GREEKS IN AMERICAinto the Nicene Creed by the Latin or the WesternChurch. It is a most difficult, mysterious, metaphys-ical topic involving the study and investigation ofthe divine psychology and the interrelation of thepowers and faculties constituting the divine nature,or Deity. And yet the students in Greek highschools and gymnasia are taught them in their

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